LearningModule 1

LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES
AGUSAN
AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE DEL SUR STATE
OF AGRICULTURE COLLEGE
OF AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
AND TECHNOLOGY
MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR
MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN, AGUSAN DEL SUR
Learning
MODULE 1 FIRST YEAR
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022
AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
FOREWORD
Preliminaries
Students, welcome to this Learning Module. Since you chose distance learning modality, you
will be using this material to walk you through the concepts of Chemistry for Engineers to provide
students with core concepts of chemistry that are important in the practice of engineering profession.
The organization is made in a way that you will enjoy engaging in the tasks arranged in a certain level of
difficulty. This learning module is self-instructional and allows you to learn in your own space and pace.
So, relax and just enjoy doing the tasks! To get the most out of this module, here are a few reminders:
A. Kindly take your time in reading the tasks and the topic.
B. For reference and clarification, you may take down notes. You may also discuss these points with
your instructor through Facebook Messenger and other online platforms (in case possible).
C. Accomplish and answer all tasks. The activities are designed to enhance your understanding of the
ideas and concepts being discussed. The tasks at the end of each module will give you an idea how
well you understand the lesson. Review the lessons if necessary, until you have achieved a
sufficient level of proficiency.
D. Write all your answers/responses in the spaces provided in this module. This shall be part of your
formative and summative evaluations.
E. Always keep safe.
Overview of the Module

This learning module aims to (1) enhance your competence in language and communication
skills; (2) serve as a motivation tool to improve yourself; (3) provide learning experiences that will add
information to your knowledge; and (4) contribute to your goals as a student.
The module follows the phases of 5Es Instructional Model, namely Engage, Explore, Explain,
Elaborate and Evaluate. Each lesson begins with the objectives and follows the five (5) parts vis-a-vis
the phases of 5Es Instructional Model.
The READY part is the Objectives to be achieved in each module. This part states the
expectation of the module in line with what you should know, understand or perform. The START
section which is the Engage phase starts the process of understanding the topic. This will serve as a
drill. In the DISCOVER and the Explore phase of the lesson, it relates to your common base of
experience or prior knowledge like hands-on or minds-on tasks. LEARN corresponds to the Explain
phase. This will allow you to explain the concepts you have been exploring as you will be provided with
explanations about the topic. This part serves as the discussion. In PRACTICE phase, you will practice
what you have learned since this is the Elaborate phase. You will engage in different formative tasks.
EVALUATE or the Evaluate phase encourages you to assess your understanding and abilities on the
topic. This will serve as a summative assessment in understanding the target concept or skill.
This module contains features that you need to understand as you undertake each task. There
are activities that necessitate the presence of Internet to get you to online works. This is done to tract
your progress and status with regards the module.
At the end of each lesson, answer keys to pre-assessment and practice tests are given. To
really test yourself and measure your understanding on the concept presented in each lesson, you are
encouraged to answer the activities in your own pace before counting on the answer keys through
checking your own work.
The modes of delivery will be in the form of self-directed study. You are also encouraged to
visit the instructor concerned for assistance during office hours. If the office hours do not meet your
schedule, notify the instructor through Facebook or Messenger. These platforms will also be used as a
communication tool and information portal for you to access module materials, project briefs,
assignments and announcements.
It is hoped that this module will achieve its aim of producing alternative learning experience on
the target concepts necessary to the development of communication abilities to effectively meet the
demands of education amidst this trying pandemic outbreak.

MODULE CONTENT
Foreword
Introduction to College Vision, Mission, Goals and Quality Policy

History of ASSCAT | ASCAT VMGQ | Institutional Outcome | Grading System | Conclusion
Review on the Basics of Chemistry
Introduction to Chemistry for Engineers
Part 1. Energy
Lesson 1- Electrochemical energy
Lesson 2 – Nuclear chemistry & energy
Lesson 3 - Fuels
Part 2. The chemistry of engineering materials
Lesson 1 – Basic concepts of crystal structures
Lesson 2 - Metals
Lesson 3 – Polymers
Lesson 4 – Engineered nanomaterials
Part 3: The chemistry of the environment
Lesson 1 – The chemistry of atmosphere
Lesson 2 – The chemistry of water
Lesson 3 – Soil chemistry
Part 4: Chemical Safety
Lesson 1 – MSDS
Lesson 2 - OSHA
Part 5: Special topics specific to field of expertise
Lesson 1: (Chemical equilibrium) Concrete production & weathering
Lesson 2: (Electrochemistry) Corrosion

REVIEW ON THE BASICS OF CHEMISTRY
READY
LESSON OBJECTIVES
Upon accomplishing this module, students will be able to:
A. Classify elements
B. Show the electron configuration of a given element
C. Draw the Lewis Dot Formula
D. Write a chemical equation of a given chemical reaction.
E. Balance a chemical reaction.
F. Appreciate the practical application of chemistry on daily life
TARGET SKILLS
Familiarize terminologies in Chemistry, express a written insights on real life experience
LEARNERS
First Year, BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE
TIME FRAME
This module will be accomplished approximately in 6 hours within 1 week to complete all the
activities recommended. This is a distance learning program, thus the time frame is flexible and
largely self-directed.
REFERENCE
Chang, R., Overby, J., Chemistry, 13th ed. McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 2019
Timberlake, S., Timberlake, W., Basic Chemistry, 6th ed., Pearson Education, 2019
Stoker, S., General Chemistry 2nd Ed. Cengage Learning Asia Pte. Ltd. 2015
Whitten, K. et.al. Chemistry, 10th ed. Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. 2014
Brown, T., et.al. Chemistry The Central Science, Pearson Prentice Hall. 2012

START
ACTIVITY 1: LET’S DIAGNOSE YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Color match the element name with their abbreviation.
(You may check your answers with an Answers Key found at the end of this module.)
DISCOVER
ACTIVITY 2: ATOMIC INQUIRY
Read and answer the following questions based on your prior knowledge about the Periodic Table
of Elements.
1. Why does knowledge of atomic number enable us to deduce the number of electrons
present in an atom?
________________________________________________________________________
Knowledge of the atomic number enables us to deduce the number of electrons present in an
________________________________________________________________________
atom, because an atom is electrically neutral and must contain equal numbers of electrons as
________________________________________________________________________
protons
________________________
2. Why elements of the Periodic Table are arranged that way? Is it possible to rearrange
them?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
That number tends to fit nicely with the way the table is arranged, namely to place elements with
________________________________________________________________________
similar properties in the same group.
___________________________

LEARN
ACTIVITY 3: EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Hello! I’m your study buddy. We will waive through the giant web of chemical compounds and
slay it down!
BUT FIRST LET’S DO SOME REVIEW ON THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY.
TOPIC 1: ATOMS – The foundation of the Study of Chemistry
In the fifth century B.C. the Greek philosopher

Democritus expressed the belief that all matter consists of
very small, indivisible particles, which he named atomos
(meaning uncuttable or indivisible). Although Democritus’
idea was not accepted by many of his contemporaries
(notably Plato and Aristotle), somehow it endured.
Experimental evidence from early scientific investigations
provided support for the notion of ―atomism‖ and gradually
gave rise to the modern definitions of elements and
compounds.
It was in 1808 that an English scientist and schoolteacher, John Dalton, formulated a
precise definition of the indivisible building blocks of matter that we call atoms. His concept of an
atom was far more detailed and specific than Democritus’.
Dalton’s work marked the beginning of the modern era of chemistry. The hypotheses
about the nature of matter on which Dalton’s Atomic Theory is based can be summarized as:
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles, called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size,
mass, and chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different
from the atoms of all other elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any
compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements
present is either an integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or
rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or
John Dalton, English Chemist destruction.
Figure 1 is a schematic
representation of Dalton’s
Atomic Theory 2 and 3.
Figure 1. (a) According to Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms of the same element are identical, but
Dalton Atomic Theory No.
atoms of 2
one element are different from atoms of other elements. (b) Compound formed from
atoms of elements X and Y. In this case, the ratio of the atoms of element X to the atoms of
element Y is 2:1.
- states that atoms of one element are different from atoms of all other elements. Dalton made no
attempt to describe the structure or composition of atoms—he had no idea what an atom is really
like. But he did realize that the different properties shown by elements such as hydrogen and
oxygen can be explained by assuming that hydrogen atoms are not the same as oxygen atoms.
Dalton Atomic Theory No. 3

- suggests that, to form a certain compound, we need not only atoms of the right kinds of
elements, but the specific numbers of these atoms as well.
- this idea is an extension of a law published in 1799 by Joseph Proust, a French chemist.
Proust’s law of definite proportions states that different samples of the same compound always
contain its constituent elements in the same proportion by mass. Thus, if we were to analyze
samples of carbon dioxide gas obtained from different sources, we would find in each sample the
same ratio by mass of carbon to oxygen.
- it stands to reason, then, that if the ratio of the masses of different elements in a given
compound is fixed, the ratio of the atoms of these elements in the compound also must be
constant.
- also supports another important law, the Law of Multiple Proportions. According to this
law, if two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element
that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in ratios of small whole numbers. Dalton’s
theory explains the law of multiple proportions quite simply: The compounds differ in the number of
atoms of each kind that combine. For example, carbon forms two stable compounds with oxygen,
namely, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Modern measurement techniques indicate that one
atom of carbon combines with one atom of oxygen in carbon monoxide and that one atom of
carbon combines with two oxygen atoms in carbon dioxide. Thus, the ratio of oxygen in carbon
monoxide to oxygen in carbon dioxide is 1:2.
This result is consistent

with the law of multiple proportions
because the mass of an element in
a compound is proportional to the
number of atoms of the element
present (Figure 2).
Figure 2. An illustration of the Law of Multiple Proportions. Ratio of oxygen in carbon monoxide to
oxygen in carbon dioxide: 1:2
Dalton’s Atomic Theory No. 4

- is another way of stating the law of conservation of mass, which is that matter can be
neither created nor destroyed.† Because matter is made of atoms that are unchanged in a
chemical reaction, it follows that mass must be conserved as well. Dalton’s brilliant insight into the
nature of matter was the main stimulus for the rapid progress of chemistry during the nineteenth
century.
WHAT COMPOSE OF AN ATOM?
On the basis of Dalton’s atomic theory, we can define an atom as the basic unit of an
element that can enter into chemical combination. Dalton imagined an atom that was both
extremely small and indivisible. However, a series of investigations that began in the 1850s and
extended into the twentieth century clearly demonstrated that atoms actually possess internal
structure; that is, they are made up of even smaller particles, which are called subatomic particles.
This research led to the discovery of three such particles—electrons, protons, and neutrons.
A. THOMSON’S PLUM PUDDING MODEL

This model is one of several historical scientific models of the atom. First proposed by J. J.
Thomson in 1904, soon after the discovery of the electron, but before the discovery of the atomic
nucleus, the model tried to explain two properties of atoms then known: that electrons are
negatively-charged particles and that atoms have no net electric charge.
The plum pudding model has electrons surrounded by a volume of positive charge, like
negatively-charged "plums" embedded in a positively-charged "pudding". The word "plums" in
19th-century English "plum pudding" is an archaic use of the word; it referred at that time to
raisins, not plums.

In this model, atoms were known to consist of negatively charged

electrons. Though Thomson called them "corpuscles", they were more
commonly called "electrons" which G. J. Stoney proposed as the
"fundamental unit quantity of electricity" in 1891. At the time, atoms
were known to have no net electric charge. To account for this,
Thomson knew atoms must also have a source of positive charge to
balance the negative charge of the electrons. He considered three
plausible models that would be consistent with the properties of atoms
then known.
1. Each negatively-charged electron was paired with a positively-
charged particle that followed it everywhere within the atom.
2. Negatively-charged electrons orbited a central region of
positive charge having the same magnitude as the total charge
of all the electrons.
3. The negative electrons occupied a region of space that was
Fig. 3 PLUM PUDDING MODEL
uniformly positively charged (often considered as a kind of Atoms were made from a
"soup" or "cloud" of positive charge). positively charged substance with
negatively charged electrons
Thomson chose the third possibility as the most likely structure of scattered about, like raisins in a
atoms. pudding.
B. RUTHERFORD ATOMIC MODEL
This model was devised by the New Zealand-born physicist Ernest Rutherford to describe
an atom. Rutherford directed the Geiger–Marsden experiment in 1909, which suggested, upon
Rutherford's 1911 analysis, that J. J. Thomson's plum pudding model of the atom was incorrect.
Rutherford's new model for the atom, based on the experimental results, contained new features
of a relatively high central charge concentrated into a very small volume in comparison to the rest
of the atom and with this central volume also containing the bulk of the atomic mass of the atom.
This region would be known as the "nucleus" of the atom.
Based on his experiment, Rutherford proposed the atomic
structure of elements. According to the Rutherford Atomic model:
1. The positively charged particles and most of the mass of an
atom was concentrated in an extremely small volume. He
called this region of the atom as a nucleus.
2. Rutherford model proposed that the negatively charged
electrons surround the nucleus of an atom. He also claimed
that the electrons surrounding the nucleus revolve around it
with very high speed in circular paths. He named these
circular paths as orbits. Figure 4. RUTHERFORD ATOMIC
3. Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a MODEL
densely concentrated mass of positively charged particles are All of an atom’s positively charged
held together by a strong electrostatic force of attraction. particles were IN the nucleus. The
negatively charged particles were
scattered OUTSIDE the nucleus.
C. BOHR ATOMIC MODEL
Neils Bohr's greatest contribution to modern physics was

the atomic model. The Bohr model shows the atom as a small,
positively charged nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons.
Bohr was the first to discover that electrons travel in separate
orbits around the nucleus and that the number of electrons in the
outer orbit determines the properties of an element
Figure 5. BOHR ATOMIC MODEL

Electrons move in orbits around the nucleus like planets circle the sun. These
orbits (or energy levels) are located at certain distances from the nucleus.

D. QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

In 1926 Erwin Schrödinger, an Austrian physicist, took the Bohr
atom model one step further. Schrödinger used mathematical equations to
describe the likelihood of finding an electron in a certain position. This
atomic model is known as the quantum mechanical model of the atom. Nucleus
Unlike the Bohr model, the quantum mechanical model does not define the
exact path of an electron, but rather, predicts the odds of the location of the
electron. This model can be portrayed as a nucleus surrounded by an Electron clouds
electron cloud. Where the cloud is most dense, the probability of finding
the electron is greatest, and conversely, the electron is less likely to be in a
less dense area of the cloud. Thus, this model introduced the concept of Fig. 6 QUANTUM MECHANICAL
sub-energy levels. MODEL
For the purpose of discussion, we shall be using the Bohr’s Model and the Quantum
mechanical model thereafter.
TOPIC 2: ELEMENTS
THE PERIODIC TABLE
More than half of the elements known today were discovered between 1800 and 1900.
During this period, chemists noted that many elements show very strong similarities to one
another. Recognition of periodic regularities in physical and chemical behaviour and the need to
organize the large volume of available information about the structure and properties of elemental
substances led to the development of the periodic table—a chart in which elements having similar
chemical and physical properties are grouped together. Figure 7 shows the modern periodic table,
in which the elements are arranged by atomic number (shown above the element symbol) in
horizontal rows called periods and in vertical columns known as groups or families, according to
similarities in their chemical properties. Note that elements 112, 114, and 116 have recently been
synthesized, although they have not yet been named.
Figure 7. The modern periodic table. The elements are arranged according to the atomic numbers above their symbols. With the
exception of hydrogen (H), nonmetals appear at the far right of the table. The two rows of metals beneath the main body of the table
are conventionally set apart to keep the table from being too wide. Actually, cerium (Ce) should follow lanthanum (La), and thorium
(Th) should come right after actinium (Ac). The 1–18 group designation has been recommended by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), but is not yet in wide use. In this text, we use the standard U.S. notation for group numbers (1A–8A and 1B–
The
8B). No names elements
have cantobe
been assigned divided
elements 112,into three
114, and 116.(3) categories—metals,
Elements 113, 115, 117, and 118nonmetals, andsynthesized.
have not yet been metalloids.

(A) Metal
-is a good conductor of heat and electricity. Figure 7 shows that the majority of known
elements are metals.
(B) Nonmetal
-is usually a poor conductor of heat and electricity. Only seventeen elements are
nonmetals.
© Metalloid
- has properties that are intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals. Eight (8)
elements are metalloids.
From left to right across any period, the physical and chemical properties of the elements
change gradually from metallic to nonmetallic. The periodic table is a handy tool that correlates the
properties of the elements in a systematic way and helps us to make predictions about chemical
behavior.
Elements are often referred to collectively by their periodic table group number (Group 1A,
Group 2A, and so on). However, for convenience, some element groups have special names. The
Group 1A elements (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr) are called alkali metals, and the Group 2A elements
(Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, and Ra) are called alkaline earth metals. Elements in Group 7A (F, Cl, Br, I,
and At) are known as halogens, and those in Group 8A (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn) are called
noble gases (or rare gases)
TOPIC 3: ELECTRONIC BEHAVIOR OF AN ELEMENT
For many-electron atoms, however, we must know the electron configuration of the
atom, that is, how the electrons are distributed among the various atomic orbitals, in order to
understand how atoms of an element will behave in a reaction.
Lewis dot formula
Fig. 8 The description of the Electronic Configuration of Hydrogen [H].
The Electronic configuration assignments for each

element is guided both by Pauli Exclusion Principle and
Hund’s Rule.
THE BUILDING UP PRINCIPLE
This process is based on the Aufbau principle. The

―Aufbau principle” dictates that as protons are added one
by one to the nucleus to build up the elements, electrons
are similarly added to the atomic orbitals.
Through this process we gain a detailed knowledge
of the ground-state electron configurations of the elements.
The knowledge of electron configurations helps us to
understand and predict the properties of the elements; it
also explains why the periodic table works so well.

The electron configurations of all elements except hydrogen and helium are represented
by a noble gas core, which shows in brackets the noble gas element that most nearly precedes
the element being considered, followed by the symbol for the highest filled subshells in the
outermost shells.
Noble gas core
TABLE 1. The Ground-State Electron Configurations of the Elements (using the Building up Principle).

TOPIC 4: FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS/MOLECULES
The development of the periodic table and concept of electron configuration gave chemists
a rationale for molecule and compound formation.
This explanation, formulated by the American chemist Gilbert Lewis, is that atoms
combine to achieve a more stable electron configuration. Maximum stability results when an atom
is isoelectronic with a noble gas. When atoms interact to form a chemical bond, only their outer
regions are in contact. For this reason, when we study chemical bonding, we are concerned
primarily with the valence electrons of the atoms. To keep track of valence electrons in a chemical
reaction, and to make sure that the total number of electrons does not change, chemists use a
system of dots devised by Lewis and called Lewis dot symbols.
Lewis dot symbol of an element

- consists of the symbol of an element
and one dot for each valence electron
in an atom of the element.
FIGURE 9. Lewis dot symbols for the representative elements and the noble gases. The number of unpaired dots corresponds
to the number of bonds an atom of the element can form in a compound.
Lewis dot symbol (diagram) of a molecule
`
HOW TO DRAW THE LEWIS DOT DIAGRAM OF A MOLECULE
An outline of how to determine the "best" Lewis structure for an example, NO3-1 is given below:
1. Determine the Total number of valence electrons in a molecule
N = 5 valence electron
(O = 6 valence electrons) x 3 atoms = 18 electrons
Charge of the molecule = -1
2. Draw a skeleton for the molecule which connects all atoms using only single bonds.
In simple molecules, the atom with the most available sites

for bonding is usually placed central. The number of bonding sites is
determined by considering the number of valence electrons and the
ability of an atom to expand its octet. As you become better, you will
be able to recognise that certain groups of atoms prefer to bond
together in a certain way.
-1
3. Out of the 24 valence electrons in NO3 , 6 were required to make the skeleton. Consider the
remaining 18 electrons and place them so as to fill the octets of as many atoms as possible
(start with the most electronegative atoms first then proceed to the more electropositive atoms).
4. Are the octets of all the atoms filled? If not then fill the remaining octets by making multiple
bonds (make a lone pair of electrons, located on a more electronegative atom, into a bonding pair
of electrons that is shared with the atom that is electron deficient).
5. Check that you have the lowest FORMAL CHARGES possible for all the atoms, without
violating the octet rule; (valence e-) - (1/2 bonding e-) - (lone electrons).
6. You may find that the best Lewis diagram (the one with the lowest formal charges and all
-1
octets satisfied) is given in a number of different ways. For NO3 , three different diagrams are
given below. From left to right they start with the most complete Lewis diagram to the most
simplified.
TOPIC 5: BONDING BETWEEN COMPOUNDS/MOLECULES
WHY MOLECULES FORM CHEMICAL BONDS?

The basic answer is that atoms are trying to reach the most stable (lowest-energy) state
that they can. Many atoms become stable when their valence shell is filled with electrons or when
they satisfy the octet rule (by having eight valence electrons).
Chemical bonding is one of the most basic fundamentals of chemistry that explains other
concepts such as molecules and reactions. Without it, scientists wouldn't be able to explain why
atoms are attracted to each other or how products are formed after a chemical reaction has taken
place. To understand the concept of bonding, we discussed on previous topics the basics of the
atomic structure (e.g. electronic configuration, Lewis dot diagram, valence electrons, etc.)
A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the
formation of chemical compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic force of attraction
between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds or through the sharing of electrons as in
covalent bonds. The strength of chemical bonds varies considerably; there are "strong bonds" or

"primary bonds" such as covalent, ionic and metallic bonds, and "weak bonds" or "secondary
bonds" such as dipole–dipole interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding.
Octet Rule
Most elements follow the octet rule in chemical bonding, which
means that an element should have contact to eight valence electrons in a
bond or exactly fill up its valence shell. Having eight electrons total ensures
that the atom is stable. This is the reason why noble gases, a valence
electron shell of 8 electrons, are chemically inert; they are already stable
and tend to not need the transfer of electrons when bonding with another
atom in order to be stable. On the other hand, alkali metals have a valance
electron shell of one electron. Since they want to complete the octet rule
they often simply lose one electron. This makes them quite reactive
because they can easily donate this electron to other elements. This
explains the highly reactive properties of the Group IA elements.
Some elements that are exceptions to the octet rule include
Aluminum(Al), Phosphorus(P), Sulfur(S), and Xenon(Xe).
Hydrogen(H) and Helium(He) follow the duet rule since their valence shell only allows two
electrons. There are no exceptions to the duet rule; hydrogen and helium will always hold a
maximum of two electrons.
 Ionic Bonds
As a rule, the elements most likely to form cations in ionic compounds are the alkali metals
and alkaline earth metals, and the elements most likely to form anions are the halogens and
oxygen. Consequently, a wide variety of ionic compounds combine a Group 1A or Group 2A metal
with a halogen or oxygen. An ionic bond is the electrostatic force that holds ions together in an
ionic compound. Consider, for example, the reaction between lithium and fluorine to form lithium
fluoride, a poisonous white powder used in lowering the melting point of solders and in
manufacturing ceramics. The electron configuration of lithium is 1s 22s1, and that of fluorine is
1s22s22p5. When lithium and fluorine atoms come in contact with each other, the outer 2s1 valence
electron of lithium is transferred to the fluorine atom. Using Lewis dot symbols, we represent the
reaction like this:
There is a transfer of electron from 2s1 of Li to 2p6 of F.
Many other common reactions lead to the formation of ionic bonds. For instance, calcium
burns in oxygen to form calcium oxide:
Assuming that the diatomic O2 molecule first splits into separate oxygen atoms, we can
represent the reaction with Lewis symbols:
There is a transfer of two electrons from the calcium atom to the oxygen atom.
1.
2.

Covalent Bonds
Although the concept of molecules goes back to the 17th century, it was not until early in
the twentieth century that chemists began to understand how and why molecules form. The first
major breakthrough was Gilbert Lewis’s suggestion that a chemical bond involves electron sharing
by atoms. He depicted the formation of a chemical bond in H 2 as
This type of electron pairing is an example of a covalent bond - a bond in which two
electrons are shared by two atoms.
Covalent compounds are compounds that contain only covalent bonds. For the sake of
simplicity, the shared pair of electrons is often represented by a single line. Thus, the covalent
bond in the hydrogen molecule can be written as HOH. In a covalent bond, each electron in a
shared pair is attracted to the nuclei of both atoms. This attraction holds the two atoms in H 2
together and is responsible for the formation of covalent bonds in other molecules.
Covalent bonding between many-electron atoms involves only the valence electrons.
Consider the fluorine molecule, F 2.
Note that only two valence electrons participate in the formation of F 2. The other,
nonbonding electrons, are called Lone pairs -- pairs of valence electrons that are not involved in
covalent bond formation. Thus, each F in F2 has three lone pairs of electrons:
The structures we use to represent covalent compounds, such as H 2 and F2, are called
Lewis structures. A Lewis structure is a representation of covalent bonding in which shared
electron pairs are shown either as lines or as pairs of dots between two atoms, and lone pairs are
shown as pairs of dots on individual atoms. Only valence electrons are shown in a Lewis structure.
Let us consider the Lewis structure of the water molecule (H 2O):
In this case, the O atom has two lone pairs. The hydrogen atom has no lone pairs because
its only electron is used to form a covalent bond.
In the F2 and H2O molecules, the F and O atoms achieve the stable noble gas
configuration by sharing electrons:
The formation of these molecules illustrates the Octet rule, formulated by Lewis: An atom
other than hydrogen tends to form bonds until it is surrounded by eight valence electrons. In other
words, a covalent bond forms when there are not enough electrons for each individual atom to
have a complete octet.
Atoms can form different types of covalent bonds. In a Single bond, two atoms are held
together by one electron pair. Many compounds are held together by multiple bonds, that is, bonds
formed when two atoms share two or more pairs of electrons. If two atoms share two pairs of
electrons, the covalent bond is called a double bond. Double bonds are found in molecules of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and ethylene (C2H4):
Double bond
Single bond

A Triple bond arises when two atoms share three pairs of electrons, as in the nitrogen
molecule (N2):
Triple bond
Multiple bonds are shorter than single covalent bonds. Bond length is defined as the
distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms in a molecule. The shorter multiple
bonds are also more stable than single bonds, as we will see later.
TOPIC 6: CHEMICAL REACTION
Chemical reaction shows the process in which a substance (or substances) is changed into one
or more new substances. To communicate with one another about chemical reactions, chemists
have devised a standard way to represent the chemical reactions with chemical equation.
Chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what happens during a chemical reaction.
Sample chemical reaction:
Consider what happens when hydrogen gas (H 2) burns in air (which contains oxygen, O 2) to form
water (H2O). The chemical equation for this reaction is shown below as:
H2 (g) + O2 (g) H2O (l)

Reactants product
We refer to H2 and O2 in the equation as reactants, which are the starting materials in a
chemical reaction. Water (H2O) is the product, which is the substance formed as a result of a
chemical reaction.
 BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Once we have identified all reactants and products and have written the correct formulas for
them, we assemble them in a conventional sequence – reactants on the left separated by an arrow
from products on the right.
The equation at this point is unbalanced. We can balance the equation by the following steps:
1. Identify all reactants and products and write their correct formulas on the left side and right
side of the equation respectively
C3H8 (g) + O2(g)  CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
2. Try using different coefficients to make number of atoms of each element the same on
both sides of the equation. Do not change the subscript in the formula
1 C3H8 (g) + __?_ O2(g)  3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)

C=3 C = 1 lets place coefficient 3 to get C=3
H=8 H = 2 lets place coefficient 4 to get
H=8
O=2 O=3

3. Look for elements that appear only once on each side of the equation
1 C3H8 (g) + __?_ O2(g)  3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)

C=3 C=1 C=1 3
H=8 H=2 H=2 8
O=2 O=3
Since, O appears on both sides of the equation, it will be balanced last. The total
number of Oxygen atoms in the product side will be (3x2=6) + (4x1=4) is 10. So, we place
coefficient 5 in the reactant side. So the equation becomes
1 C3H8 (g) + 5 _ O2(g)  3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)

C=3 C=1 C=1 3
H=8 H=2 H=2 8
O = 2 x 5 =10 O=3 O= 3 6+4 = 10
4. Check your balanced equation to be sure that you have the same total number of each
type of atom on both sides of the equation arrow.
1 C3H8 (g) + 5 _ O2(g)  3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)

C=3 C=3
H=8 H=8
O = 10 O = 10
See sample problems below.
Sample Problem
Suppose we want to balance the chemical equation: FeI2 + Cl2 → FeCl3 + I2
1 FeI2 + _ ? Cl2 → _2_ FeCl3 + 1 I2
Fe = 1 Fe = 1
I=2 I=2
Cl = 2 Cl = 3 lets place coefficient 2
to get Cl=6
Replace ? with coefficient 3 to get Cl = 6 and adjust the other coefficients
2 FeI2 + _ 3 Cl2 → _2_ FeCl3 + 2 I2
Fe = 1 2 Fe = 1 2
I = 2 4 I = 2 4
Cl = 2 6 Cl = 3 6
we now have a balanced chemical equation
2FeI2 + 3Cl2 → 2FeCl3 + 2I2

Fe = 2 Fe = 2
I=4 I=4
Cl = 6 Cl = 6
You can also watch a video on balancing equation using this link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zmdxMlb88Fs&feature=share

 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A Chemical reaction is a process in which at least one new substance is produced as a

result of chemical change. The majority of chemical reactions (but not all) fall into five
categories: combination reactions, decomposition reactions, displacement reaction, exchange
reactions, and combustion reactions.
A. Combination Reaction is a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form

a single product.
The general equation for a combination reaction involving two reactants is:
X + Y → XY
Example: S + O2 SO2
The reactants X and Y can be elements or compounds or an element and a compound.

The product XY is always a compound.
More examples:
2Al + 3Br2 2AlBr3

N2 + 3H2 2NH3
SO3 + H2O H2SO4

2NO + O2 2NO2
2 NO2 + H2O2 2HNO3
B. Decomposition Reaction is a reaction in which a single reactant is converted into two

(or more) simpler substances (elements or compounds). The general equation for a
decomposition reaction in which there are two products is
XY X + Y
Example 2CuO 2Cu + O2
Although the products may be elements or compounds, the reactant is always a

compound.
More examples:
CaCO3 CaO + O2
4HNO3 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2
C. Single Displacement reaction is a reaction in which an atom or molecule displaces an

atom or group of atoms from a compound. There are always two reactants and two
products in this type of reaction. The general equation is
X + YZ → Y + XZ
Example Fe + CuSO4 Cu + FeSO4
More examples:
Mg + Ni(NO3)2 Ni + Mg(NO3)2
F2 + 2NaCl Cl2 + 2NaF
D. Double Displacement (Exchange) Reaction is a reaction in which two substances

exchange parts with one another and forms two different substances. The general
equation is
AX + BY AY + BX
Example AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

When reactants in an exchange reaction are ionic compounds in solution, the parts
exchanged are positive and negativeions of the compounds present.
More example:
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq) 2KNO3 (aq) + PbI2 (s)
The insoluble solids, (the compound with (s) in the equation)

formed from such a reaction are called precipitates.
E. Combustion Reaction is a reaction between a substance and oxygen (usually from air)
that proceeds with the evolution of heat and light (usually from a flame).
Hydrocarbon- binary compounds of carbon and hydrogen are the most common type
of compound that undergoes combustion.
Examples: 2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O

C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
C4H8 + 6O2 4CO2 + 4H2O
Products other than CO2 and H2O can be produced in a combustion reaction, is shown
in the following reaction equations.
CS2 + 3O2 4CO2 + 2SO2

2H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O
2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO + 2SO2
EXAMINE
ACTIVITY 4: CHEMISTRY PUT WORK
You are given an article entitled “Chemistry and the chemical industry”. See the
attached article. Give some time to read the article, find new information and decide your thoughts
on it.
In a short bond paper, write a reaction paper with minimum of 500 words. Compose your
paper in a form which follows guide questions below:
1. Before reading the given article, I thought chemists is _______, and the work of a
chemist are ________.
2. After reading the article, now I know that chemists do the following work
____________.
3. Based on my understanding of what is a chemical industry; I can say that the following
are examples of a chemical industry________.

Rubrics for checking the reaction paper:

Criterion Expert (20 points) Accomplished Capable (12 points) Beginner (8
(16) points)
QUALITY OF -Piece was written -Piece was written -Piece had little style -Piece no style or
WRITING in an extraordinary in an interesting or voice voice
style & voice style & voice -Give some new - Give no new
-Very informative & -Somewhat information but poorly information and
well organized. informative & well organized poorly organized
organized.
GRAMMER, -Virtually no -Few spelling, -A number of -So many spelling,
USAGE & spelling, punctuation & spelling & punctuation &
MECHANICS punctuation & grammatical errors punctuation or grammatical errors
grammatical errors grammatical errors that it interfere with
the meaning
EVALUATE
ACTIVITY 5: WRITTEN EVALUATION
PART I. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
The elements are in a mess. Arrange them in order according to their classification, by writing
them in the table below.
Ge Te Ne Si
Au Tc
Hg
METAL NON METAL METALLOIDS Vi
K
As
At
Po Ds
Ts B Cs Ar Te Mo
PART II. ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION.
A. Write the complete electronic configuration of given elements.
1. Magnesium _______________________________________________________
2. Vanadium _________________________________________________________
B. Write the Ground-State Electron Configurations of the Elements (using the Building up
Principle).
3. Antimony ______________________________________________________________
4. Astatine ________________________________________________________________

PART III. LEWIS DOT FORMULA.
A. Draw the Lewis Dot Symbols of the following elements.
1. Cobalt 3. Polonium
2. Indium 4. Radon
B. Draw the Lewis Diagram of the following molecules.
1. CH2O 3. CH3COOH
2. SeO3 -2 4. (CH3)2SeCl2
PART IV. CHEMICAL EQUATION AND CHEMICAL REACTION
A. Write the chemical equation of the reaction described below.

1. Methane gas (CH4) and chlorine gas react to form carbon tetrachloride and hydrogen
chloride
2. Sodium carbonate reacts with magnesium nitrate to form magnesium carbonate and
sodium nitrate
3. Magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide
4. Potassium chlorate when heated decomposes into potassium chloride and oxygen gas
5. Aluminum nitrate reacts with sulfuric acid to form aluminum sulfate and nitric acid
B. Balance the following chemical equations by supplying the right coefficients.
1. ___ AgNO3 + ___ CaCl2 ⟶ ___ Ca(NO3)2 + ___ AgCl
2. ___ Mg + ___ AgNO3 ⟶ ___ Mg(NO3)2 + ___ Ag
3. ___ FeCl3 + ___ Na2CO3 ⟶ ___ Fe2(CO3)3 + ___ NaCl
4. ___ S + ___ HNO3 ⟶ ___ H2SO4 + ___ NO2 + ___ H2O

5. ___ Be2C + ___ H2O ⟶ ___ Be(OH)2 + ___ CH4

C. Classify the following chemical equations as to combination, decomposition,

displacement, exchange and combustion reaction:
1. C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O ______________________________
2. LiOH + HNO3 → LiNO3 + H2O ______________________________
3. 2FeCl2 + Cl2 → 2FeCl3 _____________________________
4. Ba(NO3)2 + Na2SO4 → 2NaNO3 + BaSO4 ______________________________
5. 2Li + F2 → CaF2 ______________________________
Answer key


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LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

Overview of the Module

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

Introduction to College Vision, Mission, Goals and Quality Policy

Review on the Basics of Chemistry

Introduction to Chemistry for Engineers

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

REVIEW ON THE BASICS OF CHEMISTRY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

Color match the element name with their abbreviation.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

BUT FIRST LET’S DO SOME REVIEW ON THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY.

TOPIC 1: ATOMS – The foundation of the Study of Chemistry

In the fifth century B.C. the Greek philosopher

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

Dalton Atomic Theory No. 3

This result is consistent

Dalton’s Atomic Theory No. 4

WHAT COMPOSE OF AN ATOM?

A. THOMSON’S PLUM PUDDING MODEL

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

In this model, atoms were known to consist of negatively charged

B. RUTHERFORD ATOMIC MODEL

Neils Bohr's greatest contribution to modern physics was

Figure 5. BOHR ATOMIC MODEL

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

D. QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

THE PERIODIC TABLE

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

TOPIC 3: ELECTRONIC BEHAVIOR OF AN ELEMENT

Lewis dot formula

Fig. 8 The description of the Electronic Configuration of Hydrogen [H].

The Electronic configuration assignments for each

THE BUILDING UP PRINCIPLE

This process is based on the Aufbau principle. The

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

Noble gas core

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

TOPIC 4: FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS/MOLECULES

Lewis dot symbol of an element

Lewis dot symbol (diagram) of a molecule

In simple molecules, the atom with the most available sites

TOPIC 5: BONDING BETWEEN COMPOUNDS/MOLECULES

WHY MOLECULES FORM CHEMICAL BONDS?

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

There is a transfer of electron from 2s1 of Li to 2p6 of F.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

Let us consider the Lewis structure of the water molecule (H 2O):

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

TOPIC 6: CHEMICAL REACTION

Sample chemical reaction:

H2 (g) + O2 (g) H2O (l)

 BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

C3H8 (g) + O2(g)  CO2 (g) + H2O (g)

1 C3H8 (g) + __?_ O2(g)  3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY

1 C3H8 (g) + __?_ O2(g)  3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)

1 C3H8 (g) + 5 _ O2(g)  3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)

1 C3H8 (g) + 5 _ O2(g)  3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)

See sample problems below.

Suppose we want to balance the chemical equation: FeI2 + Cl2 → FeCl3 + I2

1 FeI2 + _ ? Cl2 → _2_ FeCl3 + 1 I2

Replace ? with coefficient 3 to get Cl = 6 and adjust the other coefficients

1. _ AgNO3 + _ CaCl2 ⟶ _ Ca(NO3)2 + _ AgCl

2. _ Mg + _ AgNO3 ⟶ _ Mg(NO3)2 + _ Ag

3. _ FeCl3 + _ Na2CO3 ⟶ _ Fe2(CO3)3 + _ NaCl

4. _ S + _ HNO3 ⟶ _ H2SO4 + _ NO2 + ___ H2O