Atom and Molecule

Teaching Team
In General Chemistry

Department of Chemistry
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science
University of Jember
Learning Outcome

• Understanding the discovery of atom

• Examine the components of atom and their properties
• Elaborate the position of atoms in molecule
Early History of Chemistry

 Before 16th Century

• Alchemy: Attempts (scientific or otherwise) to change cheap metals into
gold

 17th Century
• Robert Boyle: First “chemist” to perform quantitative experiments

 18th Century
• George Stahl: Phlogiston flows out of a burning material.
• Joseph Priestley: Discovers oxygen gas, “dephlogisticated air”
Fundamental Law: Law conservation of Mass

• The Law of Conservation of Mass dates from Antoine Lavoisier's 1789

(French Chemist)
• Mass is neither created nor destroyed
• Amount of start and end should same in chemical reactions
• Example:

5 kg 1 kg 4 kg 2 kg
Atomic Theory: Dalton

John Dalton published discussion of the atomic theory (1808)

• Elements are made of extremely small particles called atoms.
• Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass and other properties;
atoms of different elements differ in size, mass and other properties.
• Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form
chemical compounds. (Law Multiple Proportion)
• In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated or rearranged. The
atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical reaction.
Atomic Theory: Dalton (1803)

Dalton's theory lead to:

• 1 gram hydrogen + 8 gram of oxygen  water
• He assumed that water formula is "OH" and the mass of hydrogen is
"1" and of oxygen is "8".
• Using the same concepts, Dalton's proposed the first table of atomic
masses. It has been proved later that Dalton's table contain incorrect.
Atomic Theory: Dalton (1803)
Experiencing Atoms

There are about 118 elements found in nature.

• Over 20 have been made in laboratories.

Each kind of atom is unique

• Carbon is not Hydrogen
• They have different properties
• Structure, magnetic meaning they can attract and repel other atoms, melting,
boiling, electrical, stability, reactivity (attract and repel), etc…
The Divisibility of Matter
Ultimate particle
• Upon division, eventually a particle is reached
which can no longer be divided.
• Atoms are 10-11m
• We detect particles at 10-15m
• In theory particles 10-35m exist, we don’t have
instruments that sensitive

“Nothing exists except atoms and empty space; everything else is opinion.”
- Democritus 460–370 B.C.
Sizes of Atoms

Using compositions of compounds and assumed formulas, Dalton was

able to determine the relative masses of the atoms.
• Dalton based his scale on H = 1 amu.
• We now base it on C-12 = 12 amu exactly.
• Unit = atomic mass unit.
• Amu or dalton.

Absolute sizes of atoms:

• Mass of H atom= 1.67 x 10-24g.
• Volume of H atom = 2.1 x 10-25cm3.
The Atom Is Divisible

• Work done by J. J. Thomson and others proved that the atom had
pieces called electrons.
• Thomson found that electrons are much smaller than atoms and carry
a negative charge.
• The mass of the electron is 1/1836th the mass of a hydrogen atom.
• The charge on the electron is the fundamental unit of charge that we call –1
charge unit.
 Atomic Theory: J. J. Thomson (1897)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UUpD62r2wq8
 Millikan’s Experiment (1909)

• Millikan oil-drop experiment,

• first direct and compelling
measurement of the electric charge of
a single electron
• the elementary electric charge itself
(about 1.602 × 10−19 coulomb)
• The rest mass of the electron is
9.1093837015 × 10−31 kg, which is only
1/
1,836 the mass of a proton
Rutherford’s Experiment (1911)
• How can you prove something is empty?
• Put something through it.
• Use large target atoms.
• Use very thin sheets of target so they do not absorb “bullet”.
• Use very small particles as “bullet” with very high energy.
• But not so small that electrons will affect it.
• Bullet = alpha particles; target atoms = gold foil
• a particles have a mass of 4 amu & charge of +2 c.u.
• Gold has a mass of 197 amu and is very malleable.
 Rutherford’s Experiment
If atom was like a plum
pudding, all the a particles
should go straight through

Most a
Very few of particles
the a particles go straight
do not go through
through
Some a
particles go
through, but
are deflected

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5pZj0u_XMbc
Rutherford’s Interpretation: The Nuclear Model

1. The atom contains a tiny dense center called the nucleus.

• The amount of space taken by the nucleus is only about 1/10 trillionth the
volume of the atom.
2. The nucleus has essentially the entire mass of the atom.
• The electrons weigh so little they contribute practically no mass to the atom.
3. The nucleus is positively charged.
• The amount of positive charge balances the negative charge of the electrons.
4. The electrons are dispersed in the empty space of the atom
surrounding the nucleus.
• Like water droplets in a cloud.
Rutherford’s Interpretation: Some Problems

• How could beryllium have 4 protons stuck together in the nucleus?

• Shouldn’t they repel each other?
• If a beryllium atom has 4 protons, then it should weigh 4 amu, but it
actually weighs 9.01 amu! Where is the extra mass coming from?
• Each proton weighs 1 amu.
• Remember: The electron’s mass is only about 0.00055 amu and Be has only 4
electrons—it can’t account for the extra 5 amu of mass.
Rutherford’s Interpretation: Solution

• To answer these questions, Rutherford proposed that there was

another particle in the nucleus—it is called a neutron.
• Neutrons have no charge and a mass of 1 amu.
• The masses of the proton and neutron are both approximately 1 amu.
The Component of Atom
The Modern Atom

• We know atoms are composed of three main

pieces—protons, neutrons, and electrons.
• The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
• The nucleus is only about 10-13 cm in
diameter.
• The electrons move outside the nucleus with
an average distance of about 10-8 cm.
• Therefore, the radius of the atom is about 105
times larger than the radius of the nucleus.
Some Notes on Charges

• There are two kinds of charges, called

positive and negative.
• Opposite charges attract.
• + attracted to –.
• Like charges repel.
• + repels +.
• – repels –.
• To be neutral, something must have no
charge or equal amounts of opposite
charges.
The Nature of Electrical Charge

• Electrical charge is a fundamental property of protons and electrons.

• Positively and negatively charged objects attract each other.
• Like charged objects repel each other.
• + to +, or  to .
• When a proton and electron are paired, the result is a neutral charge.
• Because they have equal amounts of charge.
Practice—An Atom Has 20 Protons. Determine if Each
of the Following Statements Is True or False?

• If it is a neutral atom, it will have 20

electrons. True
• If it also has 20 neutrons, its mass will
be approximately 40 amu. True
• If it has 18 electrons, it will have a net
2 charge.
False
Elements
• Each element has a unique number of protons in its nucleus.
• All carbon atoms have 6 protons in their nuclei.
• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the atomic
number.
• Z is the short-hand designation for the atomic number.
• Because each element’s atoms have a unique number of protons, each element
can be identified by its atomic number.
• The elements are arranged on the Periodic Table in order of their atomic
numbers.
• Each element has a unique name and symbol.
• The symbol is either one or two letters
• One capital letter or one capital letter + one lower case letter.
The Periodic Table of Elements
Atomic number
Element symbol

Atomic
mass
Review
• What is the atomic number of boron, B? 5
• What is the atomic mass of silicon, Si? 28.09 amu
• How many protons does a chlorine atom have? 17
• How many electrons does a neutral neon atom have? 10
• Will an atom with 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons
be electrically neutral? Yes
• Will an atom with 27 protons, 32 neutrons, and 27
electrons be electrically neutral? Yes
• Will an Na atom with 10 electrons be electrically neutral?
No
Isotopes
• All isotopes of an element are chemically identical.
• Undergo the exact same chemical reactions.
• All isotopes of an element have the same number of protons.
• Isotopes of an element have different masses.
• Isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons.
• Isotopes are identified by their mass numbers.
• Protons + neutrons.
Isotopes
• Atomic Number.
 Number of protons.
Z
• Mass Number
 = Protons + Neutrons.
 Whole number.
A
 Percent natural abundance = Relative amount found
in a sample.
Neon

Percent
Number of Number of A, mass natural
Symbol protons neutrons number abundance

Ne-20 or 10 10 20 90.48%

Ne-21 or 10 11 21 0.27%

Ne-22 or 10 12 22 9.25%
Isotopes
• Cl-35 makes up about 75% of chlorine atoms in nature, and Cl-37
makes up the remaining 25%.
• The average atomic mass of Cl is 35.45 amu.
• Cl-35 has a mass number = 35, 17 protons and 18 neutrons (35 - 17).

35
17
Cl

Atomic symbol
A = Mass number
A
X = X-A
Z = Atomic number Z
 Example 4.8—How Many Protons and Neutrons Are in an Atom of
?

Given: therefore A = 52, Z = 24

Find: # p+ and # n0
Solution Map:
symbol atomic & mass # n0
numbers
Relationships: mass number = # p+ + # n0

Solution:
Z = 24 = # p+ A = Z + # n0
52 = 24 + # n0
28 = # n0
Check: For most stable isotopes, n0 > p+.
Practice—Complete the Following Table.
Practice—Complete the Following Table, Continued.
Mass Number

Mass Number Is Not the Same as Atomic Mass

• The atomic mass is an experimental number determined from all
naturally occurring isotopes.
• The mass number refers to the number of protons + neutrons in one
isotope.
• Natural or man-made.
Example 4.9─Ga-69 with Mass 68.9256 Amu and Abundance of 60.11% and Ga-71 with
Mass 70.9247 Amu and Abundance of 39.89%. Calculate the Atomic Mass of Gallium.

Given: Ga-69 = 60.11%, 68.9256 amu

Ga-71 = 39.89%, 70.9247 amu
Find: atomic mass, amu
Solution Map:
isotope masses, avg. atomic mass
isotope fractions
Relationships:

Solution:

Check: The average is between the two masses,

closer to the major isotope.
Practice—If Copper Is 69.17% Cu-63 with a Mass of 62.9396 Amu and
the Rest Cu-65 with a Mass of 64.9278 Amu, Find Copper’s Atomic
Mass.
Practice—If Copper Is 69.17% Cu-63 with a Mass of 62.9396 Amu and the Rest
Cu-65 with a Mass of 64.9278 Amu, Find Copper’s Atomic Mass, Continued.

Given: Cu-63 = 69.17%, 62.9396 amu

Cu-65 = 100-69.17%, 64.9278 amu
Find: atomic mass, amu
Solution Map:
isotope masses, avg. atomic mass
isotope fractions
Relationships:

Solution:

Check: The average is between the two masses,

closer to the major isotope.
Law of Definite Proportion

Law of definite proportions was proposed by Joseph Proust in 1799

• Different samples of the same compound always contain elements in the
same proportion by mass, regardless where they come from
Example: samples of carbon dioxide gas obtained from different sources contain exactly the
same ratio by mass of carbon to oxygen
Mass ratio = 12/32 = 3/8 = 0.357
• The relative number of atoms of each element in a given compound is
always the same
Example: samples of carbon dioxide gas obtained from different sources contain exactly the
same ratio of carbon atom to oxygen atom
C/O atom ratio = 1/2 = 0.5
Law of Definite Proportion

Exercise:
1. What is the experimental percent of oxygen in CO2 if 42.0 gram of
carbon reacted completely with 112.0 gram of oxygen?

2. How many grams of copper will combine with 62.75 gram of oxygen
to produce CuO?
Law of Multiple Proportion

 When two elements form a series of compounds, the ratios of

the masses of the second element that combine with 1 gram of
the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers

 The ratio of the masses of oxygen in H2O and H2O2 will be a small
whole number (“2”)
Law of Multiple Proportion

2
Law of Multiple Proportion
Another Example:
 The ratio of the masses of oxygen in Cr2O3 and CrO3 will be
a small whole number.
 Cr2O3 contains 2.167 g Cr/ g of Oxygen
 CrO3 contains 1.083 g Cr/ g of Oxygen
 The ratio is 2.167/1.083 = 2:1
Law of Multiple Proportion

Mass of Nitrogen That Combines With 1 g Oxygen

Compound A 1.750 g
Compound B 0.8750 g
Compound C 0.4375 g

A/B = 1.750/0.8750 = 2/1

B/C = 0.875/0.4375 = 2/1
A/C = 1.750/0.4375 = 4/1
i.e. amount of nitrogen in A is twice that in B, etc.