RADIATIVE

TRANSFER

Hoyt C. Hottel

Carbbn P. Dubbs Professor

Department of Chemical Engineering
Massachusetts lnstitute of Technology
(

and '

Adel F: Sarofim

Associate Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
Massachusetts lnstitute of Technology

BIBLIDTEC.A DA

McGraw-Hill Book Company

New York St. Louis San Francisco Toronto London Sydney

Radiative Transfer
Copyright© 1967 by McGraw-Hill, lnc. Ali rights reserved. Printed in the Un~ted
States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored m a
retrieval sy!;item, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electrical, mechani·
cal, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission
of the publisher.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9-MAMM-1 O 9 8
PREFACE
This book, intended as both a college text and a reference book,
is the product of many years of teaching a graduate subject at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in radiative transfer (earlier,
industrial furnace design); of a similarly long period of research and
consulting in the areas of solar energy utilization and combustion,
where radiative transfer often domil;iates equipment design; and, more
recently, of research on radiation in rockets and satellites. Though
much of the material presented is based on our own research or that
of our students, we have tried to -present a balanced coverage of the
work of others.
The engineering and scientific disciplines which include radi-
ative transfer are many, and there is a cor:responding difficulty in
attempting to address an audience representative of so varied a field.
The engineer interested in the design of <levices or processes depen-
dent in a major way on radiation - electric or fuel-fired furnaces,
high-temperature chemical processing equipment, cryogenic <levices,
high-temperature energy conversion <levices, rockets, satellites,
satellite power plants, reactor shielding - may have a background of
education in either engineering or physics or applied mathematics.
Interest in radiation is not restricted to <levices; the meteorologist,
the oceanographer, the astrophysicist find radiative transfer often at
the heart of their problems. Authors must cope with still another
kind of reader inhomogeneity, the difference in background of a
seasoned engineer whose training predated the now common under-
graduate instruction in vector algebra but who is interested in em-
ploying the new approaches to radiation problems, and the young
student who handles his mathematics with facility but lacks the prac-
tical background often essential to visualizing the engineering sig-
nificance of a new approach. ln trying to span so diverse an audience
we may succeed in satisfying no one. The applied mathematician may
be bored with the digressions on vectors and determinants or an-
noyed with the verbosity associated with occasional avoidance of their
use; the practicing engineer may be oppressed by the apparent excess
of analysis. Hopefully each will find something of value.
The evaluation of radiative transfer often takes a form of con-
siderable mathematical complexity. Mathematical analysis of a
problem is most likely to lead to clever improvement when the steps
have their counterpart in physical visualization. Examples of visu-
alizable concepts, from our own past contributions are those of view
factor, mean beam length for gas radiation, direct-exchange and total-
' exchange area, the mixed gray-gas concept, and zoning. To aid in the
V
visualization process we have chosen, where it is feasible, to ap-
proach the more complex problems by a step-wise addition of com-
plicating factors, even though this increases the length of the exposi-
tion. As an example, matrix equations could be written directly for
a system of partly diffuse, partly specular surfaces together with
surfaces in radiative equilibrium, all enclosing a non-isothermal
volume of absorber~ and scatterers. Instead they are ~rit~en first
for a diffuse system enclosing clear gas; and the compllcahons as-
sociated with radiative equilibrium at some of the surfaces, departure
from Lambert behavior, the presence of gas, the presence of gas-
temperature gradients, non-grayness of gas, and the presence of
scatterers are added more or less sequentially.
Our broad objective has been to ,set out principles, supply
factual data on surface and gas radiation, develop techniques of
handling geometrically complex enclosures, and apply the principles
to a wide range of problems, and thereby to supply the student or
practicing engineer or scientist with a background adequate for at-
tacking a radiation problem of almost any degree of complexity.
"C omplexity" includes real gases, non-Lambert surfaces, odd shapes,
temperature or flux variation over the surface and temperature vari-
ation within the gas; and there is often a large gap between a general
statement of the relations to be satisfied and the choice of best en-
gineering approach to solution. Outstanding examples of complexity
are found in industrial furnaces; if the engineer can design one from
first principles he can handle most other radiation problems. Many
radiation problems are one-dimensional, enabling the use of analytical
methods (astrophysics, satellite reentry, energy flux through insu-
lating materials, scatter at surfaces), but the complex geometry of
many enclosures makes some variation of the zone method mandatory.
This book develops that method in complete detail, partly in expres-
sion of protest of the tendency, clear in the current literature, to use
the one-dimensional system not as a basis for better undérstanding -
which we admire - but as an outlet for mathematical exercise in
are as no longer fertile.
The inclusion of two chapters on scatter could perhaps be
questioned. We believe, however, that this is an are a which is due to
receive much attention in the next decade. Examples of problems
here are temperature control of particulate matter in suspension in
processing furnaces, and rocket wall punishment from particle-cloud
radiation. ln addition, the materials engineer will be concerned in-
creasingly with imparting to surfaces, by use of organic polymers,
inorganic oxides, or embossing, a directional or specular selectivity
which will depend on his having a working model of scatter phenom-
ena - not just the Maxwell equations but a model which shows how
particle size, complex refractive index, layer thickness, supporting
vi
matrix and substrate composition combine to give desired properties.
The physicist has left this problem for greener fields, and an enor-
mous gap exists between known principles and their application to
closely-packed small particulate matter.
The material presented exceeds that which can be covered
adequately in a one-semester graduate course. Material on properties
of surfaces, gases, and scattering particles and on the evaluation and
tabulation of exchange factors, though valuable as reference material
need not be covered in such a course. Several options exist on th~
selection for coverage of the remaining material. A suggested course
content and time distribution is: 10 percent on the blackbody radia-
tion laws in application to measurement of temperatu-re and radiative
flux; 25 percent on geometrical problems of radiative exchange in
enclosures, stopping short of allowance for non-Lambert behavior·
40 percent on exchange in gas-containing enclosures, including both
one-dimensionalproblems and three-dimensional temperature fields·
ending with a relatively sophisticated problem requiring programmin~
on a computer, a problem possibly involving scatter or gas-temper-
ature gradients or interaction between radiation and flow. Our own
coverage of the material in class has included the first six chapters -
which have been in distribution in mimeographed forro since 1963 -
plus portions of all the others except Chapters 12 and 13 on scatter.
Sixty-nine problems are included at the end of the text. Good prob-
lems can be designed either to give the student the satisfaction of
knowing that he can cope with real-world problems of practical im-
portance, or to give him the intellectual thrill of discovering new
concepts. We hope the problems included are of both kinds. Subtle
points which we wish there had been space to discuss in the text are
buried in the problems, which represent a many-year accumulation.
The limitations on scope and objectives of this book make in-
appropriate a reference to every published paper on radiative trans-
fer, but we have tried to include those of major significance. The
enormous number of contributions of recent years makes some omis-
sions almost certain. For these we express our apology. It was
unintentional.
H. C. Hottel
A. F. Sarofim
Spring, 1967
vii
 2. 7 Exchange Areas between Finite Elements . . . . . . . 50
CONTENTS a. Any area A 1 radiating to any area A 2 • • • • • • • 50
b. Rectangles A 1 and A 2 of equal dimensions
PREFACE . . . . . . V in parallel planes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '. . . . . . 50
c. Rectangles in perpendicular planes and
NOMENCLATURE xviii having one common edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
d. Circular disks in parallel planes . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
CHAPTER 1. PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 e. Exchange b.etween a pair of concentric
1.1 Similarities of Radiation to Conduction- cylinders of equal length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
and Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 f. Exchange between elements on surface of
1.2 The Nature of Radiation - Thermal Radiation . . . . . . 4 a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.3 Some Definitions and Geometrical Concepts . . . . . . . 7 g. An approximation for surfaces small relative
1.4 Reciprocity Law of Radiation Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 totheir distance of separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.5 Planck's Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . 13 2 .8 Double Contour Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.6 The Stefan-Boltzmann Law. . . . . . . . . ....... . 19 a. Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1. 7 Radiat~on from a Volume . . . . . . . . . . ....... . 20 b. Application to rectangles in perpendicular
1.8 The Gray Lambert Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 planes and having one common edge . . . . . . . . . 57
1. 9 Sequence of Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.9 Evaluation of lnterchange Factors for New
Systems from Old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
CHAPTER 2. DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURF ACES .. 25 a. The Yamauti Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2 .1 Definition of View Factor and Exchange Are a . . . . . . 25 b. Exchange between a differential element
2.2 Geometrical Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 and any rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.3 Exchange Involving Symmetry Associated with c. Exchange between rectangles in intersecting
Cylinders or Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.4 Two Dimensional Systems - The Crossed- d. Parallel opposed rectangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
String Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 e. The exchange-area between two surfaces-
a. Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 by displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
b. Flux between parallel strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.10 View Factors to Partially Shaded Surfaces . . . . . . . 65
c. Radiation from fire fronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 a. The exchange between. a plane element dA 1 and
d. Tube-row radiation problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 the earth which is setting on the horizon of dA 1 •• 65
e. View factors from infinitesimal strips . . . . . . . . 37 b. Application of projection methods . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
f. Flux distribution over tube and refractory 2.11 The Radiation Field-Flux Vectors and Energy
surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.5 Radiation between a Finite Area and an Infinitesimal 2 .12 Additional References 70
Plane Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 39 Literature Citations . . .. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : · 70
a. An element dA 1 and a rectangle in a plane
parallel to the plane of dA 1 • • • • . • • • • • 39 CHAPTER 3. TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES .. 72
b. Element dA 1 and a rectangle in a plane 3.1 The Integral Equation of Radiative Exchange
perpendicular to the plane of dA 1 • . • • • • 41 at a Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
c. Element dA 1 to a circular disk A 2 of radius a . . . . 42 3 .2 Special Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.6 Vector Representation of Fluxes-Contour a. Infinite parallel plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . 43 b. Concentric spheres or cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
a. Vector algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 c. Spherical cavities ... 80
44 d. The three-zone enclosu~~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . ·
b. The heat flux vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
c. Contour integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3 .3 Solution of Integral Equation 3°-6 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 83
3 .4 Zone Method . . . . . . . . ................... 83

viii ix
 3.5 The Total-Interchange Area SS . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . · 85
3 .6 Allowance for Radiatively Adiabatic Zones . . . . . . . . 87 4.2 Isotropic Dielectric Media (K =O) .. 129
3. 7 Criteria for Zone Sizing . . . . . . . . . . · . · · · · · · · · 88 a. Directional reflectivity ... . 129
3.8 The Electrical Network Anology . . . . . . . . . . 92 b. State of polarization . . . . . . 130
3. 9 Algebraic Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · 93 e. Hemispherical emissivity .. 132
a. An enclosure of black source/sink and d. Phase change . . . . . . . . . . 132
adiabatic zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · 95 4.3 Absorbing Media . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
b. An enclosure of two gray source/sink zones a. Directional reflectivity . . . . . . 133
and adiabatic zones . . . . . . . . . . · · . · · · · 96 b. Hemispherical emissivity .. 134
. e. An enclosure of two gray source/sinks, e. Phase changes .. . 135
black source/sinks and adiabatic zones..... 98 d. Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
d. Enclosure of three gray source/sinks, black 4 .4 Metallic Reflection . . . . . . . . . 136
source/sinks, and adiabatic zones . . . . 99 a. Normal spectral emissivity .. . 136
3.lOMachine Computation . . . . . . . . · · . · · · · 100 b. Total normal emissivity and absorptivity .. 137
3.11 Total Energy Balances; Radiative and e. Spectral hemispherical emissivity 138
Other Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · 102 d. Total hemispherical emissivity . . . . . . . . 140
a. Linearization method . . . . . . . . . . · . · · · · · · · · 104 4.5 Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
b. Iterative procedure for rigorous solution . . . . . . . 105 4.6 Rough Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4 106
3.12 Flux through Apertures . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · a. Surfaces with irregularities having small slopes .. 142
3.13 Refractory-Backed Tubes or Resistors -The b. Deep surface cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Equivalent Gray-Plane Concept. . . . . . . . . . . . · · · 112 4.7 Non-Homogeneous Materials . . . . . . . . . . 145
a. A single row of tubes or rods mounted 4.8 Partial Reflectance: An approximatíon for
parallel to a refractory backwall . . . . . . . . . . . 112 use in engineering calculations .. 148
b. A double row of black tubes on equilateral 4.9 Properties of Nonmetals . . . . . 149
triangular centers . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · 117 a. Homogeneous materials 150
e. Parallel thin-strip gray resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 b. Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.14 Energy Density and Flux Density Vectors . . . . . . . . . 118 e. Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . 152
120 4.10 Experimental Emissivities of Metals. 152
3.15 Cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Recapitulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 120 Literature Citations . . . . . . · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Literature Citations . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 120 Appendix: Normal Total Emissivities of Various
Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
CHAPTER 4. RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES .. · · 122
4.1 Principles and Definitions . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · 122 CHAPTER 5. EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURF ACES . 171
a. Wave description of radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 122 5.1 The Integral Equation of Radiative Exchange
b. Intensity of radiation; interference . . . . . . . . . . . 124 ata Non-Lambert Surface ... 172
e. States of polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · 124 5.2 State of Polarization .. 173
d. Emissivities (emittances) . . . . . . . . . . · . · · · · · 124 5 .3 Specular Reflection . . . . . . . . 173
e. Absorptivity and reflectivity . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · 125 a. Image construction . . . . . . . 173
f. Diffuse reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . · · · · · · · · 125 b. Direct and specular exchange between surfaces. 174
g. Graphical presentation of Ee •••••.•. • · • · • • • 126 5.4 System of Non-Lambert Gray Surfaces . . . . . . . 175
h. Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · 127 a. The emissivities of all surfaces in the system
i. Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
127 are high, and reflection is diffuse . . . . . . . . 176
j. The absorption index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · 128 b. The emissivities of all surfaces in the system
k. Complex index of refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · 128 are low, and reflection is diffuse . . . . . . 177
e. The diffuse-plus-specular reflection model ... 177

X
 5.5 Applications of the Mixed Specular-Diffuse 6.10Radiation from Clouds of Particles ... . 243
Reflection Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 a. Large particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
a. Exchange between concentric spheres, or b. Small particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
between infinitely long concentric cylinders . 180 6.11 Representation of a Real Gas for
b. Interchange among the faces of a cube maintained Engineering Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
at different uniform temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 a. Temperature variation of coefficients . . . . . . 251
5.6 Exchange in a System of Non-Gray Surfaces . . . . . . . . 187 Literature Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
a. Allowance for surfaces in radiative equilibrium .. . 191
b. Variation of spectral emissivity with temperature .. 192 CHAPTER 7. GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF
Literature Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Appendix - Polarization Effects . . . . . 194 7 .1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
a. Infinite parallel metallic plates 194 7 .2 Direct- Exchange Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
b. Infinite parallel glass plates .. 195 a. Surface- surface exchange . . . . . . . . . . .. . 258
b. Volume-surface exchange . . . . . . . .... . 258
CHAPTER 6. GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES . 199 c. Volume-volume exchange . . . . . . . ..... . 258
6.1 Historical Background. . . . . . . . .... . 199 7 .3 Evaluation and Compilation of Direct-
6.2 Basic Attenuation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Exchange Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6 .3 Single Line Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 a. Optically thin media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
a. Integrated line intensity . 208 b. Unidimensional system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.4 Bànd J?mission . . . . . . . 211 c. Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
a. Schack Model . . . . . 212 d. Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
b. Elsasser Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 e. Rectangular parallelepipeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
c. Mayer-Goody Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 f. Two-dimensional systems .. 270
d. Random superposition of Elsasser bands .. 217 g. Miscellaneous shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
e. Constant absorption coefficient model ... . 217 7 .4 Mean Beam Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
6.5 Application of Models . . .... . 218 a. Gas-surface exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
a. Schack Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 b. Surface-surface exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
b. Elsasser Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 c. Other shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
c. Statistical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 7. 5 Allowance for a Real Gas,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 279
d. Superimposed Elsasser models . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 a. Directed-flux area from total-emissivity data. 282
e. Constant absorption coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 b. Directed-flux areas for a weighted sum
6.6 Interrelation between Absorptivity and Emissivity .. 221 of gray gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.7 Pressure Dependence of Gas Emissivity. . .... . 223 c. Directed-flux areas for triangular band model 283
6.8 Overlap of Absorption Bands . . . . ...... . 224 d. Directed-flux areas for the Elsasser model ... 284
6.9 Compilation of Gas Emissivities. . . ...... . 225 e. Mean beam lengths for a real gas . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
a. Carbon dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 227 f. Selection of emissivity model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
b. Water vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 7 .6 Recapitulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
c. Carbon dioxide and water vapor mixtures . . . . . . . 231 Literature Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
d. Sulfur dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Appendix: Interchange Areas in a Cylindrical Enclosure. 289
e. Carbon monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . 234
f. Ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIA TIVE
g. Hydrogen chloride 237 EXCHANGE (Enclosures containing an isothermal gas) .. 297
h. Nitric oxide . . . . 238 8.1 Gas Surrounded by Black or Dark Gray Sink . . . . . 298
i. Nitrogen dioxide . 238 a. Small temperature differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
j. Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 8.2 Gray Gas Bounded by a Single Source-Sink Surface .. . 301
k. Methane . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
1. Glass plates and glass melts . . . . . . . . 240
xii xiii
 8.3 Multizoned-Wall Enclosure Containing a
Gray Gas: Diffuse Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 c. Intensity distribution at the surface of a
8.4 Multizoned-Wall Enclosure Containing a semi-infinite medium 345
Gray Gas: Specular and Diffuse Reflection . . . . . . . 305 d. Formulation of the radi~ti ;e· Ú~x· th~~u~h ~. · · · . ·
8.5 Radiatively Adiabatic Surfaces: Gray Gas . . . . . . . . 306 plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
8.6 Equilibrium Temperatures of No-Flux Surfaces: e. Flux from a semi-infinite medium. . . . . . · . · · · ·
348
Gray Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 10.2 The Equation of Transfer .. · · · · · · · · ·
348
8. 7 Enclosure with a Single Refractory and a a. Integro-differential fo~~~l~ti;~ . . . . . · · . · · · · ·
b. Integral formulation .... · ... · · · · · 349
Single Sink: Gray Gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 349
8.8 Allowance for Non-Gray Radiation . . . . . . . 309 c. Non-radiative equilibrÍ~~: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 350
8.9 Allowance for No-Flux Surfaces: Non-Gray Gas ... . 311 d. Methods of solution 350
8.10 Application of Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 10 .3 Radiation between ParaÚ~1 · Pl~te~ s~~a~~t~d . . . . . . .
a. Gray gas, gray sink A, no-flux surface AR .. 312 by a Gray Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
b. Non-gray gas (1 gray + 1 clear), gray sink a. Black walls. . . . . . . . 350
b. Comparison with soluti~n· f 0~ s~~i1 · · · · · · · · · · ·
0 0

A 1 , and completely diffuse-reflecting

surface Ar . . . . . · . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 314 optical thicknesses. 351
c. Non-gray gas, gray sink Ai. gray refractory e. Comparison with solutÍ~n· f~~ Í~r~~ . . . . . .
surface Az . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · 315 optical thicknesses. 352
d. Non-gray gas, enclosed by two gray sinks d. Additivity of solutions: : : : : : : : : : : : : . . . . . . . 353
A1 and A 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 317 e. Gray walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
8.11 Recapitulation of the Simpler Cases Treated .. 320 10.4 The Zone Method . . . . . . · · · · · · · 354
8.12 Effective Radiating Temperature of the Gas .. 323 a. Total exchange area . . : : : : : : : : : : : : · · · · · · · 354
b. Criteria for zoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : : : : · · 356
CHAPTER 9. RADIA TION AS A DIFFUSION PROCESS . 326 10.5 Non-Gray Emission . 357
9 .1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 a. Evaluation of inten~ity. di~trÍb~ti~~ ~; ~~t.Úu~: : : : 358
9.2 Diffusion through Absorbing Media . . . . . . . . . 326 b. Equation of transfer 358
a. Discrete model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 c. Mean absorption coefÚcÍ~nt . . . . . . . . . · . · · · · ·
d. Iterative methods.. . . . . . · · .. · . · · · . · 358
b. Continuum model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 358
9.3 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 e. Weighted-sum of g;a~·g·a~~s· : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 358
9.4 Diffusion in Non-Gray Media . . . . . . . . 331 f. Directed-flux areas ' 360
Literature Citations .............. · . · · · · ·
9.5 Application of the Diffusion Equation .. . 335 361
a. Gray gas between concentric, coaxial, Appendix, The Expon~~Ú~l · fute~;;l~, .&.n ·(~): : : : : : : : : : : : 362
infinite cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 a. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . 362
b. Gray gas between concentric spheres ... . 336 b. Recurrence formulae ............. · · · ·
e. Asymptotic forms ......... : : : : : : : : · · · 362
c. Gray gas between parallel plates . . . . . . . . . . . 337 362
d. Non-gray media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 d. Tabulation . . . . . 363
9.6 Diffusion through Pores. . . . . . . . 339
Literature Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 CHAPTER 11. THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE
FIELD-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE IN SYSTEMS CONTAINING
CHAPTER 10. THE UNIDIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE VOLUME EMITTERS 365
11.1 Rigorous Formuiati·o~ of É~~r~~ ·B~ia~~~s· ·
0

FIELD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 366

10.1 Radiative Transfer in a Known Temperature Field - 11.2 Radiation Balances in an Enclosure: The
The Effective Radiating Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Total-exchange Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
a. Formulation of directional intensity distribution . 343 a. To~al-~xchange areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
b. Numerical evaluation of directional intensity b. Cntena for zone sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 344 11.3 Allowance for a non-gray gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
a. Local variations in concentration of absorbent 374
xiv
XV
 375 c. The six-flux method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
11.4 Total Energy Balances 434
377 d. Comparison of isotropic and anisotropic scatter .
Literature Citations . . . . . . 436
Literature Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER 12. SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 378
378 CHAPTER 14. APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES. 438
12 .1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
378 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
a. Coefficients and cross sections ..
379 ELECTRIC RESISTOR FURNACES . . . . . . . . 439
b. Phase function ..
379 14.1 The Effective Emissivity E' of Resistor
c. Scatter diagram.
380 Arrays on a Backwall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
d. cose ...... .
380 14.2 Examples of Calculation of Exchange Area (Si_S2 )R 441
e. Size parameter . 444
380 14.3 Economic Optimum Resistor Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . .
f. Albedo for single scatter.
380 14.4 Variable Resistor Spacing, Temperature, or Current . 446
12.2 Large Particles . . . . . . . . . .
381 14.5 The Batch Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
a. Specular total reflectors ..
b. Opaque specular partial reflectors .. 382 FUEL-FIRED FURNACES ... . 450
384 14.6 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
c. Opaque diffuse reflectors
386 14.7 The "Long" Furnace . . . . . . . . . . 453
d. Diathermanous particles.
391 14.8 The Well-Stirred Combustion Chamber . 459
e. Diffraction . . . . .
392 14.9 Effect of Departure from Perfect Stirring in
12.3 Small Particles . . . . . . .
392 the Well-Stirred Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
a. Rayleigh scatter . . . .
396 14.lOApplication of the Well-Stirred Chamber Model ... . 468
b. Rayleigh-Gans scatter
397 14.11 More Nearly Rigorous Treatment of Furnace
12.4 Spheres of any size . . . . .
397 Chamber Performance - Zoning . . . . . . . 470
a. The Mie equations .. . 472
b. Asymptotic forro for small particles. 399 14.12 Example of Application of Zone Method .. .
c. Refractive indices near one . 400 14.13 Gas Temperature Field and Surface-Flux
401 Distribution in a Cylindrical Furnace . . . . . 480
d. Large sphereFJ . . . . . . . .
402 14.14 Particle Radiation in Furnace Flames . . . . . 487
e. Non-absorbing spheres.
406 Literature Citations . . .. 488
Literature Citations . . . . . . . . . .
PROBLEMS . . . . 491
CHAPTER 13. RADIATIVE TRANSFER IN AN
ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
13.1 Bulk Absorption and Scatter Coefficients . . . . 408 SUBJECT INDEX. 510
a. Large particles, 21T r /Ã > 5 . . . . . . . . . 409
b. Small particles, 21Tr/Ã < 0.6/n . . . . . . 409 AUTHOR INDEX . . . . . . 520
c. Particles in the intermediate size range 410
13 .2 The Equation of Transfer. . . . . 411
13.3 Isotropic Scatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
a. Local radiative equilibrium. . . . . . . . . 413
b. Single-scatter model of radiative transfer
through or reflection from a slab . . . . . . 413
c. Isotropic multiple scatter in a slab. . . . . . . 418
d. Three-dimensional temperature field . . . . . . . . . 421
13.4 Photon Diffusion in Scattering Media. . . . 426
13.5 Anisotropic Scatter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
a. Azimuthal-independent irradiation 428
b. The two-flux method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430

xvi xvii

NO NCLATURE
The number of concepts discussed makes a certain amount of
overlap in nomenclature unavoidable. Reference is to the main use
of a symbol, with auxiliary use included only where ambiguity might
otherwise exist.
a (ag, n 'as, n ) - weighting factor or energy-fraction in black-body
spectral region, dependent on source-temperature Ti ; e.g.,
as, n (Ti). Subscript reference to radiation from gas (g), or
surface (s), and to term number (n) in series.
ag (as) --weighting factor for gray-plus-clear gas model (n = 1).
a - length; constant (local use).
a - a ln Eg/a ln pL, used in factor (4 +a+ b - c)/4 to obtain an
equivalent-gray emissivity over a temperature interval [Eq.
(8-6)].
A-area.
AB (AL) - equivalent black-band width or band absorptance (equiva-
lent black-line width or line absorptance).
b - many meanings, locally defined.
b - a ln Eg /a ln T, usec;l in factor (4 +a+ b - c)/4. See a.
b(bc, bu) - line half-width (for collision-broadening, Doppler
broadening).
B -- zone width.
c - velocity of light in vacuo.
c -- particle concentration, number per unit volume [Chap. 6].
c - exponent on Tg /Ts to obtain conversion factor from gas emis-
sivity to gas absorptivity; see a above and Sec. 6.6.
c1, c2 - first and second Planck constants.
cP, CP - specific heat.
C (Ca, Cs, C t) - particle cross section (subscripts refer to absorp-
tion, scatter, total extinction).
C - center-to-center distance between members of repeating pattern.
Cc (Cw) - correction factor for pressure-broadening of radiation
from carbon dioxide (water vapor).
xviii
Cm - mass-concentration of particles (m/13 ).
Cs - cold-surface fraction of a furnace enclosure [Chaps. 8, 14].
Cv - local volumetric absorption rate per unit absorption coefficient
[Chap. 12]. '
Ct -- Craya-Curtet number, [Chap. 14, Appendix].
cos e- forwardness of scatter, Eq. (12-3).
d - mean center-to-center line spacing [Sec. 6.4b to 6.8].
d--oil droplet diameter [Sec. 6.10a].
D - diameter, characteristic dimension.
D - determinant of transfer matrix first defined in Eq. (3-25).
Di - determinant formed by substitution of excitation vector of Eq.
(3-25) into ith column of D.
D~i - cofactor or signed minor of column i and row j of determi-
nant D.
D' -- reduced firing density [Chap. 14].
e - charge on an electron.
ee - direct-exchange area between two end-zones in a zoned right-
circular cylinder [Chap. 7, Appendix].
eg (ew) - direct-exchange area between end and gas (sidewall) zone
in a zoned right-circular cylinder [Chap. 7, Appendix].
E (EB) - hemispherical black-body flux density ata surface or
hemispherical emissive power of a black body. Units:_
energy/(area) (time). Subscript B used in Chap. 4 to distin-
guish from electric vector.
EA (Ew) - monochromatic emissive power of a black body at wave-
length ,\ (wave number w). Units-energy/(area) (time) (wave-
length or wave number).
EA, g (EA, s) - EA for a gas (surface).
E - electric vector, force per unit charge. Units-(m/ ft2)1/2 and
cE 2 =E.
G; - dielectric constant [Chap. 4 ].
- nth exponential integral of T, defined in Chap. 10, Appendix.
G;n ( T)
f - generally, a function.
f (,\T) - energy fraction of black-body spectrum lying below ,\
[Chaps. 5, 9, 10].
fv -- volume fraction of space occupied by particles [Chap. 6]~
Fii - view factor, fraction of isotropic radiation from Ai intercepted
directly by Ai.
xix
F- total view-factor between black source and sink, with allowance j - general zone number.
for refractory surfaces.
J - Bessel function.
'.fii -total view-factor, radiation from i to j both directly and in-
directly, expressed as fraction of black-body radiation from :! - source function (dimensions-intensity).
Ai. k-- absorption coefficient [.Q -1 x(atm or conc)-1 ].
g - constant or function, locally defined. kc (kp) -- absorption coefficient, concentration basis (pressure basis).
g i g i (g. s.) - direct-exchange area between gas ZQ!le i and gas kÀ (kw) -- monochromatic absorption coefficient.
(~uiface) zone j. Som.etimes shortened to ij.
K (K ª' ~ s' Kt) -- extinction coefficient (subscripts refer to absorp-
gi gi (g;$.) - directed-flux exchange area or directed-flux area be- t10n, scatter, total extinction) (_Q-1 ] .
twe~n gas zone i and gas (surface) zone j, with allowance for
real gas. Of the two zones, that at the tail of arrow is the K - mean absorption coefficient; Planck in Chap. 10; Rosseland in
source. Chap. 9.

ge (gw) - direct-exchange area, in zoned right-circular cylinder, .Q - length; mean free path.
between gas zone and end (sidewall) zone (Chap. 7, Appendix]. .Q - an integer [Chap. 12].
G; Gi (Gi Si) - total-exchange area between gas zone i and gas (sur- L -- path length; distance; characterizing dimension.
face) zone j, direct plus reflected at walls.
Le -- mean beam length.
G.G.
1 J (G.8.)
1 J - total-exchange area between gas zone i and gas (sur-
Lm -- average mean beam length.
face) zone j when system properties are temperature depend-
ent (non-gray gas). Source and sink at foot and head of arrow, L0 - mean beam length at vanishing optical thickness.
respectively. [Eq. (8-26)].
m -- generally, a number. Many local meanings.
Gi Gi (êtS;) - total-exchange area between gas zone i and gas (sur-
face) zone j when system properties are temperature depend- m-- mass flow rate.
ent (non-gray gas) but evaluated at mean temperature (Sec. M - inner matrix of adiabatic zones [Chap. 3].
8.lOb and c].
n -- real part of refractive index.
(GiSi )R - total-exchange area with allowance for effect of surface
zones in radiative equilibrium. n - an integer; number of source-sink zones plates, terms in a
series, etc. '
h - Planck constant (units - momentum X length). 1
n - complex refractive index [= l}( 1 - i K) J.
h - coefficient of heat transfer.
n -- unit direction vector.
H - incident radiant flux density.
p - partial pressure of radiating gas component.
H - enthalpy flux in moving stream (Chap. 14 ].
p -- state of polarization [Chap. 4].
i - general zone number.
P ( ) -- phase function [ Chap. 12, 13], with measure of direction in
i - ~ [Chaps. 4 and 12]. parentheses.
ic (is) - chemical (sensible) enthalpy per unit mass. Pc (pw) -- partial pressure of carbon dioxide (water vapor).
i.u i 11 - Mie scatter functions [Eq. (12-26)]. pe - p~akedness, ratio of second to zeroth moment of phase function
I - intensity, radiant energy flux density per unit solid angle of m forward direction (Chap. 13].
divergence. P - perimeter [Chap. 3, 14 J.
IB - intensity of black-body radiation. P - total pressure [Chap. 6].

10 - intensity on entry into system of interest. P1 (PR) - perimeter occupied by sink surfaces (refractory surfaces).
Pm - Legendre polynomial of order m.
Im - imaginary part of.

XX xxi
 1
a - absorptivity, absorptance.
Pr - Prandtl number, dimensionless ratio of specific heat Xviscosity /
a gs (a 1, 2 ) - absorptivity of a gas for radiation from a surface (of
thermal conductivity. surface 1 for radiation from 2).
q _ flux density, many identifying subscripts (energy/areaXtime).
/3--27Tb/d [Chap. 6].
q -- flux density vector. Y-- angle [Chap. 2].
Q -- energy flux (energy /time). 'Y- angle vector, normal to plane of angle.
Q' -- reduced furnace efficiency, dimensionless. õ- Dirac delta. õ(x - x 0 ) = O except when x = x 0 , and
r - distance between two elements; radius. f õ(x - Xo) dx = 1 if limits of integration include x 0 .
r - resistivity, ohm cms (units-time). õii - Kronecker delta. Equals O except when i = j; then õii = 1.
rh - cross-sectional area/perimeter [Chap. 2, 9]. Õx - phase angle of component x [Chap. 4].
r e - center-to-center distance [Chap. 7]. !::.. - difference between radiating gas temperature and leaving-gas
temperature [Chap. 14].
R- reflected-flux density [Chap. 3, 11].
V - operator delta:
R - reflectance [Chap. 5, 13].
VB = grad B is a vector representing the direction and magni-
Re - real part of [Chap. 12]. tude of the maximum space-rate of change of B, a scalar
Re -- Reynolds number [Chap. 14]. quantity.
s - root-mean-square roughness [Chap. 4]. V· B= div B is a scalar representing J
B · dS/õv, where
integration is over the whole surface S of a vanishingly
(s.1 s. ) - direct-interchange area between surface zone si and small volume õv.
gas~one
J
gi (surface zone si); shortened wh ere unamb'iguous
to ij. =
V xB curl B is a vector at :r the component of which in any
direction may be obtained as :j5 B ·d :r / õS where õS is a
ss ', ss" - first and second derivatives of ss, when independent
vanishingly small surface element normal to the direc-
variable is unambiguous [Chap. 3]. tion of interest and the integral is around õS.
S - integrated line intensity (spectral width per path length and
E (Eg, Es) - emissivity or emittance (of a gas, of a surface).
pressure).
E' - equivalent plane emissivity.
s.1 G.J (S·1 S.)
J
- total-interchange area between surface si and gas
• • • 86]
zone gi (surface zone si) [defrn1hon on p. . Ew (Ec) - emissivity of water vapor (carbon dioxide).
t-time. e- polar angle.
T (Tg, T 5) - temperature (of a gas, of a surface). ®- angle between incident and scattered beam.

T - transmittance of a system. K -- absorption index =K,\/47Tn.

u -- energy density, energy per unit volume. À- wavelength.
U -- overall coefficient of heat transfer. À- thermal conductivity [Chap. 3, 14].
v or V-volume. µ - cos e, where e is polar angle.
W - leaving-flux density (radiosity). v - frequency.
x - ratio of parti ele perimeter to wavelength of incident radiation. n

x, y, z -- cartesian coordinates. n ai -
i=O
product of terms ~ ª1 ª2 ... ªº.
X, Y, Z - dimensions of surfaces. p- reflectance.
p- density, sometimes with subscript o

xxiii
xxii
Ps (PiJ) - specular (diffuse) reflectance.
a - 8tefan-Boltzmann constant.
a - electrical conductivity (units t- 1 ); 8.987 x10 11 /r [Chap. 4].
0
T - optical thickness [Chap. 9, 10, 13].
CHAPTER 1
T - transmittance, single traversal [Chap. 1, 5]. PRINCIPLES
T -- reduced sink temperature, dimensionless [Chap. 14].
cp - shape correction factor [Chap. 7]. 1.1 8imilarities of Radiation to Conduction-
and Differences
x-- angle of refraction, with e= angle of incidence.
l/J - azimuth or bearing angle. There are two mechanisms of heat transfer, conduction and
w--wave number 1/Ã [Chap. 1, 6]; albedo for scatter [Chap. 4]. radiation-similar in some respects but quite different in others.
Conduction, modified or augmented by convective flow, involves the
w0 - albedo for scatter, the ratio of scatter to total-extinction transfer of energy by molecular motion, a transfer substantially
coefficient K 8 /(Ks + K 3 ) . [Chap. 12, 13]. proportional to the gradient of temperature. Thermal radiation, on
the other hand, varies in intensity with temperatur:e to a power
w0 -wave number of line center [Chap. 6].
which varies for monochromatic radiation, from a value of one at
D -- solid angle. high temperature or long wavelength towards infinity for low tem-
perature or short wavelength; the power has the value of four for
dD - solid-angle vector. total blackb~dy radiation. Some of the other differences in the two
mechanisms are brought out by qualitative consideration of perhaps
8ubscript Usage the simplest of geometrical systems for heat transfer, horizontal
infinite parallel plates at uniform but different temperatures, with
ª· s, t - absorption, scatter, and total extinction. the hotter plate above.
e, w _ carbon dioxide, water vapor (in combustion gas radiation).
Consider, first, conduction through a clear gas at atmospheric
g, s -- gas, surface (sometimes G,s ). pressure. The temperature in the gas between the plates varies
linearly with distance-from the hot-plate temperature to that at the
h, n - hemispherical, normal. cold plate (Fig. 1-1, curve a)-with no detectable discontinuity at
i, i, k - integers; identification numbers of zones. either interface; and the heat flux density from hot to cold plate is
proportional to the temperature dHference of the plates, substan-
i, r - incident, reUected. tially independent of absolute temperature level, and inversely pro-
m, n, ... p -- mirror planes. portional to the spacing. If the gas pressure is now lowered, both
the flux and the temperature distribution change negligibly until a
m- measured in the medium. quite low pressure is reached; the decrease in number of molecules
r, s, t - refractory or radiative-equilibrium zones. involved in the transfer is offset by an increase in their mean free
path. But as the mean free path continues to increase with falling
R _ allowing for radiative-equilibrium or refractory surfaces
pressure and finally comes within an arder of magnitude of the dis-
(appended to 88, 8G, GG). tance between the plates, the local temperature (defined as that of
s,D - specular, diffuse. a small object in equilibrium with the local molecular motion) no
A, v ,w - monochromatic value: at wavelength À, frequency v, or longer varies linearly with distance normal to the plates; molecules
some distance from the midplane are bombarded by others arriving
wave number w from unequal distances from above and below, with wall-originating
.L,
11
_ perpendicular, parallel to plane containing beam of interest and molecules increasingly dominant from one side. The temperature
the normal to surface. profile now varies from a linear one near the midplane to a curved
- used with intensity, in a unidimensional system, to indicate one near the surfaces, and a temperature jump occurs at each gas-
+, -
flux in the direction of increasing or decreasing value of the surface interface (Fig. 1-1, curve b). As the pressure drops still
further and the mean free path becomes comparable to the space
principal coordinate.
1
xxiv
 PRINCIPLES 3
2 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

diffe~ent from the conduction case; it is comparable to the plate

between plates, some of the mole- spacmg at atmospheric pressure rather than at a few microns
hot plate
cules leaving the hot surface pressure. As a re~ult of radiative equilibrium in the gas between
manage to reach almost to or th~ pl'.1tes there ex1sts at atmospheric pressure a temperature dis-
actually to the cold surface before tnbuho~ somewhat like that in the conducting gas at very low pres-
collision. The flux is down mark- sure, w1th a temperature jump at each gas-surface interface and a
edly, and the temperature at every temperature ev~rywhe.re ~ependent on all other temperatures (Fig.
plane between the plates depends 1-1, curve b, w1th ordmate changed from T to T 4 ). The flux at any
on the temperature everywhere P.lane. depends ~n the entire temperature field, and the temperature
else in the system because a tem- , field is de.termme.d by solution of an integral equation or by its
perature-sensing element any- mathemat~cal equ1valent, solution of a set of simultaneous equations
cold plate where is subject to bombardment repr~sentmg radiation balances on each layer of the gas slab - in
- Temperature ---t
by molecules from everywhere. the llmit an infinite set.
Fig. 1-1. Temperature or emis- Finally, as the pressure drops to
sive power distribution in a gas so low a value that molecules As the radiating gas pressure is increased to a value which
between two isothermal plates, for leaving either surface are sub- depends on the plate spacing but which is generally many atmos-
pressures corresponding to mean- stantially certain of reaching the pheres even for a one-foot spacing, the mean free path of the pho-
free-pathplate-spacing ratios « 1 other without prior collision, the tons .b~comes small compared to the plate spacing. Under these
(curve a), ::;: 1 (curve b), and » 1 gas temperature between the cond~hon~ the ~e~perature jump at the wall becomes small, the
(curve c). plates becomes uniform and equal gradient m em1ss1ve power becomes linear in position except very
to the mean of those of the bounding plates {curve·c). ne3:r the walls, and the transport of energy by radiation in the in-
terior of the gas becomes proportional to the gradient in emissive
Throughout this succession of conditions there has been super- power. Radiati ve transfer, except at the wall-gas interface can
imposed on the conductive flux a radiative flux independent of the now ~e treated as a diffusion process comparable to conducÚon.
presence of the gas or the plate spacing and dependent only on the A.nd fm'.111~, .when the gas pressure is high enough the temperature
surface conditions of the plates and on their temperatures. The d1sconhn~it~es '.1t the wal.ls become insignificant (Fig. 1-1, curve a)
radiation temperature of the space - that of a sensing instrument and the s1m1lanty to ordmary conduction is even more complete.
not registering the presence of gas-molecular motion - is independ-
ent of distance from either wall since the instrument sees each wall Thus, both con.ductio.n and r~diation through absorbing media
throughout a hemisphere. are se~n to have th.e1.r regimes of diffusion, transition, and action-
at-a-dist~ce reqmrmg a mathematical treatment that varies from
Now let a radiating-absorbing gas be admitted to the space use .ºf a d1ffere~tial to ai: integral equation. The significant and
between the plates, and let the absolute temperature of the system all~1mportant difference is that for conduction in gases the differ-
be so high that conduction can be neglected relative to radiation. enhal equation suffices down to very low pressures and/ or very
The direct radiative exchange between the plates is decreased by small. enclosures; whereas, for radiation in gases the integral
gas absorption of surface-emitted radiation and increased by gas eq~ahon must generally be used at atmospheric pressure even in
emission. Although any thin gas layer emits equally in both direc- qmte large systems.
tions, it is irradiated by and absorbs unequally from the layers of
gas on either side of it. Thus, it adds to the net radiative flux from . A second difference is that for usual pressures and dimen-
hot to cold surface, though not sufficiently to compensate for the s10ns th.e heat-flux vector at any point is dependent only on local
reduction, by gas absorption, in direct wall-to-wall flux. The proc- propert.1e~ an? l.ocal temperature gradient for conduction; whereas
ess of transfer through the gas shows marked similarity to con- for radiahon it 1s dep.endent on the intensity distribution through-
duction: the photons have a mean free path which depends on the out the full 47T sterad1ans about the point. These differences and
capture cross section of the molecules for the particular frequency others a~sociated with interest in systems of greater geomet~ical
of interest; the molecules maintain radiative equilibrium by re- compl~xity t~an parallel plates, combine to make radiation require
emission of radiation; and, there is effectively a diffusion of photons an enhr.ely dlfferent mathematical approach from conduction and
through the gas in response to the existence of an emissive-power convechon. When there is interaction between the two mechanisms,
gradient. But the magnitude of the mean free path is entirely
 PRINCIPLES 5
4 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

one finds that the mathematical approach

valid for radiation can embrace conduc-
At equilibrium the system is iso-
thermal, and the second law of ther -
A
J
black
" black
e
tion and convection but the approach valid
modynamics requires that there
be no net flux through a surface
silvered sil~red
for the latter two cannot rigorously em- element placed anywhere within
brace radiation. ~he e~closure. e onsequently' the
This book is concerned primarily mtensity must be the sarne in all
with the development of methods for directions and the one-way flux
calculation of radiative transfer in sys- density, which will be designated Fig. 1-3. The Ritchie E ·
tems of that geometrical complexity and by E' must be constant. Let the xpenment.
lack of symmetry which the engineer is absorptivities of the bodies for radiation incident on them be O' 1
likely to meet. The application of these and 0' 2 and their emission rates per unit of area be q 1 and q 2
Fig. 1-2. The Kirchhoff Energy balances on the two bodies are •
"Holraum". methods will require knowledge of the
radiating properties of matter; and the
secondary emphasis is therefore on these properties. Furthermore, EA1 0'1 = qlAl' and
since the best test of understanding is use, a third area of attention
is engineering applications - to satellites, industrial furnaces, from which
chemical reactors, atmospheric radiation, and the varied problems
of thermal flux control at high temperatures. (1-1)
1.2 The Nature of Radiation -Thermal Radiation
T~isis the famous Kirchoff's law, much used and somewhat
Radiation is electromagnetic energy in transport, in wave m1sused.
form with vibration transverse to the direction of propagation. It
originates from an energy input to or excitation of a particle. The .I~ w~rds, the ratio of the specific emission rate to the ab-
return of the particle to a lower energy state is attended by the s?rphvity is the sarne for all surfaces in thermodynamic equilib-
emission of a photon of radiation. The excitation process may vary, num; an~ that ratio ~ is independent of all properties but temper-
as a result of which the emitted energy is described as phosphores- ature. Sl~ce_ the max1mum absorptivity O' which a body can have is
cence, fluorescence, chemiluminescence, x radiation, radio waves, ~, the em1ss10n rate .from such a body must be E; and such a body
etc. If the excitation comes from that molecular bombardment is ca:-led a black radiator or, because it represents the maximum
which characterizes temperature, the radiation is ter me d thermal. poss1ble for a system on which there is no specification except
The transfer of energy by thermal radiation is the primary interest temperature, a perfect radiator. The radiation intensity in the
here, although many of the methods developed will have applicabil- enclosure, regardless of the material of its walls is seen to be
ity to other types of radiation. tha~ of. a black bo.dy; and if a small hole is made i~ the wall, the
radiahon streamm? out will be blackbody radiation. Kirchhoff's
Thermal radiation is a term used in two ways - sometimes law may be stated m another way: The ratio of emission from any
in reference to any radiation of thermal origin and sometimes spec- surfac~ to_ t?at from a perfect radiator, q/E, is to be designated as
ifically in restriction to radiation in equilibrium with its surround- the_e~1~s1vity E of the surface. From Eq. (1-1) it is seen that the
ings. Some of the characteristics of equilibrium radiation are e_m 1 ~s1vit~ E _and the absorbtivity O' of a surface in radiative equi-
brought out by considering a hollow enclosure, externally insulated h~n~im with its surroundings are the sarne. The restriction on
and containing within it two bodies of area A 1 and A 2 , each having th1~ i~p.ortant conclusi_o~ must be born in mind: the equality of
no negative curvature, a maximum dimension small compared to ~m1~s1vity and absorphvity, so tempting a generalization to use
those of the enclosure, and a separation from each other and from is ngorously true only when there is no net heat transfer f '
the walls which is large compared to the body dimensions*
(Fig. 1-2). . Ki~chhoff's law_ was in a sense anticipated a quarter century
b~ Ritchie_ on the bas1s of the following experiment: A vessel B
*The limitations on size and position are unnecessary, but they simplify the Fig. 1-3, is placed with its flat sides facing and close to the in~ide
derivation.
6 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
PRINCIPLES 7

e which are
faces of two vessels' A and ' ·11
alike in size and heat
tube with a droplet of liquid Further discussion of Kirchhoff's law must await presenta-
capacity and connected by ª. cap1 ~~~ as thermometer. The right-
tion of some definitions and geometrical concepts.
near the middle to form a d1fferen . gd to give them the sarne
hand faces of vessels A and B are ti.nn~ 'ty E The left-hand faces
low absorptivity ex and the sar:rie ~~1=~::-it ab.sorptivity. With all 1.3 Some Definitions and Geometrical Concepts
of C and B are blackened to g1ve temperature let hot water
three vessels in equilibrium atdthe ~t~e of emission from black Intensity. Consider a narrow pencil of radiation lying within
be poured into B. Let the flux ens~ ~ B and C be E ' EB, Ec- a solid angle of divergence dn and streaming through a small area
surfaces at the new temperatures o ' ' A element dA normal to it. The one-way energy flux will be propor-
The net flux from B to A is then tional to dA and to d n. The proportionality constant is called the
q B=A-- EBcx - EAE (1-2) intensity I of the radiation-energy per unit time per unit area per
unit solid aµgle normal to the area. Jt is important to note that a
Similarly, penei! of rays with no divergence or with finite divergence but zero
cross section at a focal plane contains no energy; a number of so-
q == EBE - Eccx . called radiation paradoxes are based on an ignoring of this principle.
B=c . . observed not to move, indicatmg
But the droplet in the ca~1llary is t 'd vessels and equal tempera- Intensity will in general be a function of the direetion of the
equal net flux of energy mto th~ ou s1~ eE and q ~A== qB=C' and radiation, fixed for example by the angle e with the normal to dA and
ture. Therefore TA == Te' EA - Ec - . Aec E -1. ~ ex must equal by the azimuth angle lf.;, and indieated by I( e, lf.;); and the eross-
( ) E ( ) - E (E - Ci). 8 me B T AC'
from 1-2 ' . B ?' - E. - ACth tatement of Kirchhoff's law except seetional area of the peneil at dA will be dA eos e. The one-way
E a conclus10n idenhcal to e s ·ment It must be flux dQ through a plane element dA is then given by
' t t nt is based on expen .
that this time the s a eme t' . here faulty E is used to de-
added, however' that the deriva wn is tion that its values at tem- dQ = I(e, lf.;) drl cos BdA
scribe the tinned surface on the. as.~u7~e sarne which is not true; (1-3)
peratures TA and TB ar~ ne~essar~~ere is rea~on to expect that if and the flux density dq by
the sarne criticism app~1~s t~ ahi h temperature the bubble sepa-
B were heated to a su~flcien Y g The equating of emissivity ctq == I(e, lf.;) an cos e
rating A and C would m fact move. tures of the emitter and the (1-4)
and absorptivity' when t.he .temfera.t re different, must therefore The intensity is one of emission or of irradiation, depending on
source of the radiation mc1d~dn on 1 f~he fact and not on a false whether dA is emitting or reeeiving the radiation. Various sym-
be based on experimental ev1 ence o
reliance on Kirchhoff's law · bols will be used to designate different kinds of intensity. Similarly,
flux density may refer to ineident, absorbed, emitted, reflected or
. l'es to total radiation, total flux density at a surface element.
Kirchhoff's l~w as denved ab::ti~p~a~iation. By use, in the
but it is equally valld !ºr mono~~~creen which transmits at only The invariant eharaeter of intensity along a beam may be
hollow enclosur~ of Fig. 1-2, ~uded that' at equilibrium the mono- readily demonstrated. Let radiation stream through dA and eon-
one wavelength 1t r:r1~Y be cone f ce is equal to its monochro- sider, as the penei! of interest, the portion of the radiation 1 which
chromati~ a~s?rphvlty ªÀ ~f anyi:~~ ~urface experiences no d~ffi- also streams through dA 2 loeated on the normal to the normal to
matic em1ss1v1~. EÀ · lf .~ i~rad the energy states associated dA 1 , ata distanee r. The equal fluxes through the two ends of the
culty in maintammg eqmhbnum am~ng th À (i e if its absorptivity penei! are given respeetively by 11 dA 1 dn 1 (d dA dA /r 2 ) and by
with the absorption pro~ess a~ wa~e. e;!iiation.) then aÀ == EÀ even 1 1
I 2dA 2 ctn 2 (= 1 2dA 2dA 1 /r 2); therefore 1 1 = 12 . ln the absenee
2
of
ex is independent of the .mt.ens~ty o :~i her temperature than the
absorption or refraetion, intensity is seen to be constant along a
though the sourc~ of radiat~on ~~ ~~· la~ then applies to monochro- Pencil, the inerease in eross-seetional area normal to the pencil
surface in queshon; and Kirc h o s y be net radiative flux. This being exaetly eompensated by the deerease in divergenee angle.
matic radiation even t_hough t e.re ~~wever but a consequence of
But if the pencil passes through an interface between media of dif-
is not a thermodynam1c nec~s~lty 'they have' absorptivities insensi- ferent refractive indiees, its intensity does ehange. Figure 1.4
a general property of matena s - . . .
tive to a wide variation in intensity of irradiabon. shows a peneil of divergenee dn 1 and intensity 1 in medium 1,
1
 PRINCIPLES 9
8 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

ln words, every pencil of radiation passing from medium 1 into

medium 2 maintains its identity but changes its divergence and
intensity; and these changes satisfy Eq. (1-6).

medium 2 Emissive power. If radiation is isotropic, i.e., if the inten-

sity is independent of angle, the flux density at dA throughout the
277 steradians on one side of it is given by

q = 11
2rr
an cos e (1-7)

dA
Let a unit-radius hemisphere be formed above dA (Fig. 1-5). dn
is seen to be 277 sin e dB, and (1-7) integrates to
medium 1

q =I
J
rr/2
277 sin e cos e de = 771 11 d(sin2 e) = irI (1-8)
0 0

/
/

This hemispherical flux density is

called the emissive power of a sur-
Fig. 1-4. Change in divergence across face, 77 times the intensity if the
an interface. latter is isotropic. A black surface
is an isotropic emitter since an ele-
passing through dA at an interface between medium 1 and medium ment of its surface acts like a small
2. The flux density* is hole in an equilibrium black-body
enclosure. The emissive power of
dq = 11dS2 1 cos 81 = I 2dS2 2 cos 82 (1-5) a blackbody will be designated by E
ang its intensity by I B. Then
Form a figure of revolution about the axis normal to dA. Then Fig. 1-5. Hemispherical flux
density at a surface E = 77IB = 1Tll 2 IB,vac
and

The intensity ratio is given by

The existence of different radiation intensities in isothermal
11 dS"22 cos 82 sin 8 2 cos 82 d82 d(sin 2 82) enclosures containing materials of different refractive índices may
d(sin 2 81) at first appear to suggest the existence of a net flux in certain direc-
12 dS"21 cos 81 sin 8 1 cos 81 d81
tions. But consider an enclosure partly filled with molten glass and
in thermal equilibrium (Fig. 1-6), and focus on a small spot on the
But since sin 82/sin 81 equals n1 /n2, glass. From the clear space above the surface, radiation impinges
sin 2 82 on the spot from all directions throughout a hemisphere with uni-
(:~Y
11 dS"22 cos 82 (1-6)
= form intensity, and each penei! is bent and slightly converged as it
12 dS"21 cos 81 = sin 2 81 passes through the surface. The grazing beam CO proceeds on-
ward along OC' at angle Br such that sin (77/2)/sin Br = n/1. From
*The effect of surface reflection, omitted in (1-5), would be to de.c~ea_se 12 by above, the total downward flux density is
a factor (1- p ). ln the special case of a system in ra~iative ~qmhb~rnm, the
specular reflection into de 2 , of radiation from medrnm ~ via the mterface
wouldexactly compensate for the loss of radiation streammg up from below.
1 I vac dn cos
2rr
8 = 771 vac = 77IB, vac = E vac (1-9)
 PRINCIPLES 11
10 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

If the radiation is ísotropic, the above relation becomes

From below, the beams lying A B
between C' and X' are to- u = 4 rrl n/c (1-12)
tally reflected, and the up-
ward flux density due to in- air Expression in terms of intensity in vacuo, from Eq. (1-6), gives
tensity I 0 within the glass is
u=4rrl vac n 3/c=u vac n3 (1-13)
J1 0 dn cos e
glass T~e numerical value of u is small. Black radiation in equilibrium
er
fo I 0 2rr sin e cos e de
X
w1th a _body at 6000ºK (approximate temperature of solar disk) has
a density of 2.34 x 10 -7 cal/cm3.
= 7TJ G Sin
2
Br (1-10)
B' . Radíation pressure. The exertion of pressure by radiation
Since sin2 er = 1/n2 and, ac- A' is a ne~essary_ consequence of its exhibiting an energy density·
cording to (1-6), Ia/I vac = o~herw1se, radlant energy trapped within a reflecting cylinder~
n2, it is seen that the upward p_1st?n sys~em could be compressed and thereby brought to equi-
Fig. 1-6. Change in intensity across
and downward fluxes to the a glass-air interface
llbrmm wü~ a hotter system without work expenditure. Since
spot are equal. e_ner~ density and pressure have the sarne dimensions, a propor-
tionahty may be expected to exist between them. The fact that a
Energy density u. * Sínce photon of energy e has a momentum e/c-a relation which follows
radíation is aform of energy from Maxwell's equations-may be used to show that radiation
in transport and since it has a definite velocity, there must be as- pressure _is num~ric~ly equal to the component of energy density
sociated with any space traversed by radiation an energy density. 7esolve_d m t~e ?irechon of action of the pressure* or that, for
Consider a small volume element dv in a medium of refractive in- iso_trop1c _radiahon, P = u/3. When the nature of the surface at
dex n. Traversing it in a direction e, 1/J and within a small solid an- wh1ch P l~ measured affects the energy density above the surface,
gle of divergence dn is a flux of density I (e, 1/;)dn . This flux, energy ~re_ssure is c_o7re_spondingly affected. Consequently, the pressure
per unit area per unit time, may be visualized as having come from ms1de an eqmhbrmm enclosure is independent of wall material
a column of radiation of length traversable in unit time by the where~s the pre_ssure on a cold gray surface normal to a colli~ated
radiation-a column of length c/n, where c is the velocity of light beam is (1 + P) hmes that on a black surface ( p is the reflectivity ).
in vacuo and c/n that in the medium. Then the local energy density
dueto this pencil of radiation is I(B,1/;)dn/(c/n). Summing the pen- . Reca~itulation in vector notation: With n representing a
cils of radiation over the total solid angle of 4rr steradians through- umt vecto7 m the direction of a beam of intensity I and divergence
out which dv is irradiated gives the total flux density ata point d n and :vith s representing a unit vector normal to a surface ele-
within dv, and division by the velocity of propagation gives the total ment of mterest,

en JI
local energy density u.
Energy density
u = f I( e, 1/l)dn (1-11)
(a scalar quantity) = u = d n (scalar n = refractive índex)
417 (c/n) Net Flux-densityt J
= qnet = s· I n ctn (vector n)
where I is the intensity measured within the medium of refractive
índex n.
*Althou~h proportionality of P to ux can be established on simple thermo-
~ynam1? grounds, the proportionality constant of 1 cannot, despite a claim
t~ Pth: l~terature to the contrary that simple application of the first law leads
*The reader must bear in mind the difference in the two densities discussed
in this section. Flux density is in relation to a surface area (energy/ area) t . x•
D1fference of values in +s and -s directions.
per unit time; energy density is in relation to volume (energy/vol).
 PRINCIPLES 13
12 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

betw~en two ways of formulating a problem, one difficult and one

Net Radiation pressure* = Pr = JI(n · s) 2
ctn relahvely
· t t easy.
f" d It may,
. for example ' permi·t the des1gn
· of an ex-
penmen . o m the d1stribution of A-emitted radiation which ends
For easy visualization consider application to a layered up at n dlfferent p~ace.s by conducting n experiments with reversed
system in which properties vary only in one direction and intensity beams and measurmg m each case the flux d ens1·ty on arnval
· at A.
only with 1-direction position and with angle e from the normal to
the layering. Then ctn may be expressed as 2n sin e cte and n • s
as cos e; and let cos e "'µ. A sweep of I over 4 n steradians then 1.5 Planck's Law
corresponds to a sweep of µ from -1 to +1, and the above relations
become, with I(µ) indicating the dependence of I on direction: All black-body radiations
All the spectrum variatio~s
ne X Energy density = 2 7T Il I(µ)dµ
-1
All
All
atomic oscillations
obey hv '
'

Net flux density in

direction normal to = 2n J I(µ)µdµ
1

1
Ultra-violet vibrations
Ordinary light sensati~ns
layering X- and gamma-ray pulsaÚons
All obey hv · ·.
Net radiation pressure
in direction normal = 2n L 1(µ)µ
1
2
dµ
E'en in matters calorific
to layering
S~ch things as the heat specific
When I is constant, these have the values 4nl, O, and O. If Yield to treatment scientific
restriction of integration is to a hemisphere to indicate one-way If you use hv
values, those values are 2nl, nl, and (2/3)nl, confirming the earlier
conclusions that at the boundary of a semi-infinite isotropic system There would be a mighty clearance·
We sh?uld all be Planck's adherent~
Pr = 1/3 u and q = nl.
Were It not that interference
Still defies hv *
1.4 Reciprocity Law of Radiation Optics
amon Pt~an~k's assumption of the discontinuity of energy transfer
Thermodynamic and geometrical arguments appearing above g .e egrees of freedom of a system made in 1900 to bt .
have, in combination, given a preview of a powerful generalization t~xpenmtentally
'.1° verifiable description of the distribution 0 ~ e:~~gy
known as reciprocity and attributed to Helmholtz. Every beam of m e spec rum of a black body' was the origin of the uantum
radiation in a system can be viewed from either end, to give two ~hec;y. 1'ihe derivation of Planck's law is available inqmany text
aspects of the sarne picture. Consider a narrow beam of radiation- 00 s. uÀmdÀm (or uvdv) is the energy per unit volume 1 in · -
of a certain frequency and state of polarization-originating at A the wavelength (or frequency) interval dÃm (or dv), then y g m
and arriving at B by a devious path. The beam arriving at B may
have a second state of polarization and may be attenuated as a con-
sequence of partia! reflection at various surfaces or of absorption U>cmdÀm"' -UvdV = ( hv
ehv/kT _
1) (87TÀ~4 dÃm) (1-14)
and scatter along its path of travel. If a narrow beam of the sarne
frequency and state of polarization now originates at B in the re- fr d Th~ secon_d parenthesis represents the number of degrees of
verse direction of the beam A to B, the fractional attenuation and ee om ma umt volume in the radiation field, whose wavelength
the change in the state of polarization of the radiation on passage
from B to A are identical to the changes for the reverse passage
20's; I can't identify the aut~~ une, en of ~~rlech. Remembered from the
of the radiation, A to B. This principle often permits a choice *To be sung to the old march· t M
resolution of the famous dºl ' probfably ~rit1sh. Obviously written before
i emma o particle vs wave mechanics. H.C.H.
*Difference of values in +s and -s directions.
14 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
PRINCIPLES 15

lies in the range \n to Àm + d Àm (subscript m indicates measure-
ment in the medium). The first parenthesis represents the mean
energy of a quantized harmonic oscillator, at temperature T, hav-
ing as its allowed levels the integral multiples of h v. If all levels
of energy were allowed, hv ----'>O, and the first parenthesis would
become kT, where k is the Boltzmann constant or molecular gas
constant. kT is recognized as the energy of an oscillator accord-
ing to classical theory; the resulting value for uÀ, known as the
Rayleigh-Jeans equation, is valid only for high values of T/v or
ÀT.
Since the frequency v is c/nÀm or e/À (where À is measured
in vacuo; À = nÀm) and therefore dv = -(c/M~)dÀm = -(c/À 2)dÀ, it
is clear that uÀm and Uv vary differently with wavelength or fre-
quency. Elimination of v or Àm from (1.14) gives
8nhcn 3 À- 5
UÀ e hc/k\ T -1 (1-15a)
(8nhc/n)À~5
UÀm (1-15b)
e hc/kn\mT -1
erg/deg K, the group ch/k known as Planck's second constant c 2
has the value 1.4388 cm deg K. EÀ/n2T5 is plotted versus ÀT in
Fig. 1-7 on logarithmic scales. This may be visualized as the
intensity-wavele~gth relation in vacuo at 1 º absolute. EÀ at any
temperature varies from O at À = O through a maximum and back to
O at À = oo. At any wavelength it increases with temperature, but
faster at shorter wavelengths so that the maximum intensity shifts
to shorter wavelengths as the temperature rises.
T~e wavelength of maximum intensity is seen to be inversely
proport10nal to the absolute temperature (Wien's displacement
law). The relation is: Àmax T = 0.2898 cm deg K. This can be
misleading, however, since the wavelength of maximum intensity
depends on whether wavelength À or frequency v is used in defin-
ing intensity [see just before Eq. (1-15)). A more useful displace-
ment l~w com~s from finding the spectral point of maximum energy
~er umt fractional change in wavelength or frequency. The quo-
tient of energy content in an interval by the fractional value of the
interval is (EÀ dÀ)/(dÀ/À) or EÀ À. The derivative of this with re-
spect to À is to be set equal to O. From (1-17), with n and T
constant

8nhv 3n 3/c 3
and Uv = (l-15c)
e hv/kT -1
or o
For radiative transfer calculations, monochromatic intensity
or emissive power is generally more useful than energy density.
Since EÀ <lÀ = EÀm dÀm and therefore EÀ = EÀm/n, and since

u = 4nl n/c =4E n/c, From this

2nhc2n2À -5 2nhv3n2 /c2 ( ÀT)max1mum

. energy per = .3670 cm deg K (1-18)
e hc/kÀT -1 {1-16a,b) unit fractional
ehv/kT -1 change in À

Engineers commonly use EÀ (seldom EÀm ), physicists fre-

quently Ev or Iv. Division of both sides of the first form of . Figure 1-7 carries, at the top, a scale representing the frac-
(1-16) by n2 T5 gives
tion of the total energy in the spectrum which lies below ÀT ob-
tained by evaluation of '
EÀ 2nhc2 (ÀT)-5 c 1 (ÀT)-5
(1-17)
n2T5 = ehc/kÀT -1 ec2/ÀT -1
JOÀT EÀdÀ 11"' EÀdÀ
0
indicating a unique relation between EÀ/n2T5 and ÀT. With
Planck's constant h = 6.6256 x 10 -27 erg sec and c = 2.9979 x 101° Half the energy lies on either side of ÀT = .4107 cm ºK. This and
cm/sec, the group 2nhc2, known as Planck's first constant c 1, has o_ther displacement constants are given in Table 1.1. A generaliza-
the value 3. 740 x 10-5 erg cm 2/sec; and with k = 1.3805 x 10- 15 hon useful for identifying the spectral range of greatest interest in
evaluations of radiative transferis that roughly half (47.5%) of the
 PRINCIPLES 17
16 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

Cumulati ve Fractional Energy, F

PERCENT OF TOTAL ENERGY FOUND BELOW À, AS A FUNCTION OF À T

ro F ~.oos .01 .02 .os .10 .20 .30 .40.50.60.70.80 .90.95 .99 .999
"'o "'"' "'
200
1 11 11 1 1

1 1 '"1lo _1_1-,.----,--1---.-1-,
1 1 e
\ \ \ , 111 11 1 ~ 120 i-----+-J"'-++--+----1

100 1
1 li 1111 1111 .·1
1111111 i"\.
"
[j U
1----+l--\+---1----l ~100 1\ =
90 li ' 11 ' ' ~ 80 1---4---1-'<-\+---I -
80 1 ' '
70 l------+--'l-4ir-H+--t---l,+---t~l-t-~1~,-t-
\
601----1+---+-~,rt----I i -
-
60 1 1 - - \-- ,;;'[ 1" 40 1---1-l---+---+'"'~---I -

: 1 -~ s
50
20 ) -
-- - 1
i
:
1
~~ oo LL..__L---'----'--!.
g g g g-
l 0 o o o
_/_ 1
1
1
1
--'\-
\
<N "'"
ÀT (MICRON·°K)
'° ro

r::~.,_
-E=-
-- -
1
1
1
1
-

1 1
1 1 \
1 1
:i 1g \

~1~ ~ ~j__:--1---1---1---le--l---l-+l\-\t-+--+---f----1
~ ''h 6 1-,-1-1-!+-
,-+----1--t---''+-- - ~~~-
X -~ 1 ~~1---\--1----1--J--J--f--+-\-t-f-----j-----j
5 - - 1 o:: 1 -\;--

4 LJl-----+---+---+-~t-~L:---l---l--1--+--l--+--+_~~-+-~----+--l
1- ~1 '5'2~1---+----l--1--+-+-+----l--k-t--t---i
W-L-----+---+--+- 11 T - ' o 1 \
E-<i "'I ~ -
~
l--------+---+---+- ~t -
1 E-<
«:
;_I ---l--1-----1------1---+-+----+±\'d=l=l=--i
- ~

< ! ~\\
' '
o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o
o
.... ....
"' o ln
"1
O
e-')
LO
e<')
O
~
"'
r.o t- o:> O';) o
.... "'.... "' "'
"'
(wave number)/{temperature), cu/T, cm·l ºK·l
"'
À T (MICRON- ºK)
Fig. 1-8. Distribution of energy in the spectrum of a black body, frequency
scale
. 1 7 Di"stri"but1· 0 n of energy i·n the spectrum of a blackbody, wavelength
F ig. - .
scale.*

energy of a black body lies within a two-fold range of AT geo-

metrically centered on the value given in (1-18); i.e., from AT =
*The structure of Eqs. (1-16a) or (1-17) will depend on whether E, e, and/or .3670/"'2 to 3.670 "'2 cmºK. (The top scale of Fig. 1-8 is given
À. are measured in the medium or in vacuo. Here all values, though ass~­ in Table 5-1.)
ciated with a medium of refractive index n, are reported as m~asured ~n
vacuo. This will be found the better convention when (1-17) or Fig. 1-7 is For those who prefer working in terms of frequency v or
applied to specific problems. wavenumber w( = 1/ À = v/ e), (1-16b) yields
 PRINCIPLES 19
18 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

3 which is less than 1% below the Planck value when ÃT is less than
Eu = 27T(h/c 2)(v/T) = f(v/T) (1-19) 0.3 cmºK or when T <4800ºKifanoptical pyrometer with red
n2 T3 ehv/kT -1 screen (Ã = 0.65µ) is used.

and
1.6 The Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Eú) 27T hc 2 (w/T )3 e 1 (w/T) 3 (1-20)
n2 T3 ehcúl/kT _ 1 e c2úl/T - 1 From Tyndall's experimental measurements of the effect of
temperature on the radiation from platinum black, Stefan concluded
Figure 1-8 gives Eú)/n2T3 vs w/T on logarithmic scales, that the rate of emission of a black surface is proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature. Shortly thereafter Boltz-
and includes the cumulative energy fraction, 1:/T Eú)dw/1: Eú) dw mann, making use of the equality of radiation pressure to one-third
the energy density and using radiation as the working fluid in are-
in a top scale. The maximum value of Eú)/n 2T 3 occurs at c2 w/T versible heat engine, obtained the sarne fourth-power law. This
law and its proportionality constant are obtainable by integration
2.834 or of the Planck equation throughout the spectrum. Any of the forms
may be used; Equation (1-20) is perhaps simplest. If the total hemi-
1.9698 (cmºK)- 1 spherical flux streaming away from one side of a unit plane surface
at T-either a black surface of matter or a plane element anywhere
within an equilibrium enclosure-is called q, integration throughout
the wavenumber spectrum gives
As indicated before, the reciproca! of this-the value of ;\T at
which EúJ or E is a maximum-is .5077 cmºK, not .2898 where
jJ

E:\ is a maximum. (l-22)

TABLE 1.1 From (1-20) and (l-22)

Displacement Constants
ÃT, (cmºK) w /T, (cmºK)- 1 _
q - T 4n2 C1
J"' (w/T)3 d(w/T)
ec2w/T f -
-
_
o
0.2898 3.450
E:\ is a maximum The last integral is
0.5077 1.9698
Eu or E úJ is a maximum

Half the total spectral energy

L"' (e-x+e-2x +e-3x + ... )x3dx = r(4) (1+ ; 4
lies above À or w or v 0.4107 2.435
6 ( 7T 4/90)
Spectral energy per unit
fractional change in À 6.494 (1-23)
or v or w is a maximum 0.3670 2. 725
Then

The limiting form of the Planck equation, as ÃT ___,O, is

known as the Wien equation, useful because of its simpler structure. (1-24)
It is
(1-21) where a is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
 PRINCIPLES 21
20 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

0.1713 x 10-s Btu/ft 2hr(ºR)4 This is another form of Kirchhoff's law: in an enclosure at equi-
lil:Jrium, the ratio of the emission rate from a unit small volume to
1.00 x 10-s chu/ft2hr(ºK)4 its fractional absorption y is the sarne for all materials, four times
the emissive power of a black body. Note the dimensions: Q v is
4.88 x 10-8 kcal/m2hr(ºK) 4 volume rate of emission, y is (length)-1 , E is surface rate of
emission. It is well to bear in mind the limitation on (1-25): Qj4y
1.356 x 10-12 cal/cm2 sec(ºK) 4 is equal to E only if equilibrium exists between matter and the
radiation streaming tp.rough it. If there is equilibrium at tempera-
5.67 x 10-1 2 watts/cm2 (ºK) 4 ture T, E is fixed, Qv depends on the matter, and y is given by
Qv/4E. But if, for example, cold matter is placed in a high radia-
Integration of the Wien equation t~ obtain the f~urth~power law tion field and is in consequence rising in temperature, there is no
of total radiation yields a constant of 6 mstead of 61r /90 m (1-23). expectation that at a particular instant when the matter has reached
[ln (1-24), n is measured in the medium in which q is given.] T, the corresponding Qv will be a measure of y. There is not even
an expectation that y will be constant in space, i.e., that the frac-
tional absorption along a pencil in a small increment of distance
1. 7 Radiation from a Volume will be the sarne as in the next equal small increment. Radiation
in different parts of the spectrum will be absorbed at different
Kirchhoff's Law. The derivation of Kirchhoff's _la:V give_n. space rates and the quality of the radiation along a penei! will
above assumed radiation coming from a surface. Radiat10n orig1- change. There is the sarne qualification on use of Kirchhoff's law
nates, however, not at mathematical planes but in matter, which here as appeared in the case of surface emissivity and absorptivity:
occupies volume. Let the emission if y is taken to be constant and related to volume emissive power
rate from volume dv lying within that relation must be recognized as dependent on experiment and '
an equilibrium enclos~re (Fig. 1-9) not on a thermodynamic derivation. ln practice it is found that for
at temperature T be Qvdv, emitted monochromatic radiation of thermal origin y is in fact substantially
uniformly over 4JT steradians; let constant even in nonequilibrium systems. y can then be treated as
the intensity of radiation everywhere a property of the material, and it is named the absorption coeffi-
in the enclosure be Ifü correspond- cient K. If K is independent of wavelength it follows that the frac-
ing to T; and let the fractional ab- tional attenuation of total radiation in a material is independent of
sorption of any pencil of radiation the nature of the radiation; such a material is described as gray.
in the medium, per unit length, be
y *. Consider a pencil of radiation
Bouguer-Lambert Law. Consider the attenuation of a colli-
I ctn lying within dv; and let its nor- mated beam (small divergence) dueto its passage through absorb-
~al cross-section be dA and its ing matter. The fractional decrease in intensity over a small dis-
length be dx. The absorption rate tance is proportional to the distance, or
Fig. 1-9. Emission by a
of the volume element dv' formed volume - dl/I = K dx (1-26)
by dA·dx will be IB an dA 'Y dx =
1 ctn y dv'· and the absorption rate
J.
the whol~ volume element dv will . For monochromatic radiation or for total radiation in a gray me-
J
be IB an 'Y dv' = IB an 'Y dv. Radiation from all 41T directions m- dium integration of (1-26) over a distance x gives
stead of from an is then absorbed by dv ~t the rate 41TIB 'Y dv · At I/Io = e-Kx = T
equilibrium this must equal the emission Qv dv, or
(1-25) where 10 is the intensity entering the matter of thickness x and
Tis its transmittance. This is known as the Bouguer-Lambert Law.
*Under certainconditions this y will be shown to be the absorption coefficient Now let the emission from matter traversed by the pencil of
commonly used in discussing nonequilibrium systems. See later. rays in the +x direction be included as well as its absorption. For
concreteness in visualizing the derivation, consider a pencil of

22 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
rays of divergence ds-2 and area dA at its focus; and let the _change
of flux density in the distance dx be dq = dl ds-2. The con~nbu­
tions to this change are -KI dSGdx dueto absorption and +Qv(dx)
(ds-2/47T) dueto emission, from which
dl ds-2 = -KI ds-2 dx + Qv dx ds-2/47T
If there is no net radiative exchange with the surroundings Qv is
according to (1-25) given by 47TlBy, where IB is th~ intensity of
black-body radiation at the temperature of the medmm. It may be
replaced by 47T IB K for nonequilibrium conditions if the matter i~
gray or the radiation monochromatic. This substitution for Qv m
the above gives
(1-27)
dI = K(IB - I)dx
If no radiation from a bounding surface is to be included, the inten-
sity is O at x =O; at x it is given by integration of (1-27)
l dl J Kdx
Jo
X
(IB - I) = o
I (1-28)
or = 1 - e-Kx
IB
I/IB represents the emissivity of a gray gas column Kx mean-
free-paths long.
The cosine law. The question may be asked: how does the
fact that radiation originates in a volume affect the angular distri-
bution of radiation emerging from a surface? There are two limit-
ing cases, corresponding to low and high absorption strength of
the material.
Consider an emitting layer of thickness L; focus attention on
a slanting pencil of rays of divergence ds-2 making an angle e with
the normal, having a cross sectíon at the surface of dAco_s e and
a length of r = L/cos e. According to Eq. (1-28) the pencll emerg-
ing from the surface has an intensity I( e) given by
I(e) = IB(l _ e-KL/cos e)
Limitíng Case 1, KL << 1. Attenuation is negligible, and
Eq. (1-29) becomes
PRINCIPLES 23
I(e) = IBKL/cos e
The energy flux per unit solid angle per unit of surface area at
angle e is then I( e)ds-2 cos e, or IB KLds-2. This is seen to be inde-
pendent of e. The corresponding hemispherical flux density is
27TIBKL. There are many systems in which the absence of attenu-
ation by absorption in depth makes emission per unit solid angle
per unit surface independent of angle of emission. Examples are
an open grid of light bulbs mounted on a black surface and emit-
ting at angles up to those at which adjacent bulbs interfere, a thin
layer of nuclear bomb fallout on a mathematical plane, and a phos-
phorescent surface.
Limiting Case 2, KL » 1. Equation 1-29 becomes I(e) =
IB. ln words, the intensity at the surface becomes independent of
angle as the slab thickens to opacity. The contribution of dA to
emission in a direction e above the surface is then proportional
to cos e, in contrast to thin-layer emission. A restriction on the
generality of the derivation must however be noted: If the emitting
medium 1 below the surface dA had a significantly different re-
fractive índex from medium 2 above, I and e would both change on
passage through the interface; and there would be a reflection loss
as well, dependent also on e. This will be discussed in some de-
tail in Chap. 4.
1.8 The Gray Lambert Surface
The last section ended by suggesting that surfaces cannot in
fact be expected to obey the cosine' law of emission. Many surfaces
encountered in engineering practise, however, emit with an inten-
sity sufficiently near to independence of angle of emission to make
the cosine-law assumption an important simplification. Such sur-
faces are nonmetallic (or oxidized metals) and often rough. If a
n~rrow penei! impinges on them from without, they tend to reflect
d1ffusely rather than specularly. When the reflected flux from a
surface element is proportional to its apparent area as viewed
from the point of reception, or to dA cos e, I reflected is independ-
ent of e; and such a perfectly díffuse surface is called a Lambert
reflector. Another property characteristic of many surfaces is
their grayness. A gray surface has a monochromatic absorptivity
º\ which is independent of wavelength, and therefore a total-
spectrum absorptivíty 01 which equals º\. At thermal equilíbrium
the emissivíty E equals 01 according to Kirchhoff's law, and E;1. =
(1-29) ª\· Now if the monochromatic absorptivíty of a surface is quite in-
sensitive to the intensity of the incident radiation (an experimental
fact), then a change in the temperature of the radiation source and
24 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

consequently in the spectral distribution of energy incident on the

surface will not change the absorptivity. Thus, even under condi-
tions of net interchange the emissivity and absorptivity of a gray CH 2
body are identical. A change in the temperature of a gray surface
may, however, result in a change in the surface absorptivity or RECT EXCH GE N SU
emissivity; but the effect of temperature on the E or a of bodies
which are approximately gray is generally quite small.
, The present chapter treats direct exchange between black
surfaces, of va~ious sh_apes and relative dispositions, separated
1. 9 Sequence of presentation by ~ n~nabsorbmg medmm. It might properly have been entitled
~adiat10n Geometry. It serves as a basis for the development,
It is clear that the assumption that surfaces are gray Lam- m Chaps. 3 and 5, of the methods of evaluating the net interchange
bert emitters and absorbers must greatly simplify the treatment b~tween surface pairs - an interchange which may occur both
of many problems in radiative transfer between surfaces, particu- d1rectly and by multiple diffuse or specular reflection at other
surfaces.
larly when the geometry of the problem makes its simplest treat-
ment nonetheless complex. There are several choices of sequence
of presentation open at this point; but in any of them the following 2.1 Definition of View Factor and Exchange Area
areas must be covered:
. The emission from black surface Ai in all directions to one
(a) radiative interchange in systems consisting of gray s1de of each element of it is AiEi. Of this flux emitted in 27T
Lambert surfaces steradians, let the fraction directed toward A 2 be F the view
factor (Sometimes called the configuration factor, ~~Íe factor,
(b) a detailed consideration of the properties of real form factor, or shape modulus). The one-way flux Q will
surfaces 2
then be represented by A iFi 2 Ei. Similarly surface .Ã."' will send
2
A2F2i Ei toward Ai, and the net exchange will be
(c) a rigorous treatment of radiative exchange in sys-
tems of real surfaces Q i=2 = Ai F12 Ei - A2F2i E2 (2-1)
A case could be made for presenting (b) first and (c) second, Since this ~et flux must become zero when the temperatures are
with (a) treated as a special case of (c). Or one might follow (b) the sarne, i.e., when Ei = E2, and since for black or Lambert
with (a) with (c). Many powerful concepts useful in visualizing the surfaces the factors F are determined by geometry alone, it fol-
most significant features of an engineering problem in radiative l~ws th~t Ai Fi2 must equal A 2 F 2i. This product, having tfí.e
transfer arise from the treatment of enclosures as though they dim~ns10ns of area, i~ called the direct-interchange area sis *
consist of gray Lambert surfaces. Many systems can with reason- 2
?r, m shorthand notahon, 12 or 21. Fi 2 , being dimensionless
able accuracy be modeled on that basis, and the presentation of is r_n~r.e often reported in the literature; plainly it is 12/Ai· By
that story first appears to be the best choice. Accordingly, Chaps. deflmt10n,
2 and 3 will go directly into radiative transfer in such idealized
systems, Chap. 4 will examine the characteristics of real surfaces,
and Chap. 5 will present a rigorous treatment of the problem. Suc- Fi/ + F i2 + Fi3 + . . . - L
j
Fij 1
ceeding chapters will allow for the much more complex problem of
enclosures containing absorbing, emitting, and scattering media,
first isothermal and then varying in temperature. Examples of ap- or
plications to the solution of practical problems are interspersed (2-2)
through the book; and the final chapter, on furnaces, illustrates the *{'he justification for this apparently complicated nomenclature will appear
full complexity of allowing for gas temperature gradients, nongray- ater when. the needfor identifying exchange between gas and sutface or gas
ness, and interaction of radiation with other transport mechanisms. and gas arises.
tp .
is zero except when parts of the zone Ai can see other parts of it; i.e.,
11
the surface has some local negative curvature or dimples.

25
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURF ACES 27
26 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

12 = J f _d_A_i_c_o_s_8_i_d_n_i (2-5a)
Oi Ai 1T

or
= ff (dAi cos 8i )(~A 2 cos 8 2 )
(2-5b)
r A2 Ai 7Tr

or J JdA2 co~ 8 2 ds-2 2

Í,
= (2-5c)
02 A2

Which of the three forms of Eq. (2-5) one uses will depend on the
problem. Their equivalence further supports the identity of 12
Fig. 2-1. Exchange between two differential surface elements. and 21 arrived at earlier on thermodynamic grounds.

The net direct interchange between any two surfaces may
now be expressed in the form
(2-3)
Qi~ 2 = 12 (Ei - E2)
and the problem is to evaluate 12.
The flux from surface element dAi in the solid angle o~
emission d n i making the angle 8 i with the normal to dAi (Fig.
2-1, center) is
li dAi ds-2i cos 8i
Let ds-2i intercept area dA2 on A2. Since the apparent/a:r;ea ~
dA viewed from dAi is dA2 cos 82, ds-2i = dA2 cos 82 r 'w .ere
r i~ the separating distance of dAi and dA2· The:i, "_'hen Ai is
at a uniform temperature' the flux from it to A2 is g1ven by
(2-4a)
Since the radiation from Ai towards A 2 is independent of
any change in A 2 which leaves unchanged its bounding edge as
viewed from Ai , it must follow that d12/dAi can be so set up as
to involve a contour integral around the edge of A 2. From sym-
metry, it is ele ar that 12 can be formulated as a double contour
integral around the edges of Ai and A 2, respectively; and any
change in either surface which does not affect its edge as viewed
from anywhere on the other does not affect the value of 12.
The view-factor or the direct-interchange area may be
evaluated for any configuration by the integration, analytic or
numerical, of Eq. (2-5). Shortcuts are sometimes possible, how-
ever. The sequence of presentation is: graphical projection
methods, special methods associated with symmetry, crossed-
string method, view factors to an infinitesimal area, vector
representation of fluxes and single contour integrals, compilation
of exchange areas between finite elements, double contour inte-
grals, synthesis of new view factors from existing ones, view
factors to partially shaded surfaces, energy densities, and addi-
tional literature references.

A possible source of confusion should first be clarified -

_ JJ(dAi cos 8i )(dA2 cos 82)
- I i 2
(2-4b) the difference between radiation from a point in space to area A 2
and radiation from an infinitesimal plane element dAi to area A 2 .
A2 Ai r For the first case, of all the radiation in all directions from a
point the fraction F 12 which is directed towards A 2 is directly
Equation (2-4b), with Ai and A 2 small, will be recognized as the the solid angle subtended by A 2 at the point divided by the total
square-of-the-distance law for radiation. Fr~m the symmetry solid angle of 4 7T about it, or by 2 7T if attention is confined to
of the integral in (2-4b), all subscripts in the mtegral of (2-4~) radiation on one side of a plane through the point. For the second
can be changed to 2 to give a third form of the flux. Express10n case, integration of one of Eqs. (2-5a,b,c) over area A 2 is nec-
of I i as E i/7T then yields essary. For example, the fraction of the radiation to a very
small disk of radius r at unit distance from a radiator on the
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 29
28 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

normal to the disk is r2 when the radiator is one side of a flat spot
and r 2/2 when it is one side of a point.

2.2 Geometrical Projections

The fraction of the direct radiation from dA1 which is in-

tercepted by any surface A 2 can always be handled graphically
by a method applied originally to problems in illumination [ 16,
10, 18]. The method depends on the fact that if a unit hemisphere
is constructed above the element dA1 (see Fig. 2-2, top left) and
a straight line with one end fixed at dA 1 is made to move around
' the edge of A 2 , then the projection, on the base of the hemisphere,
of the area on the hemisphere marked off by the moving line is
equal to the integral J dQ 1 cos 81 . Since the area of the hemi-
A2
sphere base is rr, the ratio of the two areas is lJ
7T A
dQ 1 cos 81
2
which from Eq. (2-5a) is the desired fraction F 12 , or
d(12)/dA 1 •
Figure 2-2, right, shows an example of the construction process,
which requires a plan view and one elevation. The figure shows
the details of projecting point e of the tetragon first onto the hemi-
sphere and then onto the base plane at C '.

There is sometimes difficulty, however, in making the nec-

essary three-dimensional construction. For rapid solution of
problems of this type a simple mechanical device [ 11] has been
constructed which has proved quick and accurate in use. Figure
2-2, bottom left, shows the device in perspective. A horizontal
rod OX is pivoted onto a drawing,board at O which is placed on
the center of the radiating surface element dA 1 • Extending ver-
tically from OX is a second rod EC attached to a sleeve at E
which is free to slide along OX. The sleeve has horizontal arms
which, in sliding on the drawing board, maintain EC always ver-
tical. Extending from O and pivoted at O is a hollow rod OB to
which there is pivoted at D a sleeve free to slide on the rod EC.
Point B can be extended at will by drawing out a telescoping sys-
tem of tubes, although distance OD to the pivot is of course fixed.
A cardboard model of the heat-receiving surface A 2 is placed
above point O on the drawing-board, properly oriented. With
pivot-point O fixed, the gadget is moved in such a way that the
extension of OB always touches the edge of A 2 . A pencil carried
by the instrument at point E traces a corresponding closed curve
on the drawing board. The instrument is then folded down until
OD = OE, and a circle is traced. The area of the first curve
divided by that of the circle is the fraction F 12 [ = d(12)/dA 1 ] of
the radiation emitted from dA1 in all directions above it which
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 31
30 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

is intercepted by A 2. The analogy of the operation of the instru-

ment to the construction of Fig. 2-2, top left, is obvious. This
instrument has been refined, principally by the replacement of
the teles coping tube by an optical devi e e [ 1, 9] .
A little consideration will show that an alternative to Fig.
2-2 is the construction of a unit-diameter sphere tangent to dA 1 .
The projection of A2 on the sphere has an area which on division
by n yields F 12 directly. Shadow-casting may be used [ 3].

(a)
2.3 Exchange Involving Symmetry Associated with
Cylinders or Spheres Fig. 2-4. Two-dimensiona_l enclosures: (a) three-surface system;
The flux leaving a uniformly heated sphere or cylinder will (b) arbitrary configuration.
have radial symmetry. This suggests that for the calculation of
exchange areas the sphere (or cylinder) may sometimes be treated Fig~res
2-3b and 2-3c show two cases where tangents drawn
as a point (or line) source. To examine the limitations on this to the ~Y~~d~rfrom A and B intercept other surfaces: ln the first
exa~p e _e ux to are AB is greater than that predicted by as-
method consider the flux from an infinite cylinder to an infinite
surface AB, a cross section of which is shown in Fig. 2-3a. If ~ummglt lme source at O; in the second example the flux to AB
is sma er than predicted by the line source assumption The
~~a~~r should _Ratisfy himself as to the direction of dep~rture of
A~B
e ~ne-?r-pomt-source approximation from the exact solution b
1
1 !
! cons1dermg the net flux across the radial lines OA and OB h y
1
1 I
/ no longer flux lines. - ere
1 I
1 I
1 /
1 !
,, Jp,,.
1 /~ 2.4 Two-Dimensional Systems - The Crossed-String
Method

a. De~iv_at_ion. Two-dimensional systems are characterized

b_Y are as. of mfmite extent in one direction' generated by a strai ht
(e)
lm~ movm~ ~w.ays ~arallel to itself, with all cross sections no;-
(a) (b) ~a to the mfmite d1mension identical. This case has a special
impor~ance. both because it approximates a large number of cases
Fig. 2-3. Determination of view factors from isoflux
lines (a) tangent lines are flux lines, (b ande), tangent
ºi engmee_rmg applicability and because it illustrates rather sim-
p Y some important principles of radiation geometry.
lines do not form flux lines.
,\
faces ~onsideran encl~sure formed by three two-dimensional sur-
:l11i the four tangents can be drawn from the extremities of AB to the A2 and A3 (Fig. 2-4a). Let each surface represent the
. 1,
cylinder without interference by intervening surfaces, no net flux eff;.c~.ve surface obtained by stretching a string tightly over the
occurs across OA and OB since the flux across OA is contributed ~~i~~ l~: facte between t~e bounding edges, to produce a surface
equally and oppositely by areas CE and ED; similarly for OB. nno see any of itself. Then, from (2_ 2),
OA and OB are therefore flux lines confining a constant flow of
energy from the cylinder. Since there is symmetry about the 12 + 13 == A1
cylinder the flux between any two radial lines subtending an angle 21 + 23 == A2 (2-6)
e at the center is a fraction e/2n of the total emitted radiation.
C onsequently, the exchange are a from the cy linder to AB, per 31 + 32 == A3
unit of length, is 2nr(e/2n) == er.

32 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
Making use of the identities 12 = 21, IT = 31, and 23 = 32
converts Eq. (2-6) to three equations in three unknowns; and solu-
tion for 12 gives
(2-7)
Consider now the two-dimensional enclosure of Fig. 2-4b.
Direct radiant heat interchange between the heavy-lined surfaces
Ai and A 2 is to be formulated. Between the edges B and L of Ai
stretch the dotted line representing the effecti ve are a Ai. Stretch
a minimum-length line over the surface connecting edge B of Ai
to edge E of A2 (dotted line BCDE) and a minimum-length line from
edge L of Ai to edge F of A2 (line LKJHGF). It is plain that the
direct radiant interchange between Ai and A2 is the sarne regard-
less of whether they are connected by the solid-line surfaces BE
and LF or the corresponding dotted-line surfaces, since no part
of the field of view either Ai or A2 has of the other is affected by
the substitution. Now stretch a minimum-length line from B to F
(line BHGF) anda second one from L to E (line LKJE). Consider
the three-sided enclosure formed by the surfaces BL(= Ai), BCDE,
and EJKL. By analogy to Eq. (2-7), the direct exchange area be-
tween BL and BCDE, designated by (BL)(BCDE), is given by
Ai + BCDE - LKJE
(2-8)
(BL)(BCDE) = 2
Similarly, consider the three-sided enclosure formed by surface
AJ., BH, and HJKL, for which
A], + HJKL - BH (2-9)
(BL) (HJKL) = 2
Inspection of the figure indicates that, in addition to BCDE and
HJKL, the only surface Ai can see is A 2 . Consequently
(BL)(BCDE) + (BL)(HJKL) + I2 = AJ. (2-10)
Substitution from (2-8) and (2-9) into (2-10) gives
(LKJE + BH) - (BCDE + HJKL)
12 = 2
(LKJE + BHGF) - (BCDE + LKJHGF) (2-11)
2
DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 33
ln words, the direct-exchange area for interchange between two sur-
faces in this class, per unit of length normal to the sketch, is the
sum of the lengths of crossed strings stretched between the ends
of the lines representing the two surfaces, less the sum of the
lengths of uncrossed strings similarly stretched between the sur-
faces, all divided by two.* This general case will be seen to include
the three-sided enclosure covered by Eq. (2-7).
b. Flux between parallel strips. Equation (2-11) will be
used to formulate flux between long parallel opposed flat strips
Ai and A 2 each of width W, separated by spacing S, and of length
L which is great compared to W or S. The interchange areais
or (2-12)
12
- = F12 = (1 + (S/W) 2 ] 112 - S/W
WL
This factor, appearing as the extreme left line of Fig. 2-5, approaches
inverse proportionality to distance at large distances of separation.
The sarne answer is obtained with much more effort by direct in-
tegration of Eq. (2-5) (see Sec. 2.7b).
c. Radiation from fire fronts. An interesting example of
the application of the principles of this section is the determina-
tion of the distribution of radiative flux on the ground ahead of an
advancing forest-fire front. If the flame is considered a vertical
black wall it may readily be shown that a line on the ground parallel
to the flame base and at three-quarters of a flame height from it
bounds the area which intercepts one-half the ground-directed
radiation.
d. Tube-row radiation problems. The crossed-string method
lends itself readily to the solution of an important class of radiant
transfer problems - the transfer from afuel-firedfurnace chamber to a
*A little consideration will show that strings are so drawn that all the flux
fro~ one of th~ surfaces to the other must cross each of a pair of crossed
strmgs and neither of a pair of uncrossed strings; and that if one surface
can see the other on either side of an intervening object, a set of strings
must be drawn for each gap. The reader may test his understanding of this
statement by using the crossed-string method to obtain the direct-inter-
change area betw_een infinite concentric circular cylinders, or between
plates between wh1ch an obstruction lies.
 34 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURF ACES 35

row of tubes mounted on the wall, or

the transfer from electric rod re-
sistors into a furnace chamber. Con-
sider two parallel circular tubes,
long enough compared to their diam-
eter D or their axis-to-axis sepa-
rating distance e to make the problem
two-dimensional (Fig. 2-6). Let their
l - - - - - 1 2"5
external areas be represented by Aa Fig. 2-6. Exchange between two
and Ab. The crossed-string method parallel circular tubes.
l-----1 ~ readily gives the direct-exchange area
ab

(2-13)
~
o More frequently Fab is desired. It .is ab/7TD.
,,;º
qoc)
t-
q Let the problem be this: Of the radiation streaming onto an
"° infinite row of tubes from one side, find the fraction which is in-
o
.n tercepted by the tube row. The minimum are a through which the
..,,
o radiation streams is P, the are a of a plane parallel to the plane
r:FJ
of the tube axes. Tube "a" sees two neighbors and the space ex-
q "-
ternal to the tangent planes to the tubes. Summation of the field of
-"
"' ~

"""
view of "a" gives

q
<N
2(ab) + 2(aP) = Aa

where aP represents the direct-exchange area associated with flux

from "a" to P or P to "a." Then

-aP"' -Pa Aª
=- -
-ab
2

Of the radiation streaming from "a" in all directions, the fraction

F aP which is directed towards plane P is aP/ Aa, or 1/2 - ab/Aa.
Multiplication of this by the whole tube-row are a, designated by A ,
gives the plane-to-tube-row exchange area, which is also ApFp1 . 1
Then

and
,'! (2-14)
LQ
1
C"1
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 37
36 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

This new factor, appli-
cable to isotropic radiation
streaming to a large number
of parallel long tubes from
the space p to one side º!
them, is given as a funcbon
of C/D in the top curve of
Fig. 2-7 .*
Suppose there are two
rows of tubes' on equilater~l
2
triangular centers' and let it
C/ D, center-to-cenLer G.istan ce / diameter
be desired to evaluate the flux
from tube "a" to the plane P'
Fig. 2-7. View factors to ro:vs of on the ?ther side of the next
tubes irradiated from one s1de. row (Fig. 2-8). One of many
possible methods of applying the crossed-string technique will be
outlined:
A a = aP + 4(ab) + 2(ac + ad + · · .) + aP'
this figure could also be used to evaluate the total direct flux from
a two-row resistor system. (The effect of nonblackness of the tubes
and of a refractory back wall above them will be considered in
Chap. 3.)
e. View factors from infinitesimal strips. Consider the
crossed-string method in application
to a two-dimensional system with one
surface element small (Fig. 2-9). e
Application of the relation,
AD + BC - AC - BD
2
(2-15)
D
would give zero accuracy in the limit
as AB --> O. Erect the normal to AB.
As AB __, O, (AC) - (BC) -> (AB) sin
tf;1 and (AD) - (BD) __, (AB) sin tf;2 •
Substitution in (2-15) gives*

And, c + d + ... is, f?r _radiative .~n~e~~:~~on~:e~~;~~e::;~eb:n ~'c,, sABscn =_.!. (AB)(sin t/J 2 - sin t/J1 )
single surface if radDiahoCn/f2r)o~i:Ce ab is aiready known, aP' ne- 2 Fig. 2-9. Two-dimensional sys-
and "d" (true when 2: • b the (2-16) tem with one surface small.
cessitates evaluating but one new dir_ecDt excchan/2g) e area Y
.
crossed-strmg t ec h mque,
. s a s (EFGH) (1f 2: • or
---pi may be converted to Fp' 2 F(AB)~ (CD)
_ sin t/J2 - sin t/J 1
(2-17)
The direct-exchange area a f tubes counting from - 2
where 2 represents the whole secon~ r~V: 2-7
plane P'. This view factor appears m ig.
0

.
lt
is clear that
This result could have been obtained the hard way by treating the
problem as three-dimensional, applying Eq. (2-5), and integrating
in one dimension from + CI) to - CI),

f. Flux density distribution over tube and refractory sur-

. 2-8 . Two. rows of parallel circular tubes.
F ig.
. ed When hot radiating gases cir-
'I ' *This much-used relation has been m1sus . as convection around the tubes
culate between tubes and refractory o~ whefi;able without modi:f.ication [ 15) .
is significant, Fig. 2-7 is of course mapp
faces. Relation (2-17) enables ready graphical evaluation of the
direct-exchange area in two-dimensional systems with one of the
surfaces small. Figure 2-10 shows a cross section through a row
of infinitely long tubes backed by a refractory wall. Let it be de-
sired to find the fraction of the radiation from different elements
on the wall which is not intercepted by the tubes. The shaded
areas represent beams which escape from an element at A. If
a circle of unit radius is drawn, inspection of the figure indicates
that the expression (sin t/J2 - sin t/J 1 ) is equal to the projection,
*If </1 1 and <jJ 2 are on opposite sides of the normal, their signs are opposite
and the sine of one of them is negative.
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 39
38 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

z
•
1

~
1
1
1
1
1
JJ°''
e d
1
1

) O\ 1
1
//----~-- y
X A2
---------Jo/
âA2

i.----1---~
Fig. 2-10. The view factor from an element ?n the
refractory backing to a row of tubes. Fraction of
radiation from A which escapes . b_etween tub~s
equals projections on base line d1v1ded by hem1-
sphere diameter.
the base line of that are of the unit circle which lies between
~~e bounding lin~s of the escaping radiation. The sum the pro-
.ections indicated by heavy base lines' di vided by the. diameter.
~f the clrcle gives the fraction F of the radiation leavmg dA wh1ch
escapes between the tubes. The space-mean value, as spot dA
moves along the surface, could be obtained directly by the
X "
Fig. 2-12. A surface element, dA 1 whose nor-
malpasses through the corner of a rectangle par-
allel to dA1.
crossed-string method. When the clearance between tube and wall
exceeds the tube diameter the variation, along the wall, of its view
factor to the tubes is quite small.
º! This method may also be used to determine the distribution
of heat to different spots on the circumference of a tube and to
study the effect of spacing on the distribution. Figure 2-11, for
example, shows the distribution of flux density incident on the
circumference of a tube situated in two rows of black tubes on
equilateral triangular centers, when the two rows are mounted
in the interior of a furnace chamber and irradiated isotropically
from without. It is assumed that the tube temperatures are suf-
ficiently low that the radiative flux between tubes can be neglected.
(Allowance for tube temperature and nonblackness comes later.)

2.5 Radiation between a Finite Area and an

Infinitesimal Plane Element

a. An element dA1 and a rectangle in a plane parallel to the

plane of dA 1 , the normal through dA 1 passing through a corner of
the rectangle. Let the rectangle be in the xy plane (Fig. 2-12).
Equation (2-5) becomes

d(l2) ~ F
- dA1 _. Az
_ 1
- -
J cos 8 1 cos-8 2 dA2
2
dA 1 1T A2 r

the terms of which are identified as follows: dA 2 = dx dy; cos 81

cos 82 = Z/r; r = (Z 2 + x 2 + y 2 ) 112. Then
o2 Position on Tube, Degrees from "Front"

Fig 2-11. Flux distribution on circumference of a tube s_ituat~d in _two

row.s of tubes on equilateral centers, when _the two rows are irradiated iso- Fi2
llX (Y
=-;; J
2
Z dx dy
(z2 +x2 +y2)2
0 0
tropically from w1 thout.
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 41
40 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

The factor is pre-

Integration over x gives sented graphically in Fig.
2-13. An alternative der- dA1

z2)(x~ +y2 + z2)

1
27T J:[(y2 +
ivation of (2-18) is given 1:-----11
in Sec. 2.6c.

1 1 X
+ (y2 + z2)3/2 tan- (y2 + z2)1/2
]z2d
y
b. Element dA 1 and
a rectangle in a plane
perpendicular to the plane
1-i--!_____r_ ___:~---i----------~y
Integration over y gives of dA 1, with dA 1 lying in X

1 [ X · 1 y
a plane through one edge
of the rectangle and on a
L dA2

F12 = 7T (X 2 + z2)112 sm- (X2 + y2 + z 2)112 normal to one corner of j..------ y---------1
2 1
1

it. See Fig. 2-14 from X

which one obtains dA2 =
(2-18) Fig. 2-14. A surface element dA 1 on the nor-
+ (Y2 +Yz2)112 sin-1 (x2 + Y; + z2)112] dx dy; cos 81 y/r; mal through the corner. of a rectangle, with
cos 82 = Z/r. dA 1 in a plane perpendicular to the edge of
the rectangle .

.3 1 1 1 l 1 X/ Z = oo

.2 dA1 dJI7
.... e:: ~ i - - .
- t-- 2
1
'
~dA 1
1
1
v...- ,__ 0.7
"'\1' .......
1
~ 1 ,....
~ v C"' i.-i......--
z1 .2 -.....
0.5 ~~ ........... i:::::~
1 / 1,
.1 ]'. .... i'--. ..... r-.. ~l':::::t-... 1
.1
1
1/ 0.4 z
-
[\ -~
'\
't-- ~!::
']'.. ' 1' " ,...]'. 1'"
.07 4JTf y ,
)lj V
V/
,
V
/
,
I/
,
y

v
.......
"""
--- 1
0.3
.1
"
'
1' ]'-.. 1' ~
' 4'/Az
1

7 x7
Í/ l/ I/ I/ 1 0.2 ' " "
.05
~V V i/V , 1/ _..,- ~
1 .07
\ "\. " I'
"\
I'\ ""
"'"\.. 1'~
0.15- ....__
vv \ I'
' T\ li. I"\' ~
b~
1/ \/ V V
--- .05
1--
/ ,. 1.... 1 ' I"\ 1,
' ' ' '" "
:::1 .03
[.r., 1/// í7, 1/ / V V .... v
,_
1 0.1 "'ºº4
r.r.,'"" I"\ I"\ ' '\ I'
'\
\ "\ I"\ I'\ ,_
1 \ \ ~
, ~ V7 1/,. V V / / /V [,......- 11 .03 "\ '\ 1\
.02
~'~
1:1
1/~ 17/ V IV V
/

V v v"' .
1
11
\ \ \ 1\ ~ \"" ' ' M~

\~~ \ '
1,,1/
/ To right of dottedline,- .02 I\;.
,_
1\ f\º 1\ /\ 1\ "i)\
JV Vi,. ~v
1/
v IV / v" V
f\+
I'
\ \ 1\1'
I'\

.01
v V
'.// I/
/ /

7
'7
;.
1)<.
/
/
V
/
/
V
F=
X
4(X2 + z2)112 = -
- .01
LlNEAR
SCALE
\\\

o
K~
L..._~

~""\ \ ' \ \ 1' I?\

\
~\ \'b ~%
1\1'
1\

'
'\ ' ' ' "
/
.007 V , 1/ / ;e.. 1\ ~
' '\ "
, 1, 7 .007 1\ \

.005
y i, ,
/ Below dotted line,
XY .005 1\ ' ' \
'
\ \
\ \

.003
1/
.05
[/ "' v
.1
F=

.2
2
ir[Z 2 + <X2 + Y l /8]

.5 1.0 2 3 5 7 10 20
.004
o .1 .2 .3
1\

.5 1.0
li
\

2
\
\

3
1\

4 5
' \

10
'\ \
'
20
Y/Z Z/X

Fig. 2-13. View factor from element dA1 to a rectangle in a plane parallel !ig. 2-15. View factor between an element dA 1 and a rectangle with edge
to plane of dA 1 , with one corner of rectangle lying on the normal through m plane of dA 1 and with normal through corner of rectangle passing through
dA1· dA1.
42 RADIATIVE TRANSFER DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 43

Substitution in 2-5b gives Then

1 (ª(:m K 2 pdl./J dp
d(12) 1 Jy jX Zy dx dy
rr Jo Jo (K2 + b 2 + p~ - 2bp cos t/)) 2
dA1 = FdA1->A2 =--;- o Jo (x2 +y2 + Z2)2
1 {1 - b2 + K2 - a2 }
Integration yields 2 [b4 + 2 (K2 _ a2)b2 + (K2 + a2)2]112
d(l2) = F 1 [ . _1 X (2-20)
dA1 12 27T sm (X2 + z2 )112
The illumination problem analogous to this case has been treated
by Lambert [ 13] and Foote [ 5] . When dA 1 is on the normal
Z
(Y2 + z 2) 1/2
sin-1 X
(X2 + y2 + z 2)112
J (2-19)
through the center of A 2 , b = O. Then

This function is presented vs. Z/Y for selected values of X/Z in (i 2 2

F 12 = -1 1 - K - a ) = a2 . cp
= sm2 (2-21)
Figure 2-15. 2 K2 + a2 K2 + a2

c. Element dA1 to a circular disk A2 of radius "a", in a par-
allel plane distant K from the plane of dA 1 . Element dA1 lies at
a distance b from the normal. K (Fig. 2-16). Elementary surface
dA 2 lies at local radius p from the normal K, and the radius P
makes the angle l./J with the reference plane ABCD through K and
radius b. The terms of Eq. (2-5) are identified from Fig. 2-16 as
follows:
p dl./J dp;
cos 82 K/r;
cos 81 =
r (K 2 + b 2 + p 2 - 2bp cos l./J) 112
where <P is the half-angle of the disk at dA 1. The equivalent ex-
pression for the view factor to an elliptical disk is sin <Pa sin <Pb
where <Pa and <Pb are the maximum and minimum half-angles sub-
tended at dA [ 13].
2.6 Vector Representation of Fluxes - Contour
Integration
Although the calculation of radiative flux is possible with-
out the mention of vectors - as has been done in the preceding
sections - the flux vector conceP,t makes the treatment of many
problems much simpler. The reader familiar with vectors will
wish to pass hurriedly over the next several pages, which are
written for those not adequately familiar with the concept.

a. Vector algebra. A vector quantity A has both magnitude

and direction. It may be described by specification of its absolute
value 1A1 , called a scalar quantity, and two directional angles, or
by giving its components resolved along any three axes. ln
cartesian coordinates

A IAI [i cos (A,x) + j cos (A,y) + k cos (A,z)]

or A iAx + jAy + kA z

wherein i, j, k are unit vectors directed along the x, y, and z

Fig. 2-16. Element dA1 and circular axes; Ax, Ay, and Az are the components of A resolved along
disk A 2 in a plane parallel to dA 1. x, y, and z; and, cos (A,x), cos (A,y), cos (A,z) are the cosines
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 45

44 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

(Vector integration can be considered

of the angles between A and the x, Y, z the limiting form of the vector sum-
axes respectively. Only two of these mation described earlier, where the
are independent, since cos 2 (A,x) + vectors being summed are infinites-
cos2 (A, y) + cos2 (A, z) = 1. Clearly, imals.) An illustration of a graph -
ical computation of the flux density
Ax IAI cos (A,x); vector for a two-dimensional system
is shown in Fig. 2-18.
Ay \AI cos (A, y);
1an A2 1AI cos (A, z) The vector sum of all the con-
tributions from A 2 at P is equal to
Fig. 2-17. Vector representa- The choice of three mutually perpen- the net flux per unit area through a
tion of a flux f~ofpª surface to dicular axes is often convenient but plane perpendicular to q located at P.
a pom . not necessary. Vectors may be Further, the flux density q through
summed either graphically or algebraically .. The graphical sum- any surface dA1 at P is the compo-
nent of q resolved perpendicular to
mation of vectors A, B, ande, for examp~e, is_ effected by con-.
structing a line of magnitude \Ai in the direction of A and placmg that surface.
the tail of the vector B at the head of A and the tai_l of C at the head Fig. 2-18. GraphicaI evaiuation
of B. The line from the tail of A to the head of ~ is the vector sum, q = q. ni = 1q1 cos e (2-24)
of flux vector for a two-dimen-
siona1 system.
A+ B +e. The order of summation is immat~nal. ln gene~al, a
three-dimensional construction would be reqmred. Algebra1cally, where n1 is the unit vector normal to dA 1*; 1ql is the magnitude of
the sum of the vectors is obtained by summing their components q and e is the angle between q and n 1 . (The dot product of two vec-
tors A · B is by definition a scalar quantity of magnitude 1A1 IB 1 cos
resolved along the different axes. For example, e , where e is the angle between A and B.)
A + B =i (Ax + Bx) + j (Ay + By) + k (Az + Bz)
A case of particular interest is that of a surface at P only one
face of which is able to see A 2 . Then the net flux density q is the
which, in words, states that the projection of a vec~or _sum or. re-
flux incident on the exposed face per unit of its area. If A 2 is black
sultant vector along any axis is the sum of the J?ro_1ec~10ns of üs
components. Reversal of direction of a vector is md1cated by a and has a constant intensity I, q/1T I ( = q · n 1/7T I) can be identified
change in sign so that the sum of two par~llel but op_posed vectors with the view factor F 12 or the derivative d(12)/dA 1 , here repre-
A and B is a vector parallel to A and B w1th a magmtude 1A1 - 1B \. senting ds2s1 /dA1.

b The heat-flux vector. Now consider the flux from a sur- d(12) q q · n1 1q 1 cos e
Fi2 =- - =-= --= ---- (2-25)
face A ·to a point p (Fig. 2-17). The fl~ d~nsity at P due to ~a­ dA1 nI 1Tl 7Tl
diation2 from a differential element dA 2 is d1rected along ~he lm_e
extending from dA2 through p, and is proportional to the mtensüy ~ccor?ing to this formulation of view factor or interchange area,
of the radiation at dA 2 and to the solid angle dn subt~nde_d by dA2 it sufflces to calculate a single flux vector q at a point (located at
at p. Plainly it is a vector, here denoted by dq, and is g1 ven by dA1) and then, for any orientation of dA 1 , to calculate 12 as the
component of q/1Tl normal to the surface. But suppose the orien-
(2-22)
dq = I dO tation of dA1 is such that its plane passes through A 2 . Both
faces of dA 1 are then being irradiated, and q· n 1 represents the
where dO has the magnitude dn and is directed along the pencil of net flux density of difference in densities to the two sides of dA 1 •
radiation from dA 2 to p. The total flux density at ~ due to th~ en- Consequently, the use of the flux vector q to calculate the
tire surface A is again a vector, q, having a mag~üu~e and direc-
2 *To avoid the introduction of negative sign the direction of the unit vector is
tion obtained by the vector integration of the contribuhons of all
taken as that pointing towards A 2 •
elements dA 2 :
(2-23)
q =I JA2
dO

46 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
direct-interchange area I2 is re-
+Z
1 stricted to cases in which but one
q _____ I
side of dA 1 sees A 2 . The various
methods of obtaining q remain to
be considered.
q may be always obtained from
its components along any three axes,
e.g., from qx, qy and q 2 • If the sys-
tem has symmetry one or two com-
ponents may suffice. For example
the flux-density vector q from a
sphere to a point is directed along
Fig. 2-19. Components of flux the line joining the center of the
vector for rectangle A 2, in xy sphere to the point. lf a differential
plane symmetrically distri- area dA1 is placed at the point the
buted about y axis, to element
flux density from the sphere to one
dA 1 lying on z axis.
face of dA 1 , if its plane does not
intercept the sphere, is then simply
\ q\ cos e; e is the angle the normal
to dA1 makes with a line from dA1
through the center of the sphere.
An example where symmetry re-
duces to two the components of q
which need to be evaluated is the
flux, from a rectangle (A2) in the
xy plane symmetrically distributed
about the y axis, to an element dA1
lying on the z axis (Fig. 2-19). For
ease of visualization let A 2 be
Fig. 2-20. Contour evaluation of bounded by the x axis. Clearly q
contribution by A2 to flux vector
at P.
must lie in the yz plane. The res-
olution of q along the y and z axes
gives
q Y = \ q \ cos (q, y) = 1 q 1 sin e and PB with APB = dy (Fig. 2-20). Since EP = PB = 1 the area
with qY directed along the negative y axis, and
q 2
= \ q \ cos (q, z) = 1 q 1 cos e
with q directed along the positive z axis. The numerical values of
2
q and q are equal to 7Tl 2 times the view factors to A2 from an ele-
ni'ent dA~ lying on the normal passing through the e?ge of the rec-
tangle with dA 1 perpendicular and parallel, respechvely, to A2;
and these two view factors are readily obtained from the results
of Secs. 2.5a and 2.5b. The net flux density q at dA 1 (the difference
DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 47
of the fluxes to its two sides from A2 ) for any orientation of its sur-
face is then obtained by resolving qY and q normal to the surface.
2
q = q ·n 1 = qy cos (n1 ,y) + q 2 cos (n 1 , z)
where n1 is a unit vector normal to dA 1 . For those cases where
the plane of dA 1 does not intersect A2 , the flux to one of the sides
of d~1 will be zero and the exchange area or view factor may be
obtamed from q by applying Eq. (2-25).
c. Contour integration. An alternative to the determination
of the components of q by surface integration is the use of contour
~teg~als: The principle of contour integration in application to
illummat10n and radiation problems is an old one (forms restricted
to p.oly~ons; [26, 16] general form [10, 4, 28, 7, 6, 8, 22]). The
deri~ation here f~llows. that given by Gershun [ 8]. Construct a
hem1sphere of umt radrns about P (Fig. 2-20) and consider the
cone confined by the unit sphere and the solid angle n subtended
at P by A2 .. Th~ quan~ity sought is, from Eq. (2-23), dn integrated
over A2, wh1ch is equ1 valent to dn integrated over that section of
the unit sphere surface confined within n- surface EBCD. dn at
every surface element on E.BCD has a magnitude equal to the area
and is directed normal to the surface towards P. Now define a
surface vector A equal to the area and directed along the surface-
normal outwards from the confined volume. Hence dn = -dA
'
and the value of interest is -{ dA. A little consideration shows
'EBCD
that the surface vector dA integrated over a closed surface (one
:Vhich complet~ly bounds a volume) must be zero.* Consequently,
m the present illustration,
-i EBCD
dA=Í
cone
sides
dA
Focus attention on a plane surface element confined between EP
of EPB is dy/2. dA for this section has a magnitude d;/2 and is
directed normal to the plane outwards from the enclosed volume.
Then dA = d')l/2, and
iEBCD
dn =- J
EBCD
dA = J
cone
dA = 1/2 J: cty
j
(2-26)
sides
*This is ;readily shown by integrating the projection of dA on any plane, re-
membenng that a reversa! of direction of the surface normal resu1ts in a
change of sign.
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 49
48 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

The utili_ty of the above result is best demonstrated b

------------------\ lz example. It w1ll be used to evaluate the h
tangle A2 and adifferential element dA a~~c ange between a rec-
through a corner of the rectangle (Fi~ 2-21)n ~~ no_rm~lpassing
Y an

Y11------y
z
,/
X
:'~:~;eis the sum of lhe conlributio~s Ih~ fou~ ';~;e~~leK~m
oi

X
'Y1 = sin- 1 (X2 + z 2)1/2

y
'Y2 sin- 1
(X2 + y2 + z 2)112

Fig. 2-21. Exchange between rectangle and differential element

sin- 1 X
dA1 lying on normal passing through one of its corners. /'3 (X2 + y2 + z2)112

f
where the line integral indicates an integration around the perim-
eter of A . lt must be remembered, when the integration is per- 1'4 = sin-
1 y
(Y2 + z 2)1/2
2 dy is a vector normal to the plane in which the angle
formed, that
dy lies and is directed outwards from the enclosed volume. Sub- the pl The vectors
t . . y 1 ' y 2' y 3 ' ')'4 are directed
. outward normal to
stitution of (2-26) into (2-23) gives anes con arnmg the respective 1 . .
along the negative y axis· 'Y is . thang es. Thus Y1 IS directed
. ' 2 m e xz plane at an angle v t
(2-27) th e x axis; 'Y3 is in the yz plane at 1 . '1 o
q=IldO=~fdy is directed along the negative x axi:n ang e_ /'4 to the y ax1s; 'Y4
an infinitesimal element dA at p . . The I_nterc~ange factor to
n
one face oj dA1 sees A m 1 b rn _any onentat10n for which only
12 may then be obtained by resolving q normal to any surface dA 1 normal to the surface 2Whaeyn dAe ob_tamed bly resolving the vectors
at P whose plane does not intersect A2. · 1 IS para lel to A w·th th
surface-normal pointing along the z axis, 2' I e
(2-28)

The double integration over the area has been reduced to a single
integration around the perimeter. Some readers will recognize
the similarity of the transformation to Stokes' theorem, which pro-
vides an alternative method of obtaining Eq. (2-28) ( 17]. If A 2 is
a polygon the direction of d7 is constant over each side of the poly-
gon. For this case the integral in (2-28) is replaced by a summa-
tion
(2-29)

where 'Yi is a vector of magnitude given by the angle subtended by

a side of the polygon at P, and of direction normal to the plane
passing through that side and P.
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 51
50 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

result obtained much more readily

When dA is perpendicular to A 2 , with the surface-normal directed by the crossed-string procedure
1
along the y a.xis, of Sec. 2.4:

~i = Fi2 =
2
1
7T (Yi + y 2 cos~ - y 3 cos y4 + y4 cos~)
=~[sin-i (x2 +Xz2)112 - (Y2 +Zz2)112
7T
sin-i X l
(x2 + y2 + z2)11ij
- (Z/X)
2
Figure 2-5 shows the view
These relations are identical to those obtained by direct in- factor of Eq. (2-30) for the spe-
tegration in Secs. 2.5a and 2.5b. Contour integration, however, cial cases of 1 x 2 and 1 x 4 rec-
has given the solution much more rapidly. Further, 12 may be tangles (X = 2Y, 4Y) and squares F.ig. 2-22. Rectangles in perpen-
X - Y) Th d b d1cular planes and having one
readily evaluated by resolution of 'Yi, y 2, y 3 and y4 , for any ori- ( · - f ·t ef sprea· etween the common edge
entation of dAi for which only one face of dAi sees A 2. It is clear v1ew. ac .ors or d1fferent config- .
that contour integration is well suited to determining interchange u.rat10ns is much reduced by using as the ordinate in Fig 2-5 four
factors to polygons. times t~e cro~s-se~t~onal area over perimeter (4 times the mean
hydraulic radms) d1v1ded.by the distance of separation. The vie
2. 7 Exchange Areas between Finite Elements
facto~ to a rectangle of s1des X and y may be obtained b inter-w
polahon between the lines of Fig 2-5 or better b yf th
metric f th · ' ' Y use o e geo-
a. Any area Ai radiating to any area A 2. By dividing Ai X d me.ans o e separately determined F 's for squares of side
into a sufficiently large number of e qual areas, determining the an of s1de Y. [Z of Eq. (2-30) is S of Fig. 2-5.]
factors Fi_,2 for the centers of these various areas by any of the
.The .more general case of two rectangles in parallel lanes
methods of Sec. 2.5, and taking the arithmetic average value of
the F's, one can of course determine the overall view factor for and wtth· s1de.s respectively parallel, but with no other rest~iction
any pair of are as, however irregular. The number of separate on r~ ative s1ze or orientation, may be constructed from (2-30)
factors which it is necessary to evaluate is minimized by the or Fig. 2-5 by the methods of Sec. 2.9.
choice of Ai as the smaller of the two areas involved.
c. Rectangles in perpendicular planes and h .
mon edge F. 2 · avmg one com-
b. Rectangles Ai and A 2 of equal dimensions, in parallel . igure - 22 defines the terms. From Eq. (2-5b),
planes, and directly opposed. Use of Eq. (2-18) and integration
over the are a Ai yields the factor Fi2 ("' F2i ) 12 = 2I = ..!_
1T
f f dA2 dAi cos 8i
Ai A2 r
2
cos 82

Fi2 = _!_f z2 ln (x2 + z2)(y2 + z 2) - ~tan-i X - 2Z tan-i Y

2 2 From
8 = /Fig.. 2-22
2 - ' dA i =2 dx i d y,. dA 2 = dx2 dz; cos 8i = z/r; cos
1T LXY (x 2 + Y 2 + z )z Y z x z
2 Y ~' r f - (x 2 - _xi) + Y 2 + z 2. Substitution of these into the
e xpress10n or 12 gives

-12 - -1 lXlYJXiZ yz dz dx i dy dx 2
1T o o o o[ (x2 - xi) 2 + y 2 + z 2] 2
! :
!I :,
i
=_!_{!_ln [ (X2 + y2 + z 2) y2 + z2 - x2 (Y2)Y2 (Z2)Z2
(2-30)
1T 4 L(X 2 + Y 2)Y2 - x2 (X2 + z2)z 2 - x2 (Y2 + z2)v2 + 2 2 (x 2)x2J
in which X and Y are the two sides of the rectangles and Z is the
distance between them. ln the limit as Y tends to infinity Eq. (2- + XY tan -i -X + XZ tan -i-
X _ X (Y 2 + z2 )112 tan -i X }
Y Z (Y2+z2)ll2
30) gives the exchange factor between infinite parallel strips, a
(2-31)
 52 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
DlRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 53

.5
1
Substitution from Eq. (2-20) yields
1
Y/X=O.l
--- ~Xf~::.o.:!5,..,,.. c-C.-
'
.4
Y;z 1
- - -7-º-%'.::
/ - ...
_....i.--
~e:: -
0.2 b2 + K2 - a 2 }

' 0.4
' '

----' '"", '

vl? '
.3
Á /
·,

,...,v
'i-.
i..--
0.6
.:_yg;l"'..I:/ ).< '
,....
7"- - ... ,," L.- '- 1.0

4%
N
vv y k' ~ i..> e- e.
whence
"'" / ,,, ............ ' '-,
' ' ,..., " ' ,...
.2 ,
i.)" 2 1T
kl/ ' = 7Tb2F12
12 z-{a2 + b 2 + K2 - [ (a2 + b2 + K2)2 _ 4a2b2 ]112}
h ,\/ c-i--
=
IAz}?. v"'
v .,,,
l;k::i..- ' r- '' 4

-- -
' (2-33)
e:,; . . - ,_,_
.1 0
V i.>k:,... e> ~ t:>f-::;:: . 6
,/ bk:::'
o
L..-- e-- t..- ,_ '-t:":
c.-i--
,_ '- .... - --
10
20 This relation may be used as an aid
in visualizing the area aspect of a
.1 .2 2 .3
3 4 5 10 .5 20 1.0 direct-exchange area. A little con-
Z/X sideration will show that 12 for
Fig. 2-23. View factor between two rectangles in perpendicular planes and disks is represented by the shaded
having a common edge (adapted from ref. 9). For maximum accuracy, de- area in the construction of Fig. 2-
fine dimensions to make Y < Z. For values off plot to left, use cross "string 24. The exchange between circular 1

method. For values.in lower right corner use Eq. 2-37a. disks was derived first by Lambert e Elevation of A 2 i
[13], 150 years before one of the Fig. 2-24. Graphical evaluation
This factor has been plotted versus the dimension ratio Z/X for var- later derivations [12 J. When a = b, of exchange area between two cir-
ious values of the dimension ratio Y/X in Fig. 2-23. For the case of cular disks A 1 and A 2 •
li
1
perpendicular narrow strips (Y/X > 5 and Z/X > 5), (2-31) reduces
with an error of less than two percent to (2-34)

- x2[ (x2 x2) 3 (x2 x2 x2 )] (2-32) . e. Exchange between the elements of a pair of concentric cyl-
12 = 4n 3 - ln y2 + Z2 + 2 y2 + z 2 - y2 + z2
~nders _of equal length L and inner and outer radii r and R (Fig. 2-25)
~s obtamable from the relations [14 J giving the view factor from the
With exchange areas available for perpendicular rectangles mner surface of the outer cylinder to itself
with a common edge, the exchange area between directly opposed '
parallel rectangles is readily evaluated. The total flux from one
face of a rectangular parallelepiped is divided among five sinks,
four of which may be evaluated by Eq. (2-31) or Fig. 2-23. The
F22 = 1 + i ~- ~+ ! ~tan- 1 {2[(R/L)2 - (r/L)2Jll2}

flux or exchange area to the opposite face is obtained by difference.

d. Circular disks in parallel planes, with a common normal

+ L/nR sin-1 (1 - 2(r/R)2J _[4 + (L/R)2Jll2
27T {;
through their centers. Refer to Fig. 2-16. Since a wedge-shaped
piece of A1 , of angular width dtt; and length b, is representative of + sin-1 [1 - 2(r/R)2
4(R/L)2 - 4(r/L)2 + 1
J} (2-35)
the whole of A 1 , F 12 may readily be obtained by starting from the
solution of Sec. 2.5c.
and _the view _factor from the inner surface of the outer cylinder to
f F dA1 ->A2 dA 1
and dA 1 =b dtt; db
the 1nner cylmder,

fdA1
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 55
54 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

1.0
g. An approximation for surfaces small
relati~e to their .distance of separation [ 21].
0.!'l
If their normal he s in a common plane, Fig.
O.K 2-27 ?efines t~e nomenclature of the following dA1
(Lí relahon, obtamable directly from Eq. (2-5b)
().(; when Ai and A2 are small.
~ O.G
µ;.,
(2-38) Fig. 2-26. Exchange
o.4 between elements of
o .:l a sphere.
0.2 If the normals to Ai and A2 are not in a com-
0.1
mon plane, (2-5b) becomes, with dAi and dA 2 considered represen-
tative of Ai and A 2,
o .1 .2 .~l .4 .fi .(; .7 .H .0 \ .O
o
r/R
r/R (2-39)
Fig. 2-25. View factors for system of two. concent~ic, coaxi.alcylinde.rs of
equal length. a. Inner surface ofouter cylmder to mner cylmder; b. mner
surface of outer cylinder to itself.

2 2
r 1 r [(L/R) + (r/R) - 1]
= R- ; R cos-i (L/R)2 - (r/R)2 + 1
1111
2
+ 2_l/(L + R + ~\2 _ (2r \2]112 cos -i [(L/R) + (r /R)2 - 1 E_]
L) (L/R)2 - (r/R)2 + 1 R
211~ R L RLJ
2
11111
1 (L R r2 ) r 1 (L R r ) (2-36)
+211 R. - L + RL sin-i R - 4 R + L - RL
~li
These relations are presented graphically in Fig. 2-25. Fig. 2-27. Exchange between surfaces small relative to their distance
of separation, with surface normals in a common plane.
f. Exchange between elements on a surface of a sphere [25].
Examination of Fig. 2-26 shows that 8i = 82 = 8, and r = 2a cos. 8 · 2.8 Double Contour Integration
Substitution into Eq. (2-5b) leads to the remarkably simple relahon

(2-37) a. Derivation. The relations in Secs. 2.7b through 2.7f can

all .be obtained .by direct integration of Eq. (2-5b). However, the
ted10us evaluahon of quadruple integrals may often profitably be
replaced by contour integration. The reader willing to take the
or (2-37a) derivation on faith may jump to Eq. (2-47). The derivation follows:
Total sphere area
! It has been shown in Sec. 2.6c that the flux from a surface
11.1 One concludes that the exchange between any two elements º.f ª.
spherical enclosure is proportional to the area produ.ct and is m- A2 of uniform intensity I to a differential surface dAi produces at
:l the latter a flux density
1 ,' dependent of the shape and position of each element; i.e ·,.a spot
on the inner surface of a spherical enclosure has equal. v1~~s of
I! 1

all other spots on the surface. This result has great s1gmflcance (2-40)
in the theory of integrating spheres.
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 57
56 RADIATNE TRANSFER

Stokes' theorem can now be 1. . .

The flux through the total surface A 1 is then given by the vector V x D over a surface A :~~hied~ ~quates the integral of
it
vector D around the contour of A. e lme mtegral of the sarne
(2-41)

in which dA1, the surface vector, is equal in magnitude to the sur-

L VxD·dA= ~D·dQ (2-46)

face area and is directed normal to the surface (dA 1 = ni dA 1). where the integration is about th 1. Q .
From this Eq (2-45) b e me boundmg the surface A.
For the reader insufficiently familiar with vector algebra, ' · may e transformed to
the crossproduct of two vectors A x B must be defined here. The
result of this operation is a vector of magnitude 1 A li BI sin e,
where e is the angle between A and B, and of direction perpendic-
q dA1 =~~ ~ ln r dl. dQ' = ~ §fln r cos eM dl' (2-47)

ular to the plane common to A and B; and its direction is that in

where dQ represents part of the circu f
which a right-hand screw would move when rotated a minimum to circumference of A e the 1 b tm erence of Az, dQ' part of the
bring A into B. From this definition and that of angle d y, it is clear that 1
d Q'' and r their separ'ating di:~g e e Iweten the tangents to d Q and
sines cos Bx' cos 8 cos 8 ~cne. dn erms of the direction co-
r X dQ (2-42) of dQ': Y' z o x. an cos e~, cos e;' cos Bi
dy= -r2--
cos e = cos Bx cos 8~ + cos By cos e~ + cos Bz cos 8~
where r is a vector running from dA1 to dA 2 and d Qis a vector tan-
gent to surface A and equal in magnitude to a differential element The direction of integration around .th . .
2 of A . _Since the direction of d yand r are fixed,
dQ on the perimeter tion of a right-hand screw trave 11 mg
· e1t er surface is m the direc-
2 oward the other surface.
1\1
the right-hand screw rule establishes the direction of df. ln antici-
pation of the use of Stokes' theorem, the following material on vec-
tor notation must be added: The vector representing both the magni- havingb~n~:l~:it~~ne~~;e~iangi:~8in perpendicular planes and
tude of the maximum space rate of change of a scalar quantity A and tios to the common side X ;h. h h. ~y and Z .here represent ra-
the direction of that maximum rate is called del A or V A. Then The perimeter f1 of A is' i t~c as een ass1gned unit value .)
the x or the y axis; thel peri~et:rx~ plane a~d _is parallel to either
(2-43)
!
is parallel either to the x or to the of _A2 is m_the xz plane and
pendicular to dQ at all t· th axis. d.f1 is therefore per-
both parallel to ~he x axi~me1 o e:. than when d~1 and df.2 are
orientations of dQ d dQ. _ccor mgly' cos e is zero for all
where Ilr is a unit vector in the direction of r. Substitution in (2-42) 1 an 2 w1th the exception of df1 and d.f2 both
'1 gives
.11
(2-44) z
1
dy = V ln r x ill

Because the curl of a position vector (df) is zero, Eq. (2-44) may .Fig. 2-28. Rectangles in
perpendicular planes and
be rewritten having a common edge.
(2-44a)
dy =V x (ln r d Q)

Substitution of (2-44a) into (2-41) yields

f q dA 1 = 12 l ~V x (ln r d Q) · dA
Ai Ai
1
(2-45)
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 59
58 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

A quadruple integral has therefore been reduced to a single inte-

being parallel to the x axis in which case it is one. The contour gral. Equation (2-51) on integration becomes
integral (2-47) therefore reduces to 2
1 [ 3 1 1 (b 2)b ]
I = 21T - 2 + 2b tau- i b + 2 ln (1 + b 2) b 2 - i
12 =
fq dAi = -~
1Tl
1 ff ln r dxidx2
21T L
(2-48)
Substitution of the values of sign and b from Table 2-1 and summa-
tion of the four contributions yields
where summation is over the four combinations of edges parallel to
the x axis and ctx 1 and ctx 2 are parts of the perimeters ?f Ai. and A2
respectively. The signs of dxi an~ dx2 depend on ~he .direct.1~n of 1T {y tau-i 1-+
s2 "' Ai Fi2 = _l
S-i y Z tan-i lz
travel around their respective penmet~rs ..The s1gn is. positive for
travel around either perimeter in the direchon of rotahon of a
1
right-hand screw moving toward the other surface._ Th.e values. of - (Y 2 + Z 2) 112 tau-i (Y2 + z 2)112
d the sign of dx ctx 2 for the four possible combmat10ns of lme
~e~ments are tabul~ted in Table 2-1. The integral is therefore the (l + y2 + z 2)z2+ y2_ i]}
sum of four parts, each of the forro
(Y2 +z2)z2+y2
+1
I = _:.:_ iif
i ln [(xi - X2) 2 + b 2]112 dx i dx 2
21T o o
(2-49) (2-52)

This equation is identical to that given in Sec. 2. 7c after allowance

Double integrals, in which the two variables appear on~y as a dif- for the assignment of a value of 1 to the X of Eq. (2-31).* Its der-
1111 ference, may be reduced to a single integral .by a spec1al tr~sfor­ ivation has been given here in detail to show the reduction in labor
mation [ 19] . The transformation for a funct10n f [ (xi - X2) , e]
1

that is possible by use of contour integrals.

1!11!
in xi and x2 is given by
2.9 Evaluation of Interchange Factors for
i i ri (2-50) New Systems from Old
1111
Í Í f[(xi - x 2 )n, e] dxi dx 2 = 2 J, (1 - y)f(yn, e) dy
Jo Jo o The interchange areas for many configurations may be derived
from the factors presented in thé preceding sections, thereby
for even values of n. With the aid of (2-50), (2-49) becomes avoiding often tedious integrations and permitting use of plots for
a few selected configurations to describe many other.s. Three
I = _!_rl(l _ y) ln [(y2 + b2))112 dy (2-51) principles are involved, two already stated in Sec. 2.1-the prin-
1T Jo ciple of reciprocity, I2 = 21, and the conservation principle,
L lj =Ai. The third, known as the Yamauti principle or reci-
i
Table 2-1 procity theorem, is associated with a kind of symmetry existing
Value of r and dxi dx 2 for use in Eq. (2-48). in certain problems.

Position of a. The Yamauti Principle [ 2 7-29]. The exchange areas be-

Position of Sign of tween two pairs of fJurfaces are equal when there is a one-to-one
dxi on dx 2 on
z axis r dxi dx2
y axis
*It is curious that the view factor from any sphere segment to another is the
o o [ (Xi - X2 )2]112 ratio of the second segment to the whole area viewed by the first, that the
[(xi - x2)2 + y2 ]112 + sarne is true of the view factor from one side of a regular tetrahedron to
y o one of the remaining sides, and that for a cube the extension of the above
[(xi - X2)2 + z2]112 + generalizationwouldpredict a view factor of 0.2 from one side to any other,
o z
whereas the use of the above equation gives, for adjoining sides, the value
y z [(Xi - X2)2 + y2 + z2]l/2 0.20004376 !
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 61
60 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

in different planes but extending to the i t .

correspondance for all sets of symmetrically positioned pairs of common edge The draw . . n ersect10n and having one
· n-rn 1rnes produce 24 · f
elements in the two surface combinations. For example, the ex- one in each plane with a common edge along pa1rs F o rectangles '
change areas for the two symmetrically located pairs of elements part of the figure this side of DFH c t . t~· or.example, that
shown in Fig. 2-29a, dA 1 - dA 2 and dA:i - dA2, are the sarne; and ACDF-AFGJ, ABEF-AFHI and ABEc;-~1~~J e ihpairs ACDF-AFHI,
from a summation of such pairs of elements it follows that the ex- dimension, of AF AK AL' FK FL . · e use, for the x
six fold. These 2'4 fa~tors' tog~ther' ~h ~~;;:i-ses th.e co1_11binations
1
change between strips KL and l\/IN equals that between NP and JK,
and the exchange between rectangles ABED and BCIH equals that relation can be combined in the ge 1 amauh rec1procal
between ABHG and BCFE. Similar arguments may be used to show Fig. 2-29a, to yield the e~chan nera manner used to analyze
that the exchange areas between the exterior of the small diameter gles of Fig. 2-31. ge area between the shaded rectan-
tube and the interior of the large diameter tube are identical for the
two configurations in Fig. 2-29b. d. Parallel opposed rectangles . .
on three sides of larger (the sh d d ' p;oJechon( of smaller falling
2-32). Fill in imaginary rectanªg1: 4rec .and~lest
as m ica ed2 on
+ 3)the
andsketch.
(1) of Fig.

(2 + 3)(1+4) = (2 + 3)(1) + (2 + 3)(4)

= (2)(1) + (3)(1) + (2)(4) + (3)(4)

By symmetry (1)(3) = (2)(4). Then

1)1
1:1
Fig. 2-29. Illustrations of Yamauti Principle. (3)(1) = (2 + 3)(1+4) - (2)(1) - (3)(4)
Ili
1
b. Exchange between a differential element and any rectangle.
il)I This may be built up from the results of Secs. 2.5a and b on the ex- from which
change between rectangles and elements situated on the normal pass-
ing through one corner. The rectangle is subdivided into four having (2+3)(1) = (2)(1) + (3)(1) = (2+3)(1+4) + (2)(1) - (3)(4) (2-53)
a common corner below dA 1 , and the contributions of the individual 2
sections are then evaluated from Fig. 2-13 or 2-15 and summed
be obtained by difference ~e yie
algebraically (Fig. 2- 30). If the original rectangle lies completely The sarne method wo ld · ld (2 3 5 ( --
f\ + ) l)' and (5)(1) could then
1
outside the normal to dA1' two of the four rectangles with a com- the sarne length as AF is. oss%~va o he ~e.striction that CE is of
mon corner will have negative areas. ciple with the methods us:d in de::_;_n~º~~~~)~g the Yamauti prin-

l 1
~~T I
- - - - - - - - 7
I

1,\: / 4 / 5 /
1 l / I I

1! 1\
~<-;zl 2 ;/

Fig. 2-30. Synthesis of new view factors from

existing values.

Fi~. ~-31. Application of Yamauti Fi~. ~-32. Application of Yamauti

c. Exchange between rectangles in intersecting planes, each
i p7mciple to the synthesis of new p~mc1ple to the synthesis of new
1
rectangle having one dimension running parallel to the line of inter- v1ew factors from old, based on rec- view factors from old, based on rec-
section of the planes (shaded rectangles of Fig. 2-31, left). It may tangles having a common edge. tangles in parallel planes.
be shown that this case can be built up from the case of rectangles
62 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 63

The methods discussed in this and the previous subsection

are of low accuracy when they call for evaluation by algebraic s~m­
mation of many factors of comparable magnitude and d~fferent s1gns;
and reading from plots like that in Fig. 2-23 may not y1e~d a usable
answer. Where the importance of the problem warrants ü, evalua-
tion of the terms in the original equations for exchange areas may
be necessary. Often the division of the two areas into smaller ones
and use of the method of Sec. 2. 7g may be the best course to pursue.

e. The exchange area between two surfaces (areas 1 and 2 of

Fig. 2-33, a or b) may be used to deter~ine th.e exchange ~rea from
one of them to the bounding strip associated w1th a small d1s~la~e­
ment and/ or change in are a of the other, provided a~l the radiahon
recei.ved at the undisplaced area passes, after the ~1splacement.'
either through the displaced area or through one side of the stnp (a)
(b)
formed by movement of the boundary. A repetition of the process
determines the interchange between the strips. Fig. 2-33. Determination of new view factors by displacement of surfaces
between which the view factor is known. a. Surfaces in perpendicular planes;
Consider the problem represented by Fig. 2-33a. Exchange b. opposed surfaces.
area s 1 s 2 is available as a function of xª and x b , and d(s1 s.2) prop-
edy defined could represent s 1s 3 , s 2s 4 ,. or S2~s· The ~arhal de-
rivativeofss with respectto xª or xb is amb1guous wühout a Similar procedures lead to the evaluation of interchange areas
statement o! ~hat is held constant, since s1s2 = fi(xa,xb) = in Fig. 2-33b between surfaces 1 or 2 (bounded by the walls of a
f (x 1 x - x \) = f (x \ x - x bi ). Consequently, the argument cone) and one of the infinitesimal closed strips of width dx or dx ,
2 a'constant
a bwill be3 indicated
b• a by subscnpt. . W.1th - 1 2
held s1 -
s2 d es1gna
. ted or between the strips, up to the limit of contact at one point.
by 12, the figure makes clear the following:
When the two plane areas are parallel, directly opposed and
of equal area (disks, squares, rectangles, etc.) and their areas are
(2-54) kept constant, the exchange area s 1s 2 varies only with the separating
distance x 1 - x2 = y. For that case let ss(?~ represent the exchange
area between opposed surfaces separated by a distance y. Then the
a212)
( ax2
(dx )2 = 34 (2-55) exchange area between one of the surfaces and a strip formed by
a displacement of the other is
a Xb

dss(y) _
(2-56) - - d - dy
y
= - ss'(y) dy
. (2-58)

The exchange area between strips separated by y is

d 2ss(y)J 2 dss'(y)
(dxa)2 = 34 [
dy2 (dy) "' dy (dy) 2 = ss "(y)(dy) 2 (2-59)
(2-57)
The factor ss(y) and its first and second derivatives are given in
Table 2-2 for opposed circular disks, squares, 1 x 2 rectangles, and
infinite strips. It is to be noted that -ss '(y)/P is the view factor of
one of the opposed surfaces viewed from a strip adjoining the other;
P is the perimeter.
64 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 65

The use of this method need A

/ \
not be restricted to infinitesimal / \

~
displacements. For example, the / \

exchange between an annular ring
and a section of a cone and be-
tween two sections of a hollow
cylinder (Fig. 2-34) are repre-
sentative of the large number of
factors which can be built up
-
/ \
1 1
/ 5\
/ \ 1 1
/ \ 1 1
/ ---------------- \
(,- ~ -~
', _________________ //

from the exchange area between

two circular disks with a com- 23 = [o +2J5 - <1 +2J4]

mon normal through their cen- -<l5-I4l -(Ll-14)

ters, Eq. (2-33). (a) (b)

Fig. 2-34. Shapes for which view

2 .10 View Factors to Partially factors can be evaluated starting
Shaded Surfaces from the view factor between two
coaxial parallel disks.
Exchange factors between
surface pairs which have restricted views of each other are some-
times difficult to calculate. Selected cases will be considered.

a. The exchange between a plane element dA 1 and the earth

(A 2 ), which is "setting" on the horizon of dA 1 , - a problem of ob-
vious significance to satellite studies. Let e be the half-angle of
the earth as seen from the satellite and let </; be the altitude of the
earth's center above the horizon of the satellite surface (Fig. 2-35,
left). An equivalent problem is the radiation from a circular disk
to one side of a surface element in a plane which intersects the disk.

Figure 2-35, right, describes the equivalent geometry for the

disk. Select a cylindrical coordinate system with the origin at P and
with axis normal to the disk through its center; let chord BC run per-
pendicular to the y-axis. A contour integral is best performed in
two parts: along the chord CB and about the circular boundary
from - i/J m to + t/Im' where t/I m is the angle between the y axis and a
radius to one extremity of the chord. Since the flux density vector
.~
N

' ,...;
~~ must lie in the yz plane it suffices to consider only the y and z
+ components of dy. From Eq. (2-28),
N
N
b +
b <N <N
"'1< N

+ + + b

(2-60)

The contribution 'Yc of the chord, where y e is the angle it subtends

at P, is directed normal to the plane common to the chord and P
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 67
66 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

and that
OA
-= - tan 8 cos 1/lm = tan cp,
OP

from which it follows that

Limit of
: vision from 1/lm = cos- 1 (- tan cp cot 8); sin 1/lm = (1 - tan2 cp cot2 8)112.
1 satellite
1
..
1

Earth
Introduction of these identities into (2-61) and (2-62) and substitu-
Center tion of the resultant values of ~dyY and fcty 2 into (2-60) yields
the desired view factor

X
F 12 =.! [sin2 8 sin cp cos- 1 (- tan </J)
1T tan 8
Left· Plane element in earth orbit; Right: ~quivalent problem in
Fig. 2-35. . which earth is replaced by circular d1sk. tan2 <P)112
- sin 8 cos 8 cos cp (1 - tan 2 + cos-1 ( cos 8 )]
8 cos cp
cp along the y axis and 'Yc sin cp along (2-63)
1'
and has .components -y~i~~son the circular boundary equals sin 8
111 ~~ :n~::·di~:c~!d~~imal to the differenti~l a:ea contain1ing dth Consider the application of the above results to points on the cir-
· ht) The pro1echon of dy a ong e
!~\
1

'I' . .
cumference of a cylindrical satellite. Let a be the angle between
(shaded area .m Fig· 2 - 35 ' ng''' · d d"" sin 8 respectively. Summing
1, Y and z axes is d Y cos_ 8 cos 'I' an ' ' its axis and a line to the earth 's center, and focus attention on a
all the contributions y1elds wall element on the side of the satellite. Let (3 be the angle be-
tween a radius to the element and the plane of the satellite axis
and the line to the earth's center (Fig. 2-36). Simple geometrical
~d 'Yy = 1:sin 8 cos 8 cos 1/1 d 1/1- 'Yc cos cp
reference line, in plane
(2-61) of angle a---.~~
= 2 sin 8 cos 8 sin 1/lm - 'Yc cos cp
--H(w"fl-H ]mm )"'Z Fig. 2-;:·e;",\;,':!~~t'.ylinde'
and
1 liw~
,.i/Jm e arth cen ter
~d 'Yz =J sin2 8 d 1/1 + 'Yc sin cp
j -i/Jm
projections yield cp, the altitude of the earth 's center above the hori-
(2-62) zon, in terms of a and (3:
= 21/lm sin2 8 + 'Yc sin cp
cp = sin -1 (sin a cos (3).
From examination of the pyramid PAOB it can be seen that
Since 8 is determined by the height of the satellite above the
PO = cos (y /2) cos cp = cos 8, earth and since cp is a known function of a and (3, Eq. (2-63) gives
PB e a complete description of the view of the earth from any satellite
area element whose plane intersects the earth.
which gives
b. Application of projection methods. Many view factors be-
tween surfaces having a partial view of each other around some
'Yc = 2 cos-l(cos 8 sec cf>);
 DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 69
68 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

. . obtained by the projection method flux Unes are therefore completely defined by the temperature field.
intervening ob1ect are most read1_1X a small open-end unit cylinder Constant energy-density lines can be considered the radiation
of Sec. 2.2. As an e~ample, cons1 e(Fi 2-37). The view factors counterparts to isotherms since the temperature measured by a
inside and coaxial w1th ~ l~rger one inn~~ cylinder to the end of the small spherical probe in radiative equilibrium with its surroundings
from an element. on the ms1~e ~f dheThe required factor is obtained is directly proportional to the local energy density. The lines of
larger cylinder is to be eva ua e . d A A A A which constant energy density about an isothermal infinite strip - the loci
· · f th t art of the en area 1 4 2 3
from the pro1ection_ o . a p d B B B of the smaller cylinder. of the points at which the strip subtends a constant solid angle - are
falls within the pro1ection of the en 1 2 3 . F' 2-37 An ex- shown as solid lines in Fig. 2-38. The radiative flux lines which,
. 1 d rojections are shown m ig. .
The elevation, P an, an P ld be the calculation of the from the definition of the flux vector in Eq. (2-23), must be directed
ample of the use of su~h a techni{-ue w~~e interior of a rocket noz- along the bisectors of the angles subtended by the strip are shown as
interchange between rmg elemen s on dashed lines. Unlike their counterparts in conduction the flux and
zle of any contour. constant energy-density lines are not orthogonal, and one family of
curves cannot be generated from the other.

;
I
'
\ /

Side Elevation
End Elevation '' \ 1 I /

' \
\ 1
I
I
/
/

'' '' \
\ /
/ /
/

'' '' \ / /
/

''',,r~A4
\
''' '' \ /
/
/
/

: : 1''',,, to 00
' '' \
\ /
/
/
/

' ''\ \
\ /
/ /
" 1 1 ... , ,
Az '' ' /
/
/
/
/

: : 1 '',,
'' \
\ / /
1 \ 1A2 '' \ /
/
/

''
--
/
1 1 1
As
-
/
\ \ tAs
-- --- '' /
/

--
'
--
1 1 1
1 11
:
1
\1
1
~~~~~~1--:::::::::::j:=:::=::~ --
: : 1
-. 1 1 Plan
1 1 1 View-factor F from
1 : 1 spoton inner tube to
1 1 Cross-section thru strip
: 1 End of inner tube = 2 x area ~/"
1 1 1
:
1
: 1
1 1 End ofouter tube = 2 X area mi 1T Fig. 2-38. Constant energy density lines (solid) and radiative flux lines
(dashed) about an infinite strip.
~ m
a3 a29:2\ 1
'IA 1 lnside of outer tube = 2 X -

, , J~,--·---1~~-
1T

Proj ection technique shown The flux density incident on one face of a plane element may
for A4 only
be calculated from the description of the flux vector field by counting
the number of flux lines intercepted by the element. For a differ-
ential element the flux density will be a maximum when the element
Exchange betweeninside of small~r cylinder and end plane of con- is oriented normal to the flux lines; and the lines representing con-
Fig. 2-37. centric larger cylrnder. stant values of this maximum are the loci of points at which the
distance of separation of the flux lines is constant. These lines
forma set of confocal ellipses orthogonal to the flux lines. Note,
2.11 T he Radiation Field - Flux Vectors and however, that with the energy density and the flux vector fields
Energy Densities defined, the fluxes incident on the faces of a plane whose extension
now be made on the differences intercepts the emitting surface are indeterminate; the intensity
Some additional comn:ie~ts may an isotropic material the con- distribution throughout the full 47r steradians is required to eval-
between conduction and ~adiahon.d!~ular to the isotherms, and the uate such fluxes, as was indicated earlier in Sec. 1.1.
ductive heat flux vector is perpen 1
 70 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
DIRECT EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURF ACES 71

2 .12 Additional References 19. Oppenheim, A. K. and J. T. Bevans: J. Heat Transfer Series
The large range of problems encountered in illumination and
e, 82:360-368 (1960). '
20. Per~y,_ R. L. and E. P. Speck: Geometric Factors for Thermal
radiant heat transfer has led to an impressive accumulation of view
factors between a wide variety of surface configurations, including Radiat10~ Exchange between Cows and their Surroundings, Am.
Soe. Agrie. Eng., Paper No. 59-323.
even those to cows [ 2 O] . Space limitation prohibits a tabulation 21. Schack, A.: "Industrielle WarmeÜbergang," lst ed., p. 203
of these factors but the reader may find the following references Verlag, Stahlheissen m.b.H., 1929. '
useful: extensive compilations of view factors by Moon [ 17], 22. Sparrow, E.: J. Heat Trans., Series C, 85:81 (1963).
Hamilton and Morgan [ 9], and Stevenson and Grafton [ 24]; line 23. Sparrow E. M. and V. K. Jonsson: J. Heat Trans. Series e
integrals of a variety of curves useful for constructing the factors 85:382-383 (1963). ' '
for many configurations by Yamauti [ 28]; view factors from sat- 24. Stevenson, J. A. and J. C. Graiton: "Radiant Heat Transfer
ellites to partially shaded planets by Cunningham [ 2]; and exchange
areas between finite circular cylinders by Sparrow [ 23]. Analy~is for Space Vehicles," ASD TR 61-119, Wright Patter-
son A1r Force Base, Ohio, 1961.
25. Su_mpner, W. E.: Proe. Phys. Soe. London, 12:10 (1893).
26. W1ener, C.: "Lehrbuch der darstellenden Geometrie " Vol 1
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE CITATIONS Liepzig, 1884. ' ' '
27. Yamaut~, Z.: Res. Eleetroteeh. Lab. (Tokyo), 148, 1924.
1. Cherry, V. H., D. D. Davis and L. M. K. Boelter: Trans. Illum. 28. Yamaut~, Z.: Res. Eleetroteeh. Lab. (Tokyo), 194, 1927.
Eng. Soe., 34:1085-1092 (1939). 29. Yamauh, Z.: Res. Eleetroteeh. Lab. (Tokyo), 250, 1929.
2. Cunningham, F. G.: J. Amer. Roeket Soe., 32:1033-1037 (1962).
3. Eckert, E.: Z. Ver. Deut. Ing., 79:1495 (1935).
4. Fock, V.: Z. Physik, 28:102 (1924).
5. Foote, P. D.: Nat. Bur. Std., Sei. Paper, No. 263 (1916).
6. Genkin, V.: Revue Generale de l'Eleetrieite, 29:369 (1931).
7. Gershun, A. and M. M. Gurevic: J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soe.,
~I Phys. See., 60:355 (1928).
8. Gershun, A: "The Light Field," Moscow (1936). English trans.
!~ by P. Moon and G. Timoshenko in J. Math. and Phys., 18:51
(1939).
9. Hamilton, D. C., and W. R. Morgan: Nat. Advisory Comm.
Aeron. Teeh. Note, No. 2836, Dec. 1952.
10. Herman, R. A.: "Treatise on Geometrical Optics," Camb. Univ.
Press, 1900.
11. Hottel, H. C.: Trans. Am. Soe. Meeh. Engrs., 53:265 (1931).
12. Keene, H. B.: Proe. Royal Soe. London, 88A:60 (1913).
13. Lambert, J. H.: Ostwald's Klassiker der exakten Wissen-
sehaften, Nos. 31-33 (German translation of 1760 work),
Leipzig, 1892.
14. Leuenberger, H. and R. A. Person: Radiation Shape Factors
for Cylindrical Assemblies, Amer. Soe. of Meeh. Engrs.
Paper, No. 56-A-144.
15. Mathis, H. H., J. L. Schweppe and R. N. Wimpress: Petroleum
Refiner, 39:177-181 (April, 1960).
16. Mehmke, R.: Z. Math. Phys., 43:41 (1898).
17. Moon, P.: "The Scientific Basis of Illuminating Engineering,"
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1936.
18. Nusselt, W.: Z. Ver. Deut. Ing., 72:672 (1928).

CHAPTER 3
TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURF ACES
{lntervening medium nonabsorbing)
The direct radiative interchange s is i. (E i - E i) betwee_n ªi
pair of surfaces Ai and Ai does not depena on the geometnca
disposition or reflecting characteristics of other surfaces co~plet­
ing the enclosure, but the total net interchange does. Reflec_ho?,
single or multiple, contributes to the transport to Ai of r_adlahon
originating at Ai. The flux from Ai to Ai _cannot be ~ep1cted
graphically with any effectiveness because it streams mto Ai from
all directions and via reqection at all surfaces, even those n~t s_een
directly by Ai and Ai. Qi~i is proportional to the_black em_1ss1ve
power E i and the emissivity Ei of the sou7c_e~ and is a funchon of
1\ the geometrical disposition and the reflechv1hes of all the surfaces
li completing the enclosure. Its dependence on temperature can be
separated from that on surface arrange~ts, reflectivities, and
source emissivity by defining a factor Si Si* such that
..
Q . = S-S·
1-> J 1 J
E 1·
The function s .s. has the dimensions of area and is designated the
total-exchange ~iea. The net interchange between Ai and Ai is ·
then
ln general, Si Si and Si Si will each be a. fu~c~ion of Ti and Ti
because of the effect of temperature on the em1ss1vity and absor~­
tivity of the two surfaces. ln the limit, howev_er, as thermal equ1-
librium between the surfaces is approached-i.e., as Ti appro~ches
Ti -the net flux Qi=i must goto zero; and from the last equahon
(3-1)
S 1·S·J _, S·S·
J 1 as
This is a more general statement of Kirchhoff's law, proved e~­
lier, that, at equilibrium, E = CJ. for any surface in any geometncal
configur ation.
*Note the use of upper-case letters to distinguish this function from the direct-
interchange are a si si .
72
TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 73
Now let each surface be gray, with its grayness independent
of temperature so that E always equals CJ.. Then, since by (3-1)
S iSi must equal Si Si when Ti ==Ti and since neither function is
now affected by temperature, a single function SS may be used to
express the net flux
(3-2)
The statement is valid both for total exchange in gray sys-
tems and for monochromatic exchange in any system.
A little consideration shows the great significance of the
total-exchange area S is i *. For a gray system it is a complete
characterization of the effect of the system geometry and reflec-
tivity on the capability of radiative transport between surfaces Ai
and Ai> independent of other heat tr ansfer mechanisms. Si Si
once calculated for a particular enclosure can be used in the total
energy balances which determine the temperatures and the net
fluxes at the various surfaces; and those variations in a problem
which affect conduction or convection at the surfaces but do not
change the system geometry or surface reflectivity will not change
si si .
The sequence of presentation is the calculation of the net
radiative flux at surfaces in the absence of other modes of heat
transfer (Secs. 3.1 to 3.4); the evaluation of total-exchange areas
and the formulation of total-energy balances (Secs. 3. 5 to 3.11);
and the application of the methods of preceding sections to some
problems of engineering interest (Secs. 3.12 to 3.15); concluding
with a recapitulation (Sec. 3.16). Emphasis is on gray Lambert
surfaces. The more nearly general case of nongray non-Lambert
surfaces is treated in Chap. 5.
3.1 The Integral Equation of Radiative Exchange
at a Surface.
Consider a gray surface element of emissivity E , at tem-
perature T corresponding to a black emissive power E(= aT 4 ).
The element (Fig. 3-la) is part of an enclosure of unspecified
character at this point in the derivation. The radiant flux density
away from the surface through an imaginary surface just external
to it-the leaving-flux density-is composed of two parts, EE due
*An earliertreatmentusedfor SiSi the nomenclature A;'.f ii ; '.fiiwas defined
as the total- view factor from Ai to Ai, with Ai '.f ii = Ai '.f ii [ 12].
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 75
74 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

Any one of these forms would in general suffice for the development
of what follows, although a change in viewpoint has advantages for
certain problems*. The treatment here will be based primarily on
the formulation of qnet in terms of black emissive power E and
leaving-flux density W, i.e., on Eq. (3-4). It is to be noted that
(3-4) is a valid statement independent of whether there is any con-
vection or other mode of energy transfer occurring at the surface;
it is not a total energy balance.
H
Focus attention, in an enclosure, on surface element dAi on
which energy streams from the direction of the various elements
dAi which it sees (Fig. 3-lb). The flux density arriving from one
(a) of these is (Wi cosei cosei /nr 2 ) dAi; and summation over all of
them gives the total incident flux density Hi.
Fig. 3-1. (a) Radiant flux densities ata surfac~

J w ( nr
element; (b) two differential surface elements dA1 cos ei cos ei)
and dAi 2 dA·i (3-5)
Ai i

Expression of H in terms of W and E [Eq. (3-2b)] gives

i' ~~:%i~:~X~: 1~~i~~r~~~~e~ncid~nt

reflected-flux density
d R th
flux _density H co.~i~;rom Wj - E j Ej
==
J Wi (cos ei cos ej) dAi (3-6a)
p. Ai nr2
the unspecified surroundings. Call the leaving-flux densi y . J

lt is clear that Advantage may be taken of the fact that direct-exchange areas have
(3-2a) been formulated for many shapes, by identifying the term in paren-
w = EE + R theses with a 2 sis/aAiaAi [see Eq. (2-5b)] or with aF.jaAi or
(3-2b) aFij/aAi (definition of F; or see Sec. 2.1). Eq. (3-6a) diay then
.. EE + pH be written in the alternative form
li The incident-flux density H may be expres~ed eitherd as ·t
W EE)/p The net rad1ant flux ens1 Y
R/p or from a b ove, as ( - · ·t t· d
at the ~urface defined as its net loss of energy per um _ime an
area due to r~diative processes, may now be fo~mul:t~d m t~r~:d
of two quantities such as W and H, E and H, an • or
(3-6b)
W, as follows:
(3-3a)
qnet, rad. =W-H With (3-6) goes the boundary condition that either E or q must be
(3-3b) specified on every element of surface, and that for the steady state
= (E E + pH) - H = E(E - H)
(3-3c)
= E(E - R/p)
= W - (W - EE)/ p = ~ (E - W) (3-4)
*E and a modified R have been used by Hottel [ lla, 12] , E and W by Eckert
*ln the engineering literature W is sometimes called radiosity (an undesirable [ 6] , Bevans [1] , and Hottel and Sarofim [13], E and a modified H by Gebhart
word-H.C.H.). [ 7] . All treatments give identical end results.
 76 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURF ACES 77

Eq. (3-6) is an integral equation the solution of which presents some

problems. Its special features are these:
(3-7)
1. The unknown function W (of position) which is being sought
appears both inside and outside the integral sign.
Thel Ai over which the integration is to be carried out is the total
2. The term in parenthesis, known as the kernel of the equation, enc osure, both A 1 and A 2 • Then
depends on two positions represented by the current variable j and
the auxiliary variable i.

3. The kernel is symmetrical with respect to the two position

variables. and since F 11 is zero and F 12 is
· one, this yields

4. Over part of the enclosure Ei is a given function. Where it

is not, q must be specified and this permits expression of E in
(3-8)
terms of W [from (3-4), E = W+ pq/E]. Consequently W is the
only unknown function in the equation.
The sarne procedure applied to surface two yields
5. The equation is linear in W.
Wz - Ez Ez
1
I!
6. The limits of integration are independent of the current vari-
= W1 (3-9)
Pz
jl able j.
Solution of (3-8) and (3-9) for w gives
1
7. Position i may depend on either one or two coordinates, and
the equation consequently may be one- or two-dimensional. W1 - E1E1
P1
Properties 4, 5, and 6 make Eq. (3-6) a Fredholm integral
equation, and item 1 makes it of the second kind. Its linearity is an or
important property, signifying that the sum of the solutions of the
equation for a series of different E distributions over the surface
E1 Ez
is a solution of the equation for an E distribution equal to the sum
w1 = P1 Ez Ez + E1E1
E2 + E! - Ez
of the series.
l - P1P2 1 1 (3-10)
-+ 1
Before presentation of a general method of handling Eq. (3-6), E1 Ez
it is desirable to present a few special cases of radiative exchange
in which application of the equation is relatively easy and leads to The incident flux density Hi is given by
results adequate for many important practical problems.

3.2 Special Cases

a. Infinite parallel planes. Consider gray planes of uni-

form but different temperatures and emissivities. T1 and T 2 (and
therefore E 1 and E 2 ) and also E1 and E2 are fixed. The problem
is to determine Wi_ , W2 , Hp H 2 , and qnet . According to (3-6) (3-11)

Wz and Hz are obtainable by symmetry.

 78 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 79

The net energy exchange per unit of are a is q i, net

The~ qi~2 = Wi E~ = Ei E~i/(1 - PiP 2). By symmetry q ~i is
("" - q 2 , net ), given by Wi -Hi or any of the relations (3-3b) to obtamed, and by difference a value of q 2
in agreement wi'th
(3-4) or, for this symmetrical problem, by H2 -Hi. From (3-10) Eq. (3-12). net
and (3-11),
b. Concen~ri~ ~pheres or cylinders, each ata uniform tem-
Ei - E2 (3-12) perature and em1ss1vity. Applying (3-6b), let A- be first the outer
or Si S 2
1 1 surface A 2 i
-+ - - 1
Ei E2

If Ai is punctured by a small hole, the flux density stream-

f Wi dF2i
A;
ing out will be Hi or W2 . If the plate temperatures are equalized,
Eq. (3-11) indicates that as Ei _, E 2, H-> E, i.e., black radiation
streams out of the equilibrium enclosure, independent of the emis-
J Wi dF21
Ai
+ J W2 dF22
A2

sivities of the plates. = Wi F 2i + W2 F22 (3-14)

The above is, of course, not the easy way to handle this sim- Since F12 = 1 and A 2F 2i = AiF 12 = A1' it follows that F
ple problem. Consider a beam Ei Ei emitted by Ai towards A 2. It 2
Ai/ A2 and F22 = 1 - Ai/A 2 . Substitution in (3-14) gives i
splits between absorption by A 2 and return to and absorption by
Ai in the ratio E2/ p 2Ei, and the residue leaves Ai to repeat the W -EE WA
process.* Then of the beam EiEi, the fraction E2/(E 2 + p 2Ei) is _2_ _2_2 = _i_i+ W2 (1 - Ai/A2)
p A2 (3-15)
finally absorbed in A 2 after an infinite number of reflections. The 2
flux density from Ai to A 2 due to original emission from Ai is
1
then Application of (3-6b) with Ai now the inner surface of Ai gives
i'

(3-13)

The substitution E2 = 1 - p 2 gives

1 Ei
(
= W2 Fi2 = W2 (3-16)
Solution of (3-15) and (3-16) for Wi gives
in agreement with (3-12). Wi = AiEi(l - E2)Ei + A2E2[E2 + E1(Ei - E2)]
(3-17)
An alternative derivation indicates the utility of the W con- A2E2 + AiEi (1 - E2)
cept even when an integral equation is not being solved. Let A 2 be
at absolute zero. The net radiative flux density into A 2 is Wi E2 . Substitution for W1 from (3-17) into (3-4) gives the net flux density
from Ai
The leaving flux density at A 2 is Wi p 2 which must also impinge
on Ai. Evaluation of Wi as the sum of emission and reflection
gives

or

*'Th.is approach to the problem dodges summation of an infinite series which,

of course, would yield the sarne final result.
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 81
80 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

Ejp E (1 - C)
(3-18) E eff, 2rr (3-22)
collection 1 - p(l - C) p 1 + C(l/E - 1)

. ~rom this it may be concluded that if a spherical blackbody

The confirmation of this, by a method similar to the second cavüy is to be constructed of material with an emissivity of 0.9
method applied to the parallel-plate case, is left to the reader. and if the cavity is to appear at least 98% black, C must bc less
than 9/49 for narrow-beam observation; and for this aperture the
When Ai« A2 2rr instrument located on the curved surface of the hole will re-
(3-19) port an emissivity of 0.8.

This confirms the expectation that when the enclosure is large its
emissivity is immaterial; it acts like a blackbody cavity.
c. Spherical cavities. This is a special case since all
surface elements have equal views of all other surface elements;
i.e., dFji = dA;/4 rrr2, independently of where dAi is in relation
to Ai. Eq. (3-6b) becomes
Wi - Ei Ei
Hi = - - - - J wi dAj4rrr2
Ai
Since the integral is independent of the position of element dAi,
the incident flux density Hi is constant over the entire surjace of
the cavity regardless of temperature and emissivity distribution
and, consequently, regardless of whether a segment of the sphere
is (a) black, (b) at absolute zero, or (c) missing. This useful con-
clusion will be applied to the evaluation of how nearly a finite hole
of curved area Ai in a spherical cavity of radius r and interna!
emissivity E approaches a black body. Over the area Ai, E and W
are both zero; over the remaining are a, 4 rrr 2 - Ai, E and W are
constant. Equation (3-20) gives
EE
w= ~-------
1 - p(l - Ai/4rr r2)
d. The three-zone enclosure. This case has high practical
importance. To a first approximation-an amazingly good one-
many enclosures which involve only surface radiation (electric
furnaces, muffle furnaces) can be treated as an enclosure consist-
ing of an isothermal gray heat source of area Ai an isothermal
gray sink of area Az and a radiatively adiabatic ~urface A -one
at which the net rates of radiation and irradiation are equaÍ ap-
proximated by the refractory walls of many furnaces. Net Úux
occurs only between Ai and Az. Momentarily consider these to
(3-20)
be black, with Ai having unit emissive power, A 2 at absolute zero
and Ar at an equilibrium intermediate value. Ai sends si s 2 di- '
rectly to A2 and si Sr to Ar. Ar either reflects or absorbs and
emits all of this to A 2 and Ai in the ratio Fr2 : F ri . Az thus
finally receives
Multiplication of F's above and below by Ar and division by
(sisr)(srs2) gives
1
1 1
+--

Let the open fractional are a or cold fraction Ai/ 4 rrr 2 be C. or in shortened nomenclature,
The effective emissivity of the hole, as sensed by a narrow-angle
receiver viewing the cavity interior, is W/E, or 12 + 1
_!_ + 1
E 1 (3-21) lr 2r
E eff., = 1 + C(l/E - 1)
narrow
1 - p(l - C)
beam With Ai and A 2 having emissive powers Ei and E 2 instead of 1
The effective emissivity as sensed by a 2 rr-steradian receiver and O, the flux is given by
placed on the imaginary curved surface of the hole and facing the
interior is H/E or, from (3-20), W/Ep- E/p, or
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 83
82 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

representation by more than three zones the beam-following tech-

~ : ~\
nique becomes substantially unmanageable and is replaced by the
= (12 + (E1 - E 2) zoning technique (see Sec. 3.4).
lr 2r}
3.3 Solution of Integral Equation (3-6)
With Ai and A 2 gray instead of black, the ~lux dens~ti~s :ae~ing
away from those surfaces are W1 and W2 mstead o i Except for geometrically simple systems Eq. (3-6) is not
(Fig. 3-la), and since no other source/sinks are present susceptible of exact analytical solution.

Q1= 2 = (12 + ~ : ~\ (W1 - W2) Among the methods of solution are (a) iterative techniques
[9,18] which often exhibit rapid convergence to the numerically
lr 2r) correct solution; (b) the approximation of W by a polynomial
with undetermined coefficients and evaluation of the coefficients
From Eq. (3-4), by satisfying the integral equations exactly at as many points as
there are unknown coefficients [2,11,9]; (e) a refinementof the
q = ~ (E 1 - Wi) or Q 1, net method of undetermined coefficients in which the coefficients are
l,net Pi selected in a manner to obtain the least mean square deviation
from the correct solution [9,17]; and (d) the approximation of the
= Q 1= 2· A similar
and since the only sink present is A 2' Q 1, net kernel of the equation by an exponential series, thereby converting
',I! argument at A 2 leads finally to the integral equation to a form for which exact analytic solutions
1,' are available [2,11]. A bibliography of the original application of
. Ai E1 ) some of these methods to predict the luminosity in lightwells [2],
Q 1= 2 = - - (E1 - W1
P1 the blackness of blackbody cavities [26], and the radiative transfer
through openings in furnace walls [11] is given by Moon [15] in a
paper which shows how the more rigorous Hilbert-Schmidt theory
of integral equations can also be applied to this type of problem.
Later applications of the methods to the calculation of the apparent
absorptivity of cavities and the radiative flux through passages
have been summarized by Sparrow [23]. Problems of engineering
!,1
1
Elimination of W's gives interest are so often characterized by complex geometry, however,
!i1
il
'

(3-23) as to make a sophisticated analytical approach usually quite im-

practical. Under those circumstances the simp~est and easiest
method is to zone the enclosure, set up a system of as many simul-
taneous equations as there are zones, and solve them to obtain the
distribution of W. Any local qnet may then be calculated. This
method will now be developed.
· gement and of surface
Note that the effects of geometnca1 ar~an t d · Eq (3-23).
emissivities on the net flux are convemently separa e m . 3.4 Zone Method
Discussion of the validity of represe~ting reflect~d ~ri fr~:u!t'
t A by F -a factor strictly apphcable to em1tte . ux . . Divide the surface of the enclosure into a number of zones,
a~ai~ fulle;2development of the zoning method of handlmg rad1at10n each assumed uniform in E and T and small enough to make the
problems. view factor from one zone to another apply to the distribution of
reflected as well as emitted radiation. (Further discussion of
Equation (3-23) could have been obtained by f~:>l_lowi~galthle t choice of zone coarseness must await completion of the derivation.)
. f ce A and arrivmg fm Y a Equation (3-6) becomes, with finite areas Ai and Ai replacing dAi
history of a beam leavmg gray sur a 1 d "nk and reflection
A after multiple reflections at both source an s1 . . g and dAi, and (sisi/AiAi) replacing a2sisi/aAiaAi,
or2 absorption and reemission at Ar. With an enclosure reqmrm
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 85
84 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

after Eqs. (3-25) are solved for W by one of the methods dis-
(3-24) cussed later: algebraic (Sec. 3-9), numerical (Sec. 3-10), ana-
logue (Sec. 3-8).

If there are n zones, n statements may be made li~e the above,

one for each of the n values of j; and a syste~ of s1multaneous 3.5 The Total-Interchange Area SS
linear equations in W's results. Before soluhon a usef~l sho_~~­
Equation (3-25) has more general consequences than the
hand nomenclature will be introduced. Eq. (3-24) may e wn en
evaluation of net flux at a surface by use of (3-26). Let it be de-
sired to evaluate the net flux Q i=i between zones j and i. It
L (si si
i
__ Ai Ei E-
- õii Ai/Pi)Wi - -p. 1
J
(3-24a)
has already been pointed out that this must tak.e the form

Qi=i = Qi->i - Qi,..i = SiS;(Ei - Ei)

The term 6 is called the Kronecker delta, having the value O except
when i = j, when its value is 1. where si si is a term having the dimensions of area. Qj->i must
signify that part of the total flux arriving at and absorbed by i,
The system of equations represented by (3-24a) may be after however many reflections at other surfaces, which is due
written solely to original emission from Ai . This quantity is found by
assigning values of O to all E's in Eq. (3-25) except Ei. Let the
Ai Ei resultant W's of all zones be given a presubscript j indicating
Ai W1 ---E1 which out of all the surface zones was not assigned an E value of
1111 8181 - - 8182 8183 p1
1
P1 O. Then from (3-4), consideration of the flux at Ai to find
11

A2E2
Q i->i gives
'\1i)
A2 (3-25)
82 83 W2 - - - E2
8182 8282 - - P2
'1,1 P2 (3-27)
A3 A3E3
\'1 8183 8283 8 8 -- ... W3
_ _ _ E3
3 3 p3 P3 This procedure of separating Q i->i from the other fluxes is pos-
sible only because the basic integral equations are linear in W.
!1 It is similar to the calculation of ,admittances in electrical circuits.

Re8pon8e Excitation
Tran8fer matrix For the special case of j = i, _Q i, net is the emission rate
vector vector
AiEi Ei minus the self-absorption Q i->i
[For those not familiar with matrix nomenclature,_ each row . .
Qi, net = AiEiEi - Qi->i
in the transfer matrix of (3-25) corresponds to an equat10n o~­
tained by multiplying the members of that row by the re~pechve and from (3-4)
members of the column marked response vector, summu~g t~e
products, and equating the sum to that member of the excüat10n
vector lying in the row in question.}
The net radiant flux density at some surface zone Ai (tak.en
as positive when net flux is from a surface) may then be found Elimination of Q i, net between these gives
from Eq. (3-4), A-E·
= 1 1

(3-26)
qnet at i (3-28)
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 87
86 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

The Kronecker delta notation may be used to express (3-27) and difference between any convection from gas inside the enclosure
and any outward conduction loss through the wall must be small
(3-28) singly compared to one-way radiative flux, a condition generally satis-
(3-29) fied by the refractory walls of a furnace. Let it be desired to
evaluate the net flux between source/sink type zones Ai and A·1
with inclusion of any assistance given by adiabatic zones in re- '
ceiving radiation from Ai and reflecting it or absorbing and re-
Equation (3-29) represents net flux into i dueto _the e~ist­
emitting it towards Ai or towards other surfaces and thence by
ence of A· as the sole net emitter. The sarne express1on, with Ei
diffuse reflection towards Ai . A little consideration indicates
replacing Ei, represents the net flux into j dueto the e~ist~nce
1
that the condition that certain zones be radiatively adiabatic is
of Ai as the sole net emitter. This follows from subscnpt mter-
readily imposed, if those zones are diffuse reflectors, by assign-
change; or it may be visualized as the necess_ary consequence of ing them an emissivity of zero and a diffuse reflectivity p of 1.
the net radiative flux between Ai and Ai havmg to become ~ero Every beam impinging on such a zone is either reflected or ab-
when E i = E i· The desired net flux dueto both surfaces bemg at sor bed and reemitted if the zone is adiabatic; and which of these
finite temperature can now be formulated phenomena occurs does not matter. ln Eq. (3-25} the subtractive
term on the diagonal of the transfer matrix is then A rather
Ai Ei (iwi E-) (Ei-E;) than A/ p for all the radiatively adiabatic zones, and the term in
Qi=i --- Õ 1]
·· ]

pi Ei the excitation vector becomes O. Let the resultant value of Si S1·

obtained from (3-31) be designated (Si Si )R to indicate* that in
AiEi 1 ]
(E i - Ei) (3-30} its evaluation, allowance has been made for some of the zodes of
=-- cW· ··E·)
- Õ 1] 1
the enclosure being in radiative equilibrium. The net flux be-
pi Ei
tween Ai and Ai should similarly be marked to indicate that al-
It should be noted that since iWi is proportional to E i, the term lowance has been made for the contribution of adiabatic zones to
i Wi /Ei is independent of system temperature. the flux. Then

The term multiplying (E. - E J is ajull measure of the ef- (3-32)

fects of the size and shape of the system and of the emissiv_ities of
its parts on the net radiative flux between Ai and Ai; and l~ has
the dimensions of area. It is the total-exchange area si si mtro-
duced at the beginning of the chapter.
Ai_
Ei (3-31)
= _ (;Wi / Ei - ÕiiEi )
pi
Note that s. s. has a value independent of what other modes of heat
transfer co~t~ibute to the total flux at the various zones and that,
as with si si , the arder of subscripts is immaterial.
3.6 Allowance for Radiatively Adiabatic Zones
Consider an enclosure some of the zones of which are heat
sinks or sources at fixed temperatures, while some are in radia-
tive equilibrium, or radiatively adiabatic. For example, the
The invoking of the adiabatic condition for some of the zones
by assigning p = 1 to them has eliminated the need for treating
their W's as unknowns, solving.for them, and using those W's in
formulating equilibrium-zone contributions to flux at a net source/
sink surface. But sometimes there is interest in finding the equi-
librium temperature or E of an adiabatic or fefractory zone.
Since its net radiative flux is zero, Er and Wr are equal, from
Eq. (3-4). The black emissive power Er of the refractory is ob-
tained by solving Eq. (3-25) for Wr. Alternatively, if (3-25} is
solved for iW r 's by letting each zone in turn be the sole emitter
E r is equal to their sum '
*The reader's first reaction may be one of annoyance at such elaborate no-
menclature-a double symbol, a bar, three subscripts, and two parentheses -
to representa term having the dimensions of area. A major contribution to
straight thinking on radiative transport, however, is a nomenclature which
identifies the zones involved and prevents confusion of the many different
possible meanings of the term, flux per unit of emissiue-power difference of two sur-
face zones.
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 89
88 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

(3-33) coarse-zone it for a first solution, and then to increase the number
Er = Wr = iWr + 2Wr + •.. of zones to see if the result is affected. More often than not the
. 11 source/sink zones. iWr may be formulae of Sec. 3.9 will suffice without need for the machine com-
where the summatio~ l1s ov_er .ª power of an adiabatic zone Ar putation that is associated with use of a large number of zones.
thought of as a partia emissive .
due to the existence of Ai as a net emitter. Exact computations of the heat flux in some geometrically
simple systems will now be used to examine the adequacy of coarse
zoning. The radiative flux between two black disks connected by a
3. 7 Criteria for Zone Sizing nonconducting radiatively adiabatic (refractory) surface is given in
. t d with formulating net Sec. 3.12. An error of about 3 percent in net flux is introduced
The computational labor associa _e ghly with the cube when the rigorous treatment of Sec. 3.12 is replaced by a one-
. enclosure varies rou
radiative exchange m ~ t h"ch the surface is divided. ln many (two-, six-) zone division of the refractory walls for a system with
of the number of zones m o w l . . m two-!Zone source/ sink or a length-diameter ratio of one-half (one, two). See Fig. 3-7.
problems the assumption of the mm1mutem (Sec 3 2d) giVes re-
three-zone source/si~-r~fractory s~s Finer ~o~ing is frequently Another example [ 17] is the calculation of,,the radiative
sults of adequate engmeeri~:itc~;~:e;~ is interest not just in total transfer between two opposed parallel gray circular disks on a
necessary, however,_ es~ec1 y common axis and maintained at different temperatures, with no
flux but in flux distribuhon as well. connecting walls. At the minimum distance of separation studied -
. . is the desirability of minimiz- one-fortieth of a disk diameter - the treatment of each disk as a
. The dominant factor ~nAz;n~~gthe variation of leaving-flux single zone gave errors in the total flux of less than 0.1 percent (0.9,
mg AW/ (W - Wi )rnax ' w~er . d (W _ w. )rnax is the total 13 percent) when the surface emissivities were 0.9 (0.5, 0.1). Al-
densit~ w_ over a zone m ques;~o~t:r surfac~s with which it i~ in though adequate for total-flux determinations, the one-zone solution
'1111
variahon i_n '!I
from the zo~ the mean temperature of a zone is of course gave no indication of the large variations in flux density
major radiahve exchange. ·auon in temperature over which occur over the disk surface. A third example of zoning is
less than half that of the º~~r~, ªi~~~~o zones. If a surface has a discussed in connection with Fig. 3-10.
its face does not call for d1:r1d1~ is due mostly to reflected flux,
high reflect_an~e, ~oweve~' it~hat different parts of it have of their A point not generally appreciated is that there need be no
and the variat10n m the v1_ew ·t b . g divided into several zones. correspondence between the number of zones used in obtaining
surroundings may necessüate l s em total-exchange areas and the number of surfaces considered in a
th is little need for dividing total energy balance. For example, in the two illustrations above
ln many furnace problems ere each but different the only quantities of interest may have been the total flux between
.nk · t ore than one zone ,
either source or s1 m o 1;
may have sufficiently different the opposed disks. These fluxes are given by the product of the
l ',,
parts of the refractor~ sur ace uire zoning. Let Fs->A1 and Fs_,A2 difference E 1 -E 2 in the blackbody emissive powers of the disks
"
views of source and s1nk to req spot S on a rerractory zone and the total exchange areas, (S 1 S2 )R and 8 1 S2 • The rigorous
represent the view !actors fro~ s~me Find the spot S which has evaluation of these exchange areas would however involve a finer
to the source and s1~, respAec iv~
the most favorable v1ew of i re a iv
t e to A and the spot which
2,
zoning of the refractory in the former case and of the two disks
in the latter.
has the least favorable view. If
Sometímes it is desirable to treat a portion of the source-
(Fs_,A 1 /Fs_,A 2 )rnax sink surfaces and a portion of the refractory surfaces as a single
(Fs_,A)Fs_,A 2) rnin system, replaceable by an equivalent gray source or sink zone
t r zone is probably too large to p_er- (see Sec. 3.13). This procedure, particularly applicable to tubes
exceeds about 10, the refrac o y .nk with acceptable engineermg or resistors mounted on insulated back-walls, greatly simplifies
mit calculating the net flux to th; ~1 this criterion is not easy touse. the final overall zoning of the furnace.
accuracy (about 5%). Unfortuna e y,
Occasionally the suggestion is made that a complicated fur-
When a problem presents surfaces in spaced rdelati_ontsothe nace enclosure could profitably be treated as two simpler enclosures
. . th only safe proce ure is
effects of which are unfam11iar' e
90 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
TOTAL INTER CHANG E AMONG SURF ACES 91

W1

~ ·~
Er

Fig. 3-2. Cross section through furnace.

separated by a gray surface which acts as a net sink for one of the
chambers and an e qual net source for the other, or even as a sim-
, ~rr -- w
ÁrEr
P,
P2
pler adiabatic refractory surface if the plane is one of symmetry; Er
the resultant solution of two 4-zone problems, for example, would
(a)
be simpler than the solution of a single 7-zone problem. Figure
(b)
3-2 is an example of a twin furnace chamber likely to prompt
such a suggestion *, the gray plane being put at the dotted line to Fig. 3-3. Electrical network analo ues to . .
form two separate problems connected only by the condition of (a) A four-zone enclosure consist· g f radiative exchange in enclosures.
equal net flux on opposite sides of the imaginary plane. A little batic (r), and two gray (1 and 3 rn~ o one black (2), one radiatively adia-
consideration shows that the suggestion is invalid. The distribu- no view of surface 1 (b) A th ) sur aces. Surface 3 has a view of itself but
tion of W over the surface and, more important, the angular distri- adi~batic a~~e;:oong:aeync(llosudre2)consisting of one radiatively
' an surfaces.
bution of intensity are both changed by the substitution. The error
in the final overall solution due to this improper substitution is,
of course, less as the separating plane area is smaller. O when r re~resents a radiatively adiabatic zone and i a
source or smk.
si si O if Ai is a zone which cannot see any of itself
With the general principles of the zone method established,
si si ,,= O' even though Ai cannot see itself if A. .
it is desirable to test one 's understanding of the terms direct- black zone. ' sees any non-
1
interchange area, total-interchange area, and total-interchange
area with allowance for refractory zones by noting that the fol- = si si if all zones are black.
lowing relations are true
The wide range of proble bl
by the methods of this chapter ~s 1a;:iena e to quantitative treatment
along an unidirection 1 me u es' ~s a few examples' flux
L
al 1 j' s
--
s isi Ai
Summation
and high-tempe t a. temperature grad1ent through porous beds
ra ure msulators losses thro h th' k
nace openings shield. bl ' . . ug ic -walled fur-
design of electric res~ng pro ems m h1g~ t~mperature reactors'
L
al 1 j' s
sisj Ai Ei over j interior of satellites ~:~i: furn~ce~, r~diah~e _equilibrium in the
of energy among tube rows e_n ~x er10r irradiat10n, and distribution
includes i taken u m urnaces. Some of these will be
tech . p as efxam~les ai:ter consideration of a number of special
I:<sisj ~ Ai Ei mques o man1pulat10n and of visualization.
all sou rce/
sinkj's

*It is true that the furnace shown involves gas radiation; but the principle
here being discussed is applicable.
 92 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 93

3.8 The Electrical Network Analogy

Note that, if the refractory is subdivided into a number of surfaces,
. (3 4) the net flux Q i from a surface i is (S1S2)R,black willhave a more complex structure, but Eq. (3-34)
Accordmg_ to Eq. - ' tionality constant is
proportional to its E i - W~' and the propor the dotted line of Fig. will be unchanged (see Sec. 3.9).
A IP . This flux contmues on, across .
i Ei 1 · . . tion to W--W· with propor-
3-la, to other surfaces J i;:r:~~ogy to an1 ele~trical network in The separation of the effects of grayness of the source/ sinks
tionality constants si si· e . A / and ss are anal- from the effect of geometry is possible only when there are but two
which E and W are analogous ~o pot~nt~~= 'to ~u~rent was developed
1 source/sinks. For more complicated networks, solutions for the
ogous to co~ductances,_a~~eQ3~3:~~l~:trates a four-;one enclosure flux terms can no longer be obtained by inspection; simultaneous
by Oppenhe1m [ 16] · Fig A d A with their potential points equations (3-25) must be solved. The algebraic and numerical solu-
consisting of two gray zones 1 an A:Í . one black zone A2, with tion of these equations are discussed in the next two sections.
E and W separated by conductfanc~s s:rface at a floating potential
its E and W the sarne; one re rac ory E E E are 3.9 Algebraic Solutions
·t E w which are the sarne. 1, 2, 3
measuredsources
potential by l s or
R or_
smks. R' W1, W 3' WR are internal nodal points.
Equations (3-25) may be solved for W by application of
. face is connected to Cramer 's rule. This gives
The nodal point _representu~g anf su~n the figure' surface A3
is shown with a parhal view o l se
!a
that of every surfac~ it c_an sefe. dtir~fc with no view of surface Ai . Di
D (3- 35)
k be useful for those who visualize electric
The networ may . '. trix e uations, in clar-
circuits more readilJ'." than ~di.ah~-:~~f~~e stat~ments below. where D represents the determinant formed by the transfer matrix
ifying the interpretahon or enva 1
of (3-25) and Di is obtained from D by substitution of the excitation
vector of (3-25) into the i th column of D.
a. E and W are equal for an adiabatic zone.
1
11.1 The reader who has not recently manipulated determinants is re-
b. The flux between source and sink is independent of adia- minded that a determinant is equal to the sum of all possible products of
1
batic zone emissivity. elements in the matrix which include one and only one element from each
11 row and from each column, with each product having a sign determined by
c Flux between surfaces which cannot see each other can the following rule: the product is multiplied by (-1) for each time that a line
occur v.ia nodal points of gray surfaces which they can see. segment joining two elements in the product slopes upward to the right.
From this definition, all the following rules for the manipulation of deter-
minants may be derived:
d. The ma.ximum number of indepen~en(t items ºi)i(nfor;:)jt~on 1. An exchange of position of adjacent rows or columns of a deter-
. th t t 1 exchange areas is n + m - n +
n~eded to spec1fy e o a the nodal points of the different sur- minant changes only its sign. By extension, when a row or column is moved
direct-exchang~ are~s ?et~een . s omitted because it is obviously to a new position by passage over an odd (or even) number of rows or col-
umns, the sign changes (or does not change).
faces (the self-irradlat10n erm 1 1 f AE; at the source-
not involved in the transfer) and n va ues .°. . ;p ) 2. Any row (or column) may be replaced by a new one formed by
sinks. (m is the number of radiative-eqmhbrmm zones. adding the members of any number of rows (or columns) to it, without
changing the value of the determinant.
3. Multiplication of a determinant by any quantity is equivalent to
It is clear that the network shown in Fig. 3-3b is the equiv- multiplying each member of one row or column by that quantity.
alent of the problem solved in Sec. 3-2d. ln total-exchange area 4. A determinant of n th order may be expanded about any row or
nomenclature column to give the sum of n terms, each consisting of a different member
of the row or column in question multiplied by its cofactor. *
1
(3-34)
*The cofactor of any element of a determinant is its signed minor, the new
one-lower-order determinant formed by crossing out the row and column of
the element, prefixed by a sign which equals (-l)nc + n,, where the exponents
represent column number and row number of the element.
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 95
94 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

5. By extension, any operation of adding rows or columns to form
a new one with all elements zero except one is a way of reducing the order
of the determinant by one.
The discussion now returns to the problem of evaluating net
fluxes and exchange areas from their formulations in terms of W:
When in Eq. (3/25) all E 's but E i are set equal to zero,. and iyYi is
evaluated in terms of DjD, the excitation vector substituted m Di
has but one finite term, thereby reducing the order of the numerator
determinant by one. Then
ln the absence of machine computation it is desirable to carry
the evaluation of SS to its simplest form before numerical substitu-
tion. This is also helpful in visualizing the effect of design vari-
ables on radiative transfer. Many problems will be found to come
under one of the following cases:
a. An enclosure of any number of black source-sink zones but no
gray zones, and any number of refractory or radiatively adiabatic zones.
(SiS 2)R is desired, representative of net flux between Ai and A 2 aided by
reflection and/ or absorption at and reradiation from various adiabatic sur-
faces present in the system. According to Eq. (3-39)

_ AiEi E·J (- -
DJ_i) (3-36) -- Ai Ei A2E2 ( Dl.2 ')
--- - (SiS2)R = -- -- - -
Pi D Pi P2 D

· where Dii is the cofactor or signed minor of column i and row j with D representing the transfer matrix of Eq. (3-25). The diagonal mem-
bers are to include all the source/sink elements of the enclosure, followed
of D.
by the adiabatic-zone terms Sr Sr - Ar, Ss Ss - As, etc. Note that Pr , Ps, ...
Elimination of Wi by substitution from Eq. (3-35) into (3-26) are assigned the value 1, as indicated in Sec. 3.6. D~ 2 is the minor of D
formed by crossing out the first row and second column, and changing the
yields sign. The result is
li
1
Ei (, Di\ (3- 37) 12 23 2r 2s
Ili qnet at i = P;\E i - n) - A3
13 33-- 3r 3s
P3
Elimination of iwi from the expression for Qi=i[Eq. (3-30)] gives

1111

Qi=i ={AiEi [AjEj (_ Dij)- Õij Ei]}(Ej-Ei) (3-38) lr 3r · · · rr -AR rs

'
Pi Pi \ D
li ls 3s rs ss -As

from which -- - Ai Ei A2 E2
(SiS2)R - - - - - (3-41)
Pi P2 - Ai
-- Ai Ei [Ai Ej (3-39) 11-- 12 13 lr
SiSi = - - - - Pi
Pi Pi - A2
12 22-- 23 2r
When a refractory (radiatively adiabatic) surface Ar is pres- P2
ent, Pr is set equal to 1 and the total-exchan~e area between sur- -33--
A3 ...
faces Ai and Ai is denoted by (SiSi )R. For th1s case, Eq. (3-33) 13 23 3r
P3
becomes

Dr Dri) A2E2 ( Dr2) E ... · · · rr -Ar rs

--D Ei+ -- --- 2+
D ( P2 D rs ss -As
(3-40)

i.e., the emissive power of a refractory surface is a weighted mean The short-hand notation 12 here replaces si s 2 .
of the E 's of the source-sink surfaces it sees.

1,:
''
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 97
96 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

Equation (3-41) for (SiS 2 )R is in an indeterminate form, since all p's 12 2r

AiEi A2E2
are o. Multiplying the numerator and the first column of the denominator by
p /Ai makes the denominator column -1, 0,0,0, - and reduces the ~rder of
t~e determinant by 1. Repeat for A2 . Eliminate all other source-smk. zones (STS2)R
"'"P1 P2 Y[M ] (3-45)
by multiplying numerator and denominator by p / A3 , p4 / A 4 , etc. to .g1ve Ai
(with subscript B as a reminder of restriction fo black source and smk) 11-- 12 l r ...
Pl
12 2r ... - A2
12 22-- 2r

1? rJ P2

l
(3-42) lr 2r
[M

where M represents the matrix in the lower right corner of the transfer Replace ll-Ai/pi by 11-Ai-A!El/pi and 22-A2 /p2 by 22-A2 - A 2 E 2 /p 2
matrix of (3-25), composed of adiabatic-surface terms: and expand the denominator to

12 lr
['~A,
rs rt 11-Ai
-

,,
11'
M rs
rt
ss -As
st
st

·1
···
tt~At .. ·
12
lr
22-A2 2r
2r
[M ]
I' From Eq. (3-42) it is clear that when the source/ sink zones are black the
n interchange q i= = (Si s 2)R (E 1 - E 2) depends only on view factors involving
Ai, A2 , and the ictiabatic surfaces -it is independent of the structure o~
the remainder of the enclosure. (The total-exchange area for this special Add all elements vertically in the first of these determinants to form a new
case has been elsewhere designated Ai F12 [ 12] . ) top row, - O, O, O, O. Add all elements horizontally to forma new first
A subcase is that of an enclosure which contains but a single re- column in the second determinant, and add elements vertically to form a
Ili fractory zone Ar. Since for that case Ar - rr = rl + n, Eq. (3-42) yields new top row in the third determinant. Both determinants become

-- - lr 2r - 1 - - Fr2 12 2r
12 + l r - - (3-43)
(SiS2)R B= 12 + --::= = 12 + 1- Frr
' Ar - rr J:._ + ]:_
lr 2r

Finally, if neither Ai nor A2 can see itself, lr Ai - 12 and 2r = A2 - 12, Finally, (3-45) becomes
and
1 M
(3-44) - - - = _ll_ + -2.. +
(Si S2)R AiEi A2E2 12 2r
lr

an expression dependent on only a sing_!:e direct-exch~mge area.

[M ]
1 Pl P2
+ + (3-46)
b. An enclósure ot but twu source/sink zones Ai and A2, both gray, (SiS2)R,B AiEi A2E2
and any number of adiabatic zones Ar , As . . . . Eliminate all source sinks
except Ai and A2 from Eq. (3-41), leaving The effects of grayness and geometry are seen to be separated for
this special and practically very important case. One formula}es (Si S2 )R
for a black system, obtains its reciprocal, adds corrections for grayness,
and takes the reciprocal of the sum. This simple correction is valid, how-
ever, only when there are but two source/sinks.

'i'''
11 1
 98 RADIA TIVE TRAN8FER TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACE8 99

e. An enclosure of two gray source/sinks Ai and Az, any number of - Ai

11-- 12 13 lr
black source/sinks A 3 , A4 , ... , and any number of refractory zones~, Pi
As , • • • • There are three exchange areas of interest, gray-to-gray 8i 82,
- Az
gray-to-black 8 18 3 , and black-to-black 8384. For t?e firs! of t_he~e the 12 22-- 23 2r
general method of the last case applies up to the pomt of s1mphfymg the P2
expande d denominator, but 12 + lr + ls + ... no longer equals Ai - 11 14 24 34 4r
because of the presence of A 3 , A 4,. . . . The result is lr 2r 3r
[M
(83 84 )R ==
J (3-49)
- Ai
11-- 12 lr
Pi
- Az
12 22-- 2r
Pz
lr 2r
[M
]
1 d. Enclosure of three gray source/sinks Ai, A 2 and A3 and any num-
(8i 82 )R == ber of black source/ sinks and adiabatic zones. This problem is near the
limit of complexity for handling without machine computation. Define two
determinants D and D', the second with Pi and p2 missing (but not p 3 ):

- Ai
11-- 12 13 lr
For the gray-to-black zone exchange in the presence of other black Pi
zones, A 4 , A 5 , ••• , and one gray one, A 2 , - Az
12 22-- 23 2r
12 lr Pz
li - Az
D
- A3
22-- 2r 13 23 33-- 3r
12 P3
lr 2,:" [ M ]
lr 2r 3r
[M
J
1 (3-48)
_ Az
12 22-- 2r 11-Ai 12 13 lr
li)
P2 12 22-Az 23 2r
13 23 - A3
and D'= 13 23 33-- 3r
lr 2r P3
lr 2r 3r
[M
J
For the black-to-black zone exchange in the presence of other black
zones and two gray ones, A 1 and A2
and let Dij or D~i represent the signed minar formed by crossing out the
ith row and the jth column.
The partially expanded result is

'I''
11;

''i
 100 RADIATIVE TRANSFER TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 101

or

- A3 -
33- 3r
753
SnSn+m Wn
1
Sn+lSn+m Wn+l
-Dl.z
(3-50)
Sn+mSn Sn+mSn+l · · • Sn+m Sn+m -An+m Wn+m
Clearly, the complexity of the relations is dependent on how many of
the surfaces are not black. When the enclosure cannot be treated as under Transfer matrix ~
(b), the next more elaborate model is to simulate it by assuming only two Response
gray surfaces and any number of black and of adiabatic ones; and all total- vector
interchange areas are then obtained from (3-47), (3-48) and (3-49). Al E1
P1
E1 o
3.10 Machine Computation

The cases of the last section indicated the need for machine o AnEn
---En
computation if more than four or five zones are present, without Pn
symmetry. o o
li
The number of quantities which must be specified to fix the o o
1 ~Ili general operating characteristics of the enclosure, -its response ~-=-~~---'=---"=---~~-=­
to an imposed set of T 's or E 's, - is obtainable from an inspection n excifution
of Eq. (3-25). If there are n source/sink and m adiabatic zones vectors
(3-51)
the number of exchange factors off the diagonal is (n + m-l)(n + m)/2,
after allowance for symmetry. Summation of all the elements in a The rel~tion in this form represents as many sets of simul-
column shows that the specification of the diagonal element requires taneous equat10ns as there are excitation vectors on th · ht
no additional information for an adiabatic zone and only A.1 E.1 / p.1 The . t erms m· th e t ransfer matrix and the excitation vectors
e ng form
·
for a source/sink. No additional terms occur in the excitation the mput data. T~e symmetry of tlÍe transfer matrix may be used
vector. The maximum information needed then is (n + m - 1) t? advantage both m processing the input data and in the calcula-
(n + m)/2 exchange-areas and n values of AE/p . Simultaneous tions. Note that since the transfer matrix need be manipul ted
equations can be solved far more rapidly by standard techniques onl~ o~ce, the c.omputational effort required to obtain i wi n:or
such as the Gauss-Jordan or Crout reductions [ 10) than by the excitat10n matnce~ does not greatly exceed that for a single one.
'li use of determinants. Since subroutines are available at most The resultant iWi s m~y be used to calculate the total interchange
computation centers for the solution of simultaneous equations, area for each source/smk combination. From Eq. (3-31),
attention will be focussed on the preparation of the requisite input
information. Let it be desired to obtain the total-exchange areas s isi
between all possible combinations of zone pairs within the source/ (3-52)
sink category in an enclosure containing n source/ sink and m
refractory surfaces. The essential step is the determination of Th: refractory emissive powers are obtained by the summation of
the reflected-flux densities, iW i 's, at all surfaces i when each f.:O'ro. for
the refractory surfaces (i > n), over all j 's where j runs
source/ sink zone has been treated in turn as the sole emitter, j. 1 to n \see end of Sec. 3.6). If the refractory temperatures
Equation (3-25) is used. :re not reqmre.d the number of excitation vectors may be reduced
o n12, when n is even, or to (n + 1)/2, when n is odd since S. S.
i~ Si si. ' 1 i
'
 102 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
Since Aj pi is infinite for black surfaces, a modified ap-
proach is needed. An artificial means of avoiding special treat-
ment is to assign a small reflectivity, say .001, to these surfaces.
The rigorous method is to multiply the row - say k - in which a
black surface occurs, by Pi<, leaving - Ak on the diagonal as the
only term in the kth row of the transfer matrix and - Ak Ek in t.he
excitation vector. The exchange area SkSi may now be obtamed
from w. by the usual method. If two or more black surfaces are
prese~t, the total-exchange area between two of these, ~ a~d i, is
1
obtained by setting one, say k, as the sole emitter and fmdn~g the
flux which reaches the other, both directly and after reflechou at
all surfaces including the refractories.
- 1 '\'- (3-53)
sksi == sksi +Ek
Lsisi kwj
.
] specified, any needed SS-values may be obtained. The desired
Although the effort required to obtain the total exchange area
between black surfaces may at first appear greater than that be-
tween gray surfaces, this is not the case. Since E == W for a black
surface all the flux terms from that surface are known and may
be tran~posed to the right hand side of Eq. (3-51), thus reducing
the number of equations to be solved by one.
3.11 Total Energy Balances; Radiative and Other
Contributions
1,li\1
The calculation of net flux at any surface in an enclosure is
quite simple and straightforward when all surface temperatures,
and therefore all E 's, are specified. One evaluates the necessary
SS's by the methods of Secs. 3.9 or 3.10 and then expresses a~y .
desired q in explicit form, including allowance for any nonr.adiahve
·I
terms. The more general problem is that in which T or E is spec-
111111
ified for surfaces 1 to j, information is given about q for surfaces
k to n, and the values of q at surfaces 1 to j are the desired end
product. This problem is attacked in two steps: .the SS-values
are determined as before, and then a system of s1multaneous
equations is set up, representing energy balances on ~h~ various
zones of unknown E. When these become known, expllcit formula-
tion of q for any of the surfaces 1 to j is possible.
Sometimes the solution of a system of simultaneous energy
balances can be omitted such as by making the simplifying as-
sumption that the surfa~es of unknown E are radiatively adiabatic.
Expression of q for any of the source-sink surfaces in terms of
initially given E 's is then possible, without the temperatures or
E 's of the radiatively adiabatic surfaces ever having been found.
TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 103
At other times, however, the assumption of adiabaticity is a poor
one; and gas convection terms may enter, further modifying the
energy balances. The object here is to illustrate, by application
to a relatively simple problem, how allowance can be made for
these modifying effects.
Let an enclosure, an electric furnace for example, be ideal-
ize d to consist of a single source zone A 1 , a primary sink zone
(useful flux) A 2 , and two secondary sink zones A 3 and A 4 , - sur-
faces at which the net flux represents a loss of energy through
the furnace walls to surroundings at To . ln addition let air enter
at T 0 with an hour ly heat capacity m Cp; and let it have the sarne
mean temperature TG for convective transfer to all four surfaces
bounding the enclosure, and leave the system at TG (unknown at
this point)*. With dimensions and emissivities of all surfaces
quantity is Q 1 _,, neti the net flux from Ai into t the chamber, given
source, sink and ambient temperatures Ti, T 2 , T 0 (or Ei, E 2 ,
E 0 ) and the value m CP. Simultaneous energy balances must be
made on the zones A 3 and A4 of unknown E 's and on the gas of
unknown TG.
Additional nomenclature needed for the energy balances is:
U == overall coefficient of heat transfer from the inside of a
refractory wall to the outer air is identical with
1
L2 Lb 1
-+ -+-----
Àa Àb hc,0 + hr,O
where hc, 0 and hr,o are the outside surface coefficients
for convection and radiation, respectively, and the
(L/,\.) 's represent wall-structure conductances.
hi == inside gas-film coefficient from gas to surface of zone i.
The energy balances needed are:
*More sophisticated constraints on gas convection will be introduced when
the furnace gas is itself a radiator; see Chap. 8.
t Thei;e is a possibility of confusion about the sign of Q. Net Qinto Ai. writ-
ten Qi_,, net, could meaninto from the furnace interior, or into from the sur-
roundings. The convention here is to view all fluxes from within the furnace
chamber. Qi_,, net leaves A 1 and enters the chamber; Q_, 2 , net'enters A 2 and
leaves the chamber.
 104 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 105

Q_,3, net L sis3 (Ei -E3) + h3A3(Te -T3) or A'~ m. cp

i::::: 1 4aT~0
(3-54) 8ubstitution of these into the three energy balances and expression
of the latter in matrix form gives

l J~j
4
(13+23+34+G3+30) 34
L SiS4(Ei -E4) + h4A4(Te -T4)
34 - (14+ 24+ 34+ G4+ 40) G4 . E4

-
i::::: 1
G3
G3 G4 - (Gl+G2+G3+G4+A') Ec
(3-55)
On gas: )J
l
(13E 1 + 23E 2 + 30E0
- (14E 1 +24E 4 +40E 0 )
Qremoved L 4
hiAi(Ti -Te) = mCP (Te -To) (3-56) - (GlE 1 + G2E 4 + A'E0 )
in gas i::::: 1 (3-57)
These three equations, mixed in first and fourth powers of
T 3 , T 4 , and Te, may be solved in a number of ways, choice among where 13, 23, etc. represent 8 18 3 , 8 2 83 , etc. and not s 1 s 3 , s 2 s 3
which depends on relative importance of different terms and avail- as in earlier equations.
ability of machine computation. These include linearization of
first-power terms in E and iterative procedures. These will be 8olution_9f this set for E 3 , E 4 , Ee on the basis of approxima-
discussed in order. tions for Gi, 30, 40 and A' permits reestimation of those quantities,
with rapid convergence to t~e true solution. With E 3, T 3 , E 4 , T 4
a. Linearization method. When the radiation terms dominate, and Te known, the desired Ql->, net may be evaluated.
the expression of those fluxes which vary as a temperature dif-
4
ference in a form varying as an emissive-power difference per-
mits obtaining an explicit solution which uses coefficients cast in
Ql->,net = L 818i(E1 -E;)+ h1A1(T1 -Te) (3-58)
i=l
the form of total-exchange are as, analogous to those previously
encountered but now including allowance for convection and con- Qloss = A3U3(T3 - To)+ 'A4U4(T4 -To)
duction phenomena. Define Gi by
+ m Cp(Te -To) (3-59)

Q_,2, net Ql_,, net - Q loss (3-60)

or G" hiAi (Te -Ti)~ hiAi
= 4aT~i
1 The estimation of Q 1_,, net without allowance for departure of
= a(Tci-Ti)
the refractory walls from radiative adiabaticity is of course very
where Tei represents the arithmetic mean of Te and Ti, a value much simpler than solution of (3-57) followed by use of (3-58).
to be guessed initially and adjusted later. Define 30 by When a problem is in a new area the only safe procedure is to run
through the more rigorous analysis once, to find whether the com-
plication of including convection is justified.

'I'
b. Iterative procedure for rigorous solution. As those
terms varying with the first power of temperature become in-
where T 30 is the mean of T 3 and T 0 . 8imilarly for 40. Let
1
creasingly important relative to radiation terms, it becomes pref-
'!! erable to omit any linearization and solve Eqs. (3-54) to (3-56)
directly by a combination of the Gauss-8eidel and Newton-
'
i'! Raphson methods [ 10], an iterative procedure which has been
,,li
'I,
!
 106 RADIATIVE TRANSFER TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 107

direction of th~ t~mperature gradient and, in consequence of the

E1 analogy of radlahon and low-pressure conduction (Sec. 1.1),
1 Knudsen molecular diffusion through a pore from a source at A
E
to ~ sink at A2. It is clear that, if Ai and A 2 are disks or infin~te
1

iEx
stnl?s, the eq~ilibr.iu.m temperature distribution along the con-
1
1 1
1
1
1
nectm.g walls is umdlmensional; and square or rectangular openings
can w1th small error be similarly treated. The problem is to find
the temperature distribution and then use it to evaluate net flux
between Ai and A2. The method presented is substantially that of
an earlier work [ 11].

. Let. Ai and A2 ha ve a characteristic dimension D (diameter

of dISk, s1de of square, width of infinite strip), and let the distance
along the wall ~ro~ A1 be measured in units of D (Fig. 3-4). At
Xi----
x the blac~ em1ss1ve po:ver is E(x); and the incident-flux density
H and leavmg-flux density W are, according to Eqs. (3-3) and
(3-4), the sarne as E because the net flux is zero. The incident
Fig. 3-4. A circular cylindrical pore connecting two black cavities. Bottom: flux is a consequence of the sum of fluxes to dx from the two ends
Nomenclature used in formulating energy balance on a differential element dx. of the enclosure and from all the strips dxi along the walls. The
Top: Approximation of emissive power distribution along walls of cylinder.
flux fr~m Ai to dx is _!isi s dx which, according to Eq. (2-58), is
Ei (-ss (x) dx) where ss(x) represents the exchange area between
found to converge rapidly. All unknown temperatures are guessed two parall~l o~po~ed surfaces of area Ai separated by distance x,
and then all but Ti are substituted in the energy balance on zone i. and the prime mdlcates the derivative. The flux from the ring at
The resultant nonlinear equation in Ti of the form xi to that at x is, according to Eq. (2-59),
4
aTi + bTi = c E (xi) [ ss" ( lx i - x I)] dx dxi
1
may be solved by following the iterative scheme:
)1 The radiation balance on the area element P dx* is then given by
4
T! = T· _ aTi + bTi - c E(x)P dx = -E i ss '(x) dx - E ~ss '(X -x) dx
1 1
4aT·13 + b
X

111 where TI is the revised value of the temperature. After the correct + J
x1~0
E(xi)ss"(]xi -x]) dx dx 1
value of Ti is approached the process is repeated for a balance on or P E(x) -Eiss'(x) - E 2ss'(X-x)
another zone and the cycle continued until adequate convergence is
obtained. Convergence is rapid because the coefficient on the tem-
perature of the zone about which a balance is drawn is always (3-61)
dominant.
. This is an integral equation with function E to be determined·
lts characteristics were discussed in Sec. 3.1. With Ei = 1 and '
3.12 Flux Through Apertures E 2 = O, (3-61) becomes
Net interchange between opposed equal-area parallel surfaces,
one a source and one a sink and each at a uniform temperature,
when they are connected by radiatively adiabatic connecting walls
P E(x) = -ss'(x) + lx E(xi)ss"(]x 1
-x]) dxi (3-6la)
o
(Fig. 3-4), includes such problems as loss through thick-walled
furnace openings, radiative flux through a high-temperature in-
sulator modeled as a system of parallel pores aligned in the *Remember that P represents the ratio of perimeter to the characteristic
dimension, here the diameter.
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 109
108 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

the walls instead of at the ends, Eq. (3-65) gives the value 0.351.
To solve this equation let E(x) be a polynomial in powers of x The physical interpretation is that if the refractory walls could be
2+ ··· (3-62) artificially maintained, by local heating or cooling, at temperatures
E(x) = a0 + a 1x + a2x equivalent to a linear gradient in E, with E varying from 0.5 +
0.351/2 at the hot end to 0.5 - 0.351/2 at the cold end while the end
and as a first trial, assume the wall emissive power to be. linear disks were at 1 and O, the walls would be in equilibrium at the
in distance. Insertion of the first two terms of Eq. (3-62) 1~to quarter, half, and three-quarters points, but not quite in equilibrium
(3-6la) and evaluation of the in~egral separately for the reg10ns O anywhere els e.
to x and x to X yields the relat10n
A measure of departure from equilibrium is the difference
between the leaving- and incident-flux densities, equal to the dif-
ference, per unit of P, of the left and right hand sides of Eq. (3-63).
(3-63) From the small value of this difference (Fig. 3-5a) the assumption
of linearity is seen to be a good one. If the agreement between E
On physical grounds the E-x relation must be skew-symmetrical and H had not been adequate an improved solution could have been
about E = 1/2, x/X = 1/2; therefore, obtained by using more terms in the series expansion of E, or by
the other methods outlined in Sec. 3.3.
1 (3-64)
ªº = -2 (1 + .6.) and
Figure 3-5b presents the E versus distance relationship along
the walls connecting the two disks, normalized with respect to the
where Á is the total change in emissive power along the ':'ª11 (on end emissive powers. The curves show that for disks close together
- 1 E - O) · Insertion into .Eq. (3-63) of th1s and of the emissive power of the wall varies but little from the arithmetic
th e sca1e E 1 - , 2 -
the identity ss '(O) = - P/2 yields the soluhon for À mean of the end emissive powers, with large temperature jumps at
the junction of the walls and ends. As X/D increases, the jump
1 2 ss(X - x) - 8s(x) (3-65) decreases. (See Chap. 9 for treatment of flux along passages with
~ =
1 -x: ss'(X-x) - ss'(x) large X/D's.)

1.0 ...-----,----,--~-~-~
1
If the assumption of linearity of E in x were true, Eq. (3-65)
H should yield a value of À independent of x and dependent on X only.
If À is made to satisfy a particular value of x, su~h as O (and X 0.9

and X/2 because of skew-symmetry), Eq. (3-65) g1ves 'N

ro'I
-N o.001 1
o. 8 f----+---'.c----->t

2 ss(O) - ss(X) ~
1 (3-66) '"'"'"' :::::
'N
À l + X ss '(X) - ss '(0) ':::::" o ";1 o. 7 f-----f"'o.~---t-~1'-----+------1
/~
'""' O.:_!Ol
~
ro'I
As a specific example let the end areas be disks, and X 0.5. %=0.5
~
l: /
According to Table 2-2,
/
2 ( 2) 1/2] -o .002
ss(x) = 4p
7f
+ 2x - 2x 1 + x o. 1 0.:0 !l,3 0.4 0.5 O. 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
x/X x/X

1 ~::, -
(a) (b)
ss •(x) " n ( : : ++ x) Fig. 3-5. (a) Difference in incident and leaving flux densities resulting from
assumption of a linear E distribution, with slope of E-x line fi~ted at x/X =
Use of these relations in (3-66) yields a value for Á ~f 0.348. If 0.25 (only half of skew-symmetric curve is shown). (b) Approximate E dis-
À is made to fit at one-fourth and three-fourths the d1stance along tribution along walls of a circular cylinder (half diagram shown).
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 111
110 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

Equations (3-66) and (3-68) permit determination of (S 1S2 k

for any of the shapes covered in Table 2-2. Figure 3-6 gives the
values of (S1 S2 )R/ A for black disks, squares, 1x2 rectangles and
infinitely long strips, all connected by nonconducting but reradiating
walls. Expression of the distance of separation in terms of the
mean hydraulic radius of the passage rather than its minimum
dimension reduces the differences in (S 1S2 )R/A obtained for dif-
ferent shapes. The above treatment is readily extended to tapered
passages, with P given by P 0 (1 + ex); such calculations have been
performed [ 2 2] . The expression

[(Si S j )R/Ai J black source/ sinks

allowing for reflection and/ or reradiation at adiabatic surfaces
but not for any reflections at sources or sinks, is so much needed
0 0.8 1.0 2 3 . 4
o 0.2 0.4 0.6
Diameter or Least W1dth D and so cumbersome in the above form that it will be called Fii
Ratio Thickness ofWall - X the black total-view factor.

Fig. 3-6. Total-exchange factor between two ?pposed
parallel surfaces connected by nonconductmg re-
radiating walls; 4 shapes.
With equilibrium wall temperatures known, the net flux from
Ai to A 2 may be calculated
Reference has already been made (Sec. 3. 7) to the use of
this analysis for guidance in zoning the refractory walls of fur -
naces. (S 1S 2)R obtained with high accuracy from Eqs. (3-66) and
(3-68) can be compared with approximate values based on dividing
the refractory walls into one or two zones. The one-zone case is
simple. Let sink Az be at absolute zero, so that all beams leaving
source Ai are, with the aid of the refractory walls, either ulti-
mately returned to A 1 or absorbed by Az. Of a unit beam leaving
A1 , F 12 goes directly to A 2 , 1 - F 12 goes to the side walls AR,
and half of that reaches each end. Then

(The a subscripts on E 's indicate true va~ues_ rather _t~ai:i th~ nor- Ai+ SJS2
1" d values used in the preceding derivahon.) D1v1s1.on y
(3-69)
2
~a i~eE and replacement of s1s2 by its nomenclature rn the
la 2a _( ) . ld Next, consider the sidewalls divided into two zones, Ar and
present derivation - ss X -yie s
As. Let the interchange area between end surface A 1 and another
X
= (S1S2)R = ss(X) - Jo (1-Ex)ss'(x) dx (3-67) parallel to it at the midplane be si sM. A little consideration (use
of the method of Sec. 2.9e) indicates that sisr = Ai - sisM, that
Eia-E2a siss =si~ - sis 2 , and that srss =Ai - 2s 1sM + s 1 s 2 . Applica-
. ·t
f E(x) with x is retained, its ex- tion of Eq. (3-42) gives*, for a two-zone refractory,
lf the assumption of lrneari y o ( 64) . . (3-67)
pression in terms of A and x from (3-63) and 3- g1ves' rn
(s izR
s) = 12 +(Ir + zr)(1 - (~ 2~
- ) (3-70)
(S1S2)R = ss(X) - JJl; A +~X) ss '(x) dx
2 [3(1r)-2r]

For L/D = 0.5, this gives (SiS 2)R = 0.677, versus 0.691 from the
1-A AJX (3-68) one-zone treatment [ Eq. (3-69)] and versus the almost correct
= --[ss(X) +A] +- ss(x) dx
2 X o
*By substitution of 2s = lr, ls = 2r, rs = lr - 2r, rr - Ar = ss - As
-2(1r).
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 113
112 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

1.0 ~----,-----,--,---,--,

0.8 1----1----+--+---r--1
L/D = 113----<·
---0--- - - - - - AQ~JJ () () (5 1 1
:-----C--'j
T

Black Plane Ap

Fig. 3-8. A refractory-backed row of tubes.

~A~~J.>"'+~-·~·~·~~~t------;-~~I
0.2 ~ 1 Zone
Exact Approximatio'Z.,
.,Solution one-zone sink AT, and a one-zone refractory Ar [ = Ap =(C/7r D)AT]
o 1 1
1
and let the plane Ap have unit emissi ve power. FPT - the fraction
~~ s ~ of radiation from the plane directly intercepted by the tubes - is
l/(No. of Zones) available from Eq. (2-14) or Fig. 2-7, top line. Of the beam Ap
Fig. 3-7. Effect of zone subdivision of side walls on calcul.ated value of total emitted by the plane the fraction FPT is intercepted and absorbed;
exchange factor between two opposed par.all.el circular d1sks connected by 1- FPT is incident on Ar and either reflected or reradiated, and
nonconducting reradiatmg walls. of that the fraction FrT (= lPT ) is absorbed. The total absorption
is (SpST )R, gi ven by
value of 0.672 by use of Eqs. (3-66) and (3-68). It is clear that.
when source and sink are one-half diameter apart, the connectmg
refractory walls vary too little in emissive power to justify con- (3-72)
sidering them as more than a single uniform-temperature zone.
Figure 3-7 shows the effect of zone division for other values of
This relation could of course have been obtained by use of the
L/D. methods of Secs. 3.4 to 3.6. The black total-view factor FPT is
plotted as a function of C/D in line 5 of Fig. 3-9.
The effect of changing the end surfaces from black to gray
is readily allowed for. When there are but two source/ sinks Eq.
The net exchange between a black plane and a row of gray
(3-46) applies, and tubes aided by a refractory backing is, from Eq. (3-46) and the
above, gi ven by
l' (3-71)
1
Q net =

3.13 Refractory-Backed Tubes or Resistors - The

Equivalent Gray-Plane Concept

a. A row of tubes or rods mounted parallel to a refractory (3-73)

blackwall and irradiated by or radiating to a continuous plane par -
allel to the tubes (Fig. 3-8). Let the tube assembly be lar.ge enough
in both dimensions relative to the tube diameter and the d1stance
to the continuous plane to justify assuming the system infinite in The expression in brackets is an interchange factor between two
1
two dimensions. Let the tubes of area AT and the continuous plane parallel plane systems, the black plane Ap and the tube-covered
1
,1
of area Ap be temporarily black and, as a first approximation, let wall coextensive with Ap. It is a full measure of the effects of
the system be zoned very simply into a one-zone source Ap, a tube spacing and of back wall, and a usually adequate measure of
114 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 115

the effect of tube emissivity (see below); it may be thought of as Ar

the emissivity a gray plane at tube temperature would need to have
in order to act (so far as the rest of the furnace is concerned) as
a complete replacement of the tubes and their back wall. It will
be called the equivalent-plane emissivity of the system and given
the symbol E~. The subscript P identifies the area with which it
is to be associated; its black emissive power, however, is ET.

From the above discussion it is clear that if the overall per- Black Plane Ap
formance of a furnace chamber with wall-mounted tubes is to be
estimated, the first step is the replacement of the various tube- Fig. 3-10. Refractory-backed square resistor rods.
covered areas by equivalent gray-plane surfaces. If difference's
in input to different tubes in a tube array and the effects of local
that segments on the top, side, and bottom vary so in the surround-
convection and of gas absorption
ings they see as to require zoning of the tubes into at least three
in the space between tubes and
segments. But when this is done, the effect on the net transfer be-
refractory walls are to be con- OOOQ tween tubes and plane is found to be small unless the tubes are
sidered, the problem is of course 0000-b
abnormally close together or have a quite low emissivity.
enormously more complicated;
see Chap. 11.
To illustrate the effect of fine versus coarse zoning in the
above case as well as to indicate how some multizone problems
The simple solution of the 0.8
are nonetheless simple enough to handle without running to a ma-
tube problem represented by (3-
chine, the case of a square-rod array will be considered briefly
72) and its modification (3-73) to
(see Fig. 3-10). For simplicity of presentation the single example
allow for tube grayness may be
of rod width equalling one-half the center-to-center distance be-
mistrusted because of the over-
tween rods, i.e., B = 0.5, will be calculated, with E = 0.5. The
simplification of the zoning. Con-
sider the sources of error. The system basis is unit area of the black plane below. Designate the
are as of bottom, two sides, and top of a resistor by A 1 (= 1/2),
view a spot on the refractory back
wall will have of the rest of the A2(=1), and A3 (=1/2), the source plane by AP (= 1), and the adia-
batic_plane by Ar (= 1). From the methods of Sec. 2.4 lP = 3r =
furnace will vary as the spot 4

moves from directly behind a tube
to a point between tubes, and the
magnitude of the change in view
will plainly depend on the ele ar -
ance between tubes and refrac-
tory. When clearance equals di-
ameter it is found, by the methods
of Chap. 2, that the variation in
equilibrium emissive power of
the refractory is small enough to
be ignored. The next question is
whether the view different spots
on a tube have of their surround-
ings varies enough to justify
zoning the tube. It would appear
1/2; 11, 12, 13, lr, 23, 33, 3P, PP, rr = O; 22 = 0.4Ú; 2P =
CENTER TO CENTER DISTANCE
CD,
/
TUBE DIAMETER
0.293 = 2r; Pr = 0.207. The net flux between plane Ap and the
rods is gi ven by
1 - Direct radiation to second row.
2- Total to second row when two are present. Qnet = [(SpSi)R + (SpS2)R + (SpS3)R](Ep-Erod)
3 - Direct to first row.
4-Total to first row when two are present.
5 - Total to one row when only one present. (SpSi)R is obtainable by inspection· it is AiE1, or 0.25. (SpS 2)R
6 -Total to two rows when two are present. and (Sp83)R are, from Eq. (3-39), '
and
Fig. 3-9. Total-exchange factors be-
tween a black plane and one or two
rows of tnbes backed by a refractory
surface (directview factors are shown The portion (ApEp/ pp )/D takes the form
for comparison). Tubes are on equi-
lateral triangular centers.
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 117
116 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

But a much better approximation is possible for the square-rod

ApEp
+_ _ array. Consider the flux to plane Apto be contributed by two
Pp separate systems, 2-3-r radiating as a cavity through A 4 , and
11-Ai lP lr Ai radiating freely as a gray surface. The first system contribu-
12 13
Pi tion is best formulated by starting with an upwardly directed unit
beam at A4 in a black system. Fraction F 42 is intercepted by the
12 22 _A2 23 2P 2r sink, F 4 r is absorbed in Ar and reradiated and the fraction of it
P2 intercepted on the return is 1 - F r4 . The total interception is then
- A3
13 23 33-- 3P 3r 42 + 4r (1 - 4r /Ar )
P3
- Ap A4 - (4r) 2/Ar
lP 2P 3P PP-- Pr
PP This is (S4S2+ 3 )R, black, numerically 0.5 - (0.414/2) 2/1 or 0.457.
Allowance for grayness of A 2 and A3 by use of Eq. (3-46) [ "1"
lr 2r 3r Pr rr -AR
of (3-46) is "4" here, and p4 = O; "2" is "(2 + 3) "] gives

ApEp 1
+ 1 0.350
Pp 1 + _ __,__P_ _
-1 o o 0.5 o -1.586 o .293
.457 (A2 + A3)
o -1.586 o .293 .293 o -1 0.5
o .293 .5 -1 the contribution of the first system to the total flux to Ap. The
o o -1 0.5
face Ai contributes Ai E = 0.250. Since the area basis chosen
Ap makes Ai + A4 = 1, the sum of the contributions, 0.350 + 0.250 =
i 0.5 .293 o .207
0.600, is Ep. This is seen to be adequately close to the more
Pp
rigorously obtained 0.598 .
1
1 o .293 . 5 .207 -1

The third forro follows from the second by multiplication of the
numerator and the 4th column of the denominator by pp/ Ap. With
PP = O, all members but the Pth of the Pth column become zero,
and the order of the determinant is reduced by one. The new first
column has but one nonzero member, and the order is further re-
duced. The minors Df>2 and Df,3 have first rows with a single
nonzero member. The final numerical results are
['1
b. A double row of black tubes on equilateral triangular
centers, mounted on a radiatively adiabatic back wall, and in
radiative interchange with a black plane parallel to the tube rows
(see sketch in upper part of Fig. 3-9). Start with a unit beam
leaving Ap. The fractions FPl and Fp2 may be obtained by the
method of Sec. 2.4d. The fraction (1- Fpi - Fp2 ) reaches Ar
and is reflected or reradiated, and of it Fpi is intercepted and
absorbed by A 2 and Fp2 by Ai. Then

Their sum equals (SpSrods )R = 0.598

This is E~, the equivalent-plane emissivity of the rod-roof

system. If this problem had been handled with surfaces 1, 2, 3
treated as .a single zone, the result would be E'p = 0.647, about
8 percent high. For usual practical applications (to nickel- These black total-view factors appear as lines 4 and 6 of Fig.
1 1
chromium resistors with an emissivity of O. 74 or refinery tube- 3-9 [ lOa].
still tubes with an emissivity of about 0.8) the error of the one-
zone treatment and use of Fig. 3-9 is less than 4 percent as long
as the side dimension 2 is not greater than the face dimension 1.

,'i,
 TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACBS 119
118 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

c. Parallel thin-strip gray resistors, with their faces lying and

in a single plane which is parallel to a refr_actory supp_ort wall
insulated on its back side, occupy the frachon B of th~ir common q.=J l.ctn 1)
.. =2-\'w.f:::,.n·· (3-75)
plane and face a continuous plane surface repres_entahve of a 1 477 i nL i 1)

sink. The equivalent-plane emissivity of the strip-b~ckw_all sys-

tem may be found in four different ways: (1) by cons1derrng the
plane below the strips a black source of unit emissi_ve powe~ and
the strips a sink of zero emissive power and followrng the h1story
of a unit beam leaving the black plane; (2) by starting with a ~eam
originating at strips with an E of one, and finding t~e absorphon
at the black plane sink held at absolute zero; by usrng the deter-
minant method (3) considering the strips composed of. two zones,
their top and bottom sides, and (4) considering the strips a one-
zone source. Methods (1), (2), and (3) all correspond to a two-
zone treatment of the strips; the result is
E'= BE (2-B-Bp )/(1-Bp)
Method (4) gives the approximation
,11
E'= BE (2-B)/(l-Bp/2)
111
where L::,.Oii is the solid angle subtended at i by a surface element
j; L::,.0 i i is the equivalent vector quantity; and the summation is
over all surfaces viewed from i.
Experimental measurement of energy density is in principle
very simple. A spherical probe absorbs and emits equally in all
solid angles about it. Consequently it will assume an equilibrium
temperature which, in the absence of conduction or convection, is
a measure of local energy density. From Eq. (1-13), with I constant,
u = 4nin/c = 4nlvacn 3/c = 4an3T4/c
If there is conductive interchange with the immediate surroundings
the relation of the probe temperature Tp to the desired radiation
temperature T and the surrounding gas temperature TG is given
by an energy balance on the probe, yielding

almost numerically indistinguishable from the other methods

over the range of variables of practical interest.
The equivalent-plane emissivity E' is a maximum when
!11
B = {1 - [E/(2 - E)]11 2}/(1- E)
If this relationship is used to find the fraction B occupied by re-
sistors at maximum performance condition, B is fou~d to have the
value 1 for E = both 1 and O; and its minimum value is 0.828, occur-
ring when E = 1 - 1/"12.
:i,·1
1 3.14 Energy Density and Flux-Density Vectors.
Calculation of the energy density u or the heat flux v~ctor ~
1
If hc/E and TG are known, T may be obtained from the probe tem-
perature. Two measurements, with probes of known high and low
emissivities, will improve the accuracy of the correction. A com-
pensating method, in which the probe temperature is measured as
a function of auxiliary electrical heat input, is another possibility.
In any case the probe must be small enough not to disturb the
existing radiation field.
An example of interest in the energy density distribution
follows. ln the study of the burning of fine parti eles or droplets
in a known radiation environment the particles are sometimes
projected through a furnace in which the energy density distribu-
tion can be controlled. Equations (3-74) and (3-25) govern the

at any point i in an enclosure requires specificati_on of the mtensity operation of the furnace. Given the desired u distribution in the
1:'
furnace, a set of simultaneous equations of the form of (3-74) may
! leaving all surfaces viewed from the _spo~. i:or d1ffuse surf~ces,
the necessary information is the W d1stribuhon over the enhre be sol ved for the required W distribution. The Wi 's may then
surface, obtainable by the methods of the previous sections. Then be substituted into (3-25) to obtain the E distribution over the sur-
face. E and W may then be used, along with estimations of out-
ward conduction losses, to calculate the rates of energy generation
"wj (3-74)
Ui = J l· c/n
477
ctn..
J
1
l
n
=-L..
nc i
L::,.Oij or withdrawal at the various surfaces which will provide the de-
sired interior energy-density distribution.

1:1'
:11 ,.
1·. 1
1,,,1
 120 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
3.15 Cavities
Study of radiative flux from cavities has been motivated by
interest in the effectiveness of black body cavities and by the pos-
sibility of tailor making a surface with special emittance charac-
teristics. No new principles are involved; the integral equations
defining the W distribution over the cavity surface may be set up
and sol ved by the methods described earlier. Solutions for W may
then be used to calculate the effective emissivity of the cavity
(the ratio of the flux through the aperture of the cavity to the
emissive power of a black surface stretched across the aperture)
or the directional emissivity (the ratio of the emission in any
direction to that of a black body).
Solutions have been reported, for a number of configurations,
including spherical cavities [8,19,25], cylinders [3,5, 14, 15, 18,
19, 26], symmetrical V-grooves [ 4, 24], rectangular grooves [ 20],
and conical cavities [ 21].
Recapitulation
The net radiative exchange between two isothermal surfaces
i and j of an enclosure, per unit difference in their black emissive
powers, is called the total exchange area si si' a term allowing
fully for multiple reflections, at all surfaces of the enclosure, of
i- or j-originating radiation.
Si Si is determined by solution of an integral equation (3-6),
or by zoning the enclosure and sol ving a set of simultaneous
equations (3-25).
CHAPTER 3. LITERATURE CITATIONS
1. Bevans, J. T .: J. Heat Transjer, Series C, 83:226 (1961).
2. Buckley, H.: Phil. Mag., 6:444 (1928).
1 3. Buckley, H.: Phil. Mag., 4:753-762 (1927); 6:447 (1928);
1.I 17:576 (1934); J. Opt. Soe. Am., 18:216 (1929).
4. Daws, L. F.: Brit. J. AppZ. Phys., 5:182 (1954).
5. DeVos, J. C.: Physiea, 20:669-689 (1954).
6. Eckert, E. R. G. and R. M. Drake: "Heat and Mass Trans-
fer," pp. 407-411, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.
7. Gebhart, B.: "Heat Transfer," McGraw-Hill, New York,
1961.
1 1
8. Gouffe, A.: Rev. d'Opt., 24:1 (1945).
1
1.
1
1
9. Hildebrand, F. B.: "Methods of Applied Mathematics,"
l 1i
Chapter 4, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1960.
10. Hildebrand, F. B.: "lntroduction to Numerical Analysis,"
pp. 439-451, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956.
lOa. Hottel, H.C.: Trans. Am. Soe. Meeh. Engrs., 53:265 (1931).
TOTAL INTERCHANGE AMONG SURFACES 121
11. Hottel, H. C. and J. D. Keller: Trans. ASME: Iron and Steel
55:39 (1933). '
lla. Hottel, H. C.: "Notes on Radiant Heat Transmission Among
Surfaces Separated by Non-Absorbing Media," Mass. Inst.
of Tech., Cambridge, Mass., 1951.
12. Hottel, H. C.: in W. H. McAdams, "Heat Transmission,"
3d ed., Chapter 4, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954.
13. Hottel, H. C. and A. F. Sarofim: "Theory and Fundamental
Research in Heat Transfer," J. A. Clark, (ed.), pp. 139-160,
Pergamon Press, New York, 1963.
14. Jotaki, M.: Eleetroteeh. Lab. Tokyo, Researehes, 558 (1957).
15. Moon, P.: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 30:195-205 (1940).
16. Oppenheim, A. K.: Trans. ASME, 78:725-735 (1956).
17. Sparrow, E. M.: J. Heat Transjer Series C 82:375-380
(1960). ' '
18. Sparrow, E. M., L. U. Albers and E. R. G. Eckert: J. Heat
Transfer, 84:73-81 (1962).
19. Sparrow, E. M. and V. K. Jonsson: J. Heat Transfer Series
C, 84:188-189 and 283-293 (1962). '
20. Sparrow, E. M. and V. K. Jonsson: J. Applied Meehanies
E30:237-244 (1963). '
21. Sparrow, E. M. and V. K. Jonsson: J. Opt. Soe. Am. 53:
816-821 (1963). '
22. Sparrow, E. M., and V. K. Jonsson: J. Heat Transfer Series
c, 86:132 (1964). '
23. Sparrow, E. M.: ''Radiant Emission Absorption and Trans-
mis~ion Characteristics. of. Cavities and Passages," Sym-
posium on Thermal Radiation oj Solids, sponsored by USAF,
NBS and NASA, San Francisco, Calif., March 1964
24. Sparrow, E. M. and S. H. Lin: Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
5:1111-1115 (1962). '
25. VanDiggelen, J.: Reserehes Astronomiques de
L'Observatoire D'Utreeht, 14 (1960).
26. Yamauti, Z.: Eleetroteeh. Lab. Tokyo Researehes 378
(1934). ' '
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 123

y
y y
CH 4 Ax- Ax~
- ----, ,--- Ax-
su 1

1
t
Ay
1

1
Ey
r
Ay r
Ay
1
1 1 E
1 1

This chapter presents a brief exposition of the mechanism of 1

X
1
1
1 Ex X X
emission and absorption at surfaces and some numerical data on the 1
1
1

1
1
controlling properties - emissivity, absorptivity, and reflectivity. 1

1
1

1
1
1
1
Departure of the properties of real surfaces from the gray lam- L----- - _ _ _ _ _ _ _J 1
_ _ _ _ _J
bertian behaviour postulated in Chaps. 2 and 3 will be noted. Methods (a) (b) (c)
of allowing for these nonidealities in calculating radiative exchange
will be discussed in Chap. 5.
Fig. 4-1. Locus of. electric vector ~or radiation that is (a) elliptically, (b)
lmearly, and (e) circularly polarized.
4.1 Principles and Definitions
Ay cos (2nv t' + !::..)
a. Wave description of radiation. Radiation is energy in
transport in electromagnetic wave form, with electric and magnetic Ay [ cos (2nv t ') cos !::.. - sin (2nv t ') sin !::.. J (4-3)
vectors vibrating perpendicular to the direction of propagation. For
the present it suffices to consider the electric vector alone, equal The locus of the electric vector, obtained by elimination of t • be-
in magnitude and direction to the force exerted on a unit positive tween (4-2) and (4-3), is described by
charge, and denoted by E*. 2
EX E 2y 2E X E y
ln a cartesian coordinate system with the z axis selected as A2 + A2 - A A cos !::.. = sin2 !::.. (4-4)
X y X y
the direction of propagation, the components of E along the x and
y axes are given by An observer sit~ated along the direction of propagation would ob-
serve the electnc ve~t?r tracing an ellipse (Fig. 4-la), clockwise
Ax cos [2nv (t-z/v) + Ôx) when ~x lags Ey (positive!::..), or anticlockwise when Ey lags Ex
(4-1) (~egahve !::..). Two cases of (4-4) have acquired special designa-
Ey Ay cos [2nv(t-z/v) + ôy] hons. When !::.. equals zero or n
1
'
(Ex+~ )2
.11
where Ax and Ay are the amplitudes, v is the frequency, t is time,
vis the velocity of propagation, ôx and ôy are the phases of the two Ax Ay
o
components - constants whose magnitudes depend on the origin of or
the radiation. ln practice, resolution of the electric vector can be Ex =±~
realized by the use of a sheet polarizer. Ax Ay
The electric vector at any time is the vector sum of its com- and the radiation is said to be linearly polarized (Fig 4-lb) When
ponents Ex and Ey. Substitution of 2nvt' "" 2nv (t - z/v) + ôx and !::.. = (1/2 or 3/2)n · ·
!::.. = ôy - ôx into Eqs.(4-1) gives

Ex = Ax COS (2nvt') (4-2)

t~J ~~:)' + = 1

*An apology for nomenclature. ln other chapters E is hemispherical emis- ~d ".'ith Ax = A Y' the electric vector traces a circle and the radia-
sive power. ln this one, for consistency with most literature on electro- t10n is said to be circularly polarized (Fig. 4- lc).
magnetism, E is the electric vector and Ex, Ey its resolved components.

122
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 125
124 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

wavelength region or over the entire

The above comments on the electric vector relate to radia-
tion characterized by a constant phase difference b.. Such radia-
tion is referred to as coherent. Incoherent radiation, sometimes
called natural radiation, is characterized by the absence of any
phase relation between or among the primary emitters contributing
to the beam, and the corresponding absence of any identifiable vari-
ation in intensity.
b. Intensity of radiation; interference. The instantaneous
value of radiation intensity is proportional to the square of the mag-
nitude of the electric vector. Consequently, if the electric vector
is resolved along the x and y axes,
(4-5)
A pencil of radiation of intensity I may be composed of a time-
invariant natural component IN and a coherent component Ic which
is the time-mean value of I from Eq. (4-5). When beams from a
number of different sources are superposed the electric vector of
the radiation may be obtained by summation of the electric vectors
of the different beams, with due allowance for the difference in their
1\l phases. Only for incoherent or natural radiation - fortunately, that
of most engineering problems - may intensities be summed.
'ili c. States of polarization. The state of polarization p is a
1\ measure of the relative intensities of the components of an electric
vector resolved along two mutually perpendicular axes. Its defini-
tion is
(4-6)
'1
111
where I.L and 111 refer to the intensities of radiation resolved per-
pendicular or parallel to a reference plane parallel to the direction
of flux.
d. Emissivities (Emittances*). Emissivity, defined as the
ratio of the emission rate of a surface to that from a blackbody at
the sarne temperature, may have a number of values depending upon
the measurement made. Emission may be measured in a narrow
*A convention recommended by Forsythe [ 15] of reserving the suffixes,
-ivity vs -ance, e.g., emissivity vs emittance, to describe the properties
of pure materials vs those of bodies of irregular shape or composition or
those of systems is gaining increasing acceptance. ln view of the difficulty
of obtaining a surface free of defects, strict adherence to this convention
would require that emittance be used practically exclusively. The suffixes
will be used more or less interchangeably in this book.
spectrum, in a differential solid an-
gle about a specific direction or in a
hemisphere above the surface; and a
further distinction can be made with
regard to the state of polarization.
ln addition, the emissivity may be a
function of the temperature of the
emitter. A complete description of
E consequently requires measure- dA
ment, at different surface temper-
atures, of the intensity and state of Fig. 4-2. Diffuse reflection at
polarization of emission for all wave- a surface.
lengths, and all directions. A few of
the i:iore c.ommon. m~a~urements have acquired special designations:
h~m1s~hencal em1ss1vity Eh, often just E; spectral emissivity E".
direchonal emissivity at an angle e with the surface normal ~ ~~
E~ e~; anda special case of Ee, that when e is zero, the norm~l ~mis­
s1vity, E n.
. e. Absorptivi.ty and reflectivity. Absorptivity and reflectivity
defmed as the fract10ns of the radiation incident on a surface which '
are absorbed. and. ref.lected, may have different values depending on
t~e angular. d1~tnbuho~, ~pectral distribution or state of polariza-
t10n of the mc1dent radiat10n used in the measurement. For an
opaqu.e surface the reflect.iv_ity is complementary to the absorptivity;
and smce spectral reflechvity, absorptivity and emissivity are in-
terrelated by '
(4-7)
(see Se~. 1~2), th~ :r:iresentation of the results for one of the spectral
properhes is suff1cient to define the remaining two.
f. . Diffuse reflection. Specular reflection is characterized
by equahty of. angle of divergence of the incident and reflected
beams, equahty of ang.les of incidence and reflection, and location
o~ the reflected beam m the plane of incidence. Reflection of a pen-
cll of rays of small divergence dni by a nonhomogeneous material
or rou?hened surface on the other hand occurs throughout the 27T
sterad1ans above th.e surface. Of a beam incident at angle ei on a
surface, l.et the raho of the intensity of the beam reflected at angle
G,' 1/Jr (Fig. 4-2) to that from a White perfectly diffuse-reflecting
su~face (Ir ,,=f(e)_) be ca~le~ the partial reflectance, designated by
p( 1 ' erl 1/1 r). W1th the l~C1dent flux density represented by li (e)
cos .ei an.i, the flux density leaving a white surface is the sarne and
the mtensity of reflected radiation is '
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 127
126 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

1i(e) cosei dni

1T

If the intensity of the reflected beam from the nonwhite surface of

interest is Ir (e i, Bri lflr ),* then
(4-8)
In the above Ir is an infinitesimal compared to L. It will be
noted that the parÚal reflectance is a quantity which can exceed. one;
in fact, a specular reflector must have a partial reflectance of .m-
finity at the angle of specular reflection, since Ir at that ~gle is
of the sarne order of magnitude as li in Eq. (4-8) and ds-2 m the de.-
nominator is an infinitesimal. The reflectance, throughout a hem1-
sphere, of a beam incident at angle ei is gi ven by
s
2rr
Ir (Bi, 80 lflr) cos Br dS1r
11
o 1
(a) (d)
Fig. 4-3. Different methods of representing the directional emittance of a
surface having Ee = 1 for O< e < 30° and 45º < e < 60°, and Ee = O at all other
angles.
The representation of Ee as a function of sin 2 e using linear coor-
dinates has the advantage that the area under the resultant curve
equals the hemispherical emissivity. * The other methods may
sometimes be preferred for purposes of visualization.
Figure 4-3 shows different methods of plotting the directional
emissivity of a hypothetical surface having an fe of one for O :::: e
:::: 30° and 45° :::: e :::: 60° and an E8 of zero at all other angles. That
each of the clear and shaded areas receives equal weighting in their

P (ei ) = contribution to the total emissivity is evident only from the Ee vs

sin 2 e plot.
11
which, with (4-8), becomes h. Dielectrics. Electric fields in nonconductors are modi-
fied by the alignment of dipoles in the applied electric field and by

:1i'
J2rr p(Bi, Br, lflr) COS Br ds-2r the dipoles induced in the molecules or atoms as a consequence of
displacement of their charges. A measure of these effects is the
(4-9)
I' p (ei ) = dielectric constant fi, obtained, for example, as the ratio of the
111 charges required to maintain a given potential across the material
It is clear that a complete description of partial reflectance and across free spacet. Dielectric constants used for predicting
necessitates addition of two parameters' er and lflo to the t.hree the interaction of radiation with matter should be evaluated at the
'I (B, p, ,\) required fully to define emissivity. Once the parhal reflec- frequency of interest.
11.11 tance has been measured, the total reflectance and hence absorp-
tance may be calculated. The converse is not ~enerally true; the. i. Conductors. The conductivity a0 , the proportionality be-
artial reflectance cannot be derived from the mtegrated value w1th- tween current density and applied potential gradient or electric
~ut specification first of the mechanism causing the diffuseness of field strength, is a measure of the resistance to motion of the free
electrons in a metal. a0 must be expressed in the esu system, in
the reflection.
which it has the dimensions of statmhos; 1 statmho = 109 mho/(cm)
g. Graphical presentation of E8 • . The depen?ence of emis- (c 2). As in the case of fi, it is not to be expected that static mea-
sivity (or reflectivity) on angle can be illustrated ~na m~mbe~ of surements of ao can be used to describe interaction of metals with
ways: as Ee vs sin2 e or Ee vs e on linear or semilogan~hm1c co- radiation at the higher frequencies.
ordinates, and as E8 vs e or Ee cos e vs e on polar coordmates.
*The emission per unit area in a solid angle d!1 generated by the figure of
*An additional angle may be required if the surface is anisotropic; for ex- revolution of the plane angle d!1 about the normal is E e (EB/rr )dQ cos e which,
ample, both fr and the angle between the plane .ºf the in.cident beam and the on substitution of d!1 = 2rr sin e de, becomes EeE&(sin2 e).
1 , 11
1

direction of machining may be required to spec1fy the d1ffuse reflectance of tThe electrostatic system of units (esu), in which the inductive capacity of
1
a metal surface. free space is one, will be adopted.

1·1
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 129
128 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

2. Conductors. For metals a0 is very large and, in the range

j. The absorption index. An electrom~gnetic wave undergoes in which ao/v »
&, (4-14) and (4-15) give
a fractional reduction in amplitude, over a d1stance o~ one wave-
length Àm measured in the medium, of e-2rrK,.where K lS the absorp-
~(
2
&v
tion index. The radiation intensity, proporhonal to the square of K = 1 -
&v)
4ao =1--=1 (4-17)
the amplitude, is therefore reduced by the factor e -4 rrK. over the 2ao
distance Àm or À/n, where À is measured in vacuo. * s.mce the .r~­
duction is also given by e -KA/n (where K is the absorphon coefflc1ent), = (a o/v )112 (4-18)
it follows that
KÀ (4-10) The refractive index, approximately (a 0 /v )112 in the far in-
K = 47Tn frared, is high; and K(= 1) corresponds to extreme opacity. A typ-
ical complex refractive index for metals is 37-41i for platinum at
k. Complex index of refraction. The complex index of re-
10µ.
fraction n' is defined as
3. Absorption bands. n and K for metals in the near infrared
n' = n(l - iK) and visible, and for insulators about absorption bands, may have
practically any value. Typical of the wide range of complex refrac-
From the equations of propagation of radiation it can be shown that tive índices are 0.005-2 .61i for sodium at 0.59 µ, 1. 73-4.96i for mer-
(4-11) cury at 0.59µ, and 0.9-1.22i for plate glass at 9µ. Extensive but far
n (1 - iK) = (& - 2ia0 /v )112 from complete compilations of the complex refractive index are
available [2, 27].
where vis the frequency. Manipulation of (4-11) gives

& = n2 (1 - K2)
(4-12) 4.2 Isotropic Dielectric Media (K = O)
(4-13) ln spectral regions where the absorption index is negligible,
the radiative properties of dielectrics are determined entirely by the
K = -&v/2% + [(&v/2a 0 )2 +1]112
(4-14) refractive índex n, which according to (4-16) is equal to &112 . Ra-
diation incident on a surface at an angle e to the normal will under-
and (4-15) go partial specular reflection and partial refraction; the angle of
n2 = &/2 + [ (a0 /v)2 + (&/2)2 ]112
refraction x is given by Snell 's law
These relations lead to significant generalizations about in-
sulators and conductors as classes of materials. sin X = sin e/n (4-19)

1. Dielectrics. The value of K is substantially zero except in The properties of the reflected radiation are detailed below.
spectral regions corresponding to a.bsorption bands. This d?es. n.ot
call for transparency, since even w1th K = 0.00~ the transm1ss1vity a. Directional reflecti vity. Fresnel 's equations: The re-
in the visible of a specimen 1 millimeter thick lS only 0.001. Ac- flecti vities of the components of polarization resol ved parallel and
cording to (4-12), when K =O perpendicular to the plane of incidence are best considered sepa-
rately. They are
(4-16)
sin 2 (e - x)
Refractive indices vary from 1 to 4. A typical complex value n' p.l = (4-20)
sin 2 (e + x)
would be 1.5(1- iK), with K in the range O to 0.001.
and tan2 (e- x)
*This distinction between the wavelength Àm in matter and /.. in free space is (4-21)
not always made in the definition of absorption index; consequently n:any of ~' tan2 (e+ x)
values of K reported in the literature are equivalent to the UK of th1s text.
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 131
130 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

índex is shown in Fig. 4-6. The state of polarization of radiation

Elimination of x among (4-19), (4-20), and (4-21) gives reflected by insulators is generally much higher than that of emit-

~ [~:: ~ :~:: ~:~: ~ ~~:

= : :r (4-22)
ted radiation since p.l - pli = Eli - E for all refractive índices of
prachcal rnterest ana ( p.l + pli ) « (E.l + Eli ) •
• • J_

and
e - (n 2 - j2
e)11 2
1.0
-
F==:::~
n2 cos sin2 (4-23) n 1.5
p = [ n - 1.9 ./
li n 2 cos e + (n2 - sin2 e)112 ,..._
0.8

N'
These are known as Fresnel 's equations. n -3
G3
\LJ
For normal incidence (e = O)
2 (4-24) 0.()
= = 2 q;; n 5
p.l p 11 (n - 1) /(n + 1)
<:l
'
and at glancing incidence (e = 7T /2)
G3
Q
0.1
P.l = p11 = 1 1
,...,
Figure 4-4 shows, 1.0 )
for a material of refrac-
tive index 1.5, the com-
plements of p.l and p 11 • The 0.8
c.l
~
D- 1\
t-.11
0.2

complement of their av-

erage is given in Fig. 4-5 G3
\ií
for several refractive in- 11 o.6
I\' o
o.2 o.4
sin 2 ()
o.6 o.8 1.0

dices. These curves rep- §

resent the directional ~
emissivity of materials
\ Fig. 4-5. Angular dependence of the emis-
sivity of insulators.

with a K large enough to

make them opaque but yet . . .
much smaller than one. 0.2
b. State of polar-
ization. The values of p.l ci:
+
and p 11 may be used to cal- 0 <f 0.6
culate the state of polar - o o.2 o.4 o.(i o.8 l.O "::::
2
ization of the radiation sin o ci::1
reflected by an insulator. Fig. 4-4. E and E 11 for an opaque dielectric 1 o.4 1------/c--,l---/----l-J'.--

When the intensities of with ; refractive index of 1.5. ~

the parallel and perpen-
dicular components of the incident radiation are equal,

P - P11 2 (n2 - sin2 8)112 sin e tan e (4-25)

p = n2 + sin2 e (tan2 e - 1)
P.l + P11
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
When the angle of incidence equals tan-1 n, p 11 is zero, P = 1, and sin2 ()
the reflected radiation is plane-polarized. This angle is known as
Brewster 's angle. The variation with angle of ~he state of pol~r­ Fig. 4-6. Polarization of radiation reflected
ization of radiation reflected by insulators of d1fferent refractive by insulators.
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 133
132 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

c. Hemispherical emis- equations are still applicable provided the complex index of refrac-
refracti ve index, n

1.0
1 o1 5.. 2o 3.0 4.0 sivity. Expressions for the
hemispherical emissivity of
tion n' is substituted for n. The real and imaginary parts of the
resultant expressions correspond to the changes in amplitude and
1
/ the two components of polar-
1 phase respectively. Presentation of the equations for reflectivity
0.99 ization are obtained [ 45] by
/ use of (4-22) and (4-23) to
and phase change are simplified by introduction of the following
identity [ 31]:
0.98
\ ,; obtain Ee , and integration of
"0.97 Ee d sin2 e. The resultant a - ib = (n ' 2 - sin2e)l/ 2
"'"'0' 0.96 \ / integrals are

0.95
\ "-- [..../'
/ (n-1)(3n+1)
Consequently

Eh,.L = 1 - 3(n+1)2 a 2 - b2 = n2 (1 - Kz) - Sin 2 8

0.94
(4-26)
0.93
0.7 0.6 and ab = n2 K
1.0 0.9 0.8
normal emissivity, En
4n3(n2 +2n- 1) a2 + b 2 = {[n 2 (1- K2) - sin2 e]2 + 4n4K 2}112
Fig. 4-7. Ratio of hemispherical to nor- Eh,11= (n2+1)(n4-1)
mal emissivity as a function of normal 2a2 = {[ n2 (1 - K2) - sin2 8]2 + 4n4 K2} 112 + n2 (1- K 2) - sin2 e (4-28a)
emissivity (or refractive índex). 16n 4(n 4 + 1) f'n (n)
- (n2+1)(n4-1) 2
li
~--
/.L 2b2 = {[ u2 (1- K2) - sin2 e]2 + 4n4 K2} 112 - n2 (1- K2) + sin2 e (4-28b)
/ _ \n2(n2-1;2l en (~)
/
2
L (n2 + 1)J n+1 The reflectivities and phase changes will be formulated in
(4-27) terms of a and b.

Since normal emissivities are a. Directional Reflectivity

Fig. 4-8. Representation of ~o~ -
ponents of polarization of mc1- frequently reported in th.e lit-
dent and reflected beams. Single erature the ratio of hem1sphe- a2 + b2 - 2a cose + cos2e
(4-29)
(double) arrows represent the rical to normal emissivities a2 + b2 + 2a cose + cos2e
parallel (perpendicular) .com~o­ is of particular value to an
nent or amplitude of v1brat10n
in (normal to) the plane of inci-
engineer. This ratio [ 39] is a2 + b2 - 2a sin e tan e + sin2 e tan2 e
(4-30)
dence.
shown in Fig. 4-7 · a2 + b2 + 2a sin e tan e + sin2 e tan2 e p.L
d. Phase change. As mentioned in Se~. ~-lc, allowance for For normal incidence
phase angle is necessary when interferenc~ is im~o~t:t;e:i~~~ion
com onents of polarization show a phase e ange 0 . f' (n - 1)2 + n2 K2
as ifrustrated by the relative orientation of t~e e~ectnc vectors o p11 = p.L - (n + 1)2 + n2 K2
(4-31)
the incident (E) and the reflected (R) beams m Fig. 4-8.
Figure 4-9 presents directional emissivities for some selected
4.3 Absorbing Media values of n and K, Fig. 4-10 the normal reflectivity for a larger
range of the optical constants. The tedium of evaluating reflectiv-
Radiation in a solid may be absorbed as a consequ~nce of the ities from Eqs. (4-28) to (4-30) can be reduced by using an approx-
dissipative sources associated with the vibrati_onst~f ~o~~f~;~~:~~- imation introduced by Cauchy [ 11]. Noting that metal~ in the visible
ticularly about its resonance frequen_cy' and w1~h ~ F l 's range of the spectrum have values of n 2[1 - K2 ranging from 8 to 1

any free electrons with the ionic lathce. Snell s an resne 30, he recommended neglecting sin2 e in Eq. (4-28). The reflectivity
134 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 135

in the range in which this c. Phase changes. For the electric vector
simplification is justifiable o .9
is given by - 2b cos e
o .s tan 61. (4-36)
a 2 + b 2 - cos 2 e
(n-costi) 2 +n 2 K2 0.7
pl.-(n+costi)2+n2K2
-------- and
0.6
2b cos e (a 2 + b2 - sin2 e)
(4-32) tan ~ 1 = -,------------ (4- 37)
0.5
E(e)
a2 + b 2 - n4 (1 + K2)2 cos 2 e
(n-sin ti tan 8)2 + n2 K2 0.4

Pn = ( n+sintitane) 2 +n2K2 pl. The difference of the phase angles Ll.. ( =61. - 611 ) is of greater
0.3
interest than the angles themselves since it is readily measured
(4-33) 0.2 experimentally; it is given by
0.1
The effect of angle of 2b sin e tan e
tan ( 6 l. - 611 ) = tan !::.= (4-38)
reflection on p l. may be ob- o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 sin2 e tan2 e - (a2 + b2)
tained from Fig. 4-10 by sin2 ()
noting, from a comparison Fig. 4-9. Directional emissivityof strong The angle e at which A equals ir/2 (one at which a circularly
of Eqs. (4-32) and (4-31), absorbers. polarized beam will be converted into a plane polarized beam) is
1.0 ~-~-~--~-~-- called the principal angle of incidence ®. The principal azimuth,
'11, is the angle which the direction of the resulting plane vibration
.9 that if n is replaced by n/ cos e
.8 wherever it appears in Fig. 4- makes with the plane of incidence. ® and \[! can be measured as
a..
~
follows: using a particular angle of incidence e and placing a
~ .7
10, the value of p is pl. (e).
Babinet compensator on the reflected beam to introduce a change
~ .6 in phase angle of - ir/2, search for a plane of extinction with an ana-
ü Good agreement is obtained
'"
~ .5
between the reflectivities ob- lyzer. Adjust the incident angle e until one is found. That incident

"~§ . ~·.
4

3 -\---+-'>
tained from the approximate and
the exact equations [ 19].
angle is® and the angle between the plane of vibration of the emer-
gent beams and the plane of incidence is \[!. These two measure-
z ments serve as one of the more accurate means of determining the
.2
b. Hemispherical emis- optical constants n and K. This method was originally recommended
sivity. Dunkle [ 19] has used by Drude [ 18]. The complexity of the calculations required to ob-
o 4 5 (4-32) anda modified form of tain n and K from ® and \[! has led to a number of calculational short-
2 3
Refractive Index, n (4-33) to obtain the following cuts for arriving at the constants [ 1, 4, 14].
Fig. 4-10. Normal reflectivity as a hemispherical emissivities by
integration of Ee d sin 2 e d. Refraction. For a strongly absorbing medium the ratio
function of n and nK. Optical con-
stants at 0.589µ for a fewmetals are
of the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is not constant.
marked on the diagram. Instead,

1+2n+n2+n2K2) 8n2(1-K2) ( K )
Eh l. = 8n - 8n 2 11.. + tan -1
' ( n2 +n2K2 K 1 +n +nK 2
(4-34) (4-39)
and
8 8 fl.. (1+2n+n2 +n2K2) + 8(1-K 2 ) ( nK) This departure from the more familiar form of Snell 's law is the
Eh 11 = - 2 tan- 1 - -
, n(l+K2) n2(1+K )2 n2K(l+K2)2 l+n reason that metals with refractive indices less than one (e.g., so-
dium in the visible) are not total reflectors at large angles of
(4-35)
incidence.
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 137
136 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

used Hagen-Rubens relation, (4-42), is in error by approximately

4.4 Metallic Reflection 14 percent at ao/v = 60. Introduction of the identities
Metals are a special case of strong absorbers. When the con-
ductivity is high the optical constants are given by Eqs. (4-17) and
a0 = 8.987 X 10 11/r sec- 1 and V= e/A
(4-18) where r is the resistivity in ohm-cms and A is in centimeter-s en-
ables the conversion of a0 /v to practical units '
n (a o/V ) 1/2

K =' 1 CJo/V = 29.98A/r

This section will be concerned with the introduction of these values

which on substitution in (4-42) and (4-43) gives
of the optical constants into the equations of Sec. 4.3, and the ma-
nipulation of the resulting equations to obtain some useful working
relations for the spectral and total values of the normal and hemi- En,À = 0.365(r/A)l/2 (4-42a)
spherical emissivities of metals. and
En,A = 0.365(r/A )1/ 2 - 0.067(r/A) + 0.006(r/A)312 · · · (4-43a)
a. Normal spectral emissivity. Equation (4-31) for radia-
tion incident normal to a surface, on insertion of K = 1 and n = [See Fig. 4-11, which is based on the exact relation (4-40).]
(a 0 /v ) 112 becomes
b. Total normal emis-
112
2a0 /v - 2(a 0 /v ) + 1 sivity and absorptivity. The
PJ_ 2a0 /v + 2(a 0 /v) 112 + 1 total normal emissivity may be
obtained by integrating the spec-
or tral emissivity, weighted by the 0.18

4(a 0 /v) 11 2 monochromatic emissive power, e< o.16 c-\-+--/---l-7"---+----l-----1 "

(4-40) over all wavelengths. ~ ~
En,v = 1 - P 112 H O.14 C---'<--W-~+---+----l-----1 -"
o w
2a0 /v + 2 (a 0 /v ) + 1 w"" 0.12 -----l'bL-+--~-+---+-----112~
0.10 ~
Since a0 /v is much greater than unity Eq. (4-40) may be further
simplified to

En,v ~
2 (4-41)
r EB,\ dA () .04 Hl--+---+-----1-------1---=-...J
o .02 w-----+----+----l-----+------1 1. 1
(a 0 /v ) 11 2 + 1
t= E,\ EBÀ dA 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
2 (4-42) r/,\ (ohms)
En,v:::;
(ao/ v )112 Fig. 4-11. Hemispherical and normal
spectral, emissivity of metals, in de-
This equation, first derived by Drude [ 18], is more often associ- Substitution of EA from (4-43a) pendence on r/A ; and their ratio (r =
ated with Hagen and Rubens since they established the range of its ohm-cm).
gives
validity by extensive experimentation [ 24]. 112 312
En = 0.578 (rT) - 0.178 rT + 0.058 (rT) ··· (4-44)
Alternatively, Eq. (4-40) may be expanded to give
wher~ ris in o~n:-cms ai:d T is degrees Kelvin (see Fig. 4-12).
(4-43) Rel~hons conta1~mg the flrst and the first two terms of the above
En,v = 2/(a 0 /v)l/2 - 2/(a 0 /v) + 1/(a 0 /v)3/2 · · ·
ser~es_ wer_e denved by Aschkinass [ 3] and Foote [22], respectively.
The emissivities calculated by Eq. (4-41) and by the first two terms ~ ~1m1lar mtegration could be performed to evaluate the absorp-
of (4-43) agree with the value calculated by the exact formula (4-40) tivity of a metal at a temperature T for blackbody radiation from a
to within 1 percent ata a0 /v of 60 (E = 0.227). The more widely source at Ts
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 139
138 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

1 _ P ( 8 )"' 2 cos 8 (4-48)

j_ (ao/1!)112
-

and
2
E11 (8) = 1 - p11 (8) =: (4-49)
(ao /1! )11 2 cos 8
i--1-----j---j u ~" except at large angles of emission where Eq. (4-48) obviously can-
\V

not be valid. Equations (4-48) and (4-49) may be used to obtain the
03 total hemispherical emissivity:
õ o 1 f---,~+--~'­
~

(4-50)
L _ _ J _ __ _l___ _j___ _J___ _j___ _L__-L-_---' 1.0
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
(Resistivity)(Temperature), rT ( ohm-cm ºK) Division of the a?ove ~y ~he normal emissivity [Eq.(4-42)] yields
Fig. 4-12. Hemispherical and normal total emissivity Eh/En = 4/3. Th1s raho is the maximum value of Eh/En valid in
of metals in dependence on rT. the limitas a0 /1! _, w (E_, O). The emitted radiation fo~ this case
is highly polarized;
r: 0.365 [ r(T)/À ]11 2 Et\ (Ts )dÀ
(4-45) Eu = 3 E.L
an(T ,T s) = -------4----- p = 1 :: : ::: 1 = 0.5
aT 5
where r(T) indicates the resistivity evaluated at the metal temper- General expressions for the spectral and total emissivities
ature and Et\ (Ts) blackbody emissive power evaluated at the source of metals were derived by Davisson and Weeks [ 16]. Assigning a
temperature. The first term of the integration is v~lue of one to {i; in Eq. (4-12) and substituting the resulting expres-
s1on for the complex refractive index in the equations for reflection
112 (4-46) by absorbing media, they obtained
an(T ,Ts) = 0.578 [ r(T) Ts ]

The resistivity of most metals is approximately proportional to the [(4a6/1! 2 + cos4 8)11 2 + cos 2 8]11 2 - '12 cos 8
(4-51)
absolute temperature [r(T)/r(T 0 ) = T/To] so that (4-46) becomes [ (4aa2/1! 2 + cos4 8 ) 112 + cos 2 8] 112 + '12 cos 8
112
r(To) T Tsj (4-47) (4a6/1! 2 + cos 4 8) 112 + sin2 8 tan2 8
O'n(T,T5 ) = 0.578 [ To
A_ (4a6/1! 2 + cos 4 8) 112 + sin2 8 tan 2 8
But this is equal to the emissivity at the geometric mean tempera-
ture (T Ts )11 2 . This is the basis for the recommendation, often - ~ [(4a0'i11! 2 + cos 4 8) 112 + cos 2 8]11 2 sin 8 tan 8
found in the literature, that the absorptivity of a metal ata tem-
+ '12 [(4a6/1! 2 + cos 4 8)112 + cos2 8]11 2 sin 8 tan 8
perature T for blackbody radiation at Ts equals the emissivity at
(4-52)
(T T s )11 2 . The major limitation on this equality is the validity of
Eq. (4-43), which is restricted to longer wavelengths (À> 6µ, see
The directional distribution of emissivity calculated from (4-51)
Sec. 4-11). With 50 percent of blackbody radiation emitted at wave-
and (4-52)* is given in Fig. 4-13, which indicates that a glowing
lengths less than 6 µ at 600 ºK it is inadvisable to use the geometric
mean approximation for values of T or T s much above this temperature. *Values of the reflectivity at normal incidence calculated from Eqs. (4-51)
and (4-52) and from Eq. (4-40) differ slightly (less than 0.5 percent when
e. Spectral hemispherical emissivity. The equations for the
ªo/v < 60). The difference results from setting {i; equal to oné in the deri-
directional emittance for very large values of a0 /1! can be approx- vation of Eqs. (4-51) and (4-52) and to zero in the derivation of (4-40).
imated [from (4-32) and (4-33), with small terms neglected] by
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 141
140 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

forro of the n and K variations but

sphere or filament of metal should
requires three adjustable con-
appear brightest near the rim; it
0.40 stants for each bound electron -
does. The hemispherical emis-
the resonance frequency
sivity determined by graphical
0.30 the damping constant, and the res~
integration of E( e) vs sin2 e is
toration force constant - and two
shown in Fig. 4-11; its ratio to ----v---~

for the free electrons - the drag

En can be approximated by constant and the number of free Fig. 4-14. Anomalous dispersion.
electrons per atom. Up to 14 con- Variation of n and nK with fre-
0.10 ( E/Enh= 1 + 0.305e-1. 337 Vr/X (4-53) stants would be required to de- quency about a strong absorption
0.08 scribe a metal if one accepts band.
~ The maximum error is at r /A = O,
w"' 0.06 Ditchburn 's [ 17] statement that
where it differs from the correct
the properties of most metals can be explained by four terms three
value of 4/3 by two percent.
0.04 for _bo~nd and one for free electrons. A complete theoretical'de-
d. Total hemispherical emis- scnpt10n ~f emissivities must therefore await development of gen-
0.08
sivity. A combination of Eq_. (4-53) eral techmques of evaluating these constants. *
0.02 with normal spectral emissivity
(4-43), followed by integration over The prediction by dispersion theory of the variation of n and
K about a resonance frequency is shown in Fig. 4-14. The maximum
the entire spectrum, gives
value of the ab_sorption index occurs at approximately the resonance
o.o 1 c___J___L___L___L__.L_~~~_J f~e~uency. l~ is frequently high enough to cause significant reflec-
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 E = 0.751 (rT) 112 - 0.632 (rT)
e (degrees) hon, ~bsorphon bands are responsible for the metallic lustre of
fusc~m and th~ r~st-strahl_en (residual rays) produced by the re-
Fig. 4-13. The directional emis- + 0.670 (rT) 31 2 - 0.604 (rT) 2
sivity of metals, in dependence on (4-54) flechon of radiation by an ionic crystal.
r/>-...
The hemispherical emissivity E and the ratio E/En are presented as 4.6 Rough Surfaces
functions of rT in Fig. 4-12.
The effect of surface irregularities on radiative properties
depetds very much on the ratio of the root-mean-square rough-
4.5 Dispersion ness s to the wavelength ;\. At very small values of s/A a sur-
~ace can be _consid_ered to be a smooth specular reflector; as s/A
The agreement between experimental emissivities and values rncreases d1ffrach~n effects become important, and the radiation
calculated from static values of 0 and a 0 is expected to break down reflected becomes mcreasingly diffuse; finally, at very large values
at high freq_uencies. For metals, emissivities can be calculated of ~/A the laws of geometrical optics become valid, and the distri-
from electrical conductivities at wavelengths greater than about buho~ of the. reflected radiation can be calculated by use of Fresnel's
6 µ [ 24]. For nonmetals, emissivities over the wavelength range ~quahons: with possib_le modification as discussed in Chap. 5. It
of interest can be calculated from the dielectric constant for only ~s co~vement to class1fy surface roughness in two categories: one
a few nonpolar substances. The values of n and K at shorter wave- rn wh1c_h th_e slop~ ~f the surface irregularities is small, multiple
lengths must therefore be either measured experimentally or ob- reflechon i_s negllg1ble, and the principal effect of the surface
tained from a refinement of the expressions given in Sec. 4-lk. roughness_ is to convert a specular reflector into a partially dif-
fuse, parhally specular reflector; and one in which the surface is
Several theories have been developed to predict the variation,
with wavelength, of n and K. ln the classical treatment dipoles *t~he use ulof quantum theory to predict these constants has yielded few prac-
(bound electrons) are represented by simple harmonic oscillators 1
1ca res ts so far [ 40] .
and the flux of electrons by the flux of particles through a viscous t~~e root-~ean-square deviation of the surface from a plane representing
fluid. The theory has been remarkably successful in predicting the mea:i he1ght- the rms roughness - may be obtained experimentally either
by tracmg the surface with a profilometer or by optical methods (see Sec
4-6a). ·
142 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
covered with deep cavities, multiple reflection is important, and
the effective emissivity is significantly larger than that of smooth
surface.
a. Surfaces with irregularities having small slopes. For these
surfaces most of the radiation is incident at angles at which the
beams undergo a single reflection; consequently, the reflectance
equals that of a smooth surface of the sarne material and the effect
of surface roughness is mainly one of decreasing the specular and in-
creasing the diffuse components of the reflectance. An excellent
treatment of the subject, including reference to some of the nu-
merous earlier investigations, is given by Bennett and Porteus, [ 5,
6, 36].
Assuming that the surface height distribution is gaussian, they predict
that for normal incidence the ratio of the specular component Ps of the re-
flectivity and the smooth-surface reflectivity p is given by
Ps
_ = e -(4rr s/À)2 (4-55)
p
They also present an expression for the directional reflectivity of the diffuse
component of the reflected radiation in terms of s, À, the angle of reflectance,
and the root-mean-square slope of the surface. Experimental values of p 5 /p
for s/À > 0.026 were higher than the value predicted by Eq. (4-55) mainly as
a result of the difficulty in separating from the specular reflection the radi-
ation diffusely reflected about the angle of specular reflection. When the
surface reflectance p is high, p 5 /p for radiation incident at an angle e with
the normal may be calculated by substituting s cose for s in Eq. (4-55).
Consider some of the consequences of Eq. (4-55). Diffuse radiation is
appreciable (> 5 percent of the total) for s/Ã's greater than 0.018, and is
dominant (> 95 percent) when s/À exceeds 0.14. The presence of the square
of the wavelength in an exponential term makes for a fairly sharp transition
from a specular reflector to a diffuse reflector as wavelength is decreased.
This last characteristic of surface roughness is the basis for the use of
scatter plates to eliminate radiation of shorter wavelengths in infrared in-
struments. Another practical consequence of Eq. (4-55) is the use of re-
flectance measurements at different wavelengths as a means of measuring
surface roughness over a much wider roughness scale than is possible with
mechanical instruments.
The limitations of the above model have been discussed in some de-
tail by Porteus [ 36] . He points out that the rms roughness and the rms
slope are occasionally an inadequate characterization of a surface, partic-
ularly when the surface height distribution is non-gaussian. He considers
radiation incident normally on a surface consisting of a number of plates
parallel to and randomly distributed above and below the mean surface level.
For very long wavelengths the difference in heightbetween the differentplates
is negligible and the radiation is reflected specularly. The specular reflec-
tivity decreases with decreasing wavelength as a consequence of interference
between radiation reflected from planes at different levels. However, as the
wavelength decreases further favorable and unfavorable interference cancel,
RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 143
and the specular re~ectivity increases. ln the limit of very small wave-
le.ngths each plate ':111 .r~~ect independently and the specular reflectivity
w11l be res.to.red to its imtial value. The quantitative analysis by Porteus
shows a m1mmum p 5 /p of 0.06 ata value of s/Ã of 0.18. He also presents
the results of several other models of surface roughness.
When s/Ã » 1 the angular distribution of the reflected radiation for
any angle of incidence. may be calculated from the Fresnel equations and a
statemen~ of the fractions of the surface which are oriented at various an-
gles. Th1s type of model may be used to explain why the radiation reflected
from a rough surface o~ten shows. a peak in intensity at an angle larger than
that of specular reflection. Cons1der a pencil of radiation incident at an
angle e to the true surface normal, and at angle s eª, e, and ee to three facets
of the surface (Fig. 4-15). The intensity of the reflected rays, calculated
from the Fresnel equations, increases from a to c as the local angle of inci-
dence increases from eª to 8c. The
larger weightings given to radiation
reflected at angles greater than the
angle of specular reflection causes the
peak in intensity to shift to larger
angles. Many investigators, starting
with Bouguer in the 18th century [ 10] ,
have developed models which depict
rough surfaces as a number of abutting
specular reflectors; some postulate that
the specularplane elements are oriented
at random [7, 13, 33, 38] ; others deter-
Fig. 4-15. Reflections at facets mine the orientation of the surface ele-
of a rough surface. ments from measured reflectances [34] .
b. Deep surface cavities. Radiation emitted by an element of
a surface containing deep cavities may undergo several reflections
before leaving the surface envelope; and the effective emittance of
the plane replacing the rough surface is accordingly higher than the
value for a smooth surface of the sarne material. In addition emis-
sion (or its complement, reflection) can have strong variatio~s of
practical importance (see, e.g., ref. 9). The methods of Chap. 3
can be used to establish the performance of cavities of character-
istic dimensions much larger than the wavelength of the incident
radiation.
. . The .results obtained by Sparrow [ 43, 44] on rectangular and V groove
cav1ties w11l be used to demonstrate the effect of this type of roughness on
surface proper~ies. Figure 4-16 presents results [ 43] on the apparent ab-
sorptance ~or d1ff~se blackbody radiation of a rectangular cavity of varying
~epth-to-w1dth ratio L/h, and infinite in its third dimension. The calcula-
t10~s ~pply to surfaces the absorptivity of which is independent of the angle
of mc1dence and the r~fl~ctivity o~ which is specular. The apparent absorp-
tance for parallel radiation must mcrease with increasing angle of incidence
from a va~ue a for normal incidence (radiation reflected once at the bottom
of ~he. c~vity) to a value one at glancing incidence (the radiation undergoes
~n inf1mt~ nur_nber of reflections before escape). The directional absorptance
is shown m Fig. 4-17 as a function of L/h tan ei for different a's. Similar
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 145
144 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

ll L___L__j2_L___j_4_L___L6___1_8L____L____J10
2 3 4 5 6
(L/h l tan e rectional distribution of the radiation scattered by a differential el-
L/h
Fig. 4-17. Apparent directional ab-
Fig. 4-16. Apparent absorptance
of a specular rectangular cavity sorptance of a specular cavity with a
for differentvalues of the surface rectangular cross section (from ref.
absorptivity a . Hemispherical 43).
incidence (from ref. 43).
4. 7 Nonhomogeneous Materials
Refractory oxides, fibrous materials, paints and natural
products such as wood are a few examples of materials whose ra-
diative properties are determined not by a thin surface layer but
by the scattering and absorbing characteristics of particles below
the surface. The radiative properties are therefore dependent on
factors such as state of subdivision of the material, which may af-
fect the scatter at the grain or fiber boundaries.
The factors which determine the radiative properties of a
semi-infinite medium are the ratio w of the scatter coefficient to
the total extinction coefficient, and the phase function giving the di-
ement. (Scatter by particles is discussed in detail in Chaps. 12 and
13.) Chandrasekhar [ 12] has presented general solutions to this
problem, from which the normal and hemispherical emissivities
and the partial reflectance may be calculated. A numerical example
appears in Fig. 4-19 (bottom) showing the dependence of the partial
1.4

Q) 1 .O ,--,---,---,---,--,----,-,--:::;i;::::::~!l"I calculations [ 44) on the absorp- ""Ili

Q)
(),[)

C) tance of a two-dimensional V groove

g for diffuse blackbody radiation 1.2 ~ 0.4

~ o.8 C-----+--
Q

(hemispherical incidence) are ,...

1
0.2
CJJ
,.o shown in Fig. 4-18 as a function li
<C of the absorptivity and the groove Q';
1.0 o
~ o.(i l------J../--+_,,4+----1---1 half-angle. The directional ab-
IV
() .2 o .4 () ,[) o .8 1 .o
·5 sorptance for this geometry is a sin2 e
~ ~--+---'!;<Pi_ complicatedfunction of the groove
·~ o.4 V angle <P and the angle of inci-
dence. Usually, the directional
::e:
..., "';:.
§ lL2 absorptance for a V groove, in Q)

ta contrast with that for a rectan- §' o 6 t-----+-----+---+.o'~

.ê'""
gular groove, decreases with in- Q

() creasing angle of incidence. When

0.2 04 O.ti 0.8 LO reflection from the separateplane
Absorptivity, a elements composing the surface
system is diffuse rather than spec-
Fig. 4-18. Apparent absorptance of ular, the system absorptance for
a V-groove cavity for diffuse radia- hemispherically incident radiation
tion. Hemispherical incidence (from decreases (see Fig. 5-8). 0.21-----+-----j----l-----+-----..J
ref. 44).

() ~~--'---'---'----'--_,_ _ _,____._ _,____J

For most surfaces the rms roughness is comparable to the 0.2 0.4 0.fi 0.8 1.0
wavelength of the radiation, and in the absence of an adequate theory sin2 er
one must resort to experiment. Measurements of the effect of rms Fig. 4-19. Partial reflectance of a semi-
roughness on emittance have been published [ 8, 29], but a complete infinite medium for parallel radiation in-
story is not yet available. cident at angle iJ i . [ Isotropic scatter, K si
(Ka + Ks) = 0.9.)
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 147
146 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

Fig. 4-20 and Table 4-1 (based on Giovannelli's calculations [23]

reflectance on angle of incidence ei and angle of reflection Br when
total attenuation is 90 percent dueto scatter_ (w ~ O.?) a_nd scat~er
is isotropic. The departure frorn a larnberhan d1strib_uhon (hori-
zontal lines) is clear. The rnean height of the curves is the total
or hernispherical reflectance of a bearn of in_cidenc_e angle ei , des-
ignated by p( eJ. Its cornplernent is ~he ~e.rn1sphe~1cal ab~orptanc~.
Under equilibriurn conditions of appllcab1llty of Kirchhoff s la"'., th1s
sarne value is the ernittance in the direction ei ; but the subscript
should be deleted to indicate ernission_. Th_en E( e) = 1 - p(_ e V; .
ei = e. Directional ernittance so obtamed is plotted vs. _sm 8. m
the srnall inset plot; the rnean height is the total or hern1spherical
ernittance.
Values of the hernispherical ernittance and the ratio of the
hernispherical to normal ernittance are shown as functions of w in
frorn Chandrasekhar's tables) for two phase functions, (a) isotropic
scatter and (b) an intensity distribution which is (1 + cos 8) times
the isotropic value, where e is the angle rnade with the direction of
forward scatter (three-quarters of the energy is scattered in the
forward direction for the latter function). It is clear frorn the figure
that the ernittance is prirnarily a function of w , increasing rapidly
frorn zero as the extinction becornes due to any significant extent
to absorption [ 1 - w = Ka/ (Kª + Ks)]; that the ernittance is a weak
function of the directional distribution of the scattered radiation,
the rnaxirnurn difference between ernissivities calculated for the
tWO phase functions being 20 percent; and that Eh/E n is always leSS
than one and has values in the sarne range as those for a hornoge-
neous insulator (Sec. 4.2c).

Table 4-1
Hernispherical Ernittance, Eh, and Ratio of
Hernispherical to Normal Ernittances,
Ei)E n ' for a Serni-lnfinite Absorbing-
Scattering Mediurn *
p(B) = 1 p(e) = (1 + cos e)
w Eh Eh/En
Eh Et/En

1.000 o - o -
0.999 0.070 0.805 0.085 0.805
0.995 0.150 0.824 0.181 0.815
0.975 0.305 0.850 0.359 0.840
0.950 0.403 0.870 0.467 0.860
0.925 0.470 0.885 0.538 0.870
0.900 0.522 0.892 0.592 0.880
0.850 0.600 0.905 - -
0.800 0.658 0.923 0.726 0.910
.999 .995 .875 .95 .025 .90 .85 .8 .7 .G .5 .4 .3 .2 .1
0.700 0.743 0.938 0.804 0.926 Albedo úl, or K 8 /(K 8 + K 8 )
0.600 0.805 0.955 0.857 0.945
0.500 0.853 0.965 0.896 0.956 Fig. 4-20. Hemispherical emittance Eh and the ratio hemispherical to nor-
0.400 0.891 0.974 0.926 0.969 mal emittance Eh/E for a semi-infinite absorbing-scattering medium.
0

0.300 0.926 0.983 0.950 0.979

0.200 0.953 0.990 0.970 0.985
0.100 0.978 0.995 0.986 0.994 The application of these results to practical systerns requires
0.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 the deterrnination of w. E stirnates of w rnay be calculated by the
methods presented in Chap. 12 when the particles or voids in a ma-
*Phase functions are p(e) = 1 (isotropic scatter) or terial are considered to be independent scatterers. No sirnple
p(e) = (1 +cose) (predominantly_ forwa.rd ~catter);
úl is the fraction of the attenuat10n wh1ch is due to
method has been developed to allow for interference of radiation
scatter. (Calculated from Chandrasekhar's tables
by Giovanelli [ 23] .)
 148 RADIATIVE TRANSFER RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 149

from the different scattering cen-

Table 4-2 ters, but some preliminary ex- On this diagram a Lambert diffuse reflector would be represented
perimental results have been by a circle tangent to the point of incidence, and a specular reflector
Effect of Grain Size on the
given in a recent paper [ 27]. 11- by a straight line along the direction of specular reflection. It is
Emittance of Some Oxides*
lustrations of the dependence of noted that most materials show a pronounced peak in the direction
Grain emittance on the state of subdivi- of specular reflection. Guided by such observations, various workers
Oxide Size (µ) Emittance sion and hence on the scattering [ 32, 34, 20] have recommended that the partial reflectance of a
0.35 properties of a material are surface be approximated by a specular component Ps and a diffuse
Al203 2-25
shown in Table 4-2. component Pn. Experimental determinations of the two components
15-80 0.43
is relatively easy when the total reflectance is measured in an in-
90-120 0.53
tegrating sphere and the specular component by placing a detector
MgO 1-3 0.30 4.8 Partial Reflectance: An in the direction of specular reflection. Values of Ps and PD deter-
30-75 0.39 Approximation for Use in mined in this manner have been reported by Birkebak et al.; but
90-120 0.48 Engineering Calculations they must of course depend on the detector 's collection angle. Ps
and Pn so determined must in principle be modified by a small
Cr2 0 3 0.5-1.5 0.72 A little consideration should amount before use in the present model; A:; should be reduced by
1.5-8 0.95 indicate the impracticality of that contribution of diffuse reflection which lies within the solid
*Values measured at 1200 ºC [26] . basing calculations on a complete angle of the detector, and Pn correspondingly increased. The sep-
definition of the partial reflec- aration of Ps and PD is not necessarily arbitrary; the radiation re-
tance of a surface in terms of the polar angle of the incident beam flected from many surfaces shows a well defined peak about the
and the polar and azimuth angles of the reflecte? b_eam, for all . angle of specular reflection whose energy content may be used to
wavelengths of interest. Such a complete descrip~1on would reqmre define Ps (for exam:ple, the shaded areas in Fig. 4-21).
'1 extensive experimentation, result in bulky tabulahons, and be too
detailed for most engineering applications. Some values of the par- The above proposal for describing surface reflectance in
tial reflectance in the plane of incidence are shown in Fig. 4-21. terms of its specular and diffuse components is particularly valu-
These curves reported by Munch [ 34], are equivalent to p(e, eri able for a number of reasons:
,,,'1 t/! = O) cos er 'ot this chapter and are so normalized that the? all
pass through the sarne point at the angle of specular reflechon. 1. It gives a quite realistic description of a wide variety of
engineering surfaces, being particularly accurate for satellite sur-
er o 8 r 15° 30° faces covered by a mozaic pattern of specular and diffuse reflectors
30° 30° 45°
45° with different a/ E 's.

er er 2. It is an approximation which lends itself to reasonable

measurement programs; and recent measurements on non-Lambert
45° 60° surfaces have been reported in this form [ 8] .
3. The use of such a surface model enables one to derive re-
75°
75° markably simple and general relations for heat transfer in enclo-
75° sures of specular-diffuse surfaces (see Sec. 5.4c).
o o.2 o.4 o.6 o.8 1.0 (b) o
(a ) p(45º,8r,0) Cos8r/p(45º,45º,0) CoS 45° p(8i,8r,Ol Cos8r 4.9 Properties of Nonmetals
Fig. 4-21. (a) Comparisonof distribution of reflected flux fromdiff~re~t sur-
faces for a beam incident at 45º. All values measured in plane of mc1dence. Emphasis in this section will be on drawing a few generaliza-
Source temperature 910º e except for curve d (535° C). Material~: a. wood! tions on the properties of the very large number of materials in
b. firebrick; e. white paper; d. oxidized brass; e. sa_ndb~asted al~1~um alloy, this category; this is complemented by the partial compilation of
f. anodized aluminum alloy. (b) Directional distribut10n of rad_rnt10n f~o_m a
520º e blackbodysource reflected inplane of incidence by a partially ox1d1zed emittances in the Appendix to this chapter. The dependence of
brass surface; gray areas approximate a specular component to the reflec- emittance on grain structure, trace additives and surface rough-
tance (from ref. 34). ness makes a complete compilation difficult; and the problem has
been aggravated by the inadequate description by many investigators
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 151
150 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

of the materials they studied. An additional difficulty is that for KRS~5 ( T!Br]) @
some of these materials the emission originates at considerable ,/

depths below the surface and an emissivity based on a surface tem-

perature is meaningless. *
a. Homogeneous materials. The refractive índex equals the
square root of the dielectric constant only for a few nonpolar ma-
terials or for values of the refractive índex measured at very long
"
"
""~"
2.1
t
Syn. Sapphire(Alz03) ©
wavelengths [ 30]. The values of n calculated from the dielectric ~"o 1.7
\
constant are usually high since the permanent dipoles, able to "'
ot1
orient with the applied electric field at the frequencies used in the "
IZ
measurement of &, , contribute little to the value of n at frequencie s
in the infrared and visible. The theoretical relations presented in 1.3
Sec. 4.2, however, provide a means of determining all the radiative NaF@

properties of these materials from measured values of n. 1.1

1

0.4 o.8 1 2 4 K 10 20 40
Wavelength, microns
The refractive índices of a number of transparent materials
suitable for use as prisms, windows, and lenses are compiled in Fig. 4-22. Refraetive indices of transparent materials. Circled numbers
Fig. 4-22. The limits of the wavelength region covered for each refer to: 1. International Critica! Tables, Vol. VII, p. 14; 2. Tilton, L. W.,
E.K. Pl_Yler andR.E. Stephens, J. Opt. Soe. Am., 40, 540 (1950); 3. Hettner,
material indicate an approach to a strong absorption band. Note G., Optik, ,~' 3?5 (1948); 4._ Hettner'. G., J. Opt. Soe. Am., 48, 72 (1948); 5.
,11
that the variation of the refractive índex with wavelength is in Joos, G., Optical Properties of Solids," FIAT, Review of German Scienee,
agreement with the qualitative predictions of dispersion theory. 1939-1946,Part II, The Physies of Solids (P.B. 95684); 6. Rodney, w. S., and
,11
The absorption bands which determine the upper limit of transpar- R. J. Splender, J. Opt. Soe. Am., 41, 209 (1951).
ency of the alkali halides are caused by the lattice vibrations; con-
sequently, the salts of the heaviest elements provide the best win- '":::; parts of the spectrum the material is either
dows in the far infrared. Salts with more complex anions will show X
5 partially diathermanous or, as a consequence
absorption bands also at wavelengths which are characteristic of "''§o of a strong absorption band, highly reflecting.
4
the anion and are practically unaffected by the cation: carbonates :::::
have bands at 7, 11.5 and 14µ; silicates at 9, 13, and 20µ; sulfates "' b. Oxides. The emittance of oxides is
~ :3
at 9 and 16µ; nitrates at 7 and 12µ. Similarly, the ammonium ion ~ strongly dependent on grain size and trace
,.;-
has bands at 3 and 7 µ. Crystals containing these ionic groups fre- "o~ 2 additives. Al2 03 as a single crystal (sap-
quently display marked reflectivities at wavelengths corresponding phires or rubies) is translucent and has a
to the absorption bands of the component ions. As the temperature ""·~" color determined by minute amounts of
is increased the bands broaden and are displaced to slightly longer other oxides. As the crystal is first frac-
s"'
"1
2 4 (i 8 10
tured the emittance increases (Fig. 4-23),
wavelengths. Wavelength (µ)
but further reduction in grain size causes
Fig. 4-23. Effeet of
Many materials, such as organic compounds, have an absorp- fraeture on emission
the emittance to decrease (Table 4-2 in
tion coefficient small enough not to affect their reflectivities but by a sapphire erystal Sec. 4.8). Most oxides normally have grains
sufficiently large to make them opaque. The refractive index is heated in a nonlumi- in the size range where a decrease in grain
usually in the range of 1.3 to 3.0 which, according to Sec. 4.2 cor- nous flame : (a) clear size leads to a decrease in emittance.
responds to an emissivity of 0.9 to 0.7 anda value of E/En of 0.93 erystal; (b) erystal with
a few fraetures; (e) Many oxides have low spectral emit-
to 0.96. Lower values for the emissivity will be observed if in erystal with many frac- tances in the visible* and near infrared which
tures (from ref. 42). increase to elos e to one beyond 4-5 µ. Thetotal
* Allowance for temperature variations below the surface may be made using
the methods of Chap. 10. This is unnecessary however when the tempera- *At high temperature the emittance in the visible may approaeh one as are-
ture ata distance of 2/ 3K from the surface is not significantly different from sult of transitions between the exeited eleetronic energy levels. Welsbaeh
the surface temperature; K is the absorption coefficient of the material (see n:ant~es are _eoated with Th02 - Ce02 mixtures to take advantage of the eom-
See. 10.lg). bmat10n of h1gh emittanee in the visible and low emittanee in the near infrared.
 152 RADIATIVE TRANSFER RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 153

Temperature, Degrees Kelvin emittance of oxides therefore

o o
X º
8 º8 º8º
8 decreases with increasing tem-
o () o o e o Table 4-3
1.0 li
~~.~~n
I'
~~Tgrr~TI-risrr1TI-~rnnMnrT~T~TTl~
2
I' perature. Some of the oxides of
1 1 1 1 1 1 ' '

the transitional elements, such Comparison of Measured Values of 1 - Pn with Values Calculated
from Eq. (4-51)*
as FeO and Cr 2 0 3 , however,
have high emissivities through- Metal Measured Calculated Metal Measured C~üculated
out the spectrum. An excellent Ag .0113 .0115
survey of the extensive German Pt .0282 .0296
Cu .0117 .0127 Ni
research on oxide properties is Au .0320 .0316
.0156 .0139 Sn .0327
given by Pepperhoff [ 35]. Al .0197 .0323
.0160 Steel .0366 .0399
Zn .0227 .0227 Hg ,0766
Cd .0755
e. Miscellaneous. The .0255 .0253 Bit .256
1'(7) '\I' .101
room-temperature spectral re-
.€ \\ i~ *Measurements were made at 25.5 11 on samples at 170° C [ 25].
:5 0.5 l'I\ (8) flectance of a number of materials
!:
-€o has been used to calculate the ab- tThe large discrepancy in the case of bismuth was la ter explained as having
:1 ;/J been due to an oxide film [ 46] .
,,
,Q sorptivity for blackbody radiation
1
<i: 0.4 ' from sources at temperatures
I'
1,'1
ranging from ambient to effective on 1- Pn at 25.5µ was also satisfactorily predicted by Eqs. (4-51)
,, and (4-52).
li 0.3 solar. These curves* are con-
1:',.

l'
trasted with that for a typical
111 metal (aluminum) in Fig. 4-24. At wavelengths shorter than 25.5µ the agreement between
,,1 0.2 theory and experiment is less impressive. The difference between
:'ri
the calculated and measured values of 1- Pn for eleven metals and
<152.-v I' 'r-- ~ ·t·
o. 1 W-+-l,,i.4:,..--::::.._+-++-1+t-rt-''A-P'fft!' 4.10 Experimental Emissiv1 ies alloys averages 10 percent at 12µ, 14 percent at 8µ, 22 percent at
r,~v
of Metals 4 µ and much more at shorter wavelengths. The apparent break-
down of the theory occurs at frequencies where the period of vi-
o8888 o bration of radiation becomes comparable to the time interval be-
8 º ººººº
gggggg The results of Secs. 4.3 and
l.t:l ::.C 00 8 N 00 -.:;:t' Lr:l .© 00 S, 4.4 apply to surfaces free of ir- tween collisions of the electrons with the ions in the lattice, and
Temperature, Degrees Rank1ne
regularities and of oxide layers - where therefore it is no longer permissible to use the electrostatic
Fig. 4-24. Variation of absorptivity
with temperature of blackbody ra- conditions satisfied by surfaces value of the conductivity. Dispersion formulae have been developed
diation source (from incomplete which have been electro-polished which predict the behavior of the emissivity in the visible and ultra-
measurements by Sieber, see text). or prepared by cathode sputtering violet, but in general these involve empirical constants.
(1) Slate composition roofing; (2) or by electro- or chemical depo-
linoleum, red brown; (3) asbestos sition. An extensive comparison The emissivity of tungsten is typical of the properties of
slate; (4) soft rubber, gray; (5) con- many metals at the shorter wavelengths. Its values measured over
crete; (6) porcelain; (7) vitreous
with experiment of the emissiv-
ities predicted for such surfaces the temperature range 1600 to 2800 ºK and at wavelengths up to
enamel, white; (8) red brick; (9) cork;
(lü)white Dutch tile; (ll)white cha- is that by Hagen and Rubens, who 2.6µ are shown in Fig. 4-25. At 1.27µ, the so-called X point, the
motte; (12) Mgü, evaporated; (13) measured values of 1 - Pn at wave- emissivity is temperature-invariant; it changes from a direct
anodized aluminum; (14) aluminum lengths of 4 to 25.5 µfor a number variation with temperature at high temperature to a small but in-
paint; (15) polished aluminum; (16) of metals and alloys at tempera- verse variation below the X point. Values of the emissivities cal-
graphite. The two dotted lines bo~nd tures up to 800 ºK. The excellent culated from(4-42a) for À> 6µ are plotted for comparison and the
the limits of data on gray pavmg emissivities at intermediate wavelengths are obtained by inter-
brick, asbestos paper, wood, various
agreement to be found at long
polation (dashed lines).
cloths, plaster of paris, lithophone, wavelengths is shown in Table
and paper. 4- 3. The effect of temperature
The spectral emissivities of a number of metals are presented
*Unfortunately, the reflectance was measured by Sieber [ 41] at a si~gle an- in Fig. 4-26. The effect of temperature on E,\ may be determined
le near the surface-normal. The absolute values will therefore be m error at long wavelengths, À > 8µ, by inserting the value of the resis-
f
0 the extent that reflection is not diffuse; the trends shown by the curves,
tivity into Eq. (4-42a). Interpolation between the emissivities at
however, will remain unchanged.
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 155
154 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

0.50 1.0

0.40
Cu

_j__JI ~. 1
o.8 t---J--,-.~/

0.30 ---'--'-.L.l_LJ_Ll_L__
--<

.~~-....c__j__J_...LJ__[_J.J:.C:...::::~=-.JI ~-1
,,_,ri
Hagens-
0.20 Ruben

0.10 E;-.

() .4 () .(i o.8 1 2 4 G 8 10 o.4 i--+--t-+-ll+-11---l'---

A(µ)

Fig. 4-25. Normal spectral emissivity of tung-

sten. Values below 2.6µ measured by De Vos,
above 6µ calculated from Eq. 4-42a.

Table 4-4 8µ and the X point, given in Table 4-4

for a few materials, should give an
The X Point for Selected adequate estimate of the emissivities
Materials in the near infrared. At wavelengths
Compound X Point (µ) below the X point the effect of temper- ] .0 Ag
ature can often be neglected in calcula- -vê'.
Cu 1.7 tions of radiative exchange.
Co 1.5 0.8
Fe 1.0 Unfortunately emissivities at 1 1
Ni 1.5 cryogenic temperatures cannot be cal-
Re 0.9 culated from Eq. (4-42a) alone; a cor- 0.6
Ta 0.9 rection term which can be fairly sub-
Pt 0.7 stantial must be added [ 37]. Et_ '
Pd 1.0
0.4
AI
1 li li 1
Al 1:·1
Mo 1.4 The state of polarization and \ 10 20
Steel 1.0
TaC
directional distribution of the emitted
0.6 IAg 1:·1
1 radiation are accurately described by 0.2
ZrC 2.2
the equations of Secs. 4.3 and 4.4. For 2 4 o 8 lO 20
À(µ)
À > 8 µ the only data required are the
.1

resistivities. For À< 8µ the neces-

o
sary data are the values of n and K • These values in the visible o.1 0.2 20

'
region of the spectrum have been compiled for a large number of
! 1 metals [ 2, 28]. Measurement by Worthing [ 47] of Ee for each
1 state of polarization showed excellent agreement between theory Fig. 4-26. Normal spectral emissivities of selected metals. In-
and experiment. From his results one concludes that E/En (1.045, set plots show comparison of data (dashed lines) with values cal-
1.044, 1.062 and 1.042 for platinum, tungsten, molybdenum and c:ilat_edfrom Eq. (4-42a) (solid lines). Results adapted from com-
tantalum respectively) and the state of polarization of the emitted pilat10n .?Y
E. "Lax and M. Pirani, "Temperaturstrahlug fester
radiation (approximately 0.2) are much smaller in the visible than Korper, Handbuch der Physik, 21, Springer (1929).
in the far infrared where E/En and p approach 1.33 and 0.5 respec-
tively.

i'
1 1

11
1 •

(
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 157
156 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

19. Dunkle, R. V.: Thermal Radiation Characteristics of Surfaces

A word of caution must be added. Because the theory on which in J .A. Clark (ed.), "Theory and Fundamental Research in '
the relationship between the emissivity and electrical conductivity Heat Transfer," pp. 1-33, Pergamon Press, New York, 1963.
of metals is greatly simplified, the recommendations presented 20. Eckert, E.R.G., and E.M. Sparrow: Int. J. Heat Mass. Trans-
above should be used only in the absence of reliable measurements. fer, 3:42-54 (1961).
The simplified theory, however, has proven to be very useful in 21. Edwards, D.K., N.B. de Volo, I. Catton, and A. Leung: "Basic
determining the dependence of emissivity on temperature, wave- Heat Transfer Studies Related to the Use and Control of Solar
length, and angle of emission. * · Energy," U.C.L.A. Rept. 64-14, 1964.
22. Foote, P.D.: Nat. Bur. Standards U.S. Teeh. News Bull. 11:
CHAPTER 4. LITERATURE CITATIONS 607 (1915). '
23. Giovanelli, R.B.: Optiea Acta, 2:153 (1955).
Abeles, F.: Proe. Phys. Soe. London, B65:996 (1952). 24. Hagen, E., and H. Rubens: Ann. Physik, 1:353 (1900); 8:1
1. (1902); 11:873 (1903);Berlin Ber., 1903, 269; 1909, 478;
2. "American Institute of Physics Handbook," 2d ed., PP· 6-11
to 6-131, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1963. 1910, 467.
Aschkinass, E.: Ann. Physik., 17:960 (1905). 25. Hagen, E., and H. Rubens: cited by R.W. Ditchburn, op. eit.,
3. p. 452.
4. Beattie, J. E., and G.K.T. Conn: Phil. Mag., 46:222 (1955).
Bennett, H.E., and J.O. Porteus: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 51:123-129 26. Hild, M.: Mitt. Kaiser-Wilhelm-Inst. Eisenforseh. Dusseldo1f
5. 14:59 (1932). '
i
(1961). 27. Hottel, H.C., A.F. Sarofim and E.J. Fahimian: Solar Energy
6. Bennett, J.E.: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 53:1389-1394 (1963).
J., 11:2 (1967).
1

1'11 7. Berry, E.H.: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 7:627 (1923).

Birbebak, R.C., E.M. Sparrow, E.R.G. Eckert, and J.W. 28. ''International Critical Tables," Vol. 5, pp.249-256, McGraw-
1 8. Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1929.
Ramsey: Am. Soe. Meeh. Engrs., Paper No. 63-HT-6.
111
Brandenberg, W .M., and O.W. Clausen: ''The Directional, 29. Keegan, H.J., J.C. Schleter, and V.R. Weidner: "Effect of
9.
1
Spectral Emittance of a Solid, 11 Symposium on Thermal. R:ª~ Surface Texture on Diffuse Spectral Reflectance, 11 Symposium
111 diation of Solids, Sponsored by Aeronautical Systems D1v1s1on, on Thermal Radiation of Solids, Sponsored by Aeronautical
USAF, Nat. Bur. Standards, and Nat. Aeronaut. and Space Systems Di vision, USAF, N at. Bur. Standards, and N at.
il Administration San Francisco, California, 1964. Aeronaut. and Space Administration, San Francisco Calif.
Bouguer, P.: 11 0ptical Treatise on the Gradation of Light," 1964. ' '
"' 10. 30. Konig, W.: "Handbuch der Physik," Vol. 20, pp.242-250,
translated by W.E.K. Middleton, U. of Toronto Press, To-
Springer, Berlin, 1928.
ronto, 1961. 11
Konig, W .: ibid., pp. 190-192.
Cauchy, A.: cited by W. Konig in ''Handbuch der Physik, Vol. 31.
11. 32. McNicholas, H.J.: Nat. Bu. Stds. J. Res., 1:29 (1928).
20, p.246, Springer, Berlin, 1928. . .
11
Chandrasekhar, S.: "Radiative Transfer, Oxford Umversity 33. Middleton, W.E.K., and A.G. Mungall: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 42:
12. 572 (1952).
Press, Oxford, 1950.
Christie,A.W.:J. Opt. Soe.Am., 40:55 (1950). 34. Munch, B.: Mitteilungen aus den Institut für Thermodynamik
13. und Verbrennungsmstorenbau an der Eidenóssiehen Teehni-
14. Collins, J.R., and R.0. Bock: Rev. Sei. Instr., 14:135 (1943).
Committee on Radiation, Rev. Sei. Instr., 7:322 (1936). sehen Hoehsehule in Zurieh, No. 16, 1955.
15. 35. Pepperhoff, W.: "Temperaturstrahlung," Dietrich Steinfopff,
16. Davisson, C., and J.R. Weeks: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 8:581 (1924).
Ditchburn, R.W.: ''Light, 11 Interscience, Glasgow, 19?3. Darmstadt, 1955.
17. 36. Porteus, J.O.: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 53:1394-1402 (1963).
18. Drude, p.: 11The Theory of Optics, 11 English translat10n of
1900 ed., pp. 287-299, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 37. Ramanathan, K.G.: Proe. Phys. Soe. London, A65:532 (1952).
38. Rense, W.A.: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 40:55 (1950).
1959.
39. Schmidt, E., and E. Eckert: Forseh. Gebiete Ingenierw., 6:
*An interesting application of theory to determine the functional relationship 175-183 (1935).
of E and À has been reported by Edwards [ 21] . He used the Drude-Roberts 40. Seitz, F.: "Modern Theory of Solids," pp. 000--000, McGraw-
equation (which reduces to the Hagen-Rubens equation at very long wave- Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1940.
lengths) to obtain semiempirical equations which.' o:e_r _the range 1.5-100µ,
correlated his measurements on the spectral em1ss1v1ties of 22 metals and
alloys.
 158 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

41. Sieber, W.: Z. teeh.Physik, 22:130 (1941).

42. Skaupy, F., and G. Liebmann: Physik. Z., 31:373 (1930). APPENDIX-CHAPTER 4
43. Sparrow, E.M., and V.K. Jonsson: J. Applied Meehanies,
E30:237-244 (1963). Normal Total Emissivities of Various Surfaces**
44. Sparrow, E.M., and S.H. Lin: Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer,
Surface t,deg F* Emissivity Reference
5:1111-1115 (1962).
45. Walsh, J.W.T.: Illum. Res. Teeh. Paper, No. 2, 1926, cited number
by R.V. Dunkle, Zoe. eit. A. Metals and Their Oxides
46. Wood, R.W.: "Physical Optics," 3d ed., p. 549, The Macmillan
Aluminum:
Co., New York, 1934.
47. Worthing, A.G.: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 13:635 (1926). Highly polished plate,
98.3%, pure ............... 440-1070 0.039-0.057 26
Polished ...................... 212 0.095 1
Rough polish ................ 212 0.18 1
Rough plate .................. 100 0.055-0.07 25
Commercial sheet. ........ 212 0.09 1
Oxidized at 1110 º F ........ 390-1110 0.11-0.19 23
Heavily oxidized ........... 200-940 0.20-0.31 2
Aluminum oxide ............ 530-930 0.63-0.42 21
Aluminum oxide ............ 930-1520 0.42-0.26 21
Al-surfaced roofing ....... 100 0.216 15
Aluminum alloysl
Alloy 75 ST; A, Bi, c .... 75 0.11, 0.10, 0.08 36
Alloy 75 ST; A+ .......... 450-900 0.22-0.16 36
Alloy 75 ST; B 1+ ......... 450-800 0.20-0.18 36
Alloy 75 ST; e+ .......... 450-930 0.22-0.15 36
Alloy 24 ST; A, B1 , C .... 75 0.09 36
Alloy 24 ST; A+ ........... 450-910 0.17-0.15 36
Alloy 24 ST; B 1 + ......... 450-940 0.20-0.16 36
Alloy 24 ST; c+ ........... 450-860 0.16-0.13 36
c alorized surfaces'
,li
heated at 1110 ºF
1
Copper ...................... 390-1110 0.18-0.19 23
1 Steel. ........................ 390-1110 0.52-0.57 23
1 Brass:
i. 1
Highly polished
1

73.2 Cu, 26. 7 Zn ......... 476-674 0.028-0.031 26

62.4 Cu, 36.8 Zn, 0.4
Pb, 0.3 Al. ............... 494-710 0.033-0.037 26
J,
1: 82.9 Cu, 17.0 Zn ......... 530 0.030 26
Hard-rolled, polished,
but direction of pol-
ishing visible ............. 70 0.038 25
Hard-rolled, polished,
but somewhat attacked . 73 0.043 25

159
160 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 161

Normal Total Emissivities of Various Surfaces (continued) Normal Total Emissivities of Various Surfaces (continued)

Surface t, deg F* Emissivity Reference Surface t, deg F* Emissivity Reference

number number
Inconel:t
Brass (continued)
Hard-rolled, polished, Types X and B; sur-
but traces of stearin face A, B2, C ............... 75 0.19-0.21 36
from polish left on ...... 75 0.053 25 Type X; surface A+ ....... 450-1620 0.55-0. 78 36
Polished ...................... 212 0.06 1 Type X; surface B2+ ...... 450-1575 0.60-0. 75 36
Polished ...................... 100-600 0~10 15 Type X; surface C t ....•.. 450-1650 0.62-0. 73 36
Rolled plate, natural Type B; surface A+ ...•... 450-1620 0.35-0.55 36
surface ..................... 72 0.06 25 Type B; surface B2+ ...... 450-1740 0.32-0.51 36
Rolled plate, rubbed Type B; surface e+ ....... 450-1830 0.35-0.40 36
with coarse emery ...... 72 0.20 25 Iron and steel (not in-
Dull plate .................... 120-660 0.22 32 cluding stainles s):
Oxidized by heating at Metallic surfaces (or
1110 ºF ..•.•.......•......•.. 390-1110 0.61-0.59 23 very thin oxide
Chromium (see nickel alloys layer)
for Ni-Cr steels): Electrolytic iron,
Polished ...................... 100-2000 0.08-0.36 7-17 highly polished .......... 350-440 0.052-0.064 26
Polished ...................... 212 0.075 1 Steel, polished ........... 212 0.066 1
Copper: Iron, polished ............ 800-1880 0.14-0.38 27
Carefully polished elec- Iron, roughly polished. 212 0.17 1
trolytic copper ........... 176 0.018 16 Iron, freshly emeried .. 68 0.24 25
Polished ...................... 242 0.023 34 Cast iron, polished ..... 392 0.21 23
Polished ...................... 212 0.052 1 Cast iron, newly
Commercial emeried, turned ..................... 72 0.44 125
polished, but pits Cast iron, turned and
remaining .................. 66 0.030 25 heated ..................... 1620-1810 0.60-0. 70 22
Commercial, scraped Wrought iron, highly
shiny, but not polished ................... 100-480 0.28 32
mirror-like ............... 72 0.072 25 Polished steel casting .. 1420-1900 0.52-0.56 22
Plate, heated long time, Ground sheet steel.. .... 1720-2010 0.55-0.61 22
covered with thick Smooth sheet iron ....... 1650-1900 0.55-0.60 22
oxide layer ................ 77 0.78 25 Mild steel; t A, B 2, C .... 75 0.12, 0.15, 0.10 36
Plate heated at lllOºF ... 390-1110 0.57 23 Mild steel; t A+ ...••••••.. 450-1950 0.20-0.32 36
Cuprous oxide .............. 1470-2010 0.66-0.54 4 Mild steel; t B 2+.......... 450-1920 0.34-0.35 36
Molten copper .............. 1970-2330 Ô.16-0.13 4 Mil d steel; t e+ ........... 450-1950 0.27-0.31 36
Dow metal:t Oxidized surfaces
A; B1; C ...................... 75 0.15,0.15, 0.12 36 Iron plate, pickled,
A+............................... 450-750 0.24-0.20 36 then rusted red ......... 68 0.61 25
B1~ ............................. 450-800 0.16 36 Iron plate, completely
e+ ............................... 450-760 0.21-0.18 36 rusted ..................... 67 0.69 25
Gold: Iron, dark gray
Pure, highly polished ..... 440-1160 0.018-0.035 26 surface .................... 212 0.31 1
Rolled sheet steel. ....... 70 0.66 25
162 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 163

Normal Total Emissivities of Various Surfaces (continued)

Normal Total Emissivities of Various Surfaces (continued)
Surface t,deg F* Emissivity Reference
number Surface t,deg F* Emissivity Reference
Iron and steel (continued) number
Oxidized iron ............ 212 0.74 28 Mercury ....................... 32-212 0.09-0.12 11
Molybdenum:
Cast iron, oxidized
at llOOºF ................ 390-1110 0.64-0.78 23 Filament. .................... 1340-4700 0.096-0.202 37
Steel, oxidized Massive, polished ......... 212 0.071
Monel metal:t 1
at llOOºF ................ 390-1110 0.79 23
Smooth, oxidized Oxidized at 1110 ºF ....... 390-1110 0.41-0.46 23
electrolytic iron ....... 260-980 0.78-0.82 26 K Monel 5700; A, B2, C ... 75 0.23,0.17,0.14 36
930-2190 K Monel 5700; A+ .......... 450-1610 0.46-0.65
Iron oxide ................ 0.85-0.89 6 36
K Monel 5700; B 2+......... 450-1750 0.54-0.77
Rough ingot iron ........ 1700-2040 0.87-0.95 22 36
K Monel 5700; e+ .......... 450-1785 0.35-0.53
Sheet steel 36
Nickel:
Strong, rough oxide
0.80 25 Electroplated, polished .. 74 0.045 25
layer .................... 75
Technically pure (98.9%
Dense, shiny oxide
75 25 Ni, + Mn), polished ........ 440-710 0.07-0.087
layer .................... 0.82 26
Polished ..................... 212 0.072
Cast plate, smooth ..... 73 0.80 25 1
Electroplated, not
Cast plate, rough ....... 73 0.82 25
polished ....•..•....•........ 68 0.11
Cast iron, rough, 25
Wire .......................... 368-1844 0.096-0.186 29
strongly oxidized ...... 100-480 0.95 32 Plate, oxidized by heat-
Wrought iron, ing at lllOºF ..............
dull oxidized ............ 70-680 0.94 32 390-1110.. [,
0.37-0.48 23
Nickle oxide .........•...... 1200-2290 0.59-0.86
Steel plate, rough ....... 100-700 0.94-0.97 15 Nickel alloys: 5
Molten surfaces Chromnickel. ...............
Cast iron ................. 2370-2550 0.29 31 125-1894 0.64-0. 76 29
Copper-nickel, polished. 212 0.059
Mild steel ................ 2910-3270 0.28 31 1
Nichrome wire, bright ... 120-1830 0.65-0. 79
Steel, several different 30
Nichrome wire,
kinds with 0.25-1.2%
oxidized ..................... 120-930 0.95-0.98
e (slightly oxidized 30
Nickel-silver, polished .. 212 0.135
surface) .................. 2840-3110 0.27-0.39 3 1
Nickelin (18-32 Ni; 55-68
Steel ....................... 2730-3000 0.42-0.53 14
Cu; 20 Zn), gray
Steel ....................... 2770-3000 0.43-0.40 18
0.42-0.45 oxidized ..................... 70 0.262 25
Pure iron ................. 2760-3220 8
Type ACI-HW (60 Ni;
Armco iron .............. 2770-3070 0.40-0.41 18 12 Cr)
Lead:
Smooth, black, firm ad-
Pure (99.96%),
hesive oxide coat from
unoxidized ....•............ 260-440 0.057-0.075 26
Gray oxidized ............. 75 0.28 25 service ........•...••...... 520-1045 0.89-0.82 24
Platinum:
Oxidized at 300º F ........ 390 0.63 23
Pure, polished plate ...... 440-1160 0.054-0.104 26
Magnesium:
Strip .......................... 1700-2960 0.12-0.17
Magnesium oxide ......... 530-1520 0.55-0.20 21 11
10 Filament ..................... 80-2240 0.036-0.192 9
Magnesium oxide ......... 1650-3100 0.20 1 Wire .......................... 440-2510 0.073-0.182 13
 164 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 165

Normal Total Enüssivities of Various Surfaces (continued)

Normal Total Emissivities of Various Surfaces (continued)
Surface t,deg F* Emissivity Reference
number Surface t, deg F* Emissivity Reference
number
Silver: Zinc:
Polished, pure ............. 440-1160 0.020-0.032 26
Commercial 99.1%
Polished ..................... 100-700 0.022-0.031 15
0.052 1 pure, polished ............. 440-620 0.045-0.053
Polished ..................... 212 26
Oxidized by heating at
Stainless steels: t
750 ºF ........................ 750 0.11
Polished ..................... 212 0.074 1 23
0.21,0.27,0.16 Galvanized sheet iron,
Type 301; A, B2, e ........ 75 36
Type 301; A+ ................ 450-1740 0.57-0.55 36 fairly bright ............... 82 0.23 25
Galvanized sheet iron,
Type 301; B2t............... 450-1725 0.54-0.63 36
Type 301; e+................ 0.51-0.70 gray oxidized .............. 75 0.28
450-1650 36 25
0.28,0.28,0.17 Zinc, galvanized sheet .... 212 0.21
Type 316; A, B2, e ........ 75 36 1
Type 316; A+ ................ 450-1600 0.57-0.66 36 B. Refractoríes, Building Materials, Paints, and Miscellaneous
Type 316; Bl.............. · 450-1920 0.52-0.50 36
Type 316; e+................ 450-1920 0.26-0.31 36 Alumina(99.5-85 Al2 0~
Type 347; A, B2, e ........ 75 o. 39' o. 35' o.17 36 0-12 Si0 2; 0-1 Fe 20 3).
Type 347; A+ ................ 450-1650 0.52-0.65 36 Effect of mean grain
Type 347; Bl .............. 450-1610 0.51-0.65 36 size, microns (µ).. .... ... 1850-2850 20
Type 347; e+ ................ 450-1650 0.49-0.64 36 10µ .......................... . 0.30-0.18
Type 304 (8 Cr; 18 Ni) 50µ ......................... .. 0.39-0.28
Light silvery, rough, 100µ ........................ . 0.50-0.40
420-914 0.44-0.36 24 Alumina- silica (showing
brown, after heating ....
!I After 42 hr heating effect of Fe) ............... 1850-2850 20
at 980ºF .................. 420-980 0.62-0. 73 24 80-58 A~03 ; 16-38 Si02;
0.4 Fe 20 3 .................. .
li
1,
Type 310(25Cr; 20Ni)
36-26 Ab03; 50-60Si0 2 ;
0.61-0.43
f,,
Brown, splotched, ox-
idized from furnace 1.7 Fe203 .................. . 0.73-0.62
service .................... 420-980 0.90-0.97 24 61 Al 20 3; 35 Si02 ; 2 .9
Allegheny metal No. 4, Fe2D 3 ....................... . 0.78-0.68
212 0.13 1 Asbestos:
polished .....................
Allegheny alloy No. 66, Board ........................ . 74 0.96 25
polished ..................... 212 0.11 1 Paper ........................ . 100-700 0.93-0.94
Brick:§ 15
Tantalum filament .......... 2420-5430 0.19-0.31 37
Thorium oxide ............... 530-930 0.58-0.36 21 Red, rough, but no
Thorium oxide ............... 930-1520 0.36-0.21 21 gross irregularities .... . 70 0.93 25
Tin: Grog brick, glazed ....... . 2012 0.75 22
Bright tinned iron .......... 0.043 and 0.064 25 Building .................... .. 1832 0.45
76 30
Bright ........................ 122 0.06 30 Fireclay ................... .. 1832 0.75
Carbon: 30
Commercial tin-plated
sheet iron .................. 212 1 T-carbon(Gebrüder
0.07' 0.08
Tungsten: Siemens) 0.9% ash.
Filament, aged ............. 80-6000 0.032-0.35 12 This started with emis-
Filament ..................... 6000 0.39 38 sivity at 260 ºF of O. 72,
Polished coat. .............. 212 0.066 1 but on heating changed
to values given .......... . 260-1160 0.81-0. 79 26
166 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 167

Normal Total Emissivities of Various Surfaces (continued)

Normal Total Emissivities of Various Surfaces (continued)
Reference
Surface t,deg F* Emissivity Surface Reference
number t, deg F* Emissivity
number
Carbon (continued) Oil layers on aluminum
Filament ..................... 1900-2560 0.526 19
Rough plate ................. 212-608 0.77 1
foil (linseed oil) ..........
Aluminum foil.. ............
.... .... 28
212 0.087
Rough plate ................. 608-932 0.77-0.72 1 +1, 2 coats oil .............. 212 0.561, 0.574
Graphitized ................. 212-608 0.76-0.75 1 Paints, lacquers,
Graphitized ................. 608-932 o. 75-0. 71 1 varnishes:
Candle soot ................. 206-520 0.952 33 Snow-white enamel var-
Lampblack-waterglass nish on rough iron plate .. 73 0.906 25
coating ...................... 209-440 0.96-0.95 16, 26 Black shiny lacquer,
Thin layer of sarne on sprayed on iron ........... 76 0.875 25
iron plate ................... 69 0.927 25 Black shiny shellac on
Thick coat of sarne ....... 68 0.967 25 tinned iron sheet ......... 70 0.821 25
Lampblack, 0.003 in. Black matte shellac ......
100-700 170-295 0.91 35
or thicker .................. 0.945 15 Black or white lacquer .... 100-200 0.80-0.95 15
Lampblack, rough Flat black lacquer ........
212-932 0.84-0. 78 1 100-200 0.96-0.98 15
deposit ...................... Oil paints, 16 different,
Lampblack, other blacks. 122-1832 0.96 30 all colors ...................
Graphite, pressed, 212 0.92-0.96 28
Aluminum paints and
filed surface ............... 480-950 0.98 21 lac~uers:
Carborundum (87 SiC; 10 o Al, 22% lacquer
density 2.3) ................ 1850-2550 0.92-0.82 20 body, on rough or
Concrete tiles ................ 1832 0.63 30 smooth surface .......... 212 0.52 28
Enamel, white fused, Other Al paints, varying
on iron ...................... 66 0.90 25 age and Al content ...... 212 0.27-0.67 28
Glass: Al lacquer, varnish
Smooth ....................... 72 0.94 25 binder, on rough plate ..
500-1000 ca0.95-0.85 21 70 0.39 25
Pyrex, lead, and soda ..... Al paint, after heating
Gypsum, 0.02 in. thick on to 620 ºF ..................
smooth or blackened 300-600 0.35 26
Radiator paint; white,
plate ......................... 70 0.903 25 cream, bleach .............
Magnesite refractory 212 0.79,0.77,0.84 1
Radiator paint, bronze ... 212 0.51
brick ......................... 1832 0.38 30 1
Lacquer coatings, 0.001-
Marble, light gray, 0.015 in. thick on
polished ..................... 72 0.93 25 aluminum alloys:t .........
Oak, planed ................... 70 0.90 25 100-300 0.87 to 0.97 36
Clear silicon vehicle
Oil layers on polished coatings, 0.001-0.015
nickel (lubricating oil) .. 68 .... 25 in. thick:+
Polished surface alone .. .... 0.045 On mild steel. ............ 500 0.66
+0.001, 0.002, 0.005 36
On stainless steels,
in oil. ........................ .... 0.27' 0.46, 0.72 316, 301, 347 ............
Thick oil layer ............. .... 0.82 On Dow metal ............
500
500
0.68,0.75,0.75 36
0.74 36
On Al alloys 24 ST,
75 ST ...................... 500 º· 77' 0.82 36
 168 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 169

Normal Total Emissivities of Various Surfaces (continued)

Reference Normal Total Emissivities of Various Surfaces (continued)
Surface t,deg F* Emissivity
number REFERENCES:
Paints, lacquers, var- 1. Barnes,(B.T ., W .E. Forsythe, and E.Q. Adams, J. Opt. Soe.
nishes (continued) Am., 37 10), pp. 804-807 (1947).
Aluminum paint with sil- 2. Binkley, E.R., private communication, 1933.
icone vehicle, two 3. Bacon, J .E., and J .W. James, "Proceedings of the General
coats on Inconefl= ......... 500 0.29 36 Discussion on Heat Transfer," pp. 117-121, Institution of
Paper, thin, pasted on tin- Mechanical Engineers, London, and American Society of
ned or blackened plate .. 66 0.92, 0.94 25 Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1952.
Plaster, rough lime ......... 50-190 0.91 32 4. Burgess, G.K., Natl. Bur. Standards Bull. 6 Sei. Paper 121
Porcelain, glazed ........... 72 0.92 25 111 (1909). ' ' '
Quartz: 5. Burgess, G.K., and P .D. Foote, Natl. Bur. Standards, Bull.
Rough, fused ................ 70 0.93 25 11, Sei. Paper 224, 41-64 (1914).
Glass, 1.98 mm. thick .... 540-1540 0.90-0.41 21 6. Burgess, G.K., and P.D. Foote, Natl. Bur. Standards, Bull.
Glass, 6 .88 mm. thick .... 540-1540 0.93-0.47 21 12, Sei. Paper 249, 83-89 (1915).
Opaque ....................... 570-1540 0.92-0.68 21 7. Coblentz, W .H., Natl. Bur. Standards, Bull. 7, 197 (1911).
Roofing paper ................ 69 0.91 25 8. Dastar, M.N., and N .A. Gokcen, J. Metals 1(10) trans. 665-
Rubber: 667 (1949). ' '
Hard, glossy plate ........ 74 0.94 25 9. Davisson, C., and J.R. Weeks Jr. J. Opt. Soe. Am. 8, 581-
Soft, gray, rough 606 (1924). ' ' '
(reclaimed) ................ 76 0.86 25 10. Féry, C., Ann. Phys. ehim., 27, 433 (1902).
Serpentine, polished ........ 74 0.90 25 11. Foote, P.D., Natl. Bur. Standards, Bull. 11, Sei. Paper 243,
Silica (98 Si02; Fe-free), 607 (1914); J. Wash. Aead. Sei., 5, 1 (1914).
effect of grain size, 12. Forsythe, W.E., and A.G. Worthing,Astrophys. J. 61 146-
microns (µ) ................ 1850-2850 ...... 20 185 (1925). ' '
10µ ........................... .... 0.42-0.33 13. Geiss, W., Physiea, 5, 203 (1925).
70-600 µ ····················· .... 0.62-0.46 14. Goller, G.N., Trans. Am. Soe. Metals, 32,239 (1944).
(See also Alumina- 15. Heilman, R.H., Trans. ASME, FSP51, 287-304 (1929).
sílica and quartz)
Water ........................... 32-212 0.95-0.963 , 16.
17.
Hoffmann, K., Z. Physik, 14, 310 (1923).
Hulbert, E.O., Astrophys. J., 42, 205 (1915).
Zirconium silicate .......... 460-930 0.92-0.80 21 18. Knowles, D., and R.J. Sarjant, J. lron Steel Jnst. (London),
Zirconium silicate .......... 930-1530 0.80-0.52 21 155' 577 (1947).
*When temperatures and emissivities appear in pairs separated by dashes, 19. Lummer, O., Elektroteeh. z., 34, 1428 (1913).
they correspond; and linear interpolation is permissible. 20. Michaud, M., Se.D. Thesis, University of Paris 1951.
t1dentification of surface treatment: surface A, cleaned with toluene, then 21. Pirani, M., J. Sei. lnstr., 16, (12) (1939). '
methanol; B 1 , cleaned with soap and water, toluene, and methanol in succes- 22. Polak, V., Z. teeh. Physik, 8, 307 (1927).
sion; B 2 , cleaned with abrasive soap and water, toluene, and methanol; C, 23.
polished on buffing wheel to mirror surface, cleaned with soap and water. R~ndolph, C.F., and J.J. Overholtzer, Phys. Rev., 2, 144 (1913).
24. R1c~, H.S., Chemical Engineering Thesis, Massachusetts
+Results after repeated heating and cooling.
§see also under material type. Institute of Technology, 1931.
,Calculated from spectral data. 25. Schmidt, E., Gesundh.-Jng., Beiheft 20, Reihe 1, 1-23 (1927).
**Table A- 23, compiled by Hottel, from W. H. McAdams' "Heat Transmis- 26. Schmidt, E., and E. Furthmann, Mitt. Kaiser-Wilhelm-lnst
sion," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954. For more extensive compi- Eisenforseh. Dusseldorj, Abhandl., 109, 225 (1928). .,
lations refertoGubareff, G. G., J. E. Janssen, and R. H. Torborg, "Thermal 27. Snell, F.D., lnd. Eng. Chem., 29, 89-91 (1937).
Radiation Properties Survey," Honeywell Research Center, Minneapolis, 28.
Minn. (1960); and Goldsmith, A., T. E. Waterman, and J. H. Hirschhorn, Standard Oil Development Company personal communication
1928. ' '
"Thermophysical Properties of Solid Materiais," WADC, TR58-476, Vols.
I-V, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio (1960).
 170 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

Normal Total Emissivities of Various Surfaces (continued) CH 5

29. Suydam, V.A., Phys. Rev., (2)5, 497-509 (1915).
30. Thring, M.W., "The Science of Flames & Furnaces," EXCHANGE A ONG NONIDEAL SU
Chapman & Hall, London, 1952.
31. Thwing C.B., Phys. Rev., 26, 190 (1908). The methods of evaluating surface-surface interchange pre-
32. Wamsl~r, F., Z. Ver. deut. Ing., 55, 599-605 (1911); Mitt. sented in Chaps. 2 and 3 were based on the assumptions that surfaces
Forsch., 98, 1-45 (1911). are ideal - they are gray and reflect in accordance with Lambert 's
33. Wenzl, M., and F. Morawe, Stahl u. Eisen, 47,867-871 (1927). law. Chapter 4 has indicated that real surfaces may exhibit prop-
34. Westphal, W ., Verhandl. deut. physik. Ges., 10, 987-1012 erties differing from the ideal in the following ways:
(1912).
35. Westphal, W., Verhandl. deut. physik. Ges., 11, 897-902 1. The components of polarization of an incident beam are
(1913). reflected from a surface in different ways.
36. Wilkes, G.B., Final Report on Contract No. W33-038-20486,
Air Material Command; Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, DIC 2. The emissivity and absorptivity of a surface may vary with
Report, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1950). beam angle relative to the normal.
37. Worthing, A.G., Phys. Rev., 28, 190 (1926). . 3. The reflectivity of a surface at a specific angle to the nor-
38. Zwikker, C.,Arch. néerland. sci.,9(Pt. IIIA), 207 (1925). mal may depend on that angle, on the angle of the incident beam,
and on the azimuth or bearing angle between the two beams. A
limiting case is that of specular reflection.
4. The monochromatic emissivity and absorptivity of a sur-
face may vary with wavelength.
5. Any of the properties enumerated above may be a function
of surface temperature.

Rigorous allowance for all these phenomena is generally too

difficult or too tedious to be justified except for special cases char-
acterized either by geometrical symmetry - parallel plates, con-
centric spheres - or by restriction of the nonideality to but one or
two surfaces of a particular system of interest. More commonly
the chief cause of departure from ideal-system performance is
identified by semiquantitative reasoning, and a mathematical model
is then set up which allows for that one kind of departure. A few
such incomplete models are presented in the following sections.*
First, however, the rigorous relation from which they derive will
be presented.

*A note on the historical development of calculational methods of handling

non-Lambert reflection: Methods of calculating radiative exchange in com-
plex enclosures the reflectance of whose surfaces were either diffuse or
specular - but not both - have been presented by various investigators in-
cluding Munch [ 7] , Eckert and Sparrow [ 3] , and Bobco [ 2] . The diffuse-
specular model to be presented in this chapter was originally used by
Jensen [ 5], later outlined by Seban [ 9], and developed independently by the
authors [ 4a, 8], and by Lin and Sparrow [ 6] . Several other methods of
handling non-Lambert reflectíon have been proposed, most notably by Bevans
and Edwards [ 1] .
171

11.
 EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURF ACES 173
172 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

the arguments of p · . But even h

BC~B'
5.1 The Integral Equation of Radiative 1\

Exchange at a Non-Lambert Surface with this simplificatlon and with

i\~~
\ 12 1

~
the assumption of gray surfaces \ ,
as well, Eq. (5-2) requires find-
The integral equation to be satisfied
by radiation at every surface in an en- ing the form of the unknown Mírror
Plane
2
1
2
\1
1
\

closure of gray Lambert surfaces [ Eq. function lw, which now depends ~Mirro1\
1 Planes
(3-6)] was in terms of total flux densities - both on position and on the di- (a) (b)
the leaving flux density W and the emissive rection of the beam at every Fig. 5-2. Construction of single (a) or
power EE. It took a form equivalent to position on the walls. multiple (b) images.

Fig. 5-1. Reflection at 5 .2 State of Polarization

(5-1)
dAi of radiation arriv-
ing from dA i.
When the flux density away from a surface j varies with direction,
the equivalent of Eq. (5-1) must refer not to a hemisphere at dAi
but to a pencil of rays lying in the solid angle dn i (shaded in the
sketch, Fig. 5-1). Hemispherical flux densities are replaced by
intensities. Wi is replaced by lw(ei, 1/Ji), such that if lw were no
function of polar angle e or azimuth angle 1/J, 7Tl wwould equal W.
EiEi is replaced by E(Bi)IB,i (with 7TlB =E). pi is replaced by
p.J (e.'J ' if;'.J ' e.J ' 1/J·J - if;.')'
J
indicating the •dependence of reflectivity on
the polar angle of incidence ei; the az1muth angle of mc1dence 'I' i ;
1 • •
the polar angle of reflection ei; and the azimuth angle of reflection
relative to incidence, 1/Ji - if;'i. The total contribution of all Ai to the
reflected flux leaving within dn i is then obtained by integration over
dn;. Thus Eq. (5-1) is replaced by
As ~hown_ in Chap. 4 E, p, and a depend on the orientation of
the plane m_ ~h1ch the electric vector is vibrating relative to the
plane contammg the emitted or incident radiation and the surface
normal. For surfaces that are parallel (two-dimensional slots
parallel glass plates) the energy balances should be formulatect'
separatel~ for the c_omponents of radiation obtained by resolving
the electric vector m and perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
For nonparallel surfaces, however, the relation between the inci-
dent and reflected fluxes at each surface is best formulated in terms
of Stokes pa_rameters [_4], and the procedure for calculating the ef-
,,,,
fect o_f m~lhple reflections becomes very tedious. Fortunately,
P?larizat10_n effects are important in only a few cases, involving
e1ther coll1mated radiation or the passage of diffuse radiation
through parallel glass plates (see Appendix in this chapter) or
long slots.

Iw .(e., 1/J.) - E(B. )IB . 5.3 Specular Reflection

~ ~
leaving dAi emitted by
dAi insame T~e general treatment of exchange among non-Lambert sur-
in direction
ei , tfi direction faces w1ll be preceded by the consideration of exchange among sur-
faces one or more of which are specular reflectors. A major
problem for some readers may be the visualization of multiple
specular images seen through a glass darkly. Time spent in a
Hall of Mirrors may help.
flux density incident on reflectivity in direction
dA i from all i, expressed ei, t/Ji a. Image construction. Radiation from an object OB (Fig.
as a mean intensity by di-
5-~a_), when r~fl~cted specu_larly by a plane surface, appears to
vision by rr
(5-2) ongmate at O B , symmetncally placed with respect to OB about
,,'! the plan~ of the m~rror. O 'B ', however, can be seen only from ·
those pomts to wh1ch rays drawn from O 'B' intersect the specular
ln the general case this relation applies to monochromatic or surface; for example, O 'B' may be seen in its entirety from e but
gray radiation, and under conditions in which the state of polariza- not at all from D. This type of construction may be extended to
tion is unimportant. A little consideration indicates how enormously systems containing any number of specular surfaces. A two-
the problem has been complicated over that associated with the con- specular-surface combination is shown in Fig. 5-2b. ln the nota-
ditions to which the simpler integral equation (3-6) [ or (5-1)] ap- hon of Eckert and Sparrow [ 3] the image of surface 1 seen through
plies. When the surface is isotropic, if;'.J may be dropped as one of
174 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
2 is 12 , seen through 2 and 1 is 12 ,1 , and so on. The partial re-
striction on the view of the images caused by the finite extent of
the specular surfaces may be calculated by treating the specular
surfaces as apertures through which the images are viewed. Thus
the view of 21 , 2 from 1 is through the apertures formed by 2 and
12 , with 12 restricting the view; and that of 1 2 , 1 from 2 is through
1 and 21, with 1 restricting the view. For two-dimensional sur-
faces this partial restriction of view may be taken into account in
the crossed-string method by stretching all the strings through the
apertures (see Sec. 2 .4); for other configurations the projection
methods of Secs. 2.2 and 2.lOb may be used.
b. Direct and specular exchange between surfaces. ln the
presence of specular reflection, a surface Ai sees another Ai both
directly and more distantly in mirrors formed by those zones of
the enclosure which exhibit some specular reflection. But the mir-
ror images receive reduced weight compared to the direct image
when the specular reflectance is less than one. If the effective va-
lue of si si due to direct-plus-specular views is represented by
(sisj)s, it is clear that
(sisi·)s == SiS1· + [(sisi.)mnp· .. Ps ' , 1 m
where (s isi )m,n,p... represents the direct exchange area from Ai to
the image of Ai formed by specular reflection successively at zones
m, n, p, ... , the p 's represent the specular reflectivities of those
zones, and the summation is over all possible specular views Ai
or Ai has of the other.
Equality of properties of the different surfaces, reduction of
the number of them in the specular category, and symmetry all
contribute to simplification of the problem of evaluating the various
(si si )8 's - a problem which can in general be very complex.
With this new meaning of direct-exchange area, the condition
L sisi =Ai, or its equivalent LFii = 1, is no longer satisfied.
Ailthough L (Fii ) 8 can exceed 1 m~nyfold, this can never produce
an embarr~ssing excess of flux since L (1- p
i 8 ,]
ways equal L The argument follows: If all the surfaces forming
an enclosure reflect only specularly and emit in accordance with
the cosine law, the net exchange between any two Ai and Ai is
given directly by
Q• 1
. = i. = E· E· (8-8'.' ) (E 1· - E·J )
1 J 1 J 8
EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURFACES 175
The term (si si ) s make s full allowance for 1
the multiple specular reflection at all sur-
faces in the enclosure, and the product
E i E i (si si )8 is the equivalent of the
Lambert-system Si Si. Therefore
or, after division through by Ai E i,
Fig. 5 - 3. Directional
emissivity (absorptivity)
of a surface.
The sole criterion for subdivision of a specular enclosure in-
to zones is the reduction of variation of emissivity and temperature
over each zone. The variation in the reflected flux density over a
zone is of interest only when the heat flux distribution over its sur-
face is required.
Ps ,n Ps ,p ... (5-3) If a single zone of an enclosure is a perfect specular reflector
( Ps = 1) and all others are diffuse reflectors - some sources or
sinks and some radiatively adiabatic - the problem of evaluating net
interchange between any source-sink pair may be handled rigorously
by the methods of Chap. 3. The enclosure and its mirror image,
with the mirror treated as an opening, are treated as a single new
system composed entirely of Lambert surfaces. A more general
treatment of non-Lambert surfaces will now be considered.
5.4 System of Non-Lambert Gray Surfaces
The net interchange between A1 and A2 , with assistance given
by the adiabatic surfaces Ar, As, ... , is still expressible in the
form (E1 -E 2 )(S 1S2 )R introduced in Chap. 3, but the total-exchange
are a (8 18 2 )R is no longer obtainable by the methods presented there.
The facts needed are, in addition to a description of the system
. )(Fii )8 must al- shape, complete data on the emissivity, absorptivity, and reflectivity
for each surface. The emissivity data will take some such form
as the curve of Fig. 5- 3 and, since the surface is gray, the sarne
function will represent the absorptivity O' (8). The reflectivity in
the direction 8 is the complementary function to 0'(8), but it repre-
sents the integral of the contributions of incoming beams from all
directions.
(5-4)
p( ) =
8
I p(8, 8', lf!')ct~v cos 8'
277 1T
 176 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
where dQ' is the solid angle of an incoming beam with ori~ntation
e iJ; '. Consequently the surface is not completely d~scnbe~ un-
1,
til the function p(e, e', iJ; ')is given, with the constramt that_its
integration over e' and iJ;' must agree with the value from Fig. 5-3.
With E oi and p completely described one could convert Eq.
(5-2) to a sy~te~ of simultaneous equations in lw 's in much the man-
ner used in Chap. 3, with this exception: If there are n surface
zones there are not n unknown I's, but mn, where m is the number
of solÍd angles into which the 21T steradians above every surface
zone is divided. If the area zones are also used to identify sol_id
angle zones, then m would equal n and the order _of _the determmants
involved in the solution of (5-2) would be n 2. Th1s is hardly an at-
tractive prospect for most engineering applications, and the fol-
lowing three approximations are offered.
a The emissivities of all surfaces in the system are high,
and reÚection is diffuse. The total-exchange area (Si S2 )R will in
this case be due primarily to the direct-exchange contributio~ si s_2
and the once-removed-from-direct contributions from the adiabahc
zones _ (s 1 srxsrs 2), etc. - and only secondarily to ~eflected beams.
Consequently, if the direct-exchange areas that go i~to the transfer
matrix of equations such as (3-25) are formulate~ with all_owa_nce
for the effects of Ei (e) and oi i (e) on si si, the maJ~r contnbuhons
to (S. S.) will have been correctly evaluated. Th1s means that
(si si\}__ ~ with the subscript nL indicating it is a non-Lambert
exchange area - is evaluated from
Num.
(5-5)
1
1
where the subscript h on E and oi refers, as in Chap. 4, to the
1,
hemispherical value. The numerator may be approximated by
(sisj)Lambert Ei(Bi,av )'. O'j(Bj, av), where Bi,.av and ~j, av are th_e
angles made by the normals to Ai and Ai with the lme connectmg
their centers. The terms E/ p of equations like (3-25) should be
the values of E/ (1 - E) based on hemispherical emission. E then
represents fE (e) d sin2 e , the height of the dotted line of Fig. 5- 3.
EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURFACES 177
The authors have had insufficient experience with this pro-
posed method to recommend limits to its use as an approximation.
The added labor of determining a pair of angles and a corresponding
w for each si si in the system is considerable; there are undoubt-
edly situations where the labor is justified.
b. The emissivities of all surfaces in the system are low,
and reflection is diffuse. ln this case (Si S2 )R is due to a very small
extent to the direct and once-removed exchange areas si s 2 and
(si sr sr s 2 ), and mostly to multiple reflection involving all the sur-
faces in the system. Under these circumstances, even though sur-
face Ai is a non-Lambert emitter, the leaving-flux intensity lw, i
is almost independent of angle e because it is composed negligibly
of IBE(e) and mostly of diffusely-reflected incident flux. The meth-
ods of Chap. 3 should then give acceptable results without any modi-
fication of the direct-exchange factors used. The value of E/p to
be used is obtained as in case (a) above.
e. The diffuse-plus-specular reflection model [ 8 J. The non-
Lambert character of all surfaces in the system is assumed capable
of representation by a simplified model: the surface is a Lambert
emitter and absorber, and the complementary reflectance
p( =1 - E = 1 - oi ) is divisible into components fJo and Ps , repre-
senting many surfaces quite well (see Sec. 4.9); and it permits a
rigorous formulation of radiative exchange in an enclosure by
adaptation of the methods developed in Chap. 3.
The basic integral equation of exchange, Eq. (5-1) [ or (3-6) J,
applies. When the zone concept is infroduced, it reduces to (3-24)
(5-6)
repeated for all j 's. But with surfaces exhibiting both diffuse and
specular reflection the meaning of terms in (5-6) is somewhat dif-
ferent. Radiation leaving a surface Ai as diffuse emission or diffuse
reflection is directed hemispherically, but the amount directed to-
wards Ai is measured no longer by Si si but by (si s j)s because Ai
sees Ai directly as well as more distantly in mirrors formed by
those zones of the enclosure which exhibit some specular reflection
(see Sec. 5.3b).
The remaining modifications of Eq. (3-24) are best made in
the light of a reexamination of its derivation in Chap. 3. At sur-
face j (Fig. 5-4) the incident flux density H, is composed, as before,
 178 RADIATIVE TRANSFER EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURFACES 179

of the sum of the leaving-flux densities W

;C_lFrom all from other surfaces, each weighted by the Equation (5-9) or (5-10) written for every zone in the enclo-
~J Surfaces i
factor si si; but since si si has been re- sure, gene rates the system of equations applicable to an enclosure
Hj
placed by (sisi)s, W's from other surfaces of mixed specular and diffuse gray surfaces some of which are net
properly include emission and diffuse re- emitters or absorbers and some are in radiative equilibrium. In
flection only, and not total reflection. If matríx form, * these are
such a leaving-flux density is designated by Ai - AiE1
Wu, then the incident density H is given by (Il)s- - - (12) 5 (lr) 5 WD,1 ---E1
PD, 1 Pn, 1

(5-7) - A2 -A2E2
(12) 5 (22) 5 - - (2r)5 WD,2 --E2
Fig. 5-4. Radiative Pn, 2 Pn, 2
fluxes at a specular- The other relation needed is a radiation
diffuse surface. balance on Ai , which takes one of two forros
dependent on whether Ai is a net emitter (A 1 ,
A2 , A 3 ••• ) or a surface in radiative equi- - A
(2r) 5 (rr)s- _ _r_ o
librium (Ar, As, ... ). If Ai is a net emitter l -Ps, r

(5-8a)
'-..------' '---y----'
Response Excitation
Transfer Matrix
li Ai is in radiative equilibrium Vector Vector

(5-8b) (5-12)
Wu,i + Hi Ps,i = Hi
When Ps = O and Pn = p, this relation of course reduces to Eqs.
Elimination of Hi between (5-7) and (5-8a or b) gives for net (3-25~ ?r their equivalent. The following relations, formerly
emitters equahties, must be borne in mind:
Ai (Wu,i - E· E·) \' (5-9)
- - - ' - - - - - - ' - i--'-i = L.. Wu, i (si si )s

and for zones in radiative equilibrium

*The development from (5-7) to (5-13) may be written more concisely in ma-
Ai Wu,i
L Wu, i (si si )s (5-10) trix notation. Equations (5-7), (5-8), and (5-11) become
1- Ps, i AI· H = ss · Wn; Wn =d· E+ (1-p5 -E)I· H; Q = EAI · [E-H]
where AI is a diagonal matrix formed from the zone areas ss a square ma-
The net flux at j, from inspection of Fig. 5-4 is given by trix formed from the specular exchange areas, etc. In this treatment the
emissivities of radiatively adiabatic zones are set equal to zero. The net
1
,
flux at the surfaces may also be formulated in terms of the total exchange
''
are as. ln matrix notation,
1

l' - Wu 'J· - E·J E·) -

J - Ei [E.J (1 - Ps 'J. ) - Wu ,J· ]
Q = EAI ·E - SS ·E
Solution of the first two equations for H, yields
Pu,i Pu,i
H =[AI- ss· (1-ps -E)Ii- 1 . ss. d . E
(5-11)
S_ubstit_ution of H in the third equation and comparison of the resultant equa-
For zones in radiative equilibrium Hi ai = EiEi and qnet o. t10n w1th the fourth yields a matrix formulation of the total exchange are as:
SS=EAI· [AI- ss · (1-p 8 - E)IJ · ss· E!
 EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURFACES 181
180 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

(21)s - (12)s Ai [ 1 + Ps,i Ps,2 + (Ps,i Ps,2 )2 + ... ]

E·
1
qnet, j ;;" - -
Pu, i Ai
(5-15)
(si sds ;;=O even though Ai cannot see itself directly, 1 - Ps,iPs,2
if it sees itself in a mirror
(22)s may be obtained in a similar manner after first noting
that of the radiation originating at A2 a fraction Ai / A2 is reflected
. Ai Ei
;;=Si Si - A1 - - - specularly between 1 and 2 and a fraction 1 - Ai/A 2 is reflected
PD, i Pu, i specularly by surface 2 only. Therefore
But Eqs. (3-27) to (3-32) do apply, with Wu and Pu replacing W and
(2 Z)s = A2 - Ai + Ai Ps,i (5-16)
p. Consequently
1 - Ps,2 1 - Ps,i Ps,2
The total-exchange area may be calculated from (5-13) and (5-12).
with These give

(SiSj)R = AiÉi (;WD,j - õijEj) (5-13)

Pu, i

and with iWD, i evaluated from (5-12) by methods such as those dis:
cussed in Secs. 3.8 to 3.10. where D is the determinant of the transfer matrix in Eq. (5-12), and
DJ., 2 is its signed minor. For one source and one sink Eq. (3-45),
5.5 Applications of the Mixed Specular-Diffuse with adiabatic zones dropped and with modifications which recognize
Reflection Model replacement of (3-25) by (5-12) to allow for specularity, gives

The ability to handle problems of considerable complexity with (12)

the relations of Sec. 5.4c will be illustrated by application to two ex-
amples, presented in order of increasing complexity. ·
-
{ [(ll)s - -
Ai J [(22)s
- -A-2 J - (12)~}
Pu,i Pu,2
a. Exchange between concentric spheres, or between infinitely (5-17)
long concentric cylinders. Let Ai and A2 be the inner and outer sur-
faces respectively. The problem is one of evaluating Si S L The Substitution from (5-14), (5-15) and (5-16) gives
first step is the determination of the view factors (1 l)s, (12)s, and
(22)s. All the radiation leaving Ai will reach A2 and that fraction 1
which is specularly reflected will all return to Ai, and so on. There- (5-17a)
fore Ai sees an infinite number of images of itself, the direct- Ps 2 Ai PD 2 1
+- -'- ----
exchange area between Ai and each image is Ai, and each image is 1 - Ps,2 A2 E2 l-Ps,2
partially dimmed as a consequence of absorption and/ or diffuse re-
flection on each bounce. Then, by analogy to (5-3), An equivalent relation was derived by Jensen [ 5 J.

(ll)s = Ai Ps, 2 [ 1 + Ps,i Ps,2 + (Ps,i Ps,2 )2 + · · · J Equation (5-17a) describes the interchange between long con-
centric cylinders or between concentric spheres, for any surface
AiPs,2 properties ranging between purely specular and purely diffuse reflec-
(5-14)
tion. Some limits of the equation will now be examined. For purely
1 - Ps,i Ps,2 diffuse surfaces, p s , 2 = pS,i = O, and
Surface A 2 (Ai) also sees an infinite number of images of Ai
(A 2), the exchange area to each is Ai, and the flux from successive
images is reduced by a factor Ps,i Ps, 2 , so that
182 RADIATIVE TRANSFER EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURFACES 183

1 As an approximation each
1 1 1
1

1
1
1
1

1
face will be treated as a single
1 1 1 1
-~----r----T---~r----r----1----1----T
1 1 1 1 zone.* Let opposite faces be
: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 numbered 1 and 2 as in Fig. 5-6
:21,2,4,3,4121,2,3,4 : 21,2,4 121,2 : 21,2,3 : 21,2,4,3 121,2,3,4,3:
1
inset. Complete solution of the
1 I I 1 ID 1
1 1 1 1 1 /EI : problem consists in finding total-
in agreement with Eq. (3-18). For purely specular surfaces, Pn, 2 1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 I
/ 1
1
1
1 exchange areas 8i 82 and 81 83 ,
-i -----i--- --1-- - - , - - -- -i--- --17;--- -:--- - -,
Pn, 1 =O, and : : : 1 1 /1 1 : since 8i 81 is obtainable from
:24,3,4 123,4 124 1 2 123 / :2..i,:J :23,4,3 1

: 3/ 1 1
81~
1

1 1

1
/

1
1 1

1
8181 + + 4818.J = AiE1
1
-:--- ta e :_____ I1_____ -----1-
1

1 1 (5-18)
- + -- 1
E1 E2 Fig. 5 -5. Images, lying in the cube
plane, of surface 2 seen at surface 1 The direct - plus - specular ex-
byreflections atsurfaces 1, 2, 3 and 4. change areas (s1s2)s, (s1 si)s
easily verifiable by the beam-tracing method. and (s 1s 2 )s must first be ob-
tained. Consider (s 1s 2 ) 8 . Fig-
As A1---> A2 (in the limit the case of two infinite parallel ure 5-5 shows some of the many
plates) views surface 1 has of surface 2. 5 r--~-----,-----,.-----,----,
2, extending to infinity in 2 di-
8i82
1
1
------
1
re ctions two units apart. A ray
from Ai to A 2 via reflections
successively at A 3, A 2, A 4 , Ai
t 2.0

LI----+--~---
+ - 1
is shown. The contribution of
that particular image to the to-
irrespective of the ratio of diffuse and specular reflection. How-
ever, when Ai « A 2 , Eq. (5-l 7a) yields
tal view (si s 2)s is the direct-
exchange area from BC, rep-
resenting Ai, to DE, representing
@
....
~ 3 ·--+-+-+.

o
an image of A 2 , multiplied by ·e! LO
Ei (1 - Ps,2) p~. Figure 5-5 indicates that
Ai has (n+ 1) 2 views of A 2 by
1 - Ps, 2 (1 - Ei)
reflection at n surfaces (and that
the values of sis 2 for any given
and the exchange are a may vary from a value of Ai Ei when A 2 is n are not all the sarne). Direct-
a diffuse reflector to Ai/(1/Ei + 1/E2 - 1) when A 2 is a specular exchange are as between parallel
reflector, for all values of Ps, i / Pn, i . The maximum difference squares not opposite one another
.4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
between specular and diffuse reflection occurs for this case for a are obtainable by the methods
tiny black ball in light gray surroundings. of Chap. 2 or from Figs. 7-14 - - - - Ps - - - - - -
and 7-15 when the squares are Fig. 5-6. Specular view factors for a
not too far apart, or from Eq. cube as afunctionof the specular com-
b. Interchange among the faces of a cube maintained at dif- (2-38) when r is large. The ponent of reflectance.
ferent uniform temperatures, surfaces gray and reflectivities sep-
arable into diffuse and specular components p D and p s. Although *ln the problem of evaluating the total-exchange area between opposed black
allowance could be made for different reflectivities of the different faces of a cube the other four walls of which are perfect diffuse total Lam-
faces, the problem will be simplified by assuming all surfaces bertreflectors (Fig. 3-6), the one-zone approximation of the reflecting walls
alike. introduces an error in the flux of nearly 10 percent. ln the present problem
the error will be very much less.
 EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURFACES 185
184 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

1.0 .----------~--~
contribution to (si s 2 )s of all beams reflected n times is p8n times __ The values of (Si S2)8 and 0.9 t - - - - - - - - + - - - - - + - - - - 1
the sum of those direct-exchange areas corresponding to exchange (SiS3 )s from the above relation, 0.8 t-------+==---~="=-----<
between Ai and the A 2 images formed by n reflections. The series together with (8i 8i )s by differ- 0.7 .___ _ _ _J_

the sum of which represents (si s 2 ) 8 is found to approach a geomet- ence from Eq. (5-14), appear in
rical one in the limitas its members approach higher degrees, i.e., Fig. 5- 7 in a plo_h_on logarithmic
the coefficients on p~ approach constancy as n increases; the series coordinates, of 88/A versus val-
is approximately ues of emissivity extending up ~ O. 4 t--------+----..Ll-_,.:_-J'.---1
to the maximum value of 0.3. I~ "' (8i82ls/ A 1 for Ps = 0.1,
This allows the diffuse reflec- - 0.3 remaining p diffuse _ _,___..,,__,,,_,__,,."-"----'
(si s2)s ~ 2 3 4 s 4 6 ••.
--- = .2+.35p 8 +.27p 8 + .207p8 +.213p 8 +.2 23 Ps +. 22 P 8 + tance fJu to vary from 093 to O& e;
Ai On_!Qe sarne plot appear values ~
of 88 for the case of all the re- li2 "' 0.2 i---------ll'--7'7'7'-'---remammg
flection being_diffus_~J from Eq. p diffuse
(5-19),witQ._12 and 13 replacing
This represents the sum of the contributions of a three-dimensional (12) 8 and (13) 8 ]. It is to be noted
array of images filling the whole of space on either side of surface 1. that, although the interchange
A similar treatment yields the self-exchange area (si s 1 )s between opposite faces (8i8 2 ) 8
is greater than that between ad- 0.08 .___ _ ____,__ _ _ _ _J__ __J

jacent faces (8 i 8 3 ) s when Ps = 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30

O. 7, the two quantities are the Emissivity, E----
sarne when all the reflection is Fig. 5-7. Effect of specular versus
and the exchange area between adjacent faces diffuse; and the common value diffuse reflection on net flux from cube
of (8i 82) and (8i 8 3) for the dif- side to opposite face (S 1 S 2 ); an ad-
fuse-reflecting system lies be- joining face (S 1 S 3 ), and itself (S 1 Si),
tween (8i82)s and (8i83)s. for the special case of p 8 = O. 7.
Further, the values of (8 i 8 i)
These relations appear graphically in Fig. 5-6. and (8i Si )s are found to be the sarne within the accuracy of the cal-
culations. For a given emissivity, specularity of the reflected com-
Equations (5-13) and (5-12) yield for this case ponent increases the transfer across a cube and decreases the
transfer to walls adjoining the source; but the effect is small.
(SiS; )8 or (~) 8
These results tend to support the generalization that, when
Ai the reflectance of all the surfaces forming an enclosure is high,
flux densities in various directions are so nearly equalized by mul-
2 { _ 2 _ _ (12) 8 _ ]} tiple reflection as to make the difference between specular and dif-
2 _ 2(13) 8 - (12) 8 (13) 8 - - - [ (12) 8 +c or (13) 8
(E ~ (12) 8 - C 2 fuse reflection rather unimportant. Another case in point is the
apparent absorptance O'ª of the mouth of a cavity subjected to inci-
\Pu) [(12) 8 +c+4(13) 8 ][(12) 8 +--c-2(13) 8 ] dent hemispherical irradiation. ( 0' 8 is a direct measure of the
(5-19) total-exchange area between a black surface stretched across the
opening and the remainder of the cavity .) Figure 5-8 presents
where c = (11) 8 -Ai/Pu. This general relation will be evaluated for calculated values of O'a for a V groove the surface of which reflects
the special case of a specular reflectance Ps of O. 7. With values for either diffusely or specularly. The calculations [ 10] follow a
the direct-exchange areas taken from Fig. 5-6, (5-19) becomes method different from that presented here. It is evident that for
these examples 0' 8 based on specular reflection at the surface is
(Sl82) s or (Sl§3) s 1.517 -1.459pu or 1) seldom more than 20 percent greater than ªª for diffuse reflection.
( 0.956+0.408pD
Ai 1.194pi- 6.722pD + 1.912
(5-20)
 EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURFACES 187
186 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

being treated as sources or sinks. The net interchange in the in-

1.0 The restriction of specular ter~raldi\ i~ (Si Si h. (E A, i - E,\, i) di\ , and the total flux is obtained
reflection to one or two of the by mtegrahon over the spectrum.
zones of an enclosure can, how-
0.8
tl"' ever, have a significant effect
(5-21)
aí
CJ
on the radiative interchange.
"~"' 0.6 Consider, for example, the
iii interchange between parallel The i.ntegral~ can most readily be evaluated by making use of the
{] disks connected by radiatively frachon, des1gnated here by f, of blackbody radiation which lies
0.4
in the wavelength region below i\T (see Sec. 1.5). This function
"Q)

til
'" _ _ Specular
adiabatic walls. Of the emis-
sion from one disk the fraction ispresented in Table 5-1 andas the top scale in Fig. 1-8.
~ '" 0.2 ----Diffuse reaching the other is small if
the separating distance is great Insertion of df = EA di\ /E into Eq. (5-21) gives
and the walls are Lambert re-
o 0.2 0.4 0.6
1
0.8 i.O flectors (Sec. 3.12); it is one, Qi=i
. =
r1- h. df(i\Ti) - Ei 11 (Si Si h. df(i\Ti)
Ei J (Si Si (5-22)
Plane surface absorptivity, a
regardless of distance, if the o o '
Fig. 5-8. Apparent absorptance a a of walls are specular.
If special graph paper is prepared with the abscissa linear
a V groove for diffuse incident calcu-
lated assuming specular (solid lines) in f, but labelled in i\ T, the integrals are obtained simply as the
When an enclosure is
and diffuse (dashed lines) reflection. zoned to allow for diffuse re- are~s under. curve_s of (SiS ih plotted versus i\T. The integrals,
From Sparrow and Lin [ 11] . havmg the d1mens10ns of area and being dependent on the temper-
flection by the methods of Chap.
ature of ~our.ce, will be called directed-flux areas and desig-
3, a surface at a uniform temperature requires division into more nated by S isi , w1th the arrow in the direction of the flux. *
zones the higher its reflectivity Pn; but when the surface is specular,
its division into more than one zone is pointless. Zoning in a mixed
system depends on the relative importance of Ps and Pn. (5-2 3)

5.6 Exchange in a System of Nongray Surfaces
A method will now be presented which is capable of allowing,
as fully as the user 's available calculating time permits, for the
spectral differences in the surfaces forming an enclosure and with-
in the limits of the model of the previous section, for the non-
Lambert character of the surfaces as well. Much of the complexity
of the problem is eliminated by using the total-interchange-area
concept developed for gray systems (Chap. 3, and this chapter,
Sec. 5.4).
Let (SiSi h represent, for radiation of wavelength i\, the
total-interchange area between surfaces Ai and Ai based on mono-
chromatic values of p and E*. (SiSi h allows as in Sec. 5.4 for
the diffuse and/ or specular action of all zones in transporting energy
between Ai and Ai. It is to be noted that no subscript R is ap-
pended, all zones of the enclosure at this stage in the derivation
*If p for any of the surfaces ofunknown temperature is temperature-dependent,
an iterative procedure is used, involving guessing the unknown temperatures
the first time around. With the exception of polished metals in the far infra-
red, E , is generally only very slightly dependent on T, and the dependence
1
can for many problems be ignored.
The overhead arrow is thus the symbol of a term the evaluation of
which ~epends on the temperature of the zone represented by the
subscript under the tail of the arrow.
Since the reciprocity relation for total-exchange areas is no
longer valid the net flux can not be expressed as a factor times the
difference of the black emissive powers of the source and sink· in-
stead it equals the difference of the products of the directed-fl~
areas and the E 's of the zones:
• ~ f--
Qi=j = sisj Ei - sisi Ej (5-24)
The evaluation of both directed-flux areas is not always nec-
essary .. If Ti » Ti)• the first term on the right of (5-24) is plainly
controllmg, and Si Si may be used for both terms without introduc-
ing appreciable error. As Ti approaches Ti another simplification
is possible. Over a moderate temperature range S is j may be rep-
resented by g Tf and, if PA is independent of temperature S· S)
. . b ' J 1
is g1ven y the sarne functional relations, gTj. By substitution in
*Symbols carrying overhead arrows here and in the next few pages are not
to be confused with vectors.
188 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURFACES 189

00 O M O'l 00 00 <:.O N C'J O'l O'l Eq. (5-24) it can be seen that the net interchange between sur-
ONOMOO~gg~~MLnLnNMOLnNLn~OO ~
faces is given by a difference in a power of the temperatures other
,-<
"d
'+-<
~~~EE~~g~~~~~~~~~~~~~ than 4.
ººººººººººººººººººººº
--< '
Q i=i = ga
(
Ti4 + m - Ti4 + m) (5-2 5)
rS
8~
'----. E-;~ ooooooooooogggggggggg
ººººººººººº0000000000
This can be used as is, or forced into a fourth-power law by
noting that as Ti approaches Ti
,-<
"d
--<
ÇQ
-
,-< ::l.. OOON~<:.OOOOLnOLnO C'J~<:.OOOOLnOOO
~OOOOOOOOOOO'lO'l~~~~MMMMNNC':>~Ln
Ti4+m - Tt+m ___, (4+m) Ta3v+m (Ti -Ti)
ril
and
~ C'JC'JQ'l0~MM00MM00N~~~~~~~~~
O'l00M000'l~~~~~~OOOOO'l00MNM
li .......
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~
ººººººººººººººººººººº
E-; With the aid of these relations, Eq. (5-25) becomes
,-<
'+-<
o
E-;~ Qi=i = (1 + i:) g T:v a(Ti 4-Ti4) = (1 + ~) gT21: (Ei -Ei)

- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
s:::
o
...... ,-< ::l..
_....,
~
(5-26)
u
s:::
;j
g T:v is the value of Si Si evaluated at the arithmetic mean tem-
~ perature and will be denoted by (Si S ~ , indicating a return to sym-
~~0~<:.000~<:.0C'JOONLn<:.0<:.0L!:lMO'lC'J~OO'l
C1Í 00~<:.0~NOOO<:.O~MQ'l<:.OC':>O~~O~C'J<:.O~ metry but after due allowance for the effect of temperature on
O'l0MNM~~Ln<:.O~~OOO'l00MNNC':>~Ln
M
00 '+-<
~LnLnLnLnLnl!:lLnLnLn~~~~~~~~~~~
spectral energy distribution. Then
C1Í
1
Ln ,-< ººººººººººººººººººººº
Q)
....... ~ (5-27)
o
~ .......
E-;
Q)
ç:q E-;~ oooooooooooodoooooggg
OLnOLnOLnOLnOLnOLnOLnOLnOLn
~ ~
Thus, as Ti and Ti approach one another Si Si ___,Si Si(= Si Si); but
~

"d
Q)
t3
......
,-<
-::l.. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ the interchange are a by which (E i - E i ) should be multiplied is not
~hSf, but(Sis; (l+m/4). The principle embodied in Eq. (5-27) can
s MMMO'l~C'JQ'lC'J<:.0~~<:.0C'JO'l~~NOO
be used with small error over an absolute temperature ratio up to
two. The added complication of dependence of PA on T will be dis-
ril ~~~OOO'l00MNNMMC'JC'JMMNNM00'l cussed later.
s::: <:.O~OOQ'lOMNM~Ln<:.0~0000
o
......
'+-<
~~g~~~~C'J~~~~~~~~~~~~~
000000000000000000000
~
...... The significance of nongrayness of surfaces is most simply
~ illustrated by considering the radiative flux between two parallel
p::
plates. Let each plate have an emissivity of 0.5, and let their tem-
E-; F ooooooooooooooooooogo
OLn OLnOLnO LnO LnOLn Ln

-
,-< ::l..
g~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ peratures be 500 and 300 ºK. If the surfaces are gray the flux
density is given by

C'JQ'lMC'JOOOO~LnC'JM~ggg~~~~~~~
'+-<
gg~3s~~~~~<:.OOOON~<:.OOOONLn~
ºººººººººº~~~~~~~~~~~
ººººººººººººººººººººº
and the flux density per unit of emissive power difference is 1/3,
independent of temperature. Suppose now that the hotter surface
E-; g 000000000000000000000
oooooooooooooooooooog
Ai is not gray, but still has an emissivity of 0.5 due to its being

-
,-< º::i. 0MNM~Ln<:.O~OOO'l0MNM~Ln<:.O~OOO'lC'J
MMMMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNN
black in the wavelength region 4.88 to 10.20µ and white in the rest
of the spectrum (ÃT from 500 x 4.88 or 2440 to 500 x 10.2 or
5100µ ºK, according to Table 5-1, embraces half the energy of a
blackbody spectrum). For simplicity let A2 continue to be a gray
190 RADIATIVE TRANSFER EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURFACES 191

surface with emissivity 0.5. (81 82 h_ is therefore 0.5 from 4.88 to

10.2µ and zero over the remainder of the spectrum. The directed-
flux areas are simply 0.5 times the energy fraction of the blackbody
ArErEr - s: (8rSr)À EÀ,r dÀ = L ~r
ali j 's
Ej (5- 31)
exceptr

--
spectrum between 4.88 and 10.2µ. Then for 500º-source radiation,

8182 = 0.5 X 0.5 "= 0.25

.
Th is t· . t C1 À -5
equa 10n is ranscendental in T r , since EÀ r = - - - - -
, (e c2 /À T r _ 1)
and the solution is by trial and error. If the system includes n

--
and, for 300º -source radiation,
8281 = 0.28 X 0.5 = 0.14

The net flux per unit emissive power difference is therefore

adiabatic zo~es r ,s ,t, ... instead of one zone r, the analogue of
Eq. (5-30) w1ll be

0.25 x a(500)4 - 0.14 X a(300) 4 = 0. 266

a(500)4 - a(300)4 L ~ Ej
ali j 's
+ r={(srSrh EÀ,r +(8r8sh EÀ s
JO
except
versus 1/3 for a gray system of the sarne total emissivity. If the r, s, t
two planes had emitted in substantially mutually exclusive spectral
regions, the error in using the graybody formulation would of course + (8r8th EA,t + · · ·} dÀ (5-32)
have been much greater.
There will thus be n equations like (5- 32) with all the unknowns T
a. Allowance for surfaces in radiative equilibrium. The Ts, T t . ·. in each, i.e., n simultaneous transcendental equations. r '
zero net flux which characterizes a radiatively adiabatic surface Once the T r 's have been determined the net flux to any zone may be
is achieved, in a nongray system, by a net gain in some wave- evaluated
length regions and a compensating net loss in others. Consequently,
in the evaluation of (8i8i )A one cannot, as with a gray system,
avoid the explicit formulation of an energy balance on Ar by letting Qnet to j = L
all i 's all i 's
it be white; it must be treated as a source/ sink. Once the (88)A including r including
values have been determined the adiabatic zone temperature Tr r and j (5- 33)
must be obtained from the energy balance on Ar
A_ littl_e_ con_sideration shows how desir<.ble -or necessary -
some s1mphflcahon must be. Each (Si Si h requires solution of a
(5-28) set o~ simultaneous equations for each value of À, and each 88(À)
funchon must be evaluated throughout the controlling spectral range.
Now Instead of integrating over À one may divide the spectrum into a
finite number of regions (AÀ)i, (AÀ)z, ... (AÀ)n, and assume
Lf;(8jSrh EÀ,r dÀ =Ls;-s:Er = ArErEr (5-29) E(and P) constant over each interval. Let an (Ti) represent the
J J ~raction of blackbody radiation at Ti which lies in the wavelength
mterval (AÀ)n. Values of (8i8i )n are determined for each wave-
and from (5-23) length interval and the directed-flux areas are obtained as a
weighted sum, so that (5-23) is replaced by

.LJ;(8j8r)A EÀ,j dÀ = L (8j8r) Ej + s;(Sr8rhEÀ,r dÀ

(5- 34)
J all j 's
except r
(5-30)
These. are t~e ~alues to be inserted in (5-24) and (5-28) to (5-33).
8ubstitution from these into (5-28) gives Expenence mdicates that division of the spectrum into two to four
zones often serves adequately.

192 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
An important class of problems exists for which no. al~o:vance
need be made for the variation with wavelength of the em1ssivity of
the adiabatic surface. If all the source-sink surfaces are gray,
any change in spectral energy distribution at the refractory in no
way influences the net flux between surfaces; and (Si.si )R m~y be
obtained as in Chap. 3 by letting AR be white. Many rnd~strial. sur-
faces used as sources or sinks are oxidized metals havmg a h1gh
emissivity that varies so little with wavelength as to make the as-
sumption of grayness a good one.
b. Variation of spectral emissivity with temperature. The
absorption of radiation by a surface is influenced not only by the
spectral energy distribution of the incident :ad.ia_tion but also by the
change with temperature of the spectral em1ssivity. Over a tem-
perature range of a few hundred degrees O'i ,2 (The absorptivity of
surface 1 for radiation from surface 2) can be represented by
g T mT n with n considerably greater numerically than m for non-
mefal~ 'and n about the sarne as m for bright metallic surfaces at
moder~te tem per atures (see Chap. 4). It then follows from ~irch­
hoff 's law that Ei = ªu = gTt+º. C~nsi?er a case geometrically
simple enough to permit ready visuallzahon - a small nongray .
body of area Ai in black surroundings at T2 . The net flux density
at 1 is plainly given by
= a(Ei Ti4 - O'i,2 Ti)
or
qi=2 = ag(T{+m+n_ TtT24+n)
This may be forced into the forro of a fourth-power law by the pro-
cedure given after Eq. (5-25). It becomes
qi=2 =: ag(l + ~) Tf Ta~ (T{ - Ti)
g Tm Tº represents the absorptivity of a surface at Ti for
i ~ 11 •t
blackbody radiation at the average of Ti and T 2; ca 1 ai ,i2
Then
,1
1
i'! (1 + ~) a i ,i2 (Ei - E2 )
EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURFACES 193
CHAPTER 5. LITERATURE CITATIONS
1. Bevans, J.T ., and D.K. Edwards: Radiation Exchange in an
Enclosure with Directional Wall Properties, Trans. Am. Soe.
Meeh. Engrs. Paper No. 64-WA/HT-52, Dec. 1964.
2. Bobco, R.P.: J. Heat Transfer, 86C:123 (1961).
3. Eckert, E.R.G., and E.M. Sparrow: Intern. J. Heat Mass
Transfer, 3:42 (1961).
4. Edwards, D.K., and J.T. Bevans: "Effect of Polarization on
Spacecraft Radiation Heat Transfer," TRW Report, Oct. 1964.
4a. Hottel, H. C., and A. F. Saro fim: Radiative Exchange Among
Nonideal Surfaces, in W.M. Rohsenow (ed.), "Developments
in Heat Transfer," M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1964.
5. Jensen, H.H.: 1948, in M. Jakob, "Heat Transfer," Vol. 2,
p. 49, 1957.
6. Lin, S.H., and E.M. Sparrow: Radiant Heat Transfer ata
Surface Having Both Specular and Diffuse Reflectance Com-
ponents, Intern. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 9:769 (1965).
7. · Münch, B.: Die Richtungsverteilung bei der Reflexion von
Warmestrahlung und ihr Einfluss auf die Warmeübertraqung,
Mitteilungen aus den Institut für Thermodynamik und Ver-
brennungsmotorenbau an der Eidgeno·ssiehen Teehnisehen
Hoehsehule in Zürieh, n. 16, 1955.
8. Sarofim, A.F., and H.C. Hottel: J. Heat Transfer, 88:37-44,
(1966).
9. Seban, R.A.: discussion to Ref.10, J. Heat Transfer, 84:299
(1962).
10. Sparrow, E.M., E.R. Eckert, and V.K. Jonsson: J. Heat
Transfer, 84:294 (1962).
11. Sparrow, E.M., and S.H. Lin: Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer,
8:769 (1965).
12. Stokes, G.G.: Proe. Roy. Soe., London, 11:545 (1860-62).
 EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURFACES 195

Substitution from (4-48) and (4-49) and integration over the hemi-
sphere gives
APPENDI -CHAPTER 5
Polarization Effects

With the exception and

of configurations with spe-
cial symmetry, such as qu = 2[( /i
ao,1 v
)112 1 ( / )112] (E 1 - E2 )
+ ao,2 v
spheres or parallel plates,
the path of a beam mul- Alternatively the flux can be calculated by inserting a value for E
F tiply reflected among sur- equal to the arithmetic mean of the hemispherical emissivities of
faces is not confined to a the two components of polarization, Eq. (4-50), into the expression
single plane, and the ori- q = (E1 -E 2)[1/(1/E 1 + 1/E 2 )]. The result is the average of the
entation, relative to the fluxes calculated for each state of polarization - 1/2(q.L + q 11 ). Thus,
plane of incidence, of an although the net radiative flux is highly polarized (50 percent), the
electric vector of a plane- use of a mean hemispherical value of the emissivity gives the cor-
polarized beam varies as rect value for the net flux. The above example is a limiting case
a beam is reflected within in that the emissivities were very low and the directional depen-
. 5-9 Rotation of plane of incidence on an enclosure (see Fig. dence of the emittances of the two surfaces were identical.
F ig. . . d t p
double reflection. Beam, first reflecte a , 5-9). If this variation is
is in plane BCDE; second incidence and re- random the use in radi- b. Infinite parallel glass plates. ln general, although the re-
flection, at Q, is in plane FGHJ. ative transfer calcula- flected flux from smooth dielectrics is highly polarized its magni-
tions of surface properties tude is much smaller than the emitted radiation, and polarization
averaged over both components of polarization will predict the cor- effects may usually be neglected. As an illustration, however, of a
rect flux Since polarization effects are expected to be m?st pro- system where polarization is important consider the transmittance
nounced ln symmetrical systems' the examples to be stud1ed are of light through eight parallel transparent glass plates, each of
the exchange in a system of infinite parallel plat.es ~ons~ructed refractive índex 1.5. The relations for the transmittance and re-
either of metals from whose surfaces the emiss1on is h1g.hly po- flectance for any number of glass plates will be derived first.
larized or of insulators from whose surfaces ~he reflechon of Consider a single plate with a reflectivity at each face of p and a
nonpol;rized radiation is likewise highly polanzed. transmissivity for one traversal of the plate between the inside
surfaces (i.e., excluding loss dueto reflection at the boundaries)
a. Infinite parallel metallic plates. The net flux between of T. p may be calculated as a function of the angle of incidence
two specular reflectors with emissivities Ei (e) and E2 (e) is given by from the optical constants, n and K, of the plate and the relations
presented in Sec. 4.2. The transmissivity for one plate of thickness
1 d sin2 e (5- 35) L is given by
q =
1
(E1 - E2)

0
_l_ + _1__ l
Ei (e) E2 (e)

Let both surfaces be metals with emissivities describable by Ec~.~;es

T 1 - QI = e -KL/ cosx

(4-48) and (4-49). Since for good conductors E« 1, (5-35) beco where x is the angle made by the refracted beam with the surface
normal.

Radiation incident on the plate will undergo reflection and re-

fraction at the front surface; the refracted component will be partly
absorbed and the fraction transmitted will be reflected and refracted
at the second surface; the internally reflected component will undergo
194
196 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER EXCHANGE AMONG NONIDEAL SURFACES 197

further absorption-reflection-refraction and so ad infinitum until These equations, first de ri ved by 1.0 1 1

Stokes [ 12], can be used to gen- 0.9 T = 0.99 ~

all the radiation is absorbed or escapes through either surface of p =o .04
the plate. The reflectance R, the ratio of flux leaving the top sur- erate the properties of multiple- 0.8
plate systems by starting with a Tn Rn
face to the incident radiation, and transmittance T, the total trans- ~ 0.7 I

mitted to incident radiation, are readily derived by tracing the path single plate and progressively in- ô 0.6
creasing the number, such as by \ v--·-
of the reflected and transmitted components of the radiation inci- ~ 0.5
dent of the plate (Fig. 5-lüa). Summation of the reflected terms successive doubling. The results ô~ )( An
0.4
give of such calculations for one set <C
0.3
\ ----~
"

of values of p and T are shown in

0.2 7 \., I../'

= p [1 + _T_2_(1_-_P)_2 ]
1 - p 2T2
(5-36)
Fig. 5-11. An expression may be
derived for the asymptote ap-
proached by the reflectance as
the number ofplates is increased.
0.1

o
1/
/ ~
1-- +--..
-
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
number oI plates, n
Since the reflectance at the as-
Similarly, by a summation of the transmitted terms ymptote is unaffected by the ad- Fig. 5-11. Reflectance Rn, trans-
dition of a plate, it is possible to mittance Tn, and absorptance A n
T = ( 1 - p)2 T(l + p 2T2 + p4T4 + ... ) equate the reflectivity of m + 1 (= 1 - Rn - Tn) of n parallel plates.
Transmissivityfor a single plate tra-
plates to that of m plates. Thus versal = 0.99, reflectivity at plate-
(1 - p) 2T with n = 1 and m = oo, (5-39)
(5- 37) air interface = 0.04.
1 - p2 T2 yields

The complement of the sum of R and T must equal the absorptance A.

Consider now that a system of plates of system transmittance or

T 0 and system reflectance Rn is added on to a system whose sys-
tem reflectance and transmittance are Rrn and Trn respectively.
Figure 5- lüb shows how the properties of the composite system
may be derived from those of its component parts.
Summing the reflected and transmitted terms yields
2 2 Tn Trn
Trn+n = T0 Trn (1 +RoRrn +R 0 Ri;; + •••) = l _ RnRrn
and
RrnTn2
= Rn+ 1-RoRrn
(5-40)
Equations (5-36) to (5-39) are needed for the present illustra-
tive problem, with T = 1 and p calculated for each state of polariza-
tion from Fresnel 's equations. The results for the angular trans-
mittance are shown in Fig. 5-12. The lines in the figure depict (i)
(5-38) the transmittance calculated for each component of polarization
T .L and Tu , and their average, Tav ; (ii) the transmittance T
calculated using in Eqs. (5-36) to (5-39) the angular refle~t'i;if:vºx '
(5-39)

Fig. 5-12. Transmittance through

eight parallel plates of refractive
index 1.5 calculated (i) for eachcom-
ponent of polarization and then av-
eraged (solid lines) and (ii) by first
averaging the reflectivity for the two
components of polarization (dashed
line). Bars on each curve repre-
sent the hemispherical average val-
(a) (b) ues of the transmittance.
Fig. 5-10. (a) Ray traced through single glass plate. (b) Ray traced through o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

composite of m and n plates. sin2 f)

 198 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
p (e) averaged over the components of polarizati.on - P (e) ~
1/2 [ pl. (e) + p 11 (e)]. Comparison of t~e h~misphencal transi:iit-
tance [the mean height of the curves m Fig. 5-12 for cases (1) and
(ii)] shows that the correct procedure (i) gives a mean ~ of ~.546,
which is 18 percent higher than that given by the approx1mahon.
If a single mean hemispherical value for p had been substituted
into Eqs. (5-36) to (5-39), a mean hemispherical transmittance of
0.382 would have been calculated. This value is 30 percent below
the correct transmittance and gives a measure of the error in ne-
glecting both polarization and angular distribution of the transmitted
radiation.
The above problem is an exercise more in geometrical optics
than in radiative transport. It does point out however that, under
some circumstances involving multiple reflection and geometrical
symmetry or absorption of collimated radiation, the P.º~arization
of radiation must be considered. As a rule such cond1hons are
rarely encountered in industrial practice.
'I
,i
CH PTER 6
GAS EMISSIVITIES NO ABSO ES*
A change in the occupancy of a particular energy level of the
atoms or molecules of a gas may be attended by emission or ab-
sorption of radiation in a narrow wavelength region. This is called
line emission or absorption. ln addition, if charged particles are
present, emission distributed continuously over parts of the spec-
trum occurs, due either to the combination of the charged particles
or to their acceleration. Continuous radiation is emitted also by
solid particles suspended in the gas. The aim here is to provide
data and relations for the evaluation of gas radiation in systems of
engineering importance. A partial coverage of the under lying theory
is added to .show the relations to be expected between emissivity
and path length and to provide a basis for extrapolating incomplete
experimental measurements. More comprehensive treatments of
the theoretical background of gas emissivity formulation are avail-
able [60, 19a].
A brief presentation of data on glass and on pulverized coal
and soot clouds is included because radiation problems involving
these are representative of emission and absorption from a volume.
6.1 Historical Background
The contributions of theory and experiment to the preparation
of emissivity charts for engineering use will be illustrated by a
brief historical account of the development of such charts for com-
bustion gases (carbon dioxide and water vapor). Recognition of the
importance of gas radiation as a mode of heat transfer at high tem-
peratures carne tardily. Until the early 1920s radiation was treated
as a correction to the convective flux from a gas. Radiation from
gases had received sorne study by physicists, but their interest at
the time was more in the positions than in the energy of spectral
l~nes and bands. The problem of evaluating the expected radiant
heat transmission from flarnes received early attention because of
its obvious practical irnportance in the design of certain industrial
furnaces and the evaluation of heat transmission in internal com-
bÚstion engines. For the engineer the situation was confused by the
prevalent belief that radiation from flames was predominaJ].tly due
to chemiluminescence - associated with chemical changes during
'
*The terms emissivity and absorptivity are commonly used in preference to
emittance and absorptance to define the radiative characteristics of gases.
199
200 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
combustion - rather than due to product-gas temperature, compo-
sition, shape and size. The work of many investigators, Garner
and Johnson [ 17, 35] among others, has indicated that chemi-
luminescence, though of extreme importance in studying the mech-
anism of combustion reactions, accounts for but a small portion of
the total radiation emitted by a flame. The major contribution
from flames and gases of conventional fuels is thermal radiation
from water vapor, carbon dioxide, soot and carbon monoxide. Car-
bon monoxide is generally present to such a small extent that its
contribution can be neglected; and if attention is momentarily re-
stricted to nonluminous flames, carbon dioxide and water vapor
are left as the major sources of flame radiation. The earliest
quantitative measurements of radiation from carbon dioxide and
water vapor were made in 1894 by Paschen [ 59] , who mapped the
infrared emission and absorption spectra of hot carbon dioxide and
water vapor and showed the interrelation between absorption and
emission for those gases. The work of the physicists remained
unused by engineers until Schack [ 69) in 1924 pointed out how data
on the infrared absorption spectra of gases could be used to predict
the magnitude of emission from the hot products of combustion of
fuels. Other workers [20, 25] added improvements to the calcula-
tions, but the basic data used in most cases were the measurements
of absorption of monochromatic radiation by a column of gas at
room temperature. The uncertainty of the validity of the assump-
tions made in deriving the original C0 2 and H 2 0 emissivity charts
led to extensive experimental programs in the United States and
Germany in the 1930's. As a result the early calculations were
replaced by total-radiation measurements on C0 2 [ 8, 26, 27] and
by similar measurements on H2 O [ 8, 26, 30, 71]. The accuracy
of the measurements has been recently substantiated (9]. Subse-
quent to the empirical development of radiation or gas emissivity
charts, attempts to calculate C0 2 and H 2 0 emissivities purely
from knowledge of molecular structure were made [ 11, 60, 64];
and the progress has been excellent. The water vapor calculations,
however, are an example of what is to be expected for some time.
Theory aids the choice of a mathematical model to describe the
different absorption bands of water vapor and provides some of the
constants; but the other constants are obtained by fitting the theory
to the existing water-vapor total-emissivity charts, of which the
engineer has had benefit of 20 years' use while the theory was
developing. The resulting completed model does, however, próvide
a basis for calculations at temperatures or pressures not feasibly
studied experimentally, and it provides a necessary background for
rigorous calculations in nonisothermal gaseous systems.
ln this chapter theory and experiment are presented in the
following sequence: the basic laws of attenuation, Sec. 6.2; single
GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 201
line emission, 6.3; models for calculating band emission 6.4· the
application of models to the calculation of emissivities 6.5· the
interrelation between absorptivity and emissivity, 6.6; the ~res­
sure dependence of gas emissivity, 6.7; the overlap of absorption
bands, 6.8; a compilation of emissivity data, 6.9; emission charac-
teristics of particle clouds, 6.10; and the representation of emis-
sivities and absorptivities for use in engineering calculations, 6.11.
6.2 Basic Attenuation Laws
The attenuation -dl due to absorption of a beam of collimated
monochromatic radiation of intensity I on passage through a dif-
ferential slab of thickness dl is proportional to the intensity and
the path length traversed
-dl = K l dl (6-1)
and the proportionality constant K is variously known as the atten-
uation or total extinction coefficient or the reciprocai mean free
path of a photon. The radiation removed from the beam may be
dispersed in all directions or dissipated into other forms of energy.
The former process, known as scatter, is the subject matter of
Chap. 12; the latter process, absorption- interrelated to emission
by Kirchhoff's law- is treated in this chapter.
If the beam is incident on a slab of thickness L with intensity
lo, integration of Eq. (6-1) gives the familiar exponential attenua-
tion law
L
-[ Kdl
l=Ioe o (6-2)
or, if K is independent of position,
(6-3)
This relation, first derived by Bouguer and later independently by
Lambert, is obviously valid if the wavelength interval under con-
sideration is small enough for K to be constant. K plainly has a
value determined by the interaction of the radiation with the par-
ticles in the medium. It is instructive first to consider the inter-
ception of a collimated beam of radiation by large black particles.
The fractional decrease in intensity is proportional to the fraction
of the area of the beam intercepted by the particles
- dl = (n~~=rp~~ ~~~t) ~projecte_d area per)(:~~~~::~;) (6-4)
l volume e parhcle, A th b
' e eam,dl

202 RADlATIVE TRANSFER
The product cA may be identified with the K of Eq. (6-1), and in-
tegration consequently yields Eq. (6-3). Observe that if the par-
ticles along one mean free path - a distance of 1/K - are juxta-
posed without overlap (possible only for certain nonrealistic
particle shapes such as cubes) all the radiation would be intercepted;
instead, 1/eth of it is transmitted since the particles are randomly
located and some lie in the shadow of others.
The average area of projection A of a particle is given by a
remarkably simple relation for randomly oriented, convex parti-
cles, i.e., particles with surface elements which have an equal
chance of orientation in any direction but which cannot see any
other part of the surface. On the average, half the surface will
be bathed in the collimated incident radiation. The area projected
by an illuminated surface element dA whose normal makes an
angle e with the incident beam is dA cos e. The average projected
area is obtained by weighting dA cos e by the solid angle about the
normal, sin e dB dl/J , where e and l/J are the polar and azimuth
angles, respectively, and by then integrating over the hemisphere
dAav = srr 12 Jzrr dA cose sin e de dl/J = dA
8=0 o/=0 27T 2
Since the element is illuminated only half the time it has an effec-
tive area of interception of dA/4, a result readily reached by noting
that an element which has an equal chance of orientation over 47T
steradians behaves effectively as part of the surface of a sphere.
This is a very useful conclusion. An example of its consequence
is the penetration of radiation through brush, in the formulation of
the propagation of a fire front through a forest. lf the brush through
which the radiation propagates is randomly disposed and has, per
unit volume of space, a surface area a with no negative curvature,
then the extinction coefficient is a/ 4 and the mean free path of ra-
diation is 4/a. The simple extinction law thus obtained
(6-5)
I = Ioe -aL/4
is applicable only when the particles are b~ack and their minimum
dimensions are much larger than the wavelength of the radiation. *
Radiativepropagationoffirethrough brush has been evaluated [39a].
For a gas it is customary to define an absorption coefficient
k e for use in combination with molecular concentration or kp with
partial pressure of the gas, where
*And -to satisfy the condition that each particle may be randomly located -
when the fractional volume of space occupied by all the particles is « 1.
GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 203
(6-6)
t l~::~h~a~~ P is _used to different~ate partial from total pressure.
c:oss sectio~m~t:wnsI of alrea and is sometimes called the capture
. mo ecu e, not however identifiable with an ar
~~cular ~ross se~tion.
gfetohmetbrical The extinction law writte~
fn -
rms o e a sorphon coeff1cient
(6-7)
is the familiar Beer 's law. The exponent is the number of mean
fre~ paths along the beam and is sometimes referred to as the
~p~1cal depth or opacity of the gas. Although kc is substantially
:u~~en~ett of e fo~ some gases' the assumption that this is true
ea( o appreciable errar in some cases, water vapor for ex
amp1e see Sec. 6.9b). -
calcul~ti~~1:~l~~e m~~stu_re of the gas properties necessary for the
. e ra ia ive exchange between an isothermal as
mass ar:d its _sur~oundings or the radiative flux in nonisothe:mal
gas sys ems is g1ven by k,\ as a function of wavelength tem era
~~e, ~nd the pressures of all the gases in the radiatin~ mix~ure -
pern:riental measurements of k,\ are complicated by the limit ~f
resoluhon of spectrometers, and have been made for onl a e
narr~w r~nge o_f con?ition~. Emissivities and absorptivifies vo:Zr
~ave eng h reg10ns mcludmg many lines or over the entire spec-
rum are more frequently measured.
. !he term ga~ emissivity has meaning only in reference to
~miss10n_from an isothermal gas shape to a specified portion of
its boundmg
fac t· surface.
f It is
. the . ratio of th e mc1
· "d ence, on that sur-
. ~dpor wn, rom gas lymg within a specified field of view to the
i~c1 ence_ from a black emitter at gas temperature over the sarne
fleld of v1ew_; and it is plainly dependent on the shape of the gas
mass · ln th1s chapter, however, we are not interested in the effect
~f ga; shape · The standard emissivity of a gas is that corresponding
i~c~d~~d p:t~ _length or beam length L. It thus equals the ratio of
ra ia 10n onto_ a ~urface element dA from a narrow pencil
of rays of length L to mc1dent radiation, in the sarne small diver-
~e~c~ angle, from a blackbody at gas temperature. Since the ratio
is m ependent of angle of incidence, the standard emissivity ma
also be thought of as the radiation from an isothermal gas hemi!
sphe_re to ~ spot on the center of its base, expressed as a ratio to
h~m1sp~e~1c~l blackbody radiation. Similarly, the standard gas
~l so::hvity l~ t~e fractional absorption, by an isothermal gas of
ac ody radiahon emitted from a bounding surface element ctA
through a path of fixed length L.
 GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 205
204 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

with its surroundings. If a molecule subsequent to excitation, e.g.,

By the argument presented at the end of Sec. 1.2' monoch~o­ by absorption of external radiation or as a result of chemical re-
matic emissivity and absorptivity are the sarne' and from Beer s action, has time to equilibrate with other molecules by collision
law before emission then the emission will be indicative of the trans-
(6-7a) lational or thermal energy of the gas. Lifetimes of excited elec-
E,\ == O'À == 1 - e-k pL tronic levels of 10- 6 to 10- 8 seconds and of excited vibrational
levels of 10 -1 to 1 O-3 seconds may be compared with times between
The total emissivity or absorptivity is obtained by integration over collision of the order of 10-1° (T/T0 )112(P0 /P) seconds,* where Po
all wavelengths and To are standard pressure and temperature. Thus, in most
process equipment or flames the fraction of molecules which have

Eg
s: E,\E,\,g d.À
(6-7b)
not had a chance for redistribution of energy is small, and the term
temperature is meaningful. Practically, the temperature of a gas
may be defined as that attained by a small object, large compared
J~EA,gdÀ to molecular diameters but small enough to acquire heat from the
surrounding gases by convection and conduction much more readily
than it can lose heat by radiation through the gasto the outside.
and An example of a system in which equilibration among the different
degrees of freedom cannot be assumed is a high-energy plasma -
best described by its energy content rather than by temperature.

Emission or absorption due to transition between two energy

~ i"' EAEA,s dÀ
(6-7c)
uTs Jo
E d Eare the Planck function - the hemispherical
~~~o~h:~:U~c b{~~k emissive power evaluated at the gas and sur-
face temperatures Tg and T s , respectively ·
Further discussion of total emissivities and absorptivities
must await consideration of the fact.o~s. influenc.ing.kA: The r~~der
more interested in using gas emiss1v1hes than l~ fmdmg h~w ~y9
have been obtained may, however, wish to turn d1rectly to ec. . ·
6.3 Single Line Emission
Transition from a lower to an upper energy le_vel. or the con-
verse in a molecule results in the absorption or em1ss1~n ~f a quan-
tum of energy h v. The frequencies of absorption or em1ss10~ occur
in the ultraviolet and visible for transitions between el~ctromc
levels in the far infrared for transitions between rot~hon~l energy
levels' and closely grouped in narrow wavelength reg1~n.s m ~heth
infrar~d referred to as bands' for simultaneous trans1hons. m e
vibratio~al and rotational energy levels. The t~xisten~e t~ d:!~:rent
energy levels within a molecule ~ai.ses a que~ ~ont~sr~al :quilibrium
meaning of temperature in a radiatmg gas no m e
levels occurs in a frequency interval which is not sharply defined.
The spread in frequency is a consequence of (1) the unavoidable
uncertainty in the energy levels - natural line broadening; (2) the
perturbation of the energy levels by collision - collision broadening;
(3) the thermal motion of the emitting and absorbing species rel-
ative to the observer -Doppler broadening.
A rough estimate of the spread in frequency flv by an emitter
as a function of the duration of emission dt is given by
At Av = 1/27r
a statement closely related to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Since every emission process has a finite duration, truly mono-
chromatic radiation cannot be generated. Radio stations broad-
casting over long periods of time can, however, produce radiation
which is almost monochromatic, whereas the short pulses of energy
emitted by atoms have significant line widths. The lifetime of an
excited electronic energy level of 10-6 to 10-8 seconds gives a
spread in frequencies - the natural broadening of a line - of the
order of 106 /21T to 108 /27T sec -1. The emission process is inter-
rupted periodically, at intervals of fltc, by collision with other
*This value is dependent on the colliding species and varies approximately
in proportion to the square root of the molecular weight and to the inverse
square of the collision diameter. The above computed value is for CO.
 GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 207
206 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

0.50 ~---...------,------, The collision half-width is

particles. The spread in frequencies dueto collision, approximately
equal to 1/2rr ~te> usually greatly exceeds the natural line broad-
yln 2/rr ' , constant kv expected to vary directly with
(top hat profile)
0.40 '' the collision frequency; and as
ening, which will hereafter be neglected.
a fir st approximation the vari-
llrr
The shape of a spectral line - the relation between absorption 0.30 ation can be assumed to be one
coefficient and spectral position - is symmetrical about the line of direct proportionality
center if position is measured by frequency or wave number rather
than wavelength, and at least two constants are required to describe
it. The two most informative ones are (1) the area S under the k - v
b P (TT )112
_e --
bco - Po .
_Q (6-10)
or k - w curve, measuring the total absorption when the optical depth
is small enough to eliminate self-absorption, and (2) the line half- o ~----"------"-----"=---' in which the subscript O on bc
width b, the distance lw - w0 1from the line center w 0 to the wave- 2 3
denotes evaluation at some ref-
( v-v 0)/b
number w where k has dropped to one-half its maximum or center- erence temperature To and
line value. All line shapes are expressed in terms of S and b and, Fig. 6-1. Contours of spectral lines pressure P 0 • The treatment of
sometimes, other constants. having the sarne integrated intensity S collision broadening has here
and half-width b: (a) Doppler broadened, been greatly simplified. For
An exact description of the shape of a collision broadened (b) collision (Lorentz) broadened, (e) example, the broadening ofthe
triangular, (d) constant k (top-hat pro-
line is complicated [ 2, 80] but an approximate description is given lines is known to be dependent
file).
by the Lorentz dispersion formula [ 48]. This relates the absorp- on the nature of the colliding
tion coefficient to the wave number by species. Self-broadening of
lines, for example, is greater than broadening by inert molecules.
(6-8) This is sometimes recognized by assuming the broadening to be a
function not of the total pressure P but of the sum of the total pres-
sure and the partial pressure of the emitting species, P + p (thereby
Equation (6-8) conforms to the definitions already given for bc and counting the emitting molecules twice), although it has been observed

S; it may be shown that s: kwdw equals S, called the integrated line

intensity - and that, when w-w 0 equals the collision half-width bc,
that the relationship is a more complicated one [9]. Nevertheless
the Lorentz shape will be used exclusively to define the collision
broadening in this chapter. More elaborate treatments may be found
kw =(1/2)kmax . The units of kw and w or b determine those of S. in the literature [ 2, 80], but they are not easily incorporated into
It is common in spectroscopy to express kw in cm -1 atm-1 and S in models of line emission.
cm-2 atm- 1 •
The Doppler half-width follows directly from the velocity
If collision and natural broadening can be neglected the equiv- distribution predicted from equilibrium statistical mechanics
alent expression for Doppler broadening can be calculated from the
Maxwell velocity distribution, to give 2rr k" T ln 2) 11 2
bu = ( mc2
wo (6-11)

k S (Qn 2)
=---
112 2
[ (w- wo ) Qn
exp- 2] (6-9)
'º bu 7T bu where k" is the Boltzmann constant, and m is the mass of the par-
ticles. From (6-10) and (6-11) it is evident that the importance of
From the comparison of the line shapes shown in Fig. 6-1 it is seen collision broadening is greatest at low temperatures and high pres-
that collision broadening gives a greater absorption or emission in sures and that Doppler broadening becomes significant at high tem-
the wings of a line. peratures. An order of magnitude of bc , given by the quotient of
the time interval between collisions and rrc, is approximately
The combined profile due to Doppler and collision broadening 0.1 (P/P 0 )(T 0 /T) 112 cm- 1 • This is to be compared with a Doppler
may be calculated by observing that the Doppler effect applies to
each frequency in (6-8).
 GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 209
20 s RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

112 line; it will be called the equivalent black-line width* or, for short,
half-width of .06(T /To ) /
(M1/2À)cm-1, where Mi~ the black-line width. Unlike line half-width b or line intensity S, which
atomic or molecular weight are characteristic of a molecular species, AL depends as well OI)
and À is the wavelength in the optical depth and approaches SpL in the limit as the optical
microns. Figure 6-2 shows depth approaches zero. The substitution of ~ from (6-8) into (6-13)
; followed by integration yields the equivalent black-line width of a
the approximate values of
'13 1.0 \==~=F'l"~~ the collision half-width at collision-broadened line
""{l a few pressures and the
"d
-~ Doppler half-width for a (6-14)
..!.
range of Ml/2À. At condi-
] 0.1 f--+c±cffi:tttJ=~c:zl:"ccFl=f-1=lfil=:==o-+-f>i-ti"1
Ql tions prevailing in furnaces,
E combustion engines, and where f(x) = x [ exp(-x)] [ J 0 (ix) - iJ1 (ix)], in which J 0 ( ) and J 1 ( )
process equipme~t the c.ol- are Bessel functions of the zeroth and first orders. This equation
lision half-width is dommant, was derived by Ladenberg and Reiche [ 40] who also gave the forms
1000 but in the low-pressure re- it approaches in restricted regions:
T<ºRl
gion or at temperatures to
p· 6-2 Line half-widthdue to collision be found in plasmas the f(x) ;'. X when X< 0.1 (6-15a)
(big). and. to Doppler (bn) broadening. bn Doppler effect becomes im-
e
is shown for different values o
f Mi12À
· portant. Remember, how- and
A typical value of 0.1 cm 1 was selected ever, that when bc and bn f(x) - '12x/1f when X> 3.0 (6-15b)
for bc at N.T.P.; no attempt is made ~o are equal the collision-
depict the complex dependence of th1s broadened line dominates and
number on wavelength and molecular
species.
emission from the wings f(x) ~ 0.85 (x)112 - 0.17 when 0.1 <X < 3.0 (6-15c)
(Fig. 6-1).
For Doppler broadening
emissi~~~rT:~i~~~h~e;:~l~: ~~~~:t~~~r
a. Integrate.d line
the base of a hem1lsphgtehr~ of
pressure by path en is P · ·
e
h' h B r-
of
is given by the integral of the contri-
_
AL - SpL L
f-1
n:::O
[-(.en 2/1f) 112 spL/bnr
(n + 1) ! (n + 1)112 (6-16)
butions of the differential wave number reg1ons m w ic ee
Lambert's law may be applied; The equations for the two line contours may be compared with that
for a line which has a constant absorption coefficient, a top-hat
q = s: Ew (1 - e-kwpL) dw
(6-12) profile, namely,

AL = 2b(l - e-SpL/2b) (6-17)

h E is the black monochromatic emissive power of. a ~urface
~ ~~;rm~l equi~b~~~l:;:~ht~=g~~~· a:~~~~~:~i~:~C:nt:i;~~~º~a~c-
Figure 6-3 c0mpares the three line models. At small pL 's
self-absorption is negligible, the contribution of all the gas elements
curs rn a narro . t (E ) anct removed from w1thm is additive, and the equivalent line width is proportional to pL and
~~eªf~::~~at;~:r1!8 dv:;:i~ya pe~ºunit black emissive power is
0
independent of the line shape. AL deviates from a linear increase
with pL as a result of self-absorption by the gas. The regions of
therefore dependence of AL on pL and on (pL)ll2 are also shown in the figure.

q = 1'" (1 - e-kwPL) dw = AL
(6-13) *AL is often called line absorptance
but the term absorptance is preferably re-
stricted to a dimensionless quantity, the fractional absorption by a system.
Ewo J0 AL has various dimensions, length, frequency, or wave number, depending
. b elation is clearly the width on the units of measurement of monochromatic intensity.
The quantity AL d~fmed bdy the ~h~::i:e emission as the actual
of a black line wh1ch pro uces

','1
'1'·',
 GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 211
210 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

an~, ~it~in each vibration band, the higher rotational energy levels
gam rn importance. The different vibrational levels for a particular
1 ~!·v,,, .- mode absorb at slightly different frequencies. The net effect of in-
~- - - -1--+--+-l-+-H--- - -- - -l---l--1--+-+ttc;t~' -L::v'"'t-' creasing the temperature is therefore to increase the number of

l.0~--+---+---+-+--1-++tt - - - --'---- -i=-+:+:++l--,,L+-l-i----;:'.1

~--/~~' ~~ -
lines in proportion to the number of energy levels which become
significantly populated. Simultaneously, the contribution from the
1--------l--Cf--l-+-+-1-H-l----- - - '
- - ---1- ---1--l-+-+-+ - - -
-~~ ~
- - - - - _,_
6 '-
;
t;é:::- ~--0 ail-'l"
p\er Br ~
~ I> higher rotational energy levels increases the effective width of the
r-o,v - IJO~~tTriangular
0"&-_ ..- J
profile_,_
~-
bands .. 1:he increased number of lines which contribute appreciably
0<> 1/
<> / Top HatProfile >.
1 -+-+--+--H-1
t? radiahon at elevated temperatures is illustrated by the calcula-
hons of Plass [64] on the 4.3µ band of C0 2 • The lines with an in-
i--------l---i,-1-+-+-1-H-t-----;0~' ..... ~~ ~--i~--+1-+--+-+-+-+- tensity greater than 10- 7 of the intensity of the strongest line num-
bered 890 ,000 at 2400 ºK compared with 1,400 at 300 º K.
y
i/
~ 1
1
1 1
E,;=10

o. 1 f-====r==::jt/=1=+=1=1=1-7~~º~-- - ~~~
1
t-
1--~7_LJ__j__j_-l--1--W'"1----+-
---1------ :: 1
1
'
1
+-+- 6.4 Band Emission
1----d-'I/ 1
-'?''j
/ ,,1
À
1
1
1 1
x=5 -e-
Gas emission or absorption over a wavelength region cor-
: 1 1 responding to an entire vibration-rotation band is given by
V / 1 1 1

[/ ~:-ib:- x=l
1
__..--/' ~0.fj
~=---Ev=O.O
(6-18)
1 1 1 1 11111 1 1 1 1 1 111
/ 10
0.01
0.01 0.1 1.0 where the integration is carried out over the band limits u to v. *
SpL/2rrb = x If the wavelength range u to v is small it is permissible to use for
Fig. 6-3. Equivalent black width (AL) of a single line for the fol- Ew an average value given by
lowing profiles: (a) Lorentz collision broadened, (b) Doppler
broadened, (e) triangular, (d) constant k (top-hat). Inset plot shows
the spectral em is sivity of a collision broadened line at path lengths
corresponding to linear (x~ 0.1), squareroot (x :>_ 5), and interme-
' diate region.
The equivalent black-width ~ of a band analogous to linewidth AL,
The inset plot shows the details of the spectrum of a collision~ is therefore
broadened line for values of x in the two limiting regions and rn
the intermediate region. (6-19)

The integrated line intensity is proportional to the number. of

molecules occupying the vibrational-rotational level correspondmg (Some authors call AB the band absorptance; but it has the sarne di-
to the frequency associated with S, and to the probabi_lity that the . mensions as AL, and there is the sarne objection to the connotation
transition will take place. The complexity of evaluatmg the trans1- ?f ab_sorptance.) Despite the simplification afforded by this approx-
tion probability is such that the value of S, or more frequently ~he 1mahon the analytic evaluation of the integral is out of the question
sum of intensities of all the lines in a vibration-rotation band, is since the ve~y many lines contributing to k cause it to vary irreg-
obtained experimentally. The measurements, however, need be ularly, passmg through a series of maxima and mínima. Various
performed only at one temperature since a full measure of effect *The definition of band limits is somewhat arbitrary. If they are defined as
of temperature is given by the shift in the distribution between th_e the wave numbers beyond which a given negligible fraction of the total ab-
different energy levels, readily calculated by the methods of stahs- sorptance occurs, then the band widthwill increasewith increasing pL. For-
tical mechanics. A qualitative explanation of the effect of temper- tunately, this increase is small, since the absorption coefficient falls off
ature on the relative population of the vibration-rotation energy very rapidly in the wings of the band [ 60, 64] .
levels follows: As the temperature is raised the population of the
higher energy levels increases at the expense of the lower levels

.1
1
212 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 213

rnodels have been proposed to circurnvent the problern of forrnulating base lines of those with k side on the left are positive the others
k as a function of wave nurnber. The earliest ernissivity charts for ( Aw1 , and Awo in this example) negative. It rnay re~dily be
C0 2 and H2 O by Schack [ 69] and Hottel [ 25] were obtained using a ~hown that the absorption represented by the band depicted in (a)
rnodel which involved the rearrangernent of ~ within a band into a is the sarne as that represented by the algebraic surn of the trian-
more tractable forro. More elaborate rnodels were developed later gula~ bands in (c). The equivalent black-width of a triangular band
by Elsasser (11}, Mayer [50], Goody [19], and Plass [63]. of w1dth Aw and rnaxirnurn absorption coefficient k is obtained by
integration of (6-19). It is max
The judicious use of one or more of the rnodels which follow
to describe the effect of ternperature, partia! pressure, path length, AB = Aw (1 -1-kmaxPL
e-kmaxPL)
and other-gas pressure-broadening on the radiation frorn a gas will
tend to minimize the nurnber of constants needed, maximize the
c.onseque~tly the equivalent black-width of a band represented by
chance of predicting those constants a priori, and improve the ac- p1ctures hke (a) and (c) below is given by
curacy of extrapolation outside the range of design of experirnents.
But it is to be ernphasized that once such a description is cornpleted, 1 - e-k;pL)
the use of the results for nurnerical estirnation of radiative transfer AB = L
n

i=O
(
Aw;l - - - - -
kipL
(6-21)
in a particular systern is generally greatly expedited by introducing
a different and purely ernpirical, but standard, rnethod of describing which is ª": alternative forro of Eq. (6-20). Note that w0 - w0 _ 1 of
the gas radiation characteristics. See Secs. 6.11 and 7.5. Eq. (6-20) is not synonyrnous with Aw 0 of Eq. (6-21).
a. Schack rnodel. If it is granted that an average value of
EB rnay be used, it is perrnissible to rearrange the function k.oi = --------~

f( w) so as to rnake the absorption coefficient increase continuously

with wave nurnber, instead of passing through a large nurnber of (a) (b) (e)
rnaxirna. Then the function rnay be expressed to a fair approxirna-
tion by a series of straight lines bounded by values of k 0 , k 1 , ; .. s
-
1 k3

~r1==r ~~---~,~--
kn at Wo, W1, ... Wn. Hence
k2- ko -- k-
1 ' ':;:- - -- - l-
km+ 1 - km -('1--('1~
f(w) =km + (w- Wm) W m < W < Wm + 1
ú.l3 ú.l2 w1wo-('1-"-
3
2-
~1'111
o
3 2 ~Í'1i"1
'-'o
Wm+ 1 Wm
Fig. 6-4. Trapezoidal band model: (a) re-
where rn runs frorn O to n - 1. Insertion of f(w) into Eq. (6-19) fol- arranged band fitted by three line segments,
lowed by integration yields (b) and (e) rearranged band in (a) fitted by
four triangular bands.

The application of this method would require high-resolution

(6-20)
Equation (6-20) rnay be given a structure which is more informa-
tive for both visualization and calculation. Figure 6-4 (a) shows
a band rearranged and fitted by three line segrnents. ln (b) a base
length is defined, for each of the k's, as the distance between the
straight-line intersections, with the base, of those two line seg-
rnents which intersect at k. The Aw 's so obtained are positive
when motion along the base line to the next lower k position is to
the right. The triangles forrned in (b) are uprighted in (e). The
measur.ernents of k versus w if the band shape were actually to be
determmed by rearrangement of k's. But low-resolution measure-
rnents suffice to determine AB, and if such rneasurernents are made
fo~ a wide range of pL 's, Eq. (6-21) rnay be applied to determine a
smtable set.of constants ki and Awi. As an exarnple, if the Doppler-
broadened lme ~hape of Fig. 6-1 is replaced by a single triangular
band, the resultrng value of ~ /27Tb is practically indistinguishable
from that given in Fig. 6-3 up to SpL/27Tb = 1.
The weakness of the model is the absence of identification of
its constants with fundamental line or band structures and the cor-
responding dangers associated with extrapolation. '
214 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 215

b. Elsasser model. ln certain vibration-rotation bands the With further increase in pL significant overlap between lines oc-
lines are spaced at approximately equal wave number intervals and curs, and the function is representable as a linear incre ase in AB
the integrated line intensity S varies slowly from line to line. The with log (pL). Finally, as AB/é:.w approaches one, the slope ap-
black-width of such bands may be calculated by the Elsasser [ 11 J proaches zero. Note that (3 = cc corresponds to a constant kv since
model which postulates an infinite number of spectral lines of con- over lap is complete. At the other extreme, (3 ___, O, AB will be the
stant intensity, S, and half-width, b, equally spaced at intervals of sum of the separate AL contributions, and in this regime AB will
d cm-1. All the lines contribute to the absorption coefficient at a be proportional to (pL)ll2 at moderate pL 's. Equation (6-23) can
particular frequency. Thus, for a series of lines of Lorentz shape, be approximated by
+oo S b AB = é:.w erf (1/2 (3 2 x)l/2 (6-24)
(6-22)
~ = L
n=-oo
7T (w - nd) 2 + b 2
to within 10 percent when x > 1.25 and (3 < 0.3; and by
where nd is the wave number of the different line centers. The in-
sertion of the above value of ~ in Eq. (6-19) will give for the black- (6-25)
width in a wave number region é:.w small enough to treat ~ as
constant for (3 > 3. The derivations of (6-23) and (6-24) are complicated
[11]. However, (6-25) can be readily derived by noting that the
AB = é:.w [i -2~ { exp (c;:hx(3 s~n:! z) dz] (6-23) extensive overlap between lines when (3 > 3 permits the use of an
average value for k equal to S/d.
where x = SpL/27Tb, and (3 = 27Tb/d. The above integral has been For application of the Elsasser model, values of S/b and b/d
evaluated numerically [ 36] and some characteristic results are for narrow regions of the spectrum (but no high resolution measure-
shown in Fig. 6-5 (dashed lines and top solid line). At very low ments of k,,,) are required.
path lengths all the molecules emit or absorb independently and ~
linear increase of AB with path length is observed. Self-absorption
c. Mayer-Goody or statistical model. The lines within a
at the line centers is indicated by departure from linearity and, as
pL is increased, a region of dependence of AB on (pL) 112 is observed. vibration-rotation band often show a random distribution of inten-
sities and position; for example the spectra of complex molecules
such as H2 O or the spectra of simpler molecules at high temper-
1.0 atures as a consequence of the superposition of a number of
1V ~~
wrrJ?J.. l""'º.i - -;<\:;;.'A
J!J-'p vibration-rotation bands. A very simple expression for the average
i11~ - i§' transmittance of such a band model may be derived in terms of
V -:::..--- ,_ ...
k_:::V- equivalent black-width AL of a single line, evaluated at a mean line
o"'~ ~ .r:: intensity, S, and the mean spacing d between lines. The contribu-
2~ V
i::::::
tion k.1; of one line to the absorption coefficient k,,, is a function of
i:,.-$'°",,
!.o~ v v"'
:---e=~ .,"Iº"' 1/ ,_ the line intensity Si' the line half-width b i, and the displacement
~éº' .,.. ~

V
~

w - w i of the line center from the wave number of interest

L__ cºd-~ .,.. -
Elsasser Model
0"0i~/ v 1-"'c.""'1, Mayer-Goody Model-- -
"º/ IA11'"'1,V ...,....v o~ ,
k~ = f(Si, bi, w;) (6-26)
[~ otteeq,
l/ l~ ]/v 0-çe
0
~-çV 1
~ S' "-

0.01 7 0.1
~ºr 1

1.0 10 100
Typically, for a Lorentz line shape,

i _ Si bi
SpL/d ~ - 1f ( W- W i) 2 + b1
Fig. 6-5. Equivalent black band width (AB) as a function of S pL/d an~ 2~b/d
for Elsasser (equally spaced lines) model and Mayer - Goody (statistical) Since there is no correlation between the different line intensities
model. Elsasser model with 2"b/d = 1 has substantially reached limiting and line positions, the total transmissivity is the product of the
case of a gray gas (2"b/d = k = S/d). 00
; transmissivity of the individual lines
 GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 217
216 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

T = n s=o P(SJ exp [ -f(S il b i, wi)pL] dSi

1~ 1
n
(6-27) Tav "' (6-32)

This is a very useful formula since it applies to lines of any shape.

where II denotes the product of the n values which the function takes Values of AL for lines with profiles given by a Doppler broadening
as i is changed and P(Si) dSi is the probability that the line at wi has and a Lorentz dispersion formula may be obtained from Eqs. (6-16)
an intensity lying between Si and Si + dSi, so normalized that and \6-14) .. The equivalent black-width calculated from Eq. (6-32)
f0=P(S) dS = 1. Since d is the mean distance between lines, the av- fo~ lrnes with a Lorentz contour is shown in Fig. 6-5 (solid lines).
It is to be noted that the black-width of the statistical model is
erage transmissivity over a wave number region nd is obtained by always less. than that of the Elsasser model since , for the sarne
the following integration mean spacmg, a random distribution of lines will cause more over-
lap than a regular distribution.
Tav =1
- Jú)º+nd II
n s=P(SJ exp[-f(Si,bi,wJpL]dSi dw (6-28)
d. Random superposition of Elsasser bands. This model is
nd úJO i~i o
p_articular_Iy suited to the calculation of AB for gases whose vibra-
Because the line positions and intensities are independent, integra- bon-rotahon bands show a regular spacing and which as a result
tion may precede evaluation of the product. Rearrangement of Eq. of the excitation of higher vibrational energy levels, have several
such bands supe_rp?sed with their band centers arbitrarily displaced.
(6-28) gives By arguments s1m1lar to those used for calculating AB due to ran-

IIn s= P(Si)(l ) ]}) d si d d?mly distributed lines the average AB of N superposed bands is
Tav -- -
r'"º+nd
1J -{1-exp[-f(Si,bi,Wi pL W g1ven by
nd úJ i~l 0 (6-29)
-AB = 1 - ( 1 - AL
- ;Nd) N (6-33)
The integral over w of the term in braces is ident~c~l to th_e equiv- .6.w
alent black-line width AL, if the lower and upper llmits of mtegra-
whe_re d is the mean line spacing after superposition and AL is the
tion are changed to O and oo. Since the profile of a line shows a
marked decrease in the wings this change in limits is permissible eqmvalent black-line width per line within an Elsasser band av-
eraged over the N bands. For a detailed discussion of this ~odel
provided that the range of integration, nd, is much larger than the
and for a critical examination of the limits of validity of the Elsas-
line half-width. Therefore ser and statistical models the reader is referred to a survey paper
(6-30) by Plass [ 63].
. e. Co~stant absorption coefficient model. The uncertainty
m the experimental measurements of the integrated lines intensities

r:
The integral over all line intensities often does not warrant the sophisticated band models presented in
the preceding sections. A first-order approximation of A may be
P(Si)AL(SipL, bi) dSi = ÃL(SpL, b) obtained by postulating an average absorption coefficient ~ver the
entire band equal to the sum of the line intensities in the band di-
where ih is the average equivalent black-width for an intensity dis- vided by the bandwidth.
tribution with some mean value S. It has been found [ 19, 63] that
the use of a constant S for all lines, i.e., a distribution function (6-34)
equal to the Dirac delta function 6 (S - S), gives results very close
to those obtained by use of more complex distribution functions for
P(S). Equation (6-30) therefore may be rewritten as where the summation is over all the lines in a band. Consequently
AB for the band may be calculated from Beer 's law
(6-31)
Tav = [1- (1/nd)ÃdSpL,b)]º
AB = 1 - e-kavPL (6-35)
which for large values of n (n > 10) is simply .6.w
 GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 219
218 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

b .. El~asser
model. A constant-frequency spacing between
This model is most nearly applicable when the lines are closely absorpt~on lmes is usually observed only at low temperatures where
spaced, with extensive overlap. absorpt10n by molecules in the ground vibrational energy level is
prev_alent. The Elsasser_ model has therefore been used mainly to
6.5 Application of Models obtam, from low-resoluhon spectroscopic measurements, the val-
~es. of S [ 39] and b [ 60] necessary for the application of the sta-
The utility of the models presented in the preceding section tishcal or random Elsasser model. The Elsasser model has also
lies in their ability to predict gas emissivities from knowledge of been used to extrapolate room-temperature absorptance measure-
molecular structure, or to extrapolate experimental data to tem- ments to larger pL 's [ 12].
peratures, path lengths, and pressures beyond the range of exper-
imentation. A review of some of the applications of the preceding e. Statistical model. Values of S/b and 27Tb/d as functions
models follows. of wave m.1:m~er and temperature are required for the application
of the st~hshcal model. As an illustration of its use consider the
a. Schack model. Refinements to the early emissivity charts correlahon by Thomson of water vapor emissivities [ 77] It is
on H 2 0 and C0 2 of Schack [ 69] and Hottel [ 25] were made by assumed that a single mean value of S can be used over a~ entire
Guerrieri [ 20]. The results of his calculations, based on low-
resolution spectroscopic data taken mostly at roam temperature,
.L
?ªndwidth. If the sum of intensities _ot an the lines in ª band si
are compared in Fig. 6-6 with the total emissivity charts [ 31] is denoted by a, the mean intensity S is given by i
compiled from later measurements [ 8, 26, 27]. The differences
- ad
between the calculated and experimental values, especially at high s =-
Liw
(6-36)
temperatures, are indicative of the errar to be expected in emis-
sivities calculated by this model. Schack later [ 70] forced the
model to fit the measured values of C02 emissivities by the use since Liw/d, the ratio of the bandwidth to the mean line spacing
of temperature-dependent values of Liwi and ki in Eq. (6-20). equals _the number of lines within a band. The total emissivity 'is
Schack's claim that his model serves to extrapolate the emissivity the we1ghted sum of the different band contributions
measurements to higher temperatures and pL values is open to
question, since absorptivities calculated from his model [ 68] do 1
E
g
--L(E
=aT 4 1 úJ1
ABi) (6-37)
not agree with the experimental values [ 26].

pL(ft atm)
where Eúli is the mon~c~romatic black emissive power averaged
0.01 0.1 1.0 over a band. For colhs10n-broadened lin~ (AB/Liw )i may be cal-
0.2 culated fr~m Eqs. (6-32) and (6-14), with AL evaluated at mean
values of S/b and 27Tb/d. The temperature dependence of the pa-
g: Bs t=---+--+--+--1--Jr-k~~::..+~::+-+~-+-" 0.40
rameters was evalu~ted in par_t from theory. Penner [ 60] had
o.06 l----+----+--+-.~4--1"7""""'-l--...-.r=t--1-
show_n that the effect_1ve bandw1dth for diatomic molecules is ap-
0. 04 l----7'í-+--::;.i-'7--"C;l+9"i"*""'"'--t-
prox1mately proporhonal to T 11 2 , and the sarne proportionality was
o. 02 1--..L--A-.-..._:_j.-,,L.-+--i--! assumed for the water vapor bandwidths by Thomson
....--+~--.<'r-7'11<--+-++-+----H o.10
___j.__J..~~-h.~+..-l-+-l-----1---+ o. 08
Ü .01 i---->'"i----"-\--~4-io4--A'"'--l--i--++-+---H 0. 06 Ew
1-'.'.'~k--7<--+--t--+-4-+--+--+1 o. 04
~ = (_.'!:_)1/2 (6-38)
WaterVapor Liwo To

The sum of all the line intensities a within a band was assumed to
be prop?rtional to the number of emitting molecules, or inversely
proport10nal to T at constant partial pressure
0.1 1.0
0.01
pL(ft atm)
(6-39)
Fig. 6-6. Carbon dioxide and water vapor emissivities
calculated by Guerrieri (dashed lines) compared with
measured values (solid lines).
220 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 221

The dependence of collision half-width on temperature has already d. Superimposed Elsasser models. This model has been
been given by (6-10) which becomes, after modification to make used by Plass in combination with the statistical and Elsasser mod-
approximate allowance for the self-broadening of the water vapor, els to calculate the equivalent black-width of the major H2O and
C02 bands, starting from the room temperature integrated absorp-
2
_E_ = (P + p) (To)l/ (6-40) tance measurements [ 63, 65 }. Comparison by Edwards [ 9] o~
Table 6-1. bo (P + P)o T Plass' calculated values for
Values of Parameters in Thomson- the 4. 3µ C0 2 band with his own
The evaluation of the emis- experimental measurements
Model Correlation of Water - Vapor sivity now requires th~ val-
Emissivities (from Ref. 60) shows them to be 20 percent
ues of ~wi, (2nb/d)i, (S/b)i too low at 3000 º R. The pre-
27T (b~w)
and O'i at a reference tem- dicted pressure dependence
Band (O'Jo --
dO'i o perature in addition to the was found not to correspond to
Center cm- 2 atm- 1 temperature dependence of experiment. These discrep-
µ ft. atm. d which was assumed to be ancies are probably due to
20 58.4 0.0564 of the form failure to allow for significant
º· 1 1-----1--+-1.L

~75 J
6.3 0.0188 contribution at high tempera-
2.7 126 0.0263 ~ = (Tº)T/ (6-41) tures by bands which are not w o.os
1.87 10.1 0.321 do T evident at room temperature º·º6 1--+-A'---++--l-'--l__,IJ,L
1.38 8.3 0.398 [ 76].
0.32 10.3 The values of O'i on a rel-
1.1 ative basis at 300 "K were e. Constant absorp-
71 =1; tlw0 = 609 cm , each band; (b/d) 0 =
1
calculated from the mea- tion coefficient. This model
0.0263, each band. surements of Howard et al. has been used by Penner [ 60]
Values of ªi in [ ] were measuredon a
[ 32] for the 1.1, 1.38, 1.87, to calculate the emissivities O. O1 '--''--...L....l-.l........L-----'-~-----'-~--'
relative basis. 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 5 10
2.7 and 6.3µ bands. Five of CO and HCl; the results
pL, ft atm
remaining parameters were for CO are more reliable
adjusted to obtain the best agreement between emissivities calcu- than those on HCl since CO
Fig. 6-7. Comparison of emissivities
lated from the model and from experimental averages [31]. These lines are much more closely calculated using Thomson model (solid
were: ~w 0 ; O' for the 20µ band since this was not measured by spaced. Allowance was made lines [ 77] ) with experimental values
Howard; (2nb/d) 0 ; (2nb ~e./ 0' 6 .:iµ d) 0 ; and 77. The values of ~w, b, for the increase in effective (data points [ 31] ). Results are reduced
and d were assumed to be the sarne for all bands. The final fitted bandwidth with temperature. to Pw =O. Plot from ref. 60.
parameters are given in Table 6-1, and the emissivity of water
vapor calculated from the model is compared with some experi- 6.6 Interrelation between Absorptivity and Emissivity
mental values [31] in Fig. 6-7.
The absorptivity of a gas at T g for blackbody radiation from
The test of the Thomson model is its ability to predict emis- a surface at Ts may be shown to be equal to (T /Ts )112 times the
sivities outside the range of experimental conditions to which the gas emissivity evaluated at Ts and ata partial ~ressure path-length
parameters were fitted. Three checks are afforded by measure- product equal to pL(T s Tg )n. The derivation appears below in fine
ments of the absorptivity of water vapor [ 26, 30], the dependence print. This method was first developed [ 26] empirically, from
of emissivity on total pressure [ 32], and the dependence of emis- total-emission and total-absorption data on carbon dioxide. The
sivity on water vapor partial pressure [ 30]. Predictions by the absorptivity of C0 2 was correlated by the following relation
model show adequate agreement with absorptivity measurements
(see Sec. 6.6), give good agreement with the sparse measurements _ (Tg\ü.6sl, ( Ts)]
O' (Tg ,Ts ,pL) - Ts-} lg Ts ,pL To (6-42)
on the effect of total pressure on emissivity [ 68], and underestimate
the increase of the emissivity with increasing partial pressure of
water vapor at a fixed pL [ 68] . The model is valuable, however, Later correlations of similar measurements on water vapor were
in providing the only means at present of calculating the emission based on the sarne general relation [ 30] , with the exponent on Tg /
of H 2 0 in different wave number regions at elevated temperatures. Ts changed to 0.45. The theoretical background for relations of
the general structure of (6-42) follows.
 222 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 223

ln terrn s of band black widths the definitions of gas emissivity and

gas absorptivity become

(6-43) Putting together the T g/ T s terms in the brace gives

and (6-49)

(6-44) A combination of (6-43), (6-44) and (6-49) yields

The similarity between (6-43) and (6-44) suggests the possibility of express- QI g (T g' T s i pL) =
(T
\-T:
)112 E g[LT s>
(T )2 -ry1
pL T: (6-50)
ing absorptivities in terms of emissivities. If the emissivity is evaluated at
the temperature of the surface, the right hand sides of (6-43) and (6-44) be-
come identical with the exception that ABi is evaluated at Ts in the former Since Y/ = 1 in the Thomson model for water vapor, it follows that
and Tg in the latter. Assumption of a constant absorption coefficient within
a band gives
(6-51)
ABi = .6.w (1 - e -apL/1'1w) (6-45)

and since the temperature dependence of 1'1w and a is known [ (6-38) and which is closer than (6-47) to (6-42). The Thomson model for weak lines or
(6-39), ABi at Ts and pL may be expressed in terms of ABi at Tg anda small path lengths (x < 0.1), however, predicts an absorptivity-emissivity
different pL relationship identical to (6-47 ).

ABi (T s ,pL) 6. 7 Pressure Dependence of Gas Emissivity

The emissivity of a gas, ata fixed value of pL, is found to

(6-46)
With the aid of this identity (6-43) and (6-44) may be combined to give
(6-47)
which is much like (6-42). Similar relations have been derived for other
band models [ 60] . Consider the statistical band model for lines with a
Lorentz contour. Use of the limiting relation for AL given by Eqs. (6-15)
and (6-14) (valid for strong lines or at large path lengths, x > 3) gives
depend somewhat on p and on the total pressure P as well. At mod-
erate pressures (less than 50 atmospheres) integrated band inten-
sities can be treated as independent of pressur";), and the increase
of emissivity with pressure explained entirely by the increase in
collision broadening of the spectral lines.* The magnitude of the
effect will increase with increased separation d between lines and
decreased opacity of the medium. Consider the statistical model
for a Lorentz line shape. For x <
0.1, i.e., weak lines or small
pL 's, the model [Eqs. (6-32), (6-14), {6-15a)] predicts an effective
black-width of a band
AB = .6.w (1 - e - SpL/d) (6-52)

An " {1-exp [!b (S:Lt'J}

t.w (6-48)
which is independent of total pressure P. For x > 3.0 (large pL's
or strong lines) the model, (6-32), (6-14), and (6-15b) predicts

Substitution of S = a d/1'1w and employment of the temperature-dependent (6-53)

relations for 1'1w, a, b, and d [Eqs. (6-38)to (6-41)] gives
*The integrated intensities of polar molecules, however, may show a con-
'I'. siderable increase at high pressures [ 14, 60] .
 GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 225
224 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

The equivalent black-width is therefore a functio~ of bpL, a_nd since

bis proportional to p + p, the exponent in (6 -53) lS _pr_oporhonal to
-
1 - Ta+b = ( )( )
1 - 1-
Aª
-
!::;.w 1-
Ab
-
!::;.w

(P + p)pL. For pure gases this becomes 2p 2 L. Th1s lS why cal-

culated emissivities of weak lines are sometimes presented as a
function of pL, strong lines as a function of p 2 L. ln th~s context it
is interesting to note that Howard et al. correlated their results on
A of water vapor at subatmospheric pressures as a function of
p~ (P + p )º · 6 - 0 · 7 , a dependence on pressure inter_m~diate between
those predicted by the limiting forms of the stahshcal model.
A consequence of the dependence of equivalent black-width
AB on bpL is that when AB is independent of pL it is also indepen-
dent of b, therefore of P. Consequently, at large pL 's when AB
approaches an asymptotic value it becomes independ~nt of P. ln_
general, (oEg/a P)pL is zero at small pL's (x <0.1), rncreases w1th
increasing pL, passes through a maximum, and approaches zero
as pL tends to infinity.
6.8 Overlap of Absorption Bands
(6-57)
where A is averaged over i::;.w. Care must be taken to restrict ap-
plication of this principle to spectral intervals in which average
properties over the interval are applicable for both molecular spe-
cies, and in which no correlation exists between line positions in
the two species. Meeting the first of these conditions may require
division of a band into several regions.
Arguments similar to those of the preceding paragraph lead
to the following conclusion: When, within a spectral region shared
by the bands of several species, the emissivity is Ei for the i th
species calculated as though it were alone present, and the Ei's
are summed to give the total emissivity, then the correction due to
overlap is given by

If two or more bands of emitting species a and b overlap, the (6-58)

emission or absorption by the mixture will be smaller than the sum
of the individual contributions. ln a very narrow wave number re-
gion dw about a wave number w the transmission is given by Beer-
Lambert 's law
(6-54)
Over a larger wave number region including many lines the average
transmissivity becomes
But this is restricted to one of the following situations: within the
spectral region of interest either (a) all but one of the species pro-
duces gray radiation or (b) when there is more than one nongray
species the lines forming the band due to one are in random rela-
tion to those forming the band of any other species.
6.9 Compilation of Gas Emissivities

T
a+ b
= _!___
ÂW ow
l
A.
e-kwapL e-kwbPL dw (6-55) ln Sec. 6.1 it was pointed out that for industrial applications
of gas radiation, where combustion-product radiation is dominant,
experimentally determined total emissivities of carbon dioxide,
If a and b emit independently, i.e., there is no correlation between water vapor, and carbon monoxide have been available since the
kwª and kwb, the integrals over kwª and kwb are evaluated separately, 30's. ln view of the complexity of the theory and the associated
and (6-55) becomes uncertainty in the calculated values of gas emissivities, total-
radiation measurements are still in many respects the most reli-
Ta+b =[2- l
ÂW l'ê.w
e-kwaPL dwl[~t
J ÂW ~w
e-kwbpL dw] =TaTb (6-56) able source of information with which to design heat-transfer equip-
ment and test band models and their constants. Experimental
measurements at elevated temperatures are in themselves com-
This conclusion permits the use of the various models for averaging plicated by the problem of separating the gas emission from that
.1' the absorption over a number of lines to calculate the effect of band of the confining windows. Techniques developed for obtaining the
overlap. Thus radiation from a well defined isothermal gas mass without inter-
ference from confining windows, and the extension of those tech-
niques to high-pressure measurements, are described in the lit-
erature [ 26, 27, 3].

11,
226 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 227

This section compiles the available data on emissivities of

gases of greatest practical interest. Calculated values have been
:~er~~~~~:~tto:clcou~t for the ?verlal? among the emission bands of
o ecu es. ags is obtamable from E by a relation
included to complement the experimental values. Radiation from of th e form presented in Sec. 6.6. g

gases at temperature levels reached in furnaces and process equip-

ment is of importance only in the case of heteropolar gases, of a. Carbon dioxide. Radiation from co c · ·
which C02, H20, 802, CO, NH 3 , HCl, NO, N02 and CH4 are in- from bands at about 2.64 to 2.84 4 13 to 4 5 2an~7;st pr117nc1~ally
cluded in this section. ln addition, the radiation from sooty and The follow·mg t ot a 1-radºiation measurements
' " · ' have beeno m1crons.
pulverized coal flames is discussed and, as a consequence of the ma d e.
interest in satellite reentry problems, the high-temperature emis- A. Rubens and Landenburg, 1905 [ 67]. Room temperature
sivity of air is also presented. measurements on pure CO 2 at 1 atm, path length L = 1 to 100 cm.
If interest is restricted to radiative exchange between an B. Hottel and Mangelsdorf 1935 [26] E · ·
isothermal gas mass and its bounding walls, the total-radiation tion of dry air co
-
· ' · miss10n and absorp-
2 mixtures at 1 atm total pressure L = 51 2
data which follow constitute an adequate description of the gas. If
allowance is to be made as well for any temperature variation in
~~st~e~~;:~~re TG = 295 to 1317 º K, background te~peratur~ ; :~
the gas or any spectral dependence of the wall reflectance, spec-
mixed ~ia!~~t~~ ~~-;mithd 1935 [_27]. Combustion products of pre-
tral data are in principle needed for a complete description. Gas
temperature inequalities arise, however, from interaction of radi- 2 an CO-a1r, 1 atm total pressure L = 19 5
ative and other modes of energy transport or conversion and/or t o 40 · O cm, TG = 1682 to 2355 ºK. ' ·
the interaction of all these with mass and momentum transport; and
in systems of some geometrical complexity the resulting problem D. Eckert, 1937 [ 8] Emission from CO N mix · t ures a t
is often formidable. ln pradice, consequently, the problem is 1 a t m t ot a 1 pressure. L = ·65.2 cm, TG = 373 to T6732ºK- L _ 10 2
brought within the realm of calculational feasibility by simplifying cm, TG = 678 to 1533 ºK; L = 295.6 cm, TG = 373 ºK. ' - ·
assumptions of one sort or another; and it is found that the major
part of the effect of gas temperature nonuniformity on radiative Th;se data have been critically compared for internal consistency
transport can be included when the calculation is based on infor- an source of error [ 29 J.
mation derivable from total emissivities and absorptivities. ln
fact, the associated simplification often permits otherwise infea-
Although the emi~sivity Eco2 depends mostly on TG and on
sible retention, in other areas of the problem, of a rigor which is PcL, pressure broadenmg does occur Ata gi·ven p L dt
numerically more important than the error introduced by the at · · · · e an emper-
ure' mcr~asmg the pressure of the inert component incre ases
simplification. The full significance of these comments will be-
the absorpt~on, and incre_asing the partial pressure of C02 while
come apparent in Chap. 10.
correspond~ngly d.ecreas1ng L increases the absorption even more
The variables required to define total gas emissivity and ab-
[~4a, _9] · ~mce h1gh temperature increases the number of emis-
sorptivity are given by s10n lmes m a band and thereby causes line overlap to increase
pressure broadening has less effect at high te t '
9] . mpera ures. Edwards
b[ ~raposes an 2emp1rical pressure-broadening function p given
y ( + p e+ 1/2 p e) Where pressure is measured in atm 81· Ec' n
equals p 2 1/ 2 • n e rE
(6-59) wei ht t inert + Pc + . 2 Pc, the function is seen to give double
. gh o s~lf-broademng at moderate pressure and still greater
where C, the composition of the remainder of the gas, is included ~e1g t at h1g2h~r pressures.* The function, having unit value when
+ Pc + 1/2 Pc is 1 atmosphere, is given in Fi·g 6 8 as th
to show the effect of different species of colliding molecules on the tio n f act or ee wh1ch
· allows for broadening. · - e correc-
line half-width. ln most cases the effect of C is negligible and may
be omitted. It is conventional to present the emissivity as a function
of Tg and pL and introduce a correction factor to allow for pressure-
broadening effects dependent on p and P. When there is more than *The function proposed is empirical d t
one emitting species in a gas, a correction factor b.E (see Sec. 6.8) account the results of Fahrenport [ 14rnwhoe~p~~a;~h anbd does. not take into
at very high pressures. u ie e a sorpt1on spectrum
 GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 229
228 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

With a pressure-broadening func- C. Eckert, 1937 [ 8]. Emission from steam-N 2 mixtures at
tion available, the various data on 1 _atm; Ta = 417 to 1533 ºK with L = 10.2 cm; Ta = 394 to 672 ºK
C0 2 emissivity (items A to D, w1th L = 65.3 cm; Ta = 373ºK with L = 296 cm.
1.2
above) could be reduced to emis-
sivities at the standard value of D._ Br?oks, 1941 [5]. Emission and absorption of water
the broadening function of 1. vapor-air mixtures; Ta = 300 ºK; TB = 90 to 373º K· L = 45 to 610
Since this would introduce the un - cm; Pw = .006 to .012 atm. '
1.1
certainties of the broadening func-
tion, however, Fig. 6-9, based . E. Hottel and Egbert, 1942 [ 10, 30]. Emission and absorp-
i.o ~-~_L_-_L___~~~~__,_,i.o primarily on data items B and hon of steam-air at 1 atm; Pw = 0.005 to 1.0 atm; L = 1.8 to 406
1.0 ~- 0 4 .o 2 10 e' presents the data, emissivity cm; Ta = 416 to 978 ºK: T8 = 90 to 1389ºK.
Ptotal + Pco 2 + 112Pco2 vs temperature, as originally
obtained. Different PcL values
Fig. 6-8. Correction factor C e for were obtained by holding L con-
conversion of C0 2 emissivity at 1
atm total pressure and zero partial
stant at 51.2 cm (1.68 ft) while
pressure to values at other total varying Pc from 0.005 to 1 atm;
and partial pressures. P was always 1 atm. Gas emis-
sivity as affected by Pc and P is
then obtained by multiplying Eg from Fig. 6-9 by the ratio of Cc at
Pc, P corresponding to conditions of interest to Cc at Pc, P corre-
sponding to chart conditions. For combustion processes operating
at 1 atm, Fig. 6-9 may be used without pressure correction.

The absorptivity measurements are correlated by

a.<T,,T,,pL) = G:f" ,, (T,,pL~:) (6-60)

The exponent of 0.65 is slightly different from the value of 0.5 pre-
dicted in Sec. 6.6 from an approximate analysis of the broadening,
with temperature, of the bands of diatomic molecules.

For applications in which interest is in the spectral absorp-

tion properties, the results of Edwards are summarized in Table 6-2. 0.01
0.009
0.008
b. Water vapor. Radiation from H 2 0(v) comes 'principally 0.007
from bands at 2.55 to 2.84, 5.6 to 7 .6, and 12 to 25 microns. Total- 0.006
radiation measurements include the following: 0.005

0.004
A. Schmidt, E., 1932 [71]. Emission from pure steam at 1
atm; Ta = 394 to 1233 ºK; L = 1 to 18 cm, higher L 's by mirrored
doubling and trebling transverse to a jet with cold boundaries. 3500 4000 4500 5000
Temperature, degrees Rankine

B. Hottel and Mangelsdorf, 1935 [ 26]. Emission and absorp- Fig. 6-9. Emissivity of Carbon Dioxide at 1 atm. total pressl1re (from Ref
tion of steam-air mixtures at 1 atm; Ta= 294 to 1302ºK; TB = 90 31): (pc corresponds to that in the experiments producing the data on which
to 1567 ºK; L = 51.2 cm. the chart is based; see text).
230 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 231

Table 6-2.
Band Absorption Correlations for C0 2 (from Ref. 9)
Pressure broad-
ening is greater than
Band Range of T WL Wu Equivalent Band Width, Uncertainty for C0 2 since the
(and Strength) PE, atm ºK g/m2 g/m2 A 8 cm-1 ±1:>.AB cm-1
lines are more widely
15µ, s 2.5 - 70 294 2000 25000 69w0.11 pE0.03 6
separated in the bands.
555 390 3600 102W0·" Pif·º2 6
833 390 2400 123wº· 11 Ilf· 01 6 The pressure-broad-
1110 370 1850 139wº" 1 I\f·º 1 7 1.0 1------1-----+------c..,,,S=:,f---+----+------I
ening function Cw ,
~
1390 290 1500 153wº·" 7
15µ, M 1.0 - 10 294 64 2000 -15+51 log 10 w+22 log 10 ~ 5 ü o. 8 1------6..::::<:: based primarily on
555 20 390 -36+82 log 10 w+l9 log 10 PE 5 the data from (E)
833 15 390 -57+ 112log 10 w+12 log 10 PE 4
1110 10 370 -73+135 log 10 w+7 log 10 PE 4 above, appears in
1390 10 290 -85+152 log 10 w 4 Fig. 6-10. This fig-
20- 70 555 1850 3700 0.95w o.50 2
833 1270 2500 2.0w o .50 2 ure has been used to
1110 930 1900 2.8w o.50 3 reduce the data in (A)
1390 730 1500 3.2wo.50 3
10.4µ, w 1.0 - 20 294 o 25000 0.0008w 2 to (E) above to a basis
555 o 1850 0.018w 2
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 i.2 of 1 atmosphere total
833 o 1270 0.06lw 2 (pw+ P)/2 pressure, Pw = O.
1110 o 930 0.102w 3
1390 o 730 0.141w 3
Fig. 6-10. Correctionfactor Cw for converting H 2 0
Elimination of poor
9.4µ, M 20- 70 555 1850 3700 0.9wº .5o 2
833 1270 2500 1.5wº .5o 2 emissivities tovalues of Pw and P otherthan O and 1 data and smoothing
1110 930 1900 2.Qw0.50 3 respectively. ofthe rest [30] yield
1390 730 1500 2.4w0.50 3
9.4µ, w 1.0- 20 294 o 25000 O.OOlw 2
Fig. 6-11, whichgives
555 o 1850 0.020w 2 Ew vs TG for different
833 o 1270 0.063w 2 values of PwL, all in the limit as Pw ___.. O, P = 1 atm. The value of Ew
1100 o 930 0.102w 3
from Fig. 6-11 is to be multiplied by C,, from Fig. 6-10.
1390 o 730 0.133w 3
7.5µ, w 6- 70 294 o 25000 0.0002wP,x= 1.00 4
5.2µ, M 6- 70 294 2000 25000 0.09wo.5o PEº" 2
5.2µ, w 1- 10 294 o 2000 0.0016w 2 The absorptivity of H 20 may be determined by evaluating Eg
4.8µ, M 6- 70 294 2000 25000 0.28wo.5opEo.i 2 at Ts and PwL(Ts/Tg) and multiplying the result by (Tg/Ts) 0.45.
4.8µ, w 1- 10 294 o 2000 0.0082w 2
4.3µ, s 0.5 - 70 294 64 25000 75w0.11 pE0.08 7 Band absorptivities of water vapor have been measured at room
555 20 3700 93wº·"Pif·º5 7 temperatures [ 32], and their extrapolation to higher temperatures
833 15 2400 119w o.11pEo.03 5
1110 20 1900 144w0.11 pE0.02 5
by Thomson has already been discussed (Sec. 6.5.c).
1390 10 1500 168wº· 11 Ik0· 01 5
2.7µ, s 1- 70 294 290 25000 88wo.12pE0.06 22
555 240 3700 l18wo.12 Pif·º2 22 e. Carbon dioxide and water vapor mixtures. When carbon
833 240 2500 148wº·12 17 dioxide and water vapor are present together, the total radiation
1110 240 1900 169w 0 " 2 17
1390 240 1500 197wo.i2 17 due to both is somewhat less than the sum of the separately calcu-
2.7µ, M 0.5 - 1 294 64 290 11wo.5opEo.40 22 lated effects, because each gas is somewhat opaque to the other in
1- 10 555 20 240 13.5w0.5opEo.o6 22
833 15 240 17wo.sopif'.06 16 the regions 2.7µ and 15µ. The correction for this effect may be
1110 20 240 20wo.50~.06 16 read from Fig. 6-12, which gives the amount !::.E by which to reduce
1390 10 240 24wo.50 .06 16
2.0µ, s 20 - 70 294 6800 25000 28wo.2opif'.06 15 the sum of Eg for C0 2 and Eg for H 20 (each evaluated as if the other
2.0µ, M 1-70 294 980 6800 1.45w o.5opEo.15 15 gas were absent) to obtain the Eg due to the two together. The
555 1850 3700 1.55wº· 50 Ikº .15 15
833 1270 2500 1. 75w O .50Pif'.l5 8 sarne type of correction applies in calculating a gs . Figure 6-12
2.0µ, w 1 - 70 294 o 980 0.070w 15 must be regarded as a provisional answer to the C0 2 -H20 overlap
555 o 730 0.082w 15
problem. ln particular, the correction probably decreases as tem-
833 o 490 0.102w 8
1110 o 2000 0.108w 9 perature rises above 1700 ºF (1200ºK).
1390 o 1500 0.108w 9
1.6µ, M 1- 70 294 1400 25000 0.18w0.5o Jlº·' 8
1.4µ, M 1- 70 294 1400 25000 0.2Qw0.50Jl0.1 8 The combined emissivity of C0 2 and H 20 in a one-to-one
w is the mass path length in g/m2, AB is the equivalent band width in cm 1 and M is the estimated ratio [ the products of combustion of (CH2 ) 0 ] is presented in Fig.
uncertainty in a single experimental measurement in cm- 1.
6-13. Allowance was made for the over lap between the different
bands but some uncertainty exists about the accuracy of the AE
232 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 233

employed. The use of (pc + Pw)L as a parameter reduces the effect relation,
. for the products
, of combustion of (CH 2 )X and CH4 . The
on Ec+w of a departure of the C0 2 :H 2 0 ratio from 1; and Fig. 6-13 sa~e. f igure carnes a band indicating the temperature range of
may be used with no more than 5 percent error for variations in vahdity of the relation.
C0 2 :H2 0 from 0.9 to 1.1. 0.07 0.07
260°F lOOOºF
0.06 0.06
Hadvig [ 22] has presented combined emissivity data on C0 2 -
H20 mixtures in a form which greatly simplifies industrial furnace 0.05 0.05
calculations. Based on the suggestion that Ec+w is approximately
0.04 0.04
inversely proportional to Tg he found that, over a restricted tem- /:::,E /:::,E
perature range which generally spans furnace operating conditions, 0.03 0.03
the quantity (E c+w)(T g) is a function of (p e + Pw)L only; and the func-
0.02 0.02
tion changes but slightly as PwlPc changes. Figure 6-14 gives the
0.01 0.01
3 .5
o ~2 LL...L.l<~::!=:'"'"-'1""'-.:::;.J>-llllQ
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 LO O 0.2 0.8 LO
Pw/(pc + Pw)

Fig. 6-12. Correction due to spectral overlap for calculation of

emissivity of a COrH20 mixture from those of its components.

0.10
K is for use in relation
0.09
q = Eav X K x a<T(!; - Tfl
0.08 where Eav and K are
0.07 evaluated from chart
at (T 0 + T 1)/2
0.06

2000 2500 3000 3500

Temperature, degrees Rankine Temperature, degrees Rankine

Fig. 6-11. Emissivity of water vapor at 1 atm. reduced to Pw-tO (from Ref. Fig. 6-13. Emissivity of an equimolal C0 2-H 20 mixture. Use of K is
31). explained in Chapter 8.
234 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 235

(p 0 + PwlL, meter-atm.
0.008 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 o.os 0.10 o2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Gas Temp., ºK
600
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
600 soo 1000
900
~/ 800
400 700

300 !~,, 600

""" "° \- 500

~
~v,fº 400
~ 200 o::
o
-,,, -;:::::---- ~

['< ~ t 300 -,,,

['<
Ternpernture range
~ ~ for error < 4 % /////,
~
+
/ ( multiply rdinat~ by 10) 200 +
\VC) 100

80
~
- -r- 160
180

,.._ 140
'"
o

- / -,.._ 120
60
_..._1- 100
-
/:/
/ r- 80
~o

40 r- 70
/ r- 60
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 4.0
(Pc + PwlL, ft-atm

Fig. 6-14. Simplified emissivity chart for CO 2-H 20 mixtures for restricted
temperature range (adapted from Hadvig).

d. Sulfur dioxide. ln the design of sulfur burners and of sul-

fur dioxide coolers the radiation from the gas may be a major factor 0.01 r-1-~ct~~"'*:---____:~~~J---~
in the evaluation of the total heat transferred. The data of Coblentz º·ººs ri,::---~;:--~t--=~c-l-~~i--=~:u
[ 7] on the infrared absorption spectrum of sulfur dioxide, although
hardly adequate as a basis for quantitative calculations, have been º·ºº6 r-r--4,-~ç-_::--,.~~"""=-i--~~
used for want of something better. The results are given in Fig. 0.005 11--~p""~~~~~c--~~
0.004 t----1-
6-15, based on calculations made by Guerrieri (20]. The inter-
relation between absorptivity and emissivity given by Eq. (6-46) 0.003 ::-~::--~L---L....::::::~L-~L_::::::::l
may be used to obtain an estimate of the absorptivity. 2000 2500 3000 3500
Gas Temp., ºR

e. Carbon monoxide. Total radiation from carbon monoxide

Fig. 6-15. E.missivity of sulfur dioxide (adapted
in nitrogen at a total pressure of 1 atm has been measured by from calculat10ns by Guerrieri). L = effective path
Ullrich ( 81] using a total path length of 51.2 cm. Figure 6-16 has length, ft.; P = partial pressure of S02' atm.
been prepared from the data. It is tentatively suggested that the
absorptivity be calculated in a manner similar to that of CO 2 and
H2 0 using Eq. (6-46). The spectra of CO and C0 2 overlap suffi-
ciently in the 4.3µ region to make the incremental emissivity due ~~c:;::ie with pressure in absorptance by the fundamental CO band
eff t t~mperatures. As an illustration of the magnitude of the
to CO equal 0.8 (O. 7) of the value it would have if present alone in
the amount PcoL = 0.2 (1.0) ft. atm., when carbon dioxide is present
to the extent Pco 2L = 1.0 ft. atm. More extensive estimates of the
pr:~su~ ~~c~e:t:.b:n~ ~~c~o;a~~ ;·~~
to 20 atms for a 0 :a:
ob~erved ?n doubling the
· on mcreasmg the pressure
increase i~'press!~º~b~!e }; cm. atm. The influ~nce of a further
1
effect of band overlap may be obtained by the procedure described
in Sec. 6.7 using the band absorptance estimates of Edwards (9] broadening due to different . ~tmospheres was shght. Collision
and Malkmus and Thomson ( 49]. Penner ( 61] has measured the than for helium or argon. mer gases was greater for hydrogen
 GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 237
236 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

Carbon monoxide total emissivity based on recent spectro- 1.0

scopic measurements [ 42] is in good agreement with Ullrich 's 1
o.s

- ------ --
values at room temperature and at high temperature and high PL.
But at high tem per ature and low PL Ullrich 's results appear high.
0.6 -
......_
1
j:;

This may be due either to the trace oxidation of C02 in Ullrich 's ~ ,:::...... ,.._........... ...._........... ~/;.]l.,"'<
0.4 ...... ..... él.f -1--

work or to the choice of band model in interpreting the spectro- r-- r-- ......_ i-- ...... ~ ~l'o-( .............%ft:
,_ ......_ .........~.... >-

Na~'
scopic data. .......... r-..........._ ......... ....
~
[
,._ .... ,_!'-......_
---. --_t--
t-...._
0.2 ' r-....._ 1-...
f. Ammonia. Total radiation from ammonia vapor-nitrogen
mixtures at a total pressure of 1 atm has been measured by Port
r--......
....

t::::
............. ............___

~~º·1"" ,' '.... '

-.....,~~
"· . . . , r-.
[ 66] , using a path length L of 51.2 cm. His recommended values
of emissivity are presented in Fig. 6-17, which shows the large
effect to be expected from ammonia radiation in heat-exchanger
0.1
o.os
- i...._

.._
r-....._' ~
- .....
- ... -.......
'-

......
-....., '" O.o?'
' 'º .......
"'- '-O.~ºs ......._ r-. '· '
'· .....
'-,

...... ....... ...... o " ' f'...

calculations. Absorption of blackbody radiation by ammonia was
also measured by Port. He gives the results in the form of a series
b
·,:
0.06
......
-, i'o - r....... 1"- ~""-. ' ............
~
t-....... .............
['......~t-.......'~'
'. ,,, '
I'.
·;;;
§"'
0.04 .._ .... '
,_ ~ O.ºo '- r--..."- ,~, ' Is~

>~ '
fil

Temp. ºK o"'"' 'o.~~...._,

"-::·,Oo? ' - !'..,
!'- \.
1-.'\ '\
400 500 600 700 soo 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 0.02
o. 15 ,----,e--__,.---,..---,---..,.---,--,--.,-----,
' ~', ~ ~\ \. '\\ I'\.\ '\
o. 12
o. 10
!----+--+---+
1--__Ji----+
0.01
o.oos
'' ' ' ' ' ~
r.
'
o.os 1-----1--+~-..+--~- J~==l?~~~~ 0.006 ''
'\
'\
'\ "
o. 07 1----'l---A--/-~L--*=- 1~--4-.=-=~~>k--_:_,.,J 1\
\ \.
o. 06 1---e-..L.+->'-'-7i'c_,,"'-l--~;;;::::;j::::::::::j-::O-....-e-~ 0.004
!"\ '\ '
'
'\
0.05 1----l+-l'-fr-Al'+-,>"f--~~.....=::f---='k---"'t
'
0.04 l----+l_/,,~:__,.t'.-l-___,,.q____,,::+ )~~=;;;;i;;-3'°'"-.C~d 0.002
600 1000 1400 lSOO 2200
' \

2500
o.035 1---+-1----t-+-+--+--"":____,,Ll-~-4- ·~.......----~
Gas Ternp., ºR
0. 030 i--4--l+J.----A-->'-~-+----+--_,..."'-H

o. 025 i---<J--11--1----i'-+---A--c#'-+---+ Fig. 6-17. Emissivityof ammonia (from measure-

ments by Port).
"'
o"' of correction charts to gas emissivity as read at the surface tem-
perature and at PNH3 L. When the surface temperature is 500 ºF
below that of the gas, the correction factor is about O. 75, 0.85, and
1.0 for gas temperatures of 2500, 2000, 1500ºR. For larger dif-
ferences in temperature, absorptivity becomes unimportant in a
o.oos l-------JW---11'----il-'----+--+-+--+--+----I calculation of net interchange.
o. 007 1-----rl+---1+---;L+--+--+---t---+--+------t g. Hydrogen chloride. The calculations of Malkmus and
o .006 L-_,_J'-J'.__j..,f_.........+--+--+---+--+--+-----1 Thomson [ 49] have been used to derive the total emissivity of hy-
0.005 L-..:...:...LL--LL-__.l..--L---l----'---'--...___, drogen chloride, Fig. 6-18. The use of the strong line approxima-
600 1000 1400 lSOO 2200
tion, Eq. (6-15b), in their calculations implies that the absorptivity-
Temp. ºR
emissivity interrelation is given by Eq. (6-53). Radiation from
Fig. 6-16. Emissivityof carbon monoxide (adapted HCl is significant only at very high pressures.
from measurements of Ullrich).
238 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 239

1
--'. 1 1 Table 6-3.
.20

.10
/ ~' Integraged Band Intensities of N0 2 and N 20 4 [ 21]
~ I '104 --:::,,,_e-=

.04
~

e- /
/
º"' ftt!J} r-: Molecular Band Center Approximate
Bandwidth
(cm- 2 atm- 1 )
.10 Composition (µ)
.02
~

/ -
.08
.06
(cm 1) (cm -1 ) a(298 ºK) a(323 ºK)

. 01
/ -
.04 N02
N02
3.4 2908 75 o .... 56.9
~

~ - . 02 6.2 1617 160 2059 .. o ....

~1 / ~ - N204 2.9 3442 100 o ..... 12.9

.004
......
.002 ~/
.01 N204 3.2 3120 130
p~"' 47.4
-
.008
.006 N204 3.4 2962 80 ....... 52.7
'/ ºº °"' ;;;--..-i-- Eg .004 N204 3.8 2618 140 ........ 32.7
. 00] ·~

~
/'
..._...__ "' -..--::
- .002 N204 5.7 1748 160 2940 ..... o

. 0004
~ 1/ ~ - N204 7.9 1260 100 1803 .. "o ..
.001

.0002
~; (l"'J~~ -
.0008
.0006
N204 13.3 750 70 1104 o .. o ..

1 ftt!J} i"""'
.0004
1 1 1
.0001
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 lengths in the gas. The correlations
T(ºRl T(ºRl are presented as the rate of change, E. 1Q6
b 1--+--+-+_,__+-
with thickness, of the flux density f 1O 4 r-+-+-c-r
Fig. 6-18. Emissivity of hydrogen Fig. 6-19. Emissivity of nitric ox-
chloride (adapted from calculations ide (adapted from calculations by
from an infinite slab as a function >-1
~ 10
2
by Malkmus and Thomson). Malkmus and Thomson). of the temperature and the ratio of
the density to the density at normal "w""
'D
temperature and pressure.* It is to ÍiÍ 10- 21-+1"7'1-7C"-+c7fL--f---Y"'I-+ -J,-<1--+-+-+-+-f--j
h. Nitric oxide. Malkmus and Thomson have used the random be noted that, although air is a gen- o
~ 1Q-4 iff-!L+l-71"-bt'"-t-b+""Ft- 1--+--+--4---"--'
Elsasser model to extrapolate room-temperature integrated inten- erally poor emitter, a 1.9 cm layer
sity data to higher temperatures. Emissivities derived from their of atmospheric air at 18 ,000 K ~ 10-6 !Hh'-f-or-+-+-t--+·+-+-+-+-+-+-t-+--+-+

results are given in Fig. 6-19. Their use of the weak-line approx- (p/p0 =0.016) is alOpercent black- "o<
:::: lQ-8 hl-.l'.--1,L:t-+--+-+--+-+-+-+-+--+-+-~-+-+

imation implies that the emissivity is independent of pressure and body. 1 o- l oL.LL.2_j_4'.--'-""'6--'---8L..L.,.Ll0,--Ll.L,2J-c:"l4-:--1-:lf::6--'-:-'l8
that the absorptivity-emissivity relationship is given by Eq. (6-46). T/1000,(ºKl
k. Methane. Lee and Happel
i. Nitrogen dioxide. The data of Guttmann [21] on the inte- Fig. 6-20. Flux per unit thickness
[42] measured band black width at 1 to one face of a thin slab of heated
grated intensity, a, of the major N0 2 and N204 bands, Table 6-3, atmosphere and various optical air. Dashed lines indicate regions
may be used in conjunction with the constant absorption coefficient depths and at temperatures up to where collision frequency is too
model, Eqs. (6-34), (6-35), (6-38), and (6-39), to obtain an estimate 865 ºe, and used the equally-spaced- low to maintain statistical popula-
of emissivity and absorptivity. This procedure is justified by the line Elsasser model to calculate tion of energy levels. Shaded
considerable overlap between rotational lines [ 82]. emissivities at higher temperatures. areas at high temperatures indi-
Bands at 2.37, 3.31 and 7.65µ are cate uncertainty in calculations of
j. Air. Numerous calculations of the emissivity of air have radiation from the combination
important. Figure 6-21 shows the N+ + e. p 0 corresponds to 1 atm
been prompted by the heat transfer problems encountered in the total emissivity as a function oftem- at288ºK (1.23 x 10-3g/cm3). Dot-
reentry of satellites and missiles. The data of Kivel and Bailey [37, perature, for optical depths up to 2 ted line represents 1 percent
38], which are in part substantiated by shock-tube measurements, ft. atm. blackbody radiation per cm thick-
are reproduced in Fig. 6-20. The major contributors to the radia- ness. (From Kivel and Bailey.)
tion at the temperature levels shown are 02, NO, N2 and the capture
of electrons by oxygen atoms. Except at high tem per ature and *For thin gray gas slabs dq/dL = (dE/dL)aTg4 ; and dE/dL = 2K = 2(dE/dLm)
pressure the emissivity is small and is proportional to the path (see next chapter, and Table 7-3).
 GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 241
240 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

.3
'~ o
·~-~-

/.,I \(
o
o
o
.2 ~ o
1
o
;s (\i'ºg' "'"' ._,
1/ o
oi

.10 "'
<N
*
e~~ l!.J /
{l.í 'b,/
.08

.06
º 8--J / 1
í&st-'-t-+--++--1--1--l
o
<N

Eg
t-t-+-H-+--l--1-- 8 "' ,
"'
,....;
"'.b;? .··
ºoo._ 1 //" /
._,-j-l\. o
.04 ,....;
-
.03 "'
o;

o
o;
.02

"'
,....;

o
,....;
3750
500 1000 2000 3000
- "'
T, ºR <N

q
Fig. 6-21. Emissivity of methane (from Lee and "'
Happel).
"'
,....;
1. Glass plates and glass melts. The problems encountered o
in the cooling and heating of glass plates and the calculation of heat ,....;

transfer rates in glass melts are very similar to those involving

absorbing gases. The spectral absorptivity in glass, as in most "'
o;

solids and liquids, however, does not show the very irregular fluc- o
o;
tuations characteristic of gases. The spectral measurements of
Neuroth [ 57] for window glass are presented in Fig. 6-22. From "'
,....;
these values Gardon [ 16] has obtained the integrated emissivity
for glass of different thicknesses over a wide temperature range, o
,....;
Fig. 6-23. The limiting value of the emissivity as the glass thick-
ness tends to infinity is not one, since a fraction of the energy ~...\ - -- -- ...... ---...~
"'
o;
emitted within the glass volume is reflected at the glass interface.
o
The asymptotic value of 0.91 corresponds to a constant refractive <N
'
index of 1.5 but, as is observed by Gardon, the region of high re-
flectivity about the 9.5µ strong absorption band of Si0 2 should
further reduce the emissivity when radiation about 9.5µ is signif-
icant. The data of Fig. 6-22 may be used to prepare other plots r--lr.tJC0"'11 ._,
similar to Fig. 6-23. Allowance for the variation of the surface o . o .o. .
o o
o
o
"'oq q
o
reflectivity with wavelength may be made by use of the measure-
...,bJl
ments of Neuroth [56]. Fl
242 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 243

6.10 Radiation from Clouds

of Particles \U

.......
u Powdered-coalflames con-
~

o
tain particles varying in size
;.., C6 o:.
""" from 250µ (0.01 in.) down, with
Cl)
~~ '"""! o
.!:l
....,, o ,..... an average size in the neighbor-
o o Cl)
(/)
<')
<:.O M
o
tj"
hood of 25µ, and a composition
NÜ o
o~
<')

.o~
,.... ;.., "' r::: varying from a high percentage
~r:t:l
H
E-< E-< u ~ of carbon to nearly pure ash .
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
The suspended matter in lumi-
<:.O M Temp., ºC
<') ,..... nous gas flames originates in
o
Cf.l """
o ...i the flame because of incomplete Fig. 6-23. Total hemispherical emis-
mixing with air before being sivity of window glass as a function
<') <:.O heated; consists of carbon and of thickness and temperature (from
o N
M
,..... """
~
M
M
co
"'1"! ofvery heavy hydrocarbons; and Gardon).
Cl)
o o o N
has an initial size, before ag-
~
glomeration, in the range 0.006 to 0.03µ and, after agglomeration,
<')
m ,..... to 0.15µ [13, 15, 44, 55, 58, 62]. Flames of heavy residual oils,
o N
t-
"'1"! LC:>
r::-:
<:.O
~ in addition to their soot luminosity due to the cracking of evolved
....... o ...i N N
<i:: gaseous hydrocarbons, contain solid particles produced by the
coking of the heavy bituminous material present in each droplet
o M
,..... [ 6, 18, 75]. These particles are of a size comparable with the
u:: o"""
bJ)
~ N original oil-drop size which, in industrial-furnace pradice, may
have a mass-median diameter of from 200µ to 50µ or even less.
co The method of formulating radiation from particle clouds depends
~
<:.O

u
LC:>
m
"""
M
co
m "'!
o
on the particle siz.e.
,..... ,.....
"""
m co a. Large particles (21Tr > 5 À). The absorption coefficient
o ,.....
K of a cloud of black* particles is by Eq. (6-4) the total projected
N
::.::: """
o LC:>
,..... area of the particles in a unit volume. If c(r)dr is the number per
~
unit volume with radii lying between r and r +dr and A(r) is the
§ particle absorption cross section, then
.....
....,,
.....
o N
co N ~
~
J:
(/) M N
z ,..... ,..... ,.....
o
o. """ """ K= c(r)A(r)dr
s
o N co LC:> co
(6-61)
u o..... r::-:
,.....
m '"'"'!
t-
M
oÔ
~ Cf.l
t- """
t- <:.O
"""
M <:.O Since the mean cross section of undimpled particles is one-fourth
.....u their surface are a (Sec. 6.2), the emissivity of a cloud of uniform
s
Cl) ;.., r:::
o particles, black or negligibly reflecting and opaque and of concen-
.!:l Cl) ......
....,, tration e and surface a each, is given by
.....r:::
Cl)
u ~ ~ s
o
»
~
u
Cl)
r:::
~
Cl)

..... 1:lo ;.., ;.., -+-"

o Cl)
E = 1 - e-caL/4
~ u
.!:l
u
1
><1 a - c'.5 (6-62)

*lf reflection is significant, see Chaps. 12 and 13.


244 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
The radiation from powdered-coal flames has been treated
analytically by Wohlenberg et al. [ 8 3, 84] , by Haslam and Hottel
[ 24], and by Lindmark and Edenholm [ 45]. Experimental studies
have been conducted by Lindmark and Kignell [ 46], by Sherman
[ 74], and by the International Flame Foundati?n [ 47). I~ co:nbi~
nation with assumptions as to the laws of parhcle-s1ze d1stribuhon
and the rate of combustion of individual particles [ 28] the above
relations have been used to calculate the emissivity of pulverized-
coal flames. Values so obtained, however, are almost invariably
considerably lower than measured flame emissivities. The dis-
crepancy is probably due to the contribution of cracked hydro-
carbons producing luminosity as well as to residual ash particles
not allowed for in the theoretical derivation. Modern pulverized-
coal installations usually involve such large flames that their emis-
sivity is not far from unity.
Radiation from residual fuel oil flames is due in part to
burning coke particles formed by asphaltenes in the oil. These
relatively nonvolatile compounds burn to porous coke particles
of about the size of the original oil droplets. As an example con-
sider a bunker oil atomized to a surface-mean particle diameter
d and burned with 20 percent excess air to produce coked residual
particles having the original drop diameter, and suspended in com-
bustion products at 2 200 ºF. The parti ele surface per unit volume
of oil is 6/d; the mass ratio of combustion products to original
fuel is about 15 x 1.2; the density ratio of gas to oil is about
0.00024· the projected particle surface per unit volume of space
is then (o.00024/15 x 1.2)(6/d) or 8 x 10- 5 /d; and the emissivity
of the flame due to the coke particles is
E = 1 - e-Bx 10-SL/d
For 200µ particles and an L of 10 feet (L/d = 30.5 X 10 5 ) the above
relation predicts an emissivity of 0.22. Sootluminositywillincrease
this; particle burnout will decrease it.
b. Small particles (27Tr < 0.6À/n). When the perimeter of a
particle is less than six-tenths the wavelength measured in the.
particle, the particle acts like a point-Source of volu~e (Rayle.1gh
particles; see Chap. 12). The monochromatic absorpt10n coeffl-
cient of the cloud is then independent of particle size and propor-
tional to the volume fraction fv of space occupied by particles
(fv = CmP, where Cm is mass concentration, and p is par.ticle.den-
sity) and to the reciprocal wavelength 1/À. The proporhonahty
constant k depends on the refractive índex n and absorption index
K [ see Eq. (12-23)]. The emissivity is then given by
GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 245
E,\ = 1 _ e-[k(n,K)] fvL/,\ (6-63)
As an example of application the above relation will be used
in discussing soot luminosity of flames. Evidence of the dominant
role of soot luminosity in radiation from many industrial-furnace
flames is long-standing. Lent [ 43] has made a blast-furnace gas
flame practically black by addition of benzol; Haslam and Boyer
[ 23] found that a small luminous acetylene flame radiated roughly
four t~mes as intensely as when nonluminous; Sherman [ 73] in
experiments on a large model furnace found the flame emissivity
to inciease from about 0.2 along the whole furnace length with a
nonluminous flame to 0.6 with a luminous natural-gas flame; Trinks
and Keller [ 79] were able to produce an emissivity up to 0.95 in
a two-ft thickness of a natural-gas flame, and Mayorcas [ 52] an
emissivity of 0.8 in a three-ft depth near the burner end of an
open hearth. The combustion process by which soot luminosity is
produced is a complex one, far from completely understood. If
before a hydrocarbon vapor is heated it is mixed homogeneously
with enough oxygen to form CO and a mixture of H2 O and H2 on
reaction - in a ratio dependent on fuel type - the tendency to form
soot is substantially eliminated. Consequently, although the pro-
duction of luminosity is dependent on the carbon-hydrogen ratio
of the fuel, with aromatic compounds most prone to form soot, it
is even more dependent on the air-fuel mixing process. This in
turn makes luminosity depend on the primary air-fuel ratio, the
fuel firing rate, the momentum of the jet of fuel and its atomizer
to the extent that momentum transfer is responsible for induction
of air into the jet, the mode of admission of the air, and the scale
of the system. Other factors are the mode of atomization of oil
(whether pressure- or air- or steam-atomizing) and the ratio of
heat-sink to no-flux area as that affects the rate of cooling of the
flame. To aid in progress toward solution of this complex problem
an International Flame Foundation has been organized to conduct
cooperative research on the problem, primarily at IJmuiden, Hol-
land [ 4]. The broad objective of developing a recommended pro-
cedure for predicting luminous-flame radiation will require some
years to accomplish. Up to the present a number of flames types
have been studied in great detail on model furnaces large enough
to yield results applicable to full-scale furnaces [ 1, 4, 51, 78].
If the soot composition and mass concentration in a luminous
flame are known it is then possible to estimate the flame emissivity.
To apply Eq. (6-61) the optical properties of soot must be known.
These are in general a function of wavelength and H/C ratio [ 33,
34, 53, 54, 72]. For want of more reliablevaluesthemeasurements
of n and K by McCartney and Ergun [ 53], made on coals with dif-
ferent H/C ratios ata wavelength of 0.55µ, have been used to
 GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 247
246 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

behind it may be far from a black radiator, and observation of an

d t · k
0n the assumption that n and K are independent of
w~~;l~~~h ~nd temperature, k(n, K) in equation (6-63)_becomets ~
t t The total emissi vity may now be calculated, with spe~ ra
~~;:ri~:Úon of blackbody radiation expressed by Wien' s ~qu_ation t
rather than Planck' s because of the low ÀT range of marn rnteres
arc-light or tungsten filament through the flame furnishes a better
basis of judging opacity. The International Flame Foundation at
IJmuiden has recorded data on many luminous flames from gas,
oil, and coal (see J. Inst. Fuel, 1956-present). If interest is in the
prediction of total radiative transfer from furnace gases to wall
sink, the addition of 0.1 to the nonluminous gas emissivity to allow

I:EÀ EÀ dÀ
for soot luminosity is often sufficient when calculations are based
on a mean flame temperature; this is because emission from aflame

f: EÀ dÀ
comes more from its cool envelope than its hot core, especially as
its emissivity increases.

6.11 Representation of a Real Gas for Engineering

On defining x = c 2 /ÀT and y
ment, Eq. (6-64) becomes
Calculations
(6-64)
In the formulation o.f heat transfer in systems containing ab-
sorbing media it is often postulated that the radiation is attenuated
according to Beer-Lambert's law, or that the medium is gray. For
a real gas, with characteristic absorption in certain spectral re-
= (1/À T)(c 2 +kfvLT) and on rearrange- gions, the intensity has been shown not to attenuate exponentially
with distance but to follow different laws consistent with propor-
tionality of Eg to pL, to pL 112 , or to log pL. The structure of the
relations for calculating radiative exchange in an enclosure is such,
however, (see Chaps. 8 and 11) that retention of the mathematical
(6-64a)
formulation which characterizes a gray-gas system is desirable in
formulating real-gas emission [ 31]. Fortunately this is possible.

The emissiyity-pL relationship for any gas can be visualized

The definite integral, which incident~lly may be re~og~i~ed as the as that due to the weighted sum of a sufficient number of gray gases;
gamma function r (4), cancels out and the total em1ss1vity reduces the relationship can consequently be represented to any desired de-
to gree of accuracy by
4
1 ] (6-65)
Eg = l - [ 1 + kfvLT/c2 Eg = [ ag, i (1 - e-k;pL) (6-66)

Based on McCartney and Ergun's coal studies (l.~.), k/? 2 varies with the restriction, since Eg is an increasing function of pL ap-
from 5 .2 to 2.6 cm -1 ºK-1 as the atomic H/C rabo varies f~om O to proaching 1 in the limit, that
0.4. Some experimental work at IJmuiden on two type~ ?f 01~ /lame 0

yields values of 4.4 and 9.8. A tentative value of 5 cm K (85

ft - 1 ºR- 1) is recommended. ln contrast to the usual B~er-~ambert [ag,i=l (6-67)
formulation of cloud emissivity which predicts proportionallty_ of the
minus log of transmittance T to path length L, Eq. (6-25) predicts
and that all values of a be positive. If the number of terms in the
proportionality of 1/T 11 4 to L. summation is very large ai may be thought of as the ene~gy frac-
There is at present no method of predicting soot concentration tion of the blackbody spectral regions in which the effective pressure
of a luminous flame analytically; reliance must be p~aced on ex~er­ absorption coefficient is about ki, i.e., ai=.[: Eú). ~wi/E where
imental measurements on flames similar to that of rnter.est. Visual J J

observation can be misleading; a flame so bright as to h1de the wall ~wi is the wave number region in which k = ki ± ~k/2 illustrated
248 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 249

l ---- !/,/
"windows" in the
spectrum ~--....
by the shaded area in Fig.
6-24. However, a and k rnay
more properly be considered
"\
Ea=
3
2:
n=t n
a <1-e·knPL)
// ,éJI
,.,.

/ 1 !. \ J sirnply as the nurnbers which

k(ú
1 1
,.-,
rnake the series in Eq. (6-66) / ~/Point,)I
1 1 /~tedforl
1
1 1 fita given function. Although / // this I
1 1 / // curve
the ernissivity of all gases
/,:-E =1- -kpLI 1
approaches one in the lirnit / ,/ G e 1 1
of an infinite path length as /.r / 1 1
a consequence of the srnall //"x:..._ -k L 3.4 6.8
0.01 // E0 =a(l-e P) I I
--(ú--
contribution by the wings of // 1 1
//
the lines in the principle
0.01 0.1 1
Fig. 6-24. Interpretation of ai in terms of bands and by the very weak 10
spectral energy distribution: ai represents lines between the bands, it pL"' (pc + Pw)L
the fraction of blackbody energy in wave- stops considerably short of
number region associated with Llk (shaded one at practically attainable Fig. 6-26. Emissivity of a Cü 2 -H 2 0 mixture
areas). at 2500 ºR, in dependence of (Pc + Pw)L. Data
values of pL. Therefore in are shown as points; gray gas fitted at pL =
fitting ernissivities with a 3.4 ft atm by dotted line; gray-plus-clear gas
finite nurnber of terrns it is cornrnon to find one terrn with k equal fitted at pL = 3 .4 and 6 .8 ft atm by dashed
to zero, corresponding to the windows in the spectrurn between line; and three-gray-plus-clear by solid line.
strong ernission bands, and sornetirnes referred to as the clea~-gas
cornponent [ see Fig. 6-25 for an illustration of a three-terrn fit adequate accuracy in engineering use,jar jewer constants are re-
(two gray and one clear)]. quired to jit the data than the number of basic spectral parameters.

w
~
"''
1
é,,-
:i"'/
~~/
------ .\< 1PL)+
bJJ
\tJ

~
1 Methods of fitting exponential series to data rnay be found in
the literature [ 41] since this problern is cornrnon in other technical
fields, e.g., the deterrnination of the decay constants of a rnixture
~a (\-e
~~rn
/
/
/real gas- 1
-l<2PL).., to a1+ 2
a at"" ·>«E of radioisotopes frorn ernission-versus-tirne data. A procedure well
rn adapted to this task is the following: (1) Guess the surn of the ag, i
·g ª2(\-e
·grn , n
[;il 1 [;il
o o of the gray gases exclusive of the clear cornponent, [ ag, i = (1-ag, 0 )
pL pL i =1
in which
n
ag,o is the weighting factor of the clear (k = O) terrn. (2)
Fig. 6-25. A two-gray-plus-clear representation of a real gas.
Plot [ ag, i - Eg versus pL on sernilogarithrnic coordinates. Equa-
i= 1

The adequacy of Eq. (6-66) has been tested for C02 and C02- tion (6-66) rnay be rewritten in forro
H20 rnixtures [ 68]. Figure 6-26 presents, as data points, the ernis-
n
sivity of a particular rnixture of C02 and H20, calculated frorn the
experirnentally based charts, Figs. 6-8 to 6-12. On the sarne plot L ag, i - Eg = ag,l e-k1pf + ag,2 e·k2pf + .. ag,n e·knpf (6-68)
i=l
the solid curve represents a four-terrn fit (three gray and one clear)
to the experimental values. A gray-gas forrnulation and a one-gray-
plus-clear gas fit are also shown for cornparison. (By necessity If kn >> kn-1 ... k2 >> ki, all the terrns on the right but the first
the gray-gas fit can be rnatched to the gas ernissivity at only one will be negligible at large p1!. 's so that the ordinate of the plot will
n
point, 6.8 ft atrn in the illustration, and the one-gray, one-clear represent ag '1 e -kipf. Thus a good estirnate of L...
\' a g, 1. will, at large
gas fit to two points, selected at 3.4 and 6.8 ft atrn. Frorn the ac- i=l
curacy of the four-terrn representation of ernissivity, one percent p1!.'s, give a straight line with a slope of -k1 and an intercept of ag,l ·
over a 2000-fold range of variation in pL, it can be seen that, for
250 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 251

Too large (small) a value of and 0.6

L ag, 1 will result in a line Eg,Lm 0.4

1---
that curves upwards (down- ag,l 0.2
wards) (see Fig. 6-27). (3)
Subtraction of ag, 1 e -k1Pe Eg,2Lm - Eg,Lm 0.1
0" .1 1----+---+-----+-""'~~'-tj-----j from both sides of Eq. (6-68) (6-73) o.os
Eg,Lm
.1~ .os >-------t-
allows the next term to be Q/J
0.06
bÍÍ obtained by a similar pro- or "' ' '
w"' .06 e----+-
cedure since a plot of o""
0.04

klpLrn =ln[ Eg,Lj(Eg,2Lm - Eg,Lm)J w

.04 >-----~--+-- '\' a g, 1· - Eg - a g, 1 e -k1pE at
!.......
(6-74) "' 0.02
1
k3 = 50.5 ft-1 atrn-1
large p.Q's will have a slope 1

0.01
of -k 2 and an intercept of
1

If because of high diathermancy of o.oos

.02 L........--'----'----'--~-~-~

1 2
(Pc+ Pw)L, ftatm
Fig. 6-27. Example of choice of five val-
ues of 2: ag, i in fitting COi-H20 emis-
sivity data at 2500° R. Best fit of emis-
sivities at large pL's is given by 2:ag, i =
0.39. This corresponds to intercept
(ag, i) of 0.296 and slope (-ki) of 0.56
1 1
ft - atm- • Data points are shown only
3 ag, 2 . (4) The procedure is the gas and high wall reflectivity it 0.006
repeated until a fit is obtained is desirable to fit the Eg -p.Q curve 0.004
to as small p.Q's as is desired. at O and pLrn but at rpL m (r = an in- 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
The choice of the number of teger) instead of 2pLm, it can readily Ternp., ºR
terms to correspond to the be shown that ag, 1 is obtained from
emissivity data is determined Fig. 6-28. Variation with tem-
the relation perature of weighting factors a s 0 ,
by the shape of the emissivity-
for gas absorption (dashed lines)
P .Q curve, the configuration of
the gas, and the presence of
1- Eg, rLm = (1 - Eg,Lm)r (6-75)
and a ,g for gas emission (solid
0

lines) by an equimolal C0 2 -H 20
for 2:ag,i = 0.39. temperature gradients in the ag,1 ag,1 mixtures.
gas. This will be discussed
further in later chapters. For many purposes, however, a one-gray, and klPLrn(= KlLrn) is given by ln[ag,i/(ag, 1 - Eg,Lm)]. For the case
one-clear gas approximation is adequate. Such a fit to Eg can be of r = 3, Eq. (6-75) yields
obtained by matching the data at three points, such as O, pL rn and
2pLrn where Lrn is a characterizing length of the gas shape (see
(6-76)
Chap. 7).

a g, 0
(1 - e -ope) + a g, 1 (1 - e-k1Pq Absorptivity O' gs of a gas at Tg for blackbody radiation from
a surface at T s can be fitted in like manner to the gas emissivity
a g, 1 (1 - e -k1Pe) (6-69)
n

Fitting this at pLrn and 2pLrn gives O'gs [as,i(l-e-kiPe) (6-77)

i:;:;Q

(6-70)
in which t
i:::Q
as,i = 1.
(6-71)
a. Temperature variation of coefficients. From the discus-
Values of Eg,Lm and Eg, 2Lm are obtained from the correlations of sion of the significance of ai and ki it is to be expected that ki will
emissivity data. Solution of (6-70) and (6-71) gives depend somewhat on the temperature of the gas, andai much more.
When data ontheE-T-P.Q relation for C0 2, H 20, or mixtures of the
a _ E2g,Lm two are analyzed, it is found possible to use a fixed set of k's and
g, l - 2E E (6-72)
g,Lm - g,2Lm
252 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 253

to let the ai 's carry the full burden of expressing the effect of tem- 18.
perature on E. Both a g, i and as, i are found to be dependent only on Gerald:' C.: Se.D. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, M.I.T.,
Cambridge, Mass., 1941.
the temperature of the emitter; i.e., Eg depends on ag, i depends on 19.
gas temperature, and D'gs depends on as, i depends on surface tem- Goody, R.M.: Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soe., 78: 165 (1952).
19a. Goody, R.M.: "Atmospheric Radiation," Oxford Univ. Press
perature. The coefficients so determined by fitting a three-gray
London, 1964. '
one-clear gas model to an equimolal C02-H20 mixture are shown 20.
in Fig. 6-28. The curves for ag,i and as,i intersect at 2500°R, the Guerrieri, S.A.: S.M. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, M.I.T.
mean temperature for the gas, in conformity with Kirchoff's law. Cambridge, Mass., 1932. '
21. Guttr~an, A.: J. of Quant. Speet. and Rad. Trans., 2:1-15 (1962).
22. Hadv1g, S.A.P.; Personal Communication, 1964.
23. Haslam, R.T., and M.W. Boyer: Ind. Eng. Chem., 19:4-6 (1927).
CHAPTER 6. LITERATURE CITATIONS 24. Haslam, R.T., and H.C. Hottel: Trans. ASME, FSP50:9 (1928).
24a. H_o ~eong, E.: "The Effect of Pressure on Absorption of Ra-
1. Beer, J.M.:J. Inst. Fuel, 35:3 (1962). drnt10n by Carbon Dioxide," Internal M.I.T. Fuels Laboratory
2. Benedict, W.S., R.C. Herman, G.S. Moore, and S. Silverman: Report, January, 1957.
Can. J. Phys., 34:850 (1956). 25. Hottel, H.C.: Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs. 19:173 (1927).
3. Bevans, J.T., R.V. Dunkle, D.K. Edwards, J.T. Gier, L.L. 26. Hottel, H.C., and H.G. Manglesdorf: Trans. Am. Inst. Chem.
Levensen, and A.K. Oppenheim: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 50:130 Engrs., 31:517 (1935).
(1960). 27. Hottel, H.C., and V.e. Smith: Trans. ASME, 57:463 (1935).
4. Broeze, J.J., G. Ribaud, and O.A. Saunders: J. Inst. Fuel, 28. Hottel, H.C., and l.M. Stewart; Ind. Eng. Chem., 32:719 (1940).
24:Sl (1951). 29. Hottel, H.C., and R.B. Egbert: Trans. ASME, 63:297 (1941).
5. Brooks, F.A.: Pap. Phys. Oeean. Met., Woods Hole Oceano- 30. Hottel, H.C., and R.B. Egbert: Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Eng.
graphic Institute, 8, 2(1941). 38:531-65 (1942). ,
6. Chang, T.Y.: ScD Thesis in Chemical Engineering, M.I.T., 31. Hottel, H.C.: in W.H. McAdams, "Heat Transmission," 3d ed.,
Cambridge, Mass., 1941. chap. 4, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954.
7. Coblentz, W.H.: "lnvestigations of Infrared Spectra," Car- 32. Howard, J.N., D.L. Burch, and D. Williams: Geophysical
negie Institution, Washington, D.C., 1905. Research Paper 40, Air Force Cambridge Research Center
8. Eckert, E.R.G.: Forsehungsheft, 387:1-20 (1937). 1955. '
9. Edwards, D.K.: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 50:617 (1960). 33. Howarth, C.R., P.J. Foster, and M.W. Thring: Third Int. Heat
10. Egbert, R.B.: Se.D. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, M.I.T., Transf. Conf., 5: 12 3-128 (1966).
Cambridge, Mass., 1941. 34. Humphreys-Owen, S.P.F., and L.A. Gilbert: "Industrial Car-
11. Elsasser, W .M.: Harvard Meteorological Series No. 6, Har- bon and Graphite," Society of Chemical Industry, London,
vard University, Cambridge, Mass., 1942. pp. 37-41, 1958.
12. Elsasser, W.M., and J.I. King: Report No. 9, Contract AF 19 35. Johnson, C.H., and W.E. Garner: Phil. Mag., 5:301 (1928).
(122)-392, Univ. of Utah, Sept. 1, 1953. 36. Kaplan, L .D.: '' Proceedings of the Toronto Meteorological
13. Erickson, W.D., G.C. Williams, and H.C. Hottel: Combustion Conference," p. 43, 1954.
and Flame, 8:127-132 (1964). 37. ~vel, B.: J. Aerospaee Seienees, 28:96-102 (1961).
14. Fahrenport, Jacob: "The Infrared Absorption Spectrum of 38. Kivel, B., and K. Bailey: Tables of Radiation from High Tem-
Compressed C0 2 and C0 2 containing Gas Mixtures: Simul- perature Air, Avco-Everett Research Lab, Research Report
taneous and Induced Transitions," J .B. Wolters, Groningen, 21, 1957.
1955. 39. Kostkowski, H.J., and L.D. Kaplan: J. Chem. Phys. 26:1252-
15. Foster, P.J.: Combustion and Flame, 7:277 (1963). 53 (1957). '
16. Gardon, R.: Section II in H. Blau, and H. Fischer (ed.) "Ra- 39a. Kwentus, G.K.: Se.D. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, M.I.T.,
diative Transfer from Solid Materials," Macmillan, New Cambridge, Mass., 1967.
York, 1962. 40. Ladenberg, R., and F. Reiche: Ann. Physik, 42:181 (1918).
17. Garner, W.E., and C.H. Johnson: J. Chem. Soe. of London, 41. Lanczos, C.: Analytic and Practical Curve Fitting of Equi ..
280, 1928. Distant Data, N.B.S. Report 1591, 1952.
42. Lee, R.H.C., and J. Happel: Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundamentals
3: 167 (1964). '
254 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER GAS EMISSIVITIES AND ABSORPTIVITIES 255

43. Lent, H.: Wdrme, 49:145 (1926). 74. S?erman, R.A.: Trans. ASME, 56:401-410 (1953).
44. Leveque, M.: Examen au Microscope Electronique du Carbone 75. Simpson, H.: Se.D. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, M.I.T.,
Contenu dans une Flamme de Mazout, Flame Radiation Re- Cambridge, Mass., 1954.
search Doe. D2/f/2 (1952). 76. Taylor, J.H., W .S. Benedict, and J. Strong: J. Chem. Phys
45. Lindmark, T ., and H. Edenholm: Ingeniors Vetenskaps Akad. 20:1884 (1952). . .,
Handl., 66 (1927). 77. Thomson, A.: An Approximate Analytic Expression for the
46. Lindmark, T., and L. Kignell: Ing. Vetenskaps Akad. Handl., Engineering Emissivity of Water Vapor, Tech. Note No. 4,
91:1-36 (1929). Gruen Applied Science Labs., Pasadena, Calif., 1957.
47. Loison, R., and R.R. Kissel: J. Inst. Fuel, 35:60 (1962). 78. Thring, M.W.,J.M. Beér, and P.J. Foster: Third International
48. Lorentz, H.A.: Proe. Amst. Aead. Soe., 8:591 (1906). Heat Transfer Conference, Vol. 5, pp. 101-111, 1966.
49. Malkmus, W., and A. Thomson: J. of Quant. Speetr. and Rad. 79. Trinks, W., and J.D. Keller: Trans. ASME, 58:203 (1936).
Transf., 2:16 (1962). 80. Tsao, C.T., and J. Curnutte: J. Quant. Speetroe. Radiative
50. Mayer, H.: Method of Opacity Calculations, LA-647, Los Transfer, 2:41-91 (1962).
Alamos, October, 1947. 81. Ullrich, W .: Se.D. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, M.I.T .,
51. Mayorcas, R.: J. Inst. Fuel, 25:S15 (1952). Cambridge, Mass., 1953.
52. Mayorcas, R.: Iron Steel Inst., (London), Spee. Rept., 37:129 82. Von Bahr, E.: Ann. Phys., 33:585 (1910).
(1946). 83. Wohlenberg, W.J., and D.G. Morrow: Trans. ASME 47:127-
53. McCartney, J.J., and S. Ergun: Fuel, 37:272-282 (1958-59). 176, (1925). '
54. Millikan, R.C.: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 51:535-42 (1961). 84. Wohlenberg, W.J., and E.L. Lindseth: Trans. ASME 48:849-
55. Naeser, G., and W. Pepperhoff: Areh. Eisenhuttenw., 9 (Jan.- 937 (1926). '
Feb. 1951).
56. Neuroth, N.: Glasteehn. Ber., 28:414 (1955).
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60. Penner, S.S.: "Quantitative Molecular Spectroscopy and Gas
Emissivities, 11 Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1959.
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TR-60-221.
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(1905).
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CHA ER 7
GE METRI OBLE S F GAS-RADI
INTERCH NGE
Early in the course of developing methods for estimating the
radiation from furnace gases it was recognized that rigorous allow-
ance for the effect of shape, even under the assumption of uniform
composition and temperature of the gas in a chamber, would ma~e
each furnace calculation a major project, often beyond the capacity
of an engineer to handle in a reasonable time .[ 13, 8]. C~lculat.ion
time could be considerably shortened if the effect of conf1gurahon
could be evaluated only once for a particular shape, and subsequently
applied to all problems involving any gas in that _shape. This chapter
will be concerned with the derivation of geometncal factors. Later
chapters cover their application, Chap. 8 to isothermal enclosures
with allowance for multiple reflection of the walls, Chaps. 10 and 11
to problems with temperature gradients in the absorbing ~ed_ium,
and Chap. 13 to systems in which the medium scatters radiahon.
7 .1 Definitions
Allowance for the shape of an enclosure is usually presented
in one of two forms, as an exchange area or as a mean beam length.
Their interrelation will be illustrated in application to gas-surface
exchange. The direct radiative flux from a gray isothermal volume
to a black area element on the bounding surface is proportional to
the emissive power Eg of a blackbody at the temperatu~e of t?e en-
closed medium. The proportionality constant has the d1mens10ns of
area and is called the direct-exchange area, and for gas-surface
exchange it is denoted by gs, i.e.,
s --Qg~s
g . /E.g
gs is a function of the absorption coefficfent K of the medium, some
characteristic dimension L of the system, the shape of gas and sur-
face and their relative orientation. The mean flúx density at the
' element is then given by
surface
qg~s = Eggs(KL)/A (7-1)
from which it is clear that gs/A is like an emissivity or view factor
multiplying E g. It is desirable to relate the direct-exc_hange ar~a
gs to the standard gas emissivity (Chap. 6) cor~espondrng to a hxed
path length of gas as found in a hemisphere radiatrng to a spot on
256
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 257
the center of its base. The flux density at such a spot, from a gray-
gas hemisphere of radius L e, is given by
qg~s = (1 - e-KLe)Eg (7-2)
The equating of (7-1) and (7-2) gives
1 - e-KLe = [gs(KL)]/A (7-3)
Thus for any specified shape, (7-3) gives, as an implicit function of
KL, the radius of a hemisphere Le which produces the sarne flux
density at the center of its base as the average flux density over
the area A. Le is called the mean beam length for the shape. If
the variable Le in Eq. (7-3) is replaced by a constant Lm (called
the average mean beam length), then 1 - e-KLm must be multiplied
by a shape correction factor <P which can have a value of 1 at only
one finite value of KL (and at KL = w). Fortunately, by a judicious
choice of Lm/L, the value of <P is found to stay acceptably close to
1 over a wide range of variation in KL; i.e., a single average mean
beam length Lm sujjices. As an illustration, consider the flux to
a spot on the surface of a sphere of
diameter D (Fig. 7-1). To a good
approxim.ation the flux density from
the hemisphere of radius 0.63D is
the sarne; and 0.63D may be thought
of a:s a weighted mean of the lengths
of all beams arriving at the surface -
beams varying in length from zero
at glancing incidence to D at normal
incidence. Details of the derivation
Fig. 7-1. Meanbeam length for of this result and that for other
a sphere. shapes are given in Sec. 7.4.
Similar arguments can be applied to surface-surface exchange
and to gas-gas exchange, of interest in non-isothermal media. The
mean beam length for surface-surface and gas-gas exchange has a
slightly different meaning than that for gas-surface exchange; it
represents a mean path length for transmission through the gas
rather than for emission by it.
Direct-exchange areas are presented in Secs. 7.2, 7.3 (gray
gas) and 7.5 (real gas); mean beam lengths in 7.4 (gray gas) and
7.5 (real gas).
7.2 Direct-Exchange Areas
The formulation of the flux between two different elements -
surface-surface, surface-gas, or gas-gas - is presented first.
258 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 259

a. Surface-surface ex-
change: The flux from a black
surface element dAi which is
directly intercepted by an ele-
ment dAi (see Fig. 7-2a) in-
cludes, in addition to the geo-
metrical factor derived in Chap.
2, a term to allow for the trans-
(a) (b) (e)
mittance T of the intervening
Since a volume element dVi of any arbitrary shape can be subdivided
into a number of parallelepipeds Eq. (7 -6) is general.
The direct-exchange area concept developed in Chap. 2 for
surface-surface (ss) exchange is readily extended to volume-surface
(gs) and volume-volume (gg) exchange. These exchange areas are
obtained by integration of Eqs. (7-4) to (7-6) over the appropriate
surfaces or volumes

Fig. 7-2. Exchange between differ-

medium for the radiation tra-
versing it. When the distance si si
Qi""'i
Ei - Ei
J J
A
i
A
i
dAi cos eidAi cos
7Tr 2
ei T(r) (7-7)
ential surface elements (a), between through the medium is r and
differential volume and surface ele-

l
K varies along the path, T is KidVi dAi cos 8 j T(r)
ments (b), and between two differ- Qi""'i (7-8)
ential volume elements (e). given by g isi 7Tr2
Ei - Ei Jvi J

Qi""'i Ki dVi Ki dVi T (r)

gigj - (7-9)
Ei - Ei Jvi Jv J 7Tr2
For a gray gas the flux then equals
Provided the medium is gray, the exchange areas obey the laws
E dAi cosei T (r) (7-4) ofreciprocity: S·Si· =Si·S·,·g.s.
1 1 1 J, =s.g.
J 1
andg.g.
. 1 J =g.g.
J 1 • Acorol-
-1T dA1 cos B·1
~ '--y--'
lary of the above definitions is that the total of all the areas repre-
~ senting flux from any one zone to each of the others in the enclosure,
emission in di- solid angle fraction
rection e i, per subtended by including itself, must equal the energy originating Jrom that zone,
tr ansmi tted per unit emissive power, or
unit solid angle dAi at dAi

b. Volume-surface exchange: Similarly the one-way flux (7-10)

from a differential volume dV to a surface element dA (Fig. 7-2b)
is given by
and
dA cose T (r) (7-5)
4 KdV E
47Tr 2
~ ~
'--y--' (7-11)
emission by fraction fraction
dV in 4rr directed tr ansmi tted
steradians towards dA Gas-surface and gas-gas exchange areas
can be obtained in a manner analogous to the
'··1~2
c
Volume-volume exchange: Consider the flux from a dif- buildup in Chap. 2 of new factors from old. 3- i1 - - - -4- -
ferenti~l volume dVi . Let dVi be a rectangular parallel~piped (Fig. The Yamauti principle (Sec. 2.9) can be ex- 1

7-2c) so oriented that four of its edges of lengt~ dr, and its face of tended to problems in this are a. Consider, 5: 6
area dA are respectively parallel and perpendicular to r. Of the for example, the assembly of volumes and 1

radiatio~ 4K-dV E- emitted by dVi, a fraction (dAi/47Tr 2)T(r) surfaces shown in Fig. 7-3, which can rep-
crosses dAi \nt~ dVi, and the fraction Kidri of this is absorbed. resent a cross section either through a rec- axis
Replacement of dAi dri by dVi gives tangular parallelepiped or through a figure of
Fig. 7-3. Illustra,tion of
revolution of the given figure about an axis Yamautiprinciple. Sec-
parallel to one of its edges. Let 1 and 2 rep- tion through cylindri.cal
. _ KidVi KidVi T(r) E. (7-6)
QdVi _, dVj - 7Tr 2 1 resent the are as of the top surfaces, and 3, annulus formed by fig-
4, 5, 6 the four volumes. Yamauti 's principle ure of revolution about
permits such conclusions as that axis.
260 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 261

interpretation is an aid to the sepa-

ration of the parts of the integral
A few of the manifold applications of the above factors will concerned with the emission charac-
serve to indicate the configurations for which the integrals (7-7) teristics of the gas from those which
to (7-9) are of interest. One important class of problems involves deal with the geometry. The coor-
the radiant energy exchange between an isothermal emitting medium dinate system used and the order of
and the surrounding walls, with interest focussed sometimes on the integration may be affected. The
flux to a spot on the surface, e.g., to a hemispherical radiometer flux to a differential spot on a sur- (a) (b)
at the surface; sometimes on the flux to one wall of the enclosure, face can be considered to come either
e.g., to a portion of a furnace envelope which is covered with tubes; from conical elements converging Fig. 7-4. Two methods of formu-
sometimes on the flu.x to the entire enclosure surface, e.g., to fur- on the spot (Fig. 7-4a) or from a lating gas-surface exchange.
nace walls completely lined with tubes. The relevant interchange number of differential hemispherical shells of radius r and thickness
factor is gs, evaluated by integration of Eq. (7-8) over the entire dr only a fractio.n o~ which lie within the shape of interest (Fig.
volume and over the area of interest. To calculate the exchange 7-4b). The contnbuhon to the emissivity that the shells of radius
between areas of the wall which are at different temperatures the r and thickness dr would make if they were full hemispheres is
surface-surface exchange area ss also is needed. (dEg /dr) dr "' dEg, or Ke-Kr dr for a gray gas. To correct for de-
parture from a.hemisphere dEg ís to be multiplied by a factor equal
ln many problems significant temperature gradients exist in to the are~ proJected onto the base of the hemisphere by the section
the enclosed volume, which consequently may no longer be treated of t~e hem1sphere within the shape of interest, divided by the pro-
as isothermal. It is then expedient to subdivide the volume into a Jecbon of the entire hemísphere. This geometrical factor which
number of zones, each treated as isothermal. The radiation from will be called g(r), is I cos e drl/ 1T, previously encountered in the
each zone to parts of the surface can be calculated by insertion of determination of view factors to a differential element (see Sec. 2.2);
the proper limits of integration into Eq. (7-8). ln addition, gg fac- note that g(r) dr also equals dV cos 8 /1Tr 2. The flux d gs to the dif-
tors are required to calculate the radiative exchange between dif- ferential spot dA is then given by
ferent volume zones. It is clear that allowance for temperature
gradients in the volume enormously increases the number of ex-
change areas to be evaluated. (7-12)
Other exchange factors of interest include the absorption, by
a volume, of radiation from a small intense source within or with- For a gray gas this becomes
out the volume. Factors of this class, primarily of importance in
dealing with radioactive sources [ 12], will not be considered here; élgs lrmax
- = g(r) Ke-Kr dr (7-13)
they are obtained by integration of (7-9) over only one of the V's. élA 0

Because mean beam lengths are easy to use and visualize, the It ís clear that élgs/a A is equivalent to the view factor F from dA
reader interested primarily in applications may wish to turn di- ~o the gas vol1:me. The advantage of a formulation such as (7 -13)
rectly to Sec. 7.4, and refer to Sec. 7 .3 only when the numerical is that the ted10us and usually graphical allowance for shape is made
values of exchange areas are needed. once and for all in the evaluation of g(r), and need not be repeated
as K or the absolute system size changes. The direct-exchange
area can then be obtained from élgs/a A by an integration over the
7.3 Evaluation and Compilation of Direct-Exchange Areas surface of interest.
This section deals mainly with the analytic and numerical
values of gs, gg, and ss obtained from Eqs. (7-7) to (7-9). The val- _ J (élgs)
gs élA dA
=
J Jrmax g(r) Ke-Kr dr dA
= · (7-14)
ues may be used to generate mean beam lengths (Sec. 7.4). A A O

Although evaluation of direct-exchange areas can be considered A few. spots dA on t?e s1:rface will generally suffice for an adequate
merely as a mathematical exercise in multiple integration, a physical graph1cal or numencal mtegration.
 GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIA TIVE INTER CHANG E 263
262 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

The alternative calculation of gs is by summation of the coni-

cal beams in Fig. 7-4a. The flux at dA per unit E of the gas dueto
emission within the shaded area in the figure, is dA cos 8 Eg (rb) dD/7T.
0.4 z
Integration over 27T steradians gives
ot 1-y
J
~if-'
,..l

-ags = -1
P<
Eg(rB) cose dD (7-15)
aA 1T 2rr ~
"'--
0.3 X

/\,.y
""
\U
"d
X

Equations (7-12) and (7-15) could of course have been derived N

;>, 1/4
from Eq. (7-8) by integrating first over the solid angle then over r <1 0.2
to obtain the former, and by reversing the order of integration to ><
<1
1/8
~
obtain the latter.
lffn 1112
0.1
Exchange areas derived for some selected shapes follow.
o.0282
a. Optically thin media. This section treats the limiting case
of KL sufficiently small to make the gas substantially non-self- o 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 4 6 8 10
absorbing. For the special case of a gas radiating to the whole of 0.08
X/Z
its confining surface the gas-surface flux is equal to the primary
gas emission, or 4KV per unit black emissive power [see Eq. (1-25)]. Fig. 7-5. Exchange area between a rectangular parallelepiped and a differ-
Therefore (gs)KL_, 0 ____, 4KV. If interest is in the flux to only part of ential surface at the corner of one of its faces, pL ~ O. For a gray gas,
the bounding surface the exchange areas can be obtained by integra- (d<'g/dL)pL~o = K.
tion of Eq. (7-8), (7-14) or (7-15). Since (dEg/dr)KL-.o is a constant,
equal to K for a gray gas, the integration is independent of the ra- The exchange area to a whole face of a rectangular parallel-
diative properties of the medium, and (7-14) becomes epiped can be obtained from Eq. (7-16) in two steps; evaluation of
gs/A x Ay at any point as the sum of the factors of the four rectan-
(gs)KL-.O = (~Eg) J Jrmax g(r) dr dA
A O
gles one of whose corners is the point, followed by integration over
the face. Port obtained such exchange areas by a gaussian double
r KL->O
integration. His results are shown in Fig. 7-6.
The exchange area from a rectangular parallelepiped of dimensions
X y Z to a differential surface ilx Ay located at the corner of the b. Unidimensional system. The exchange between two infinite
' '
rectangle, as evaluated by Port [ 1O] , is plane surfaces separated by L can be evaluated from Eq. (7-7). Let
dAi be a spot representative of one plate and dA 2 a circular annulus
gs - (dEg) ~{X ln (X2 + z2)112[(X2 + y2)112 + Y]} generated by rotation of Fig. 7-7(a) about the x axis. The circum-
ference of the annular ring is 27Tr sin e and its width rd e/ cos e .
ilxAy - dr KL->O 1T z X [(X 2 + Y2 + Z 2)11 2 + Y]
Then dA 2 = 27Tr2 tan 8 d8. Insertion into (7-7) of the relation for
y (Y2 + z2 )112 [(X2 + y 2) 112 +X] dA 2 and of the identity r = L/cos 8 gives
+ - ln
Z Y[ (X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2)
i12
+ X]
-ss =
Ai
J"o 12 2 Sin 8 COS 8 e-KL/cos@ d8 (7-17)
XY (7-16)
+ sin -i
(X2 + z2)112(y2 + z 2)112 Let t = sec 8. Then sin 8 cos 8 d8 = cos3 8 dt = dt/t3, and Eq.
(7-17) becomes, with Ai dropped and ss understood to refer to unit
Figure 7-5 represents the equation graphically, and may be used to are a of the infinite plane,
obtain the radiation incident on any surface of a rectangular paral-
lelepiped.
 GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 265
264 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

where &2 is the second exponential integral. A similar argument

indicates that the exchange between differential gas slabs of thick-
ness dx and dx ', separated by x - x ', is given by

ags a 2 ss
gdx gdx' -dx = dx dx'
ax ax ax'

(7-20)

where fi, 1 is the first exponential integral.

The meanings of the first three exponential integrals as they

occur in radiation problems merit recapitulation:

2fi, 3 (T)= Transmittance of hemispherical gray Lambert emis-

sion from a plane through a slab of optical thickness T.
1- 2fi, 3 (T) = Emittance (absorptance) of gray radiation from a slab
O.lL_~~~L-~_J_~L__J__J__J_J_J__J_~~~-'-~-'-~-'-~--":-~~~
of optical thickness T to (from) one of its faces.
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 4 6 8 10 fi,2 ( T) = Transmittance, through slab of optical thickness T,
Y/Z of radiation emitted toward the slab from an adjoining
infintesimal layer of the sarne material.
Fig. 7-6. Exchange area between a rectangular parallelepiped and one of The product term, (transmittance through a slab of
its XY faces, pL ~ O. thickness T) times (absorptance, per unit T, by a
1 2 3 4 SS = 1= 2e-KLt dt "' 2
1 t3
fi,
3
(KL) (7-18)
thin absorber) due to emission to one side of a thin
volume emitter.

The derivation of exchange areas for a unidimensional system

The relation defines the definite in- will be illustrated for the arrangement shown in Fig. 7-7(b). The
tegral fi, 3 (KL), known as the third flux from surface 3 which crosses plane 2 is either absorbed by the
exponential integral. (The definitions gas between 1 and 2 or reaches surface 1. The gas-surface exchange
and some of the properties of the ex- areais therefore obtained as the difference between the two surface-
(a) (b) ponential integrals are given in the surface factors
Fig. 7-7. Exchange between (a)
Appendix of Ç1hap. 10.)
the faces of a unidimensional (7-21)
slab and (b) between two unidi- The gas-surface and gas-gas
mensional parallel gas slabs.exchange areas can be obtained in a By similar arguments
manner analogous to the buildup in
Chap. 2 of new factors from old. The decrease in ss on displacing
one of the gas-bounding surfaces by dx must equal the absorption by
the volume between the positions of the surface before and after (7-22)
displacement. Therefore, the exchange are a between a volume ele-
ment of width dx and a surface, designated by appending the sub- The self-irradiation exchange-area for a gas zone is equal to its
script dx to the gas-zone symbol g, is obtained by differentiating total emission minus the energy which crosses its boundaries (both
the surface-surface factor: per unit black emission power); e .g.,

(7-19) g1g1 = 4Kx12 - gi 8 1 - gis2 = 4Kx12 - 2g1s1

266 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 267

but 0.8
i_- -
.6
.4
--!,,1.J--'

Then
.2
~

Abscissa change I/
.. v
L~2>
'-

.01
)~ Hr ~a;
I'---
1---1'-
.1
~ / ..... J.Jl.~' -
c-r--_'
.08
(7-23) //,, ~ ::--- ~" ['.._ -
.06 ~
v
~:-
>--:::- -r--_\ !\'0 1\

F# ~ ' -
.04 .-
Figures 7-8, 7-9 and 7-10 present values of ss, gs, and gg for a
~ 0 [\ 1\
~

""
\ '
slab which has been divided into a number of equal zones of width .02

~ ~J
'
~\ \
-

B (optical thickness KB). Note from Fig. 7-9 that when a gas zone <i:
lies next to a surface, their interchange increases continuously with ~ .OI % \
- .008
~
\ \
increase in KB; but when the gas and surface are separated by an /g',, .006
~
\\ \ \ \ -

intervening zone, their interchange passes through a maximum as .004

~
~~ \ \ \
\
<õ
KB increases.
.002
~ \í'
~\
\\ \ \ -

s ,\\ \ \ \

M
.001 -
11
.0008
' \ l'c

..
.0006 \' \ -

. 0004 \ \ \ 1\ -

.0002
1. \ \' \ \
1\
-

.0001
\\ \ \ '
.01 .03 .05 .07 .09 .1 .3 .5 .7 .9 1.1 1.3 .03 .05 .07 .09.1 .3 .5 .7 .9 1.1 1.3
KB KB
Fig. 7-9. Gas-surface exchange are as Fig. 7-10. Gas-gas exchange areas
for zoned unidimensional system. for zoned unidimensional system.

e. Spheres (Fig. 7-11). Substitution of dV =

27Tr sin e (r d8) dr into (7-8) and integration over
r from O to D cos 8 and over 8 from O to 7T/2 yields 1

(7-24)
i,t
This factor [9] is given in Fig. 7-8.
Fig. 7-11. Gas-
surface exchange
d. Cylinders. The factor gs/A to the wall of in a sphere.
an infinite cylinder has been evaluated numerically
[ 4, 8, 9] and is shown in Fig. 7-8. For finite cylinders the factor
plainly varies with position on the surface. The radiation to spot
dA on the center of one end of a cylinder of radius R and length L
.02L____j_----:-L__L_--=-L__L_-,-'-::--_L_-c-'-::---'----:::-':c;---'---;;-'":'--'---;;-' is given by [ 4]
o 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
KD or KL(=nKB)
Fig. 7-8. Gas-surface or surface-surface exchange areas for a
sphere, an infinite circular cylinder, and a unidimensional slab.
268 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 269

ln addition to the above, numerical

//~~ integration of (7-7) to (7-9) has been used
[ 3] to obtain gs, ss, and gg for a cylinder
:
: which has been subdivided into right cir-
0.1
g : g cular coaxial gas cylinders and coaxial
0.08
: cylinder wall and end rings (Fig. 7-12).
0.06
' The factors have been determined for all
-B"- '
:
possible combinations of surface-surface,
l ',

w B : w gas-surface, and gas-gas zones in a sys-

1
' tem as large as 5B (radial) x 12B (axial).
The factors are tabulated in the appendix '& o. 02-lffi1ffittffl.tft!lttfl++++l1ffi+l'li'+ i".J+-rtfi-tttl1fütti'tt8+1M+Hi

e
~'
_J
to this chapter for KB =O, 0.1, 0.25, 0.50, "li2
O. 75, 1.0 and 1.25. These factors provide 0.01
Fig.7-12. Crosssection a fairly complete coverage of a cylinder 0.008
of cylindrical enclosure filled with an absorbing medium. 0.006
showing subdivision into
zones. e. Rectangular Parallelepipeds. 0.004

The integration of Eqs. (7-7) and (7-9) does not lead to closed form
solutions except for optically thin media (see Sec. 7.3a). Numerical 0.002
values determined for some shapes include gs to the faces of rec-
tangular parallelepipeds for the nongray emission from C0 2 or
H 2 0 [ 10], and gs, ss, and gg for exchange between cubes or shapes o. 00 1-lllllilili.flllillllblfillilllLµ.tit!lllijil±IJ.J..'.llJ.llêilli.lJ.U!_ll.IJllJ.l
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
constructible from cubes and KB KB
squares or shapes constructible
from squares for gray media [7]. 1.4 Fig. 7-14. Exchange areas between Fig. 7-15. Exchange areas between
The latter factors are shown in squares in mutually perpendicular squares in parallel planes.
planes.
Figs. 7-13 to 7-17. The three 0.8
coordinates used to designate 0.7
each exchange area correspond 0.6 µJ.!l'l.lmc-+--+___:~~- Table 7-1.
to the dimensions, in units of a
zone edge B, of the smallest 0.5 Cubes and Squares
rectangular parallelepiped which
Limiting Values of Reception Factors for Large
will just contain the zone pair.
The factors between zones sep- Separating Distances
arated by distances larger than
those covered by these figures ss/B 2 (parallel) = e -Kr e ( .6.z/B )2'/7T (rc /B) 4
can be approximated closely by
assuming that the view and the
ss/B 2 (perpendicular)= e-Krc (.6.x/B)(.6.y/B)/7T(rjB) 4
path length for absorption are
the sarne for all points in either
gs/B 2 (KB) = e-Krc (Az/B)/7T (r c/B) 3
zone. Integration can be dis-
pensed with and the exchange gg/B 2 (KB) 2 = e-Krc/7T(rc/B) 2
area determined directly from
Eqs. (7-7) to (7-9) by evaluating 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
the gas transmittance for the KB rc = center-to-center separating distance of the two ele-
center- to - center distance, r e • Fig. 7-13. Exchange - area (gshbe- ments. l'!.x, l'!.y, l'!.z = x, y, z components of rc. B = side of
Table 7-1 summarizes the limit- tween a cube of edge B and all its each zone.
ing values, with .6.x, .6.y, and .6.z bounding surfaces.
 270 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 271

0.1~-----~---~-~ 2-
IJ.08 0.l,ifr+l"l'!!l1mm!i!m•
o.os
d sisi
O.OG
0.06 dAi dWi
0.04

0.02 Since Xj = D tan e ' dx j = D d e/ cos 2 e. Substitutions into the above

give
0.01
0.008
d 2S;Sj - rr/2 e-KD/cose D de
.o
~
":'.
0.006
0.004 dAidWi J -rr/2 7T(D/cos e) 2
I~ 0.002
2
1TD
J"n e -KD/cos e
O
COS2 e de =-
7TD
2 Í3 (kD)
0.001
0.0008
o. 0006 -l-----l---1"4++!>1.W
which defines f 3 , given in Fig. 7-18.
o. 000 4 +----l-----+--'11+Jm

2 3 4 5
0.2 o.4 o.6 o.s i:o i.2 1.4
KB

Fig. 7-16. Exchange areas between Fig. 7-17. Exchange are as between
cubes and squares, divided by the (gs)t cubes, dividedby (gs)b from Fig. 7-13
from Fig. 7-13. gs (1, 1, 1) = 1/6. and by KB. gg(l, 1, 1) = 4 KB 3- (gsh.

representing the x, y, and z components of the center-to-center dis-

tance, and B representing the side of each zone of the pair. These
results can be used to build up the exchange-area between a volume 2.0 0.02
and its bounding surface in any system which, in cartesian coordi-
nates, is constructible from surface elements parallel to the ref- ~
....
erence planes. o
~
1.0
Example: Calculate the exchange-area between the gas in a 1, ~
2, 6 parallelepiped and the 1, 2 base when KB for the smallest side 0.6
is 0.2. The gas and black surface temperatures are Tg and Ts;
calculate the radiative exchange between gas and base. Solution:
0.4
Divide the base into 2 squares each of side B, and the rectangle into
12 cubes; determine gs for each cube-square combinationfrom Figs.
7-13, 7-16, and Table 7-1; sum the gs's. Answer
0.2 0.002
gs/B2 = 0.373 q = (Eg - Es) 0.373 B 2 where E= aT 4

f. Two-dimensional systems. Consider two infinite parallel

strips i and j of width dW each, with surfaces normal to their sep- 0.1 0.001
arating distance D; and focus attention on spots dAi and dAi on o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
the strips. Let the angle between their connecting line r and the Optical Separation, Kx
normal to either be e, and the distance from spot dAi along its
strip to the normal D from the other be xi. From Eq. (7-7) with Fig. 7-18. Factors for evaluating tube-to-tube, strip-to-tube and strip-to-
strip exchange areas in a two-dimensional system [Eq. (7-25)].
dAi = dWi dxi,
272 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 273

If either strip is rotated on its axis through the angle l/I, the Ai Ai 2
new cosine of the angle between line r and the surface normal is sisJL - - cos cos tf.;j f 3 (KD) (7-25a)
L L rrD
cos e cos l/J. Interchange for every element pair is thus reduced by
the constant factor cos l/I. Since dWi = dAi /L for a long strip of vi Ai 2K
length L ( >> D), the above equation becomes, with allowance for the gi si/L - cos l/li f2(KD) (7-25b)
rotation of both strips, L L rrD

vi vi 2K 2
gig/L = rrD f1 (KD) (7-25c)
L L

By a similar argument using Eq. (7-8), the differential ex- When A and/ or V is too large to conform to the criterion of
change area d2gs between a long tube of volume dVi and a long par- validity of (7-25), any two-dimensional exchange area may be eval-
allel strip of area dAi is given by uated with adequate numerical accuracy by zoning A and/ or V, and
summing the weighted f 's.
d2 (~ /L) = 2K cos l/J. Jrr/2 e-KD/cos Bcos e de Integration of (7-25b) over the plane of dAi gives the exchange
d(Vi /L) d(Ai /L) rrD i o are a d(sg/L) between a tube of cross section d(V/L) and a parallel
infinite plane a distance. D from the tube, when the space between
2K them contains the sarne material as dV:
= - cos l/li f2 (kD)
rrD
d(sg/L) = 4K d(V/L) J"/2 [f 2 (~)] d l/I
where l/J. is the angle between D and the normal to the strip. 1T o cos l/I
J

Similarly, from Eq. (7-9) the diffenmtial exchange area d2gg But this sarne exchange area is given, from Sec. 7.3b, by
between two long parallel tubes of volume dVi and dVi is given by 2Kd(V/L) &2(kD). This establishes the relation between f 2 and &2 .
2 By a similar procedure left to the reader, the general relation be-
d2(g.g./L)
1
2K2 J"12
= __ e-KD/cosB de =-. 2K f1 (KD) tween the exponential integrals of Sec. 7. 3 and the f 's of this section
d(Vi /L) d(Vi /L) rrD 0 rrD may be obtained. It is

(The function f could be generalized to

-2 J"/2 fn ( -KD-) cosn-2 l/J dl/J = &n(KD)
rr/2 1T o cos l/I
= e de
Ín
J
O e-KD/cos8 cosn-1
g. Miscellaneous shapes: Exchange areas have been deter-
mined for a number of different systems, including the gas volume
with n = 1, 2, 3 for tube-to-tube, tube-to-strip, and strip-to-strip.) outside the tubes in a tube nest (results expressed as a mean beam
length in Sec. 7 .4) and the configurations shown in Table 7-2.
The factors f 1, f 2 and f 3 are given vs KD in Fig. 7-18. When
the strip and tube have finite cross sections but these are small
compared to D, and D is small compared to the tube and strip lengths, 7.4 Mean Beam Lengths
i.e., when
a. Gas-surface exchange. The mean beam length L e, the
L »D and W = A/L «D and >JV/L «D radius of the hemisphere which produces the sarne flux as the shape
in question, can be found as a function of KL from Eq. (7-3) and the
the differential formulations above yield the following finite ex- value of gs as given in Sec. 7 .3. Consider first a sphere and select
change are as per unit strip and/ or tube length the diameter D as its characteristic dimension. Figure 7-19 shows
· how Le/D decreases, with increasing KD, from 2/3 at KD =O to
zero at KD = w. Instead of allowing for the variation of Le with KD,
 274 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 275

Table 7-2 (continued)

Table 7-2.
Geometry Range of Variables Remarks Ref.
Additional Configurations for which Exchange Areas are Available
(Surface-surface through absorbing volume; O ;>_ x/z ;>_ 3; Two-dimensional. 14
volume-surface; and volume-volume) ''
1 O >Kz > 10 Factor is given for ex-
'
1
1 change between emitting
1

Geometry Range of Variables Remarks Ref. z'

wedge and surface
strip. The divergence
Az O ~ Ka > 1.3; Two-dimensional corresponds approxi-
11
mately to that of a

'
00 •
, , -90 ~ if; ~ 90 system with a line-
a ,, natural convection
volume source; F 12
t~.,/ reported.
-='
<E------- X----->
line fire.

1
10 <:_ eo ":: 85 o Flux to differential 14
T O.L:_(rTr 1 )/H<'._10; surface element at
Az O~ Ka ~ 1.7; Two-dimensional
1
1 Kr=0.01, 0.1, 1.0 center ofbase. Values
11

'/
1
00 •
,) 1
of (r 2 -ri)/H vary
a
/ -90 ~ if; ~90 system with an in- H
,,
/

finitesimal surface 1 between 0.1 and 10

t~) '
1

source paralled to
1
1 depending on e0 •
:L
1
sink; F12 reported.

For all values of Fluxto differential 8a

Az O~ Ka ~ 1.0; Two-dimensional 11, 14 KR, R/S surface whose normal
fa /
,,
,,
,, o~ if; ~90 system with per-
pendicular strip
passes through center
of sphere.
r~~// source radiating
from one face;
I~/ F12 reported.
O ~ Ks ~ 50, Factor reportedfor 14
O ;>_ Y/r ~ oo fluxfrom qifferential
O~ Ka ~ 1.0; Two-dimensional volume to differential

A,[i ~ ',,
Ai'',
o~ if; ~ 90 system; F12
reported.
11
surface. s represents
distance in absorbing
medium; rest of path
+-a~+-a--->
is through a trans-
parent medium.

00 (

ta :'....tJ; / '
O~
-90
Ka
~
~
if; ~ 90
1.0; Two-dimensional
system; F12
11 ~-'-----~~
' ","
1
reported.
,,,
i i'
' ' O~ Ks
O~ Y/r ~
~ 80,
oo
s represents slant
distance through ab-
14
-a-
y sorbing medium. Fac-
tor is given for exchange
W----> between differential
41f---
o ~ w/z >
-
00 Factor reported for 14
surface elements.

•l
o > Kz ~10 flux from gas slab to
o ~x/z > lto3 surface strip. Two-
dimensional, w is
width of emitting gas.
•----X---->
- I s-------..
/ ------r-~
276 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 277

one can fix Le and find the variation in the shape correction factor and the emission from the whole volume to the walls per unit black
cp- the ratio (true flux)/(flux from a standard hemisphere). Let emissive powers is 4KV. Also, as KD approaches O, 1 - e-KLe can
the fixed value of Le be temporarily that corresponding to KD =O, be. approximated by KLe. Then, from Eq. (7-3)
and designate the resulting mean beam length by L 0 • The shape
correction factor on this basis for a sphere has been plotted versus (7-26)
KD in Fig. 7-19 (bottom curve). It is seen that, even though a con-
stant mean beam length is Values of L 0 and Lm have been determined for various shapes
used, cp never departs greatly [ 1, 8, 10] and are summarized in Table 7-3. (The values quoted for
1.10 (a) from 1. * The reason at high
KD 's is clear; the gas is so Table 7-3.
opaque that the surface can- Mean Beam Lengths for Gas-Surface Exchange
not see through to the opposite
bounding walls, and a large Characterizing
Shape Lo/D Lm/D Lm/Lo
"'º
atKD=oo
error in mean beam length Dimension D
has little effect on total ra- Sphere Diameter 0.95
6
:::El'
8 10
diation received.
o o e o o o o o o" a " " • " o ao o

Infinite cylinder ....................

Semi-infinite cylinder radiating to
o o o o e o 0 a 0

Diameter 1
2/3 0.63
0.94 0.94
The departure from 1 center of base .................... Diameter 1 0.9 0.9
of the shape correction factor Sarne, radiating to entire base ........ Diameter 0.814 0.65 0.80
back to 1.0
atKD=oo
cp can be decreased still fur- Right-circular cylinder, height =
ther [ 8 J. Since the mean diameter, radiatingto centerofbase .. Diameter 0.764 0.71 0.92
(b) Sarne, radiating to whole surface ...... Diameter 2/3 0.60 0.9
beam length is too large at
Right circular cylinder, height =
10
all values of KD except O it 0.5 diameter, radiating to end ...... Diameter 0.475 0.43 0.90
KD:kpD should be reduced by some Sarne, radiating to side .•............ Diameter 0.525 0.46 0.88
factor. Let this factor equal Sarne, radiating to total surface .. , ... Diameter 0.500 0.45 0.89
Fig. 7-19. (a) Mean beam length Le the minimum cp obtained using Right-circular cylinder, height = 2.0
for sphere containing a gray medium. L 0 , or approxirnately 0.95 for diarrieters, radiating to ends ...... , . Diameter 0.730 0.60 0.82
(b) Shape correction factor efJ for spher- Sarne, radiating to side .............. Diameter 0.817 0.76 0.93
ical volume, for three average mean a sphere. The average mean
beam length, denoted by Lm, Sarne, radiating to total surface ...... Diameter o.soo 0.73 0.91
beamlengths (2/3D, 0.63D, and 0.60D). Infinite cylinder, half-circular cross
is then 0.95 L 0 or 0.63 D. section. Radiating to spot on middle
Based on a fixed mean beam of this value, the shape correction fac- of flat side ................ , ...... Radius 1.26
tor has been plotted as the middle curve of Fig. 7-19. · The maxi- Rectangular parallelepipeds:
mum deviation of cp from 1 has not changed (it is still 5 percent), 1:1:1 (cube) ............... , ... , ... Edge 2/3 0.60 0.92
but it has been shifted to the relatively unimportant region about 1 :1 :4, radiating to 1 x 4 face ........ 0.90 0.82 0.91
KD =O. ln the range of greater interest, KD > 0.3, cp is always radiating to 1 x 1 face ........ Shortest 0.86 0.71 0.83
radiating to all faces ......... Edge 0.89 0.81 0.91
within 3. 7 percent of 1. The above procedure for determining Lm
is recommended when an average is required over the entire KD
1:2:6, radiating to 2 x 6 face ........
radiating to 1 x 6 face ........ 1.18}
1.24 See
range. Other values of Lm will give smaller departures from 1 radiating to 1 x 2 face ........ 1.18 Table 7-5
over a limited KD range; for example, in the case of a sphere a radiating to all faces ......... 1.20
value of 0.60 D is to be preferred to 0.63 D for KD's > 2 (see Fig. 1: =: = (infinite par allel planes) ...... Distance be-
7-19). tween planes 2 1.76 0.88
Space outside infinite bank of tubes,
centers on equilateral triangles;
When the flux from a gas volume to its entire bounding sur- tube diameter = clearance .......... Clearance 3.4 2.8 0.83
face is of interest, L 0 may be readily evaluated. As KD approaches Sarne as preceding, except tube
zero the absorption by the gas of its emitted radiation is negligible, diameter = 1/2 clearance .......... Clearance 4.45 3.8 0.86
Sarne, except tube centers on
*The dip in efJ of 5 p~rcent is smaller than that for some shapes; it has been squares, diameter = clearance ...... Clearance 4.1 3.5 0.85
found to vary between 5 and 20 percent [ 6] , [ 8] .
 GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 279
278 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

Lm, however, have not all been determined by the method described (1) The gas in an enclosure is the energy source, one surface
in this section.) The table is readily extended by application of Eq. is a sink, and a second surface is in radiative equilibrium. The
(7-3) to all shapes which can be built up from exchange areas sum- main flux is gas to sink, and <Pgs is near 1; since the contribution
marized in Sec. 7.3. of the secondary surface to the flux through the gas to the sink is
negligible, a large error in <Pss is unimportant.
Table 7-3 brings out a point of considerable practical impor-
tance. The ratio of Lm to L 0 is seen to vary between 0.8 and 0.95. (2) One surface is the energy source, another the sink and
A value of 0.88 appears then to lie in the middle range for different the gas (stirred and therefore isothermal) is in radiative equilib-
shapes and different aspect ratios of a given shape, and should con- rium. The chief mechanisms of transfer are Ai to gas and gas to
stitute a fair estimate for shapes not studied quantitatively. Conse- A 2 , for both of which <Pgs is near 1. <Pss again is unimportant.
quently, when interest is in the flux to the entire bounding area of a
gas mass of whatever shape, Lo is four times the volume over the (3) Surface Ai is a source and the gas and surface A 2 are
sueface area, and L m approximately 3. 5 V/A. sinks - the gas perhaps by flow through the system. If the gas is
cold and interest is chiefly in radiation received at A 2 , the average
mean beam length concept is not useful. Flux at A 2 comes primarily
b. Surface-surface exchange. The exchange area si si be- from Ai and <Pss is too sensitive a function of KL to permit use of
tween two surfaces i and j can be thought of as the triple product, an Lm which is in fixed ratio to L. Case 3 is relatively rare, and
A.1 P..
1 J
T..
1J • The length at which the transmissivity should be eval- the average-mean-beam-length concept is usually of great value in
uated to give the correct exchange between surfaces is the mean engineering calculations.
beam length L e, a function of KL 1.5----------~
since the view factor Fii and the c. Other shapes: Mean beam lengths have been determined
transmissivity are not strictly sep- for emission and transmission in a number of surface-surface and
arable except in the limitas the sep- gas-surface systems. A transmissivity is sometimes artificially
arating distance of the zones become introduced in calculating gas-surface interchange by postulating
large. For a gray medi um that the exchange area can be formulated as the product, (factor
giving flux, per unit emissive power of source, in the absence of
e -KL e= -
S· S·;
1 J A- Y J·
1 1
cp 1.2 any absorption in the intervening gas) x (transmittance), as in the
first two examples of Table 7-4. At other times an emissivity is
(7-27) artificially introduced by equating the exchange are a to the product,
(direct-exchange area to the surface envelope of the volume) X
Although the above relation may be 1.0 (emissivity) - for example the last two cases in Table 7-4. The
used to find the correction <P ss as- discussion of the last paragraph indicates that for the first two
sociated with replacing the variable 0.9 '----'----'---~-~-- cases the use of an effective transmittance e-KLm with Lm from
Le/L by a fixed Lm/L, <Pss behaves
º 2 3 4 5 Table 7-4 is valid only for K's below about 3; that for the last two
KD
differently from <P gs - the values as- cases the use of emissivity (1 - e-KLm) is valid over the full range
Fig. 7-20. Shape correction fac- of KL. For the first two cases and high K's the rigorous ss and gs
sociate with gas- surface exchange. tor for gas-surface exchange (cp gl\
of the original reference should be used.
Figure 7 -20 presents values of <P gs dashed) and surface-surface ex-
(dotted lines) transferred from Fig. change (cf>ss• solid) in a sphere,
7-19 for Lm = 0.67D and 0.60D, and for Lm = 2/3D and 0.60D. 7 .5 Allowance for a Real Gas
compares them with <P ss (solid lines).
Because.the transmittance approaches 1 at low KD's, <Pss approaches Methods of allowing for the nongrayness of the absorbing
1 for all Lm 's. At high KD 's <Pss is far from 1, but surface-surface medium will be developed with reference to gas-surface exchange.
exchange is then negligible compared to gas-surface exchange. The The emission of radiation from an isothermal volume V of speci-
conclusion is that the mean beam length concept is useful for eval- fied shape to a specified portion A of its bounding surface is cal-
uating flux in systems of low optical density, but not in all systems culable from the relation
of high density. Consider the latter (high KL) category in more de-
tail; there are several cases: Q.
g~ s =
1= J J 4K
O A V A
E dV dA cos
A 4 7Tr 2
e e-K rctÀ (7-28)
280 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 281

with EA evaluated at the gas temperature. The reverse flux from Table 7-4 (continued)
the surface, assumed black, to the gas is also given by (7-28), with
Exchange Area Av. Mean-Beam Length
EA now evaluated at the surface temperature. Since the spectral
distribution of the energy emitted by gas and surface differs, it is Two-dimensional system
no longer possible to define an exchange-area independent of the
difference in emissive power. * A counterpart to the exchange are a Gas-to-strip o 1.32
is the one-way flux per unit black emissive power of the emitter. 0.5 0.75
iJgs
This factor has the dimensions of area but, unlike the exchange area,
it is dependent on the temperature of the emitter. It will be called
iJA =-z1 { x/z }
1 - [1+(x/z)2]1/2 (1 - e-KLm) 1.0
2.0
0.70
0.72
+- -- w - - - ) >
Table 7-4.

- - = --
aA az 2rrr 3
Mean Beam Lengths for Selected Configurations [ 14]

Strip-to-spot, through gas

a2ss zx [
Exchange Area

Y/r
1 +Y 2/r2
+ tan- 1 (Y/r)
J
Av. Mean-Beam Length
Y/r
o
1
2
Lm/s
1
1.095
1.165
Two-dimensional system
Gas-to-strip
l• dA

x/z
±E t
Lm/z
0.32
5 1.20 0.1 0.41
1.20 ags 1 { (x/z) - 1/4 } 0.5 0.34
~=2 1 - [1 + (x/z -1/4)2] l/2 (1 - e-KLm)
1.0 0.32
2 0.31
3 0.33
5 0.36
10 0.38

1
1
1
1

1
1
_ic ____ _
,...._ ____ X------->

Gas-to-spot o 1
1 1.105 *This form makes approximate allowance for the effect of w/ z over the range
iJ 3 gs _ K
(z cos a + z sin a) Y e-KLm
2 1.21 0.5 to 2.0.
iJAAxiJz - rr r 2 (Y2 + r2)1/2 5 1.29 tThis signifies an infinitesimal departure from O. There is a discontinuity.
[r2 = x2+ z2] 10 1.31
1.32 the directed-flux area, identified by two letters designating the zones
+-absorbing ,
11
clear--.
in question, and differentiated from the gray gas exchange area by
/ replacing the bar superscript by an arrow with its tail above the
,Y
/ letter of the emitter. ln this nomenclature the net exchange between
a volume and a black bounding surface is written
/P,
''
1 1"/1 /
A
'<>l gc= s = -'--E
gs g - -E
gs s
,/1~'/
, /.1 //
41,~--
z ----r ___
<l'~
~:/
The difference between gS and gs
is analogous to that between Eg
---'---'------- -=-~~/'dA and a g, s ; it must of course disappear when Tg equals T s •
,._------X--------+
Equation (7-28) can be integrated in several ways. Integration
*An exception is a hypothetical model of a real gas which assumes that the first over wave length is ele ar from the following steps:
differentmagnitudes of K,\ are randomly distributed throughout the spectrum,
282 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 283

Multiplying both sides by EA dA and integrating gives

~~}
g(r) = 1- (r/D)2; g(r) = 1 for r< L,
ffil-
\W_J _
rB =D cose; rB=L/cose;
rmax= D g(r) = (L/r) 2 for r > L; d11= 2rrsinede dil= 2rr sine de
fmax = 00

Fig. 7-21. Two ways of obtaining directed-flux areas as applied to spheres

From the above, integration of (7-28) first over wavelength gives and slabs.

Qg_,s=
- - - __..
Eg
gs -_ J Jv -dEg
A dr
dV dA cos
7Tr2
8 (7-29) both polar and azimuth angles. For other shapes g(r) is obtained by
graphical or numerical. methods. Values for rectangular parallel-
epipeds have been obtained by Port [ 10 J. Table 7-5, adapted from
which could have been obtained from (7 -12) directly. The sarne his results, indicates the effect of pD on Le /Lo (with L 0 from Table
argument, applied to absorption, gives 7-3) for C0 2 and H 20. Although there is an effect of shape as well
Qs_,g ___,._ _
--=Sg-
J1 dCl'g,s d VdA-cos
-- ---
8
(7-30)
that may be ignored for many calculations. '

Es A v dr 7Tr 2 b. Directed-flux areas for a weighted sum of gray gases.

As described in Sec. 7 .6 any emissivity - path length relation can
These expressions are in the form to permit direct graphical use be identified with an a-weighted sum of gray gases. For this model
of total emissivity charts (Chap. 6) in the rigorous formulation of Eq. (7-31) yields
g8 without any knowledge of the molecular band structure that pro-
duces the Eg -L relation. The alternati ve sequence is to integrate
(7-28) first over volume and area to obtain gs = L ag, i gs(KJ (7-32)

(7-31)
where ag,i and as,i, the weighting factors for emissivity and ab-
sorptivity, are dependent on the source-temperature of radiation,
where f(ÃT) is the fraction of blackbody radiation emitted in the and are equal to the spectral energy fraction .::lfi associated with
~velength interval O to À. Replacement of f(ÃTg) by f(ÃT s) yields each Ki. ln the calculation of the equivalent surface-surface fac-
sg. tor one must remember to include the clear-gas term [as,o (ssh=o];
it is not involved in the formulation of gs or gg but is important
The rest of this section will be concerned with the evaluation in surface-to-surface exchange.
of the directed-flux area from total-emissivity data and from var-
ious models describing emissivity, and with the subsequent evalua- e. Directed-flux areas for trian- Table 7-5.
tion of the average mean beam length for a real gas. gular band model. Some of the earliest Ratioof Mean-Beam Lengths
calculations of gas emissivities and gas Le to Lo for Parallelepipeds
a. Directed-flux area from total-emissivity data. The two geometrical factors were based on the PcD or Ratio for Ratio for
methods of integrating over the enclosure volume given by (7-12) triangular band model [ 8 J. The contri- p wD C02 H20
and (7-15) will be used here. The geometrical factors required are bution of each band to the exchange area is 0.01 0.85 0.97
given in Fig. 7-21 for the simple cases of a sphere anda slab. obtained by substituting 1 - (1 - e-l<ML)/KML 0.1 0.80 0.93
og"S/ oA = g8/A is then obtained as the are a under a plot either of for Eg in Eqs. (7-12) and (7-15), and 1.0 0.77 0.85 •
g(r) vs Eg (r) or of Eg (rB) vs sin 2 e. The former is usually to be integrating. The integrals have been D - shortest edge
preferred since, in the absence of symmetry, rB is a function of
284 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 285

determined for a number of shapes. Let gs now designate the ratio, Table 7-6. Elsasser 's lower recommended value re-
in the wavelength interval .6.À, of the actual flux density to the black- Gas-Surface Exchange for flects his interest in meteorological prob-
body flux density EA .6.À. For a sphere gs is given by an Infinite Slab lems where the path length is large.

gs __ 5 Eg cos e dn =
2 2(1-e-x)
1 -- + (7-33)
(Based on the Elsasser
Model) . The exchange area gs or sg of (7-37)
is the raw material for evaluation of
A 2rr x x2 y gs/A
directed-flux areas gs or sg, by use of
.07 .624 (7-35) or (7-36) .
where x = KMD, the product of the maximum absorption coefficient . 08 .601
and the diameter. For an infinite slab of thickness L .09 .580
. 10 .560 e. Mean beam lengths for a real gas .

-gs = J Eg cos e an = 1 - -2 [1 - e-x + /i; 3 (x) ] (7-34)

.15
.20
.479
.416
The mean beam length is the length at which
the total emissivity or absorptivity must
A ~ 3 X .25 .365 be evaluated to obtain the correct gas-to-
.30 .325 surface or surface-to-gas flux. ln terms
where x = KML. Factors were obtained by graphical integration for .35 .290 of directed-flux areas
other shapes including an infinite cylinder, the gas space in a bank
of tubes with centers on the corners of an equilateral triangle, and (7-38)
a 1, 2, 6 rectangular parallelepiped [ 8] .
Le ªfain varie~ with optical depth, as illustrated for example by
The directed-flux area is the sum of the individual band con- 0
Port s calculat10ns on CO 2 at 1600 F. His results for radiation to
tributions, each weighted by the fraction Mi of the blackbody emis- the xy face of a rectangular parallelepiped of dimensions x y z
sive power within the band limits are shown in Fig. 7-22. ' '

(7-35) It is ag~in convenient to select an average mean beam length

Lm and to defme a shape correction factor as the ratio (true flux)/
(flux calculated using average mean beam length). Fo; gas-to-su _
and face flux r

(7-36) (7-39)

d. Directed-flux areas for the Elsasser model. Elsasser [ 2] or, for surface-to-gas flux,
used his model of evenly distributed equal-intensity lines (see Sec.
6.4b) to calculate the flux between gas and surface in an infinite
slab. For the range in which Eq. (6-24) is valid he showed that (7-40)

gs
-
A
=
(1 - -4y 2) erf (;JY) + -4y2 - -2e-Y
3 3 3
VK - (2y - 1)
11
(7-37) The correction factor <P gs should vary
much less from 1 for real than for
gray gases, because of the averaging o.6 '---"---'--__1__ _ _ __J
where y = (1/2){3 2x; {3 and x are defined after Eq. (6-23). Table effect of bands of different absorption X/Z= 1,< 1/z 2
7-6 gives values of the above function taken from the more exten- strength. This effect has been studied Y/Z=\4 V2 2
sive table given by Elsasser. The range covered is approximately on infinite slabs and finite right-cir-
that within which Eq. (6-24) is valid. Elsasser also obtained a Fig. 7-22. Ratio of mean beam
cular cylinders. Consider the former length L e to mean beam length
solution for the lower values of x. He concluded that the results and let the value of Lm recommended Lo as PL _, O, for C0 2 at 1600°F
over the entire range of x could be adequately described by an for gray slabs be used - 0.88 Lo or radiating to the square face of
average mean beam length of 1.66 times the distance of separation. 1. 76 times the clearance. Carbon di- a parallelepiped of sides X Y
This may be compared to the factor 1.76 for agraygasinTable7-3. oxide at 1000 ºF exhibits the variation Z, with X= Y. ' '
286 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 287

of cp with Pco 2 L shown in the right half of Fig. 7-23.
pariJ~n the larger variation of cpgs for a gray gas is shown. Similar
studies have been made on water vapor [ 10]; and both sets of re-
sults support the recommendation that, for infinite slabs with
Lm = 0.88 Lo, c/Jgs is near enough 1 to be ignored.
Right circular cylinders with length twice the diameter have
been studied [ 6] to find how cp s varies for real gases, when radi-
ation is to one end of the cylin~er. gs was first obtained vs kpD
( =KD) from the results of Table 7-7. The emissivity of a C02-H20
mixture was approximated by the three-term relation
Eg = L ag, i (1 - e -kipL)
i
with ag = 0.485, 0.105, 0.029; k = 0.206, 3.80, and 47.4 (ft)- 1 (atm)- 1 •
The gray-gas value of Lm from Table 7-3 (0.6D) was used in the
expression
c/J gs
'\'a g,1. (1 - e-kipLm)
~ band model.
For com- f. Selection of emissivity model. Among the many models
described in Chap. 6, that one selected must describe the data for
all the beam lengths in a system of practical interest; O to 1 diam-
eter in a sphere; the slab thickness to infinity in a unidimensional
slab; and zero to infinity in an infinite cylinder. Models such as
that prescribing the proportionality of emissivity to the square root
of path length, which are valid only over a restricted path-length
range, must be used with caution.
Since exchange areas for a gray absorbing gas have been cal-
culated for many shapes, the description of emissivity by a sum of
gray gases is the simplest model to use in that stage of a calcula-
tion which involves commitment as to system shape and size. As
many gray components should be used as will adequately describe
the data over the range of beam lengths in the system. Generally
the number of gray gas components needed will be less than the
number of bands contributing to the emission. Since Le or gs may
readily be calculated for any band model from the Le -KD or gs-KD
relation for a gray gas [by use of Eq. (7-31), first form, with EA
a constant], there appears to be little point in carrying out further
calculations of Le or gs for new shapes for any but gray gases.
The results should suffice to establish the rule for determining the
average mean beam length Lm substantially independently of the

to yield the cp -pD relation shown in the left half of Fig. 7-23. 7.6 Recapitulation
Again, as a rJ~ult of compensation between the different gray gas
components, cp gs is substantially 1 over the range of probable in- The evaluation of radiative interchange between one surface
terest (pD < 8). Note the ripples in the real-gas cp-curves pro- area or gas volume and another is most conveniently expressed in
duced by the se par ate emission bands. terms of an average mean beam length which, for many practical
applications, bears a constant ratio to some characteristic dimen-
...:i sion of the system of interest. Approximately, the average mean
~ 1.121--~~ 1~----+----+------1
,..; beam l'ength for interchange between a volume and its bounding
li
a i.os1------+---'"<t~-+-----r------i
surface is 3.5 times the quotient of volume by surface. More ac-
...:i
d
curate determination of interchange necessitates evaluation of gs,
1o 104
. gg, or ss for the shape in question. Allowance for the gas being
--é- 0.96 t--_,._--t l! 1.0
real involves integration over space and over the spectrum; and
~ 0.92 t---+-->r~-r---t---+----t=--1
-s. the order of integration depends on the form in which gas emission
4!i ~ 0.961------'i''-'---~~--t---->,r-+,,__---j or absorption data are available, whether as total emissivity
..,~ O. 88 \Ó L ~O .6 D VB KDi)1"---4=.f--"'f"-t-----j 4!i
~ 0.921------+-----t------t-----J
versus path length oras adetaileddescription of spectral properties.
00 5 10 15 20 25 30
rli The latter can always be cast in the form of an e-function series,
(Pco' + Ptt ,o>D, ft. atm.; .001 0.01 0.1
or KD x 5, dimensionless Pco L,ft.atm.; or KL, dimensionless generally of a few members, which integrates to an Etatal -length
2
relationship; and the interchange area is then obtainable as a
Fig. 7 .23. Shape correction factor ef; for radiation to end of cylinder (left weighted sum of its value for the different K's used to form the
figure) and to face of slab (right figure), based on fixed beam lengths of 0.6 series.
cylinder diameter and 1.76 slab thickness. Comparison of gray gas and real
gas (C0 2-H 20 mixture at 2500ºR for cylinder, C02 at 2060ºR for slab).
288 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

CHAPTER 7. LITERATURE CITATIONS APPENDIX-CHAPTER 7

1. Eckert, E.: VDI-Forschungsh., 416, 1942.
Elsasser, W .M.: Harvard Meteorological Series, 6 (1942). Interchange Areas in a Cylindrical Enclosure
2. (Reference to Sec. 7.3d; Ref. [3])
3. Erkku, H.: Se.D. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, M.I.T .,
Cambridge, Mass., 1959.
Gershun, A.: Physik. Z. Sowjetunion, 2:149 (1922). Six types of interchange areas totally describe the interchange
4. between the zone pairs: three surface-to-surface ee ew ww· two
5. Gray, L.D., and S.S. Penner: J. Quant. Spectr. Radiative ' 'e, g,' and' w
Transfer, 3:29 (1963). gas-to-surfaée -ge, gw;
- and one gas-to-gas, gg. Here
Hottel, H.C.: J. Inst. Fuel, 34:22 (1961). denote end surface, gas, and circumferential wall zone respectively.
6.
The interchange are as, with the exception of ww, are identified by a
7. Hottel, H.C., and E.S. Cohen: A.I.Ch.E.J., 4:3 (1958).
Hottel, H.C.: Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 19:173 (1927). three-number sequence, the maximum axial distance b between
8. points in the two zones, the maximum radial distance a 1 from axis
8a. Koh, J.C.Y.: Intern. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 8:373 (1965). to a point in the inner of the two zones, and the maximum radial
9. Nusselt, W.: Z. Ver. deut. Ing., 70:763 (1926). distance a2 from axis to a point in the other zone. The wall-wall
10. Port, F.J.: Se.D. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, M.I.T .,
factor is designated by a two-number sequence, the axial distance
Cambridge, Mass., 1940.
Rhodes, M.S.: International Developments in Heat Transfer, b and one radial distance a. Illustrative examples of the numbering
11. sequence are given in Fig. 7-24. It may easily be shown from con-
v. 4, p. 838, International Heat Transfer Conference 1961,
sider~ti_ons _2,f symmetry and the Yamauti principle that a 1 and a 2
ASME, New York, 1961.
Rockwell, T .: "Reactor Shielding Design Manual," Van descnbmg ee, gg, and eg are interchangeable.
12.
Nostrand, New York, 1956.
~T~Lr-T=1 ++- -+- ~-r-rl~_j
~,-t-rrl fi4"~4-T-f'Jl ~~-~~J'I
,41f-.,.ln"f
13. Schack, A.: Zeit. fur Tech. Physik, 5:266 (1924). 1 1 1 1
-+--+--i-1-t .+++- P:--drtr r-1-+-i-t-~-1 h-+-

* _,_
--t-t-+-t-4-
~-+-1-+-1--+1 ~-t--'l~-t--t ~-r-t-t++4 ~~--4-1-+-~-~ >-<-,-~-ttj ~--t-+-"-_J
1

14. Steward, F.: Se.D. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, MJ.T ., r-r-r+t-+-1

tia-+-
Cambridge, Mass., 1962.
,+,i-pjí
_._J~ tI: -cJ rt)-1-t-i-1 ":B.-~::.I
~--w-~
.. ~-t-~-~-~-1--l
L~4---;J..l-_J
-~ y
.J_.+-H-l
;t,-,k.LJ
~
-L L_

L J
ww(b,a)= gw(4,2,3) = êW(4,2,3) = gg(4,2,3)= êê(4,2,3)= ge(4,2,3) = eg(4,3,2)
Ww(4,3) wg(4,3,2) we(4,3,2> gg(4,3,2) êê(4,3,2) = gê(4,3,2)
= eg(4,2,3)

Fig. 7-24. Illustrations of exchange-area identification system in cylindrical

coordinates.

The factors are tabulated in Table 7-7. Each line carries

reduced values of the interchange area at seven (sometimes six)
values of KB. The first four digits in each number represent a
decimal fraction. The sign and remaining digits are the power of
10 by which the fraction is to be multiplied, e.g., 5579-5 equals
0.5579 x 10- 5 • The numbers on a line are tabulated in order of
increasing values of KB: O, 0.1, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, and 1.25.
Each line is identified by two letters denoting the type of factor
and a three-number (two for ww) sequence giving the axial and
radial positions.

Approximate values of direct-exchange areas for values of b

greater than twelve may be obtained by assuming that a spot on the
system axis is representative of the zone of smaller radius and that
a spot on some cross section of the zone of larger radius is repre-
sentative of that zone. It leads, by use of Eqs. (7-4) to (7-6) to the
limiting relations
289
 GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 291
290 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

h2 Table 7-7.
ei e2
AiA2
=--- e-K~ End-to-Wall, EW = SeSw/B 2
7f (h 2 + r 2) 2
KB=OoO Ool Oo25 o.50 0.75 loOO lo25 KB=o.o 0.1 o.2s o.so 0.15 1.00 1.25

r = (a2 - 1/2)B h = bB 1942 1

7416 O
1797 l
6163 O
1608 1
4686-0
1352 1
2998-0
1153 l
1941-0
9953 O
1270-0
8695 O
8390-1
EW
EW
1 l
1
1
2
2111-1 1090-1
7420-1 3750-1
4051-2
1350-1
7816-3
2470-2
1516-3 2955-4
4548-3 8420-4
5788-5
1568-4
EW 7
EW
1
1
1
2
3449-0 2586-0 1686-0 8353-1 4192-1 2129-1 1093-1 EW 1 3 1368-0 6.;.80-1 2283-1 3837-2 6493-3 1106-3 1897-4 EW 1 3
1956-0 1324-0 7407-1 2845-1 1106-1 4367-2 1742-2 EW l 4 1894-0 8832-1 2818-1 4226-2 6387-3 9730-4 1494-4 EW 1 4
2232-0 9842-1 2889-1 3773-2 4971-3 6608-4 8862-5 EW 7 1 5
-K~
1255-0 7673-1 3687-1 1099-1 3323-2 1018-2 3155-3 EW 1 5
AiA 2 hr 4164 l 3798 l 3342 1 2761 1 2333 1 2006 1 1749 1 EW 1 2 2 1916-0 9445-1 3280-1 5673-2 9913-3 1750-3 3120-4 EW 7 2 2

eiW2 - - -7f- (h2 r 2) 2 e 1557 1 1258 1 9248 O 5695 O 3602-0 2325-0 1524-0 EW 1 2 3 3655-0 1753-0 5857-1 9550-2 1584-2 2671-3 4579-4 EW 7 2 3
7492 O 5393 O 3346-0 1565-0 7576-1 3763-1 1906-1 EW l 2 5232 O 2415-0 7631-1 1141-1 1745-2 2731-3 4362-4 EW 7 2 4
+ 4411-0 2841-0 1495-0 5337-1 1984-1 7597-2 2976-2 EW 1 2 6340 O 2786-0
4796-0 2209-0
8196-1
6970-1
1093-1
1045-1
1500-2 2113-3
1620-2 2594-3
3051-4
4282-4
EW 7
EW 7
2
3
5
3
6082 1 5544 1 4890 1 4066 1 3456 l 2985 1 2611 1 EW l 3 3
.2197 1 1761 1 1289 1 7958 O 5061 O 3282-0 2159-0 EW l 3 4 7320 O 3297-0 1013-0 1477-1 2263-2 3623-3 6022-4 EW 7 3 4
1046 7420 O 4548-0 2121-0 1031-0 5151-1 2620-1 EW 1 3 5 9383 O 4082-0 1197-0 1635-1 2369-2 3602-3 5689-4 EW 7 3 5
h (b - l/2)B 7952 7261~1 6426 1 5372 1 4582 1 3966 1 3474 1 EW 1 4 4 7718 O 3300-0
1075 1 4552-0
9457-1
1303-0
1260-1
1774-1
1818-2 2812-3
2652-2 4246-3
4601-4
7131-4
EW 7
EW 7
4
4
4
5
2794 1 2235 1 1640 1 1018 1 6504 O 4228-0 2784-0 EW 1 4 5
9807 1 8J73 1 7964 1 6680 1 5709 1 4947 1 4338 1 EW 1 5 5 1016 1 4048-0 1072-0 1336-1 1902-2 2979-3 4970-4 EW 7 5 5
6610 O 5501 O 4187-0 2673-0 1721-0 1117-0 7301-1 EW 2 1 1 1401-1 6557-2 2102-2 3170-3 4805-4 7321-5 1121-5 EW 8 1 1
r2 5076-1 2330-1 "1263-2 1045-2 1513-3 2203-4 3224-5 EW 8 2

W1W2
A2A2 e-K ;;i:? 9270 O
6748 O
4586-0
7291 O
4880-0
3023-0
5105 O
3013-0
1625-0
2845-o
1363-0
5836-1
1603-0
6240-1
2124-1
9136-1
2891-1
7823-2
5261-1
1355-1
2915-2
EW
EW
EW
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
3
4
9776-1 4353-1
1423-0 6081-1
1296-1
1702-1
1729-2
2051-2
2322-3 3138-4
2489-3 3043-4
4269-5
3747-5
EW 8
EW 8
7f (h2 + r 2) 2 3211-0
1934 1
1923-0
1529 1
8953-1
1088 1
2531-1
6356 O
7256-2
3833-0
2106-2
2374-0
6187-3
1503-0
EW
EW
2 1
2 2
5
2
1765-0 7168-1
1352-0 6069-1
1861-1
1830-1
1978-2
2500-2
2120-3 2291-4
3445-3 4789-4
2497-5
6718-5
EW 8
EW 8 2 2
2201 1 1660 1 1102 1 5757 O 3108-0 1723-0 9747-1 EW 2 2 3 2660-0 1164-0 3384-1 4370-2 5724-3 7607-4 1025-4 EW 8 2 3
1563 1 1079 1 6282 O 2646-0 1157-0 5202-1 2392-1 EW 2 2 4 3962-0 1673-0 4621-1 5504-2 6689-3 8290-4 1047-4 EW 8 2 4
5016 O 2025-0 5238-1 5618-2 6182-3 6968-4 8029-5 EW 8 2 5
r = aB h = (b - l)B 1074 1
2727 1
6716
2107
3379-0
1470 1
1120-0
8532 O
3865-1
5195 O
1377-1
3265-0
5022-2
2099-0
EW
EW
2 2
2 3
5
3 3638-0 1532-0
5657 O 23·27-0
4215-1
6217-1
5012-2
7140-2
6119-3 7676-4
8558-3 1067-3
9888-5
1378-4
EW 8
EW 8
3
3
3
4
3129 1 2319 1519 1 7907 O 4295-0 2399-0 1367-0 EW 2 3 4
2212 1 1492 8531 O 3565-0 1564-0 7080-1 3274-1 EW 2 3 5 7'460 O 2966-0 7579-1 8175-2 9303-3 1108-3 1371-4 EW 8 3 5
3379 1 2591 1810 1 1065 1 6584 O 4186-0 2713-0 EW 2 4 4 6215 O 2430-0 6062-1 6334-2 7086-3 8439-4 1061-4 EW 8 4 4
h e-K ~
8691 O 3350-0 8280-1 8737-2 1006-2 1241-3 1610-4 EW 8 4 5
KAi V2 3948 1 2908 1 1906 1 1000 1 5477 O 3076-0 1758-0 EW 2 4 5
8549 O 3104-0 7092-1 6790"'-2 7366-3 8789-4 1122-4 EW 8 5 5
eig2 = 7f (h2 + r2 )3/2
39fl5 1
2510-0
3052 1
1906-0
2147 1
1263-0
1281 1
6397-1
7993 O
3259-1
5113 O
1671-1
3326-0
8615-2
EW
EW
2 5
3 1
5
1 9754-2
3607-1
1143-2
4052-2
1346-3
4577-3
1593-4 1896-5
5199-4 5939-5
2266-6
6819-6
EW 9
EW 9
l
l
1
2
5563 O 4046-0 2517-0 1149-0 5298-1 2464-1 1156-1 EW 3 1 2
5948 O 4048-0 2281-0 8847-1 3469-1 1375-1 5508-2 EW 3 7167-1 7516-2 7932-3 8422-4 8999-5 9674-6 EW 9 1 3
5060 O 3180-0 1590-0 5058-1 1629-1 5305-2 1747-2 EW 3 1083-0 1035-1 9959-3 9649-4 9415-5 9251-6 EW 9 1 4
4033-0 2323-0 1019-0 2611-1 6772-2 1 778-2 4722-3 EW 3 1397-0 1190-1 1022-2 8843-4 7710-5 6777-6 EW 9 1 5
r = (a2 1/2)B h = (b - 1/2)B ll02 l 7840 O 4744-0 2101-0 9561-1 4463-1 2131-1 EW 3 2 9t:l30-l
1980-0
1049-1
1996-1
1129-2
2036-2
1225-3 1340-4
2104-3 2202-4
1478-5
2334-5
EW 9
EW 9
2
2
2
3
1600 l 1102 1 6377 O 2642-0 1133-0 4999-1 2259-1 EW 3 2
1533 l 9885 O !;>194 O 1841-0 6774-1 2571-1 9995-2 EW 3 2 3040-0 2826-1 2675-2 2577-3 2526-4 2518-5 EW 9 2 4
1265 l 7511 O 3492-0 1013-0 3062-1 9561-2 3062-2 EW 3 2 3963-0 3343-1 2872-2 2524-3 2267-4 2077-5 EW 9 2 5
r e-K j;i:;.
2799-0 2581-1 2432-2 2343-3 2310-4 2329-5 EW 9 3 3
KV1 A2 1693 l
2366 1
1143 l
1574 1
6516 o
8808 O
2719-0
3563-0
1209-0
1525-0
5637-1
6176-l
2721-1
3092-1
EW
EW
3 3
3 3 4426-0 3866-1 3504-2 3296-3 3210-4 3229-5 EW 9 3 4
5973 O 4835-1 4122-2 3687-3 3442-4 3332-5 EW 9 3 5
7f (h2 + r2) 3/2 2230
2097
1392 1
1371 l
7092
7633
2463-0
3182-0
9060-1
1440-0
3459-1
6845-1
1355-1
3358-1
EW
EW
3 3
3 4
5
4 5033 o
7084 O
3916-l
5337-1
3226-2
4393-2
2818-3 2601-4
3917-3 3731-4
2524-5
3740-5
EW 9
EW 9
4
4
4
5
2988 1953 1 1083 4407-0 1908-0 8563-1 3935-1 EW 3 4 5
2420 l 1555 .1 8627 O 3659-0 1686-0 8124-1 4023-1 EW 3 5 5 7207 O 4740-1 3525-2 2936-3 2682-4 2627-5 EW 9 5 5
1129-0 7804-1 4492-1 1797-1 7226-2 2922-2 1188-2 EW 4 1 1 7054-2 6450-3 5930-4 5479-5 5088-6 4748-7 EWlO 1 1

r = a 2B h = (b - l)B 3128-0
4248-0
2087-0
2685-0
1141-0
1353-0
4193-1
4351-1
1553-1
1413-1
5796-2
4630-2
2179-2
1531-2
EW
EW
4 1
4 1
2 2648-1
5381-1
2331-2
4452-2
2064-3
3705-3
1837-4 1644-5
3103-4 2613-5
1479-6
2215-6
EWlO
EWlO
l
1
2
3
4351-0 2568-0 1168-0 3170-1 8700-2 2413-2 6759-3 EW 4 1 8365-1 6358-2 4865-3 3747-4 2906-5 2269-6 EWlO 1 4
1113-0 7615-2 5248-3 3644-4 2549-5 1797-6 EWlO 1 5

K2V1 V2 e -K ~
3945-0 2154-0 8720-1 1951-1 4416-2 1011-2 2340-3 EW 4 l
6728. 4363-0 2292-0 7965-1 2824-1 1021-1 3762-2 EW 4 2 7339-1 6166-2 5220-3 4452-4 3825-5 3311-6 EWlO 2 2
1086 6827 O 3438-0 1124-0 3790-1 1313-1 4657-2 EW 4 2 1506-0 1199-1 9652-3 7858-4 6471-5 5388-6 EWlO 2 3
1233 7352 O 3426-0 9909-1 2969-l 9171-2 2906-2 EW 4 2 2367-0 1748-1 1312-2 9999-4 7740-5 6083-6 EWlO 2 4
3185-0 2140-1 1467-2 1027-3 7326-5 5325-6 EWlO 2 5
7f (h 2 + r 2) 1177
1191
6)41 O
7219 O
2751-0
3479-0
6734-l
1088-0
1714-1
3611-1
4507-2
1261-1
1217-2
4589-2
EW
EW
4 2
4 3 3 2184-0 1599-1 1193-2 9073-4 7034-5 5562-6 EWlO 3 3
1722 1031 1 4912-0 1522-0 5026-1 1737-1 6201-2 EW 4 3 4 3505-0 ~431-1 1741-2 1287-3 9812-5 7702-6 EWlO 3 4
1875 1071 1 4768-0 1327-0 3934-1 1218-1 3889-2 EW 4 3 5 4822-0 3108-1 2095-2 1474-3 1079-4 8171-6 EWlO 3 5
1550 8909 O 4071-0 1228-0 4087-1 1453-1 5392-2 EW 4 4 4 4100-0 2546-1 1659-2 1136-3 8164-5 6142-6 EWlO 4 4
r = (a 2 - 1/2)B h = (b - l)B 2221 1286 1 5974 O 1841-0 6145-1 2151-1 7762-2 EW 4 4 5 5818 O
6090 O
3476-1
3189-1
2242-2
1855-2
1554-3 1146-4
1195-3 8395-5
8896-6
6320-6
EWlO
EWlO
4
5
5
5
1810 1 1002 1 4471-0 1360-0 4611-1 1670-1 6288-2 EW 4 5 5
5856-1 3676-1 1832-l 5761-2 1821-2 5789-3 1849-3 EW 5 1 1 5260-2 3753-3 2692-4 1941-5 1406-6 1024-7 EWll l 1
1832-C 1117-0 5330-1 1561-1 4605-2 1367-2 4086-3 EW 5 l 2 1997-1 1376-2 9536-4 6645-5 4654-6 3277-7 EWll 1 2
ln all the above relations a 2 refers to the larger of the parameters 2885-0
3384-0
1680-0
1857-0
7487-1
7574-1
1959-1
1712-1
5171-2
3906-2
1376-2
8999-3
3690-3
2093-3
EW
EW
5 1
5 1
3
4
4128-1
6557-1
2688-2
3951-2
1761-3
2396-3
1160-4 7688-6
1462-4 8981-6
5124-7
5552-7
EWll
EWll
1
1
3
4
8941-1 4889-2 2692-3 1493-4 8336-6 4668-7 EWll 1 5
defining the radial positions of the zones. 3422-0
4266-0
1752-0
2528-0
6441-1
1158-0
1226-1
3190-1
2357-2
8921-2
4581-3
2533-2
8995-4
7298-3
EW
EW
5 1
5 2
5
2 5607-1
1167-0
3701-2
7326-2
2461-3
4646-3
1648-4 1111-5
2977-4 1927-5
7541-7
1260-6
EWll
EWll
2
2
2
3
7400 O 4254-0 1869-0 4842-1 1286-1 3498-2 9722-3 EW 5 2 3
9346 O 5128 O .::106-0 4911-1 1182-1 2926-2 7425-3 EW 5 2 4 1869-0 1094-1 6494-3 3910-4 2387-5 1477-6 EWll 2 4
9906 O 5114 O 1922-0 3884-1 8139-2 1760-2 3906-3 EW 5 2 5 2570-0 1377-1 7514-3 4176-4 2362-5 1359-6 EWll 2 5
8672 O 4781-0 1968-0 4801-1 1219-1 3243-2 8976-3 EW 5 3 3 1728-0 1003-1 5915-3 3547-4 2164-5 1343-6 EWll 3 3
1273 l 6913 O 2828-0 6757-1 1718-1 4585-2 1270-2 EW 5 3 4 2809-0 1545-1 8739-3 5081-4 3037-5 1863-6 EWll 3 4
1500 1 7818 O 3027-0 6657-1 1563-1 3846-2 9800-3 EW 5 3 5 3926-0 2012-1 1073-2 5942-4 3410-5 2021-6 EWll 3 5
1211 1 6249 O 2409-0 5415-1 1344-1 3591-2 1010-2 EW 5 4 4 33é4-0 1665-1 8586-3 4621-4 2596-5 1519-6 EWll 4 4
1706 1 8836 O 3459-0 8054-1 2056-1 5559-2 1560-2 EW 5 4 5 4813-0 2283-1 1157-2 6258-4 3585-5 2156-6 EWll 4 5
1462 1 7151 O 2631-0 5814-1 1467-1 4004-2 1147-2 EW 5 5 5 5161 O 2155-1 9857-3 4933-4 2678-5 1554-6 EWll 5 5
3378-1 1924-1 8286-2 2043-2 5063-3 1261-3 3158-4 EW 6 1 1 4024-2 2240-3 1253-4 7045-6 3982-7 2261-8 EW12 1 1
1135-0 6308-1 ~618-1 6074-2 1418-2 3331-3 7873-4 EW 6 1 2 1540-1 8306-3 4502-4 2454-5 1344-6 7402-8 EW12 1 2
1966-0 1050-0 4107-1 8646-2 1834-2 3918-3 8434-4 EW 6 1 3 3228-1 1652-2 8501-4 4400-5 2291-6 1199-7 EW12 1 3
2540-0 1288-0 4661-1 8629-2 1611-2 3035-3 5766-4 EW 6 1 4 5215-1 2484-2 1190-3 5742-5 2787-6 1361-7 EW12 1 4
2800-0 1334-0 4400-1 6987-2 1120-2 1813-3 2962-4 EW 6 1 5 7250-1 3157-2 1383-3 6106-5 2713-6 1214-7 EW12 l 5
2807-0 1518-0 6061-1 1324-1 2929-2 6556-3 1485-3 EW 6 2 2 4370-1 2264-2 1181-3 6198-5 3276-6 1743-7 EW12 2 2
5140 O 2701-0 1035-0 2128-1 4466-2 9560-3 2085-3 EW 6 2 3 9201-1 4547-2 2268-3 1142-4 5805-6 2979-7 EW12 2 3
6981 O 3517-0 1269-0 2372-1 4560-2 8989-3 1813-3 EW 6 2 4 1495-0 6922-2 3245-3 1541-4 7412-6 3610-7 EW12 2 4
7989 O 3812-0 1271-0 2094-1 3565-2 6249-3 1124-3 EW 6 2 5 2092-0 8916-2 3863-3 1701-4 7613-6 3461-7 EW12 2 5
6410 O 3228-0 1168-0 2215-1 4375-2 8983-3 1912-3 EW 6 3 3 1385-0 6358-2 2961-3 '3:399-4 6714-6 3270-7 EW12 3 3
9593 O 4736-0 1675-0 3115-1 6131-2 1265-2 2713-3 EW 6 3 4 2276-0 9918-2 4427-3 2025-4 9493-6 4556-7 EW12 3 4
1186 1 5645 O 1901-0 3293-1 6080-2 1179-2 2371-3 EW 6 3 5 3224-0 1312-1 5531-3 2411-4 1086-5 5039-7 EW12 3 5
9632 O 4513-0 1493-0 2563-1 4818-2 9752-3 2087-3 EW 6 4 4 2780-0 1095-1 4471-3 1894-4 8333-6 3802-7 EW12 4 4
1359 l 6274 O 2091-0 3706-1 7228-2 1505-2 3269-3 EW 6 4 5 4009-C 1510-1 6028-3 2549-4 1136-5 5304-7 EW12 4 S.
1213 l 5329 O 1652-0 2716-1 5123-2 1058-2 2309-3 Ew 6 5 5 4389-0 1462-1 5272-3 2059-4 8662-6 3884-7 EW12 5 5
292 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 293

Table 7-7 (continued) Table 7-7 (continued)

Wall-to-Wall, WW = Swsw/B 2 Gas-to-Gas, GG = gg/(KB) 2 B 2

o.so 0.15 l.oo 1.25 KB 2 0.o 0.1 0.25 o.50 0.75 loOO 1.25 KB=OeO O.l o.Z5 o.50 Oo75 l.OO le25
KB=O.O Ool Oo25
2400 1 2072 l 1671 1 1184 1 8553 o 6305 o 4745-0 ww l l 8552 l 7760 l 7 239 l 6491 l 5865 l 5337 1 4686 1 GG l l 8608-1 4715-1 1917-1 4316-2 9809-3 2253-3 5225-4 GG 7 1 1
2755 1 2096 1 1425 1 8004 o 4890-0 3229-0 2276-0 ww 5370 4776 1 4033 1 3091 1 2415 1 1919 l 1551 1 GG 1 2 2450-0 1321-0 5246-1 1135-1 2484-2 5492-3 1227-3 GG 7 1 2
2881 1 1944 1 1141 1 5490 o 3142-0 2044-0 1448-0 ww 2699 2139 l 1518 1 8708 O 5093 O 3032-0 1835-0 GG l 3 3705-0 1936-0 7344-1 1473-1 2991-2 6142-3 1276-3 GG 7 l 3
2946 1 1770 l 9174 o 4027-0 2276-0 1493-0 1067-0 ww 1859 l3Z7 1 8048 O 3556-0 1601-0 7347-1 3428-1 GG 1 4 4550-0 2277-0 8086-1 1456-1 2655· 2 4904-3 9173-4 GG 7 1 4
2985 1 1004 1 7500 o 3139-0 1785-0 1181-0 8477-l ww 1426 9182 o 4779-0 1634-0 5695-1 2025-1 7322-2 GG l 5 5026 O 2381-0 7791-1 1225-1 1953-2 3157-3 5175-4 GG 7 1 5
1281 1 1067 1 8141 o 5243 o 3424-0 2271-0 1532-0 ww 2771 2580 2 2349 2 2048 2 1817 2 1634 2 1485 2 GG 2 2 7028 O 3738-0 1456-0 3062-1 6532-2 1412-2 3098-3 GG 7 2 2
ww 6678 1 5069 l 3962 1 3171 l GG 2 3 1075 l 5563 O 2089-0 4140-1 8381-2 1727-2 3633-3 GG 7 2 3
2045 1491 1 9428 o 4607-0 2401-0 1339-0 7970-1 2 2 1318 1130 2 9148 l
2382 1531 1 8231 o 3311-0 1552-0 8303-l 4914-1 ww 2 3 6761 5087 1 3371 1789 1 9936 O 5 746 O 3405-0 GG 2 4 1337 l 6653 O 2361-0 4281-1 7987-2 1524-2 2987-3 GG 7 2 4
ww 4767 3190 1 1790 7175 O 3040-0 1335-0 6103-1 GG 2 5 1492 l 7059 O 2328-0 3757-1 6276-2 1077-2 1908-3 GG 7 2 5
2564 1461 l 6835 o 2431-0 1106-0 5953-1 3566-1 2 4
ww 4547 4303 2 3892 3382 2 3004 2 2706 ? 2463 2 GG 3 3 1678 l 8486 O 3121-0 5993-1 1197-1 Z444-2 5174-3 GG 7 3 3
2676 1 1356 1 5656 o 1879-0 8566-1 4663-1 2614-1 2 5
4095-0 3185-0 2186-0 1176-0 6377-l 3486-1 1925-1 ww 3 1 2043 2 1702 1371 2 9898 7555 l 5898 l 4749 1 GG 3 4 2133 l 1046 l 3698-0 6731-1 1291-1 2555-2 5275-3 GG 7 3 4
1202 1 8210 o 4673-0 1874-0 7780-1 3358-1 1510-1 ww 3 2 1033 2 7735 4839 2567 1399 l 8366 O 4827-0 GG 3 5 2428 1 1142 1 3813-0 6388-1 1141-1 2117-Z 4115-3 GG 7 3 5
1714 l 1029 l 4913-0 1550-0 5434-l 2115-l 9029-2 ww 3 3 6298 2 6026 5423 4719 2 4194 2 3784 2 3444 2 GG 4 4 2786 l 1348 1 4651-0 8394-1 1616-1 3264-2 6865-3 GG 7 4 4
ww 2755 2 2240 2 1826 1307 2 1008 2 7819 l 6355 1 GG 4 5 3259 l 1527 1 5096 O 8648-1 1659-1 3288-2 6786-3 GG 7 4 5
2027 1 1074 1 4389-0 1168-0 3811-1 1463-1 6302-2 3 4
2232 l 1049 l 3745-0 8968-1 2883-l 1120-1 4882-2 ww 3 5 8310 2 7738 2 6950 6058 5385 2 4862 2 4424 2 GG 3927 1 1J09 l 5983 O 1046-0 2002-1 4063-2 8599-3 GG 7 5 5
ww 4 2393 1 2157 l 1855 1459 1162 1 9383 O 7665 O GG 6347-1 3147-1 1102-1 1934-2 3427-3 6136-4 1109-4 GG 8 l 1
1380-0 9876-1 5989-1 2619-1 1155-1 5136-2 2302-2 1
6728 o 4290-0 2196-0 7315-1 2491-1 6691-2 3113-2 ww 4 2 3181 2706 1 2138 l 1466 1 1024 1 7285 O 5278 O GG 1831-0 8954-1 3072-1 5210-2 8929-3 1546-3 2706-4 GG 8 l 2
1187 1 6674 o 2862-0 7354-1 2032-1 6072-2 1958-2 ww 4 3 2275 1763 1 1209 1 6552 O 3617-0 2033-0 1162-0 GG 2834-0 1349-0 4446-1 7056-2 1133-2 1838-3 3017-4 GG 8 3
1562 1 7742 o .2.814-0 5690-1 1450-1 4138-2 1328-2 ww 4 4 1708 1200 1 7114 o 3022-0 1308-0 5768-1 2588-1 GG 3584-0 1640-0 5104-1 7360-2 1075-2 1588-3 2375-4 GG 8 4
1829 l 8014 o 2512-0 4570-1 1082-1 3104-2 1010-2 ww 4 5 1355 8630 o 441'0-0 1464-0 4954-1 1707-1 5989-2 GG 2 4080-0 1778-0 5182-1 6568-2 8502-3 1115-3 1482-4 GG 8 5
5436-1 3552-1 1880-1 6562-2 2310-2 8201-3 2936-3 ww 5 l 9890 8573 1 7000 1 5150 1 3910 1 3050 1 2431 l GG 2 Z 2 5305 O 2563-0 8641-1 1427-1 2387-2 4046-3 6948-4 GG 8 2
3765-0 2223-0 1016-0 2787-1 7772-2 2206-2 6379-3 ww 5 2 8574 6968 1 5205 1 3331 1 2226 l 1539 1 1096 l GG 2 2 3 8270 O 3699-0 1270-0 1988-1 3167-2 5132-3 8465-4 GG 8 3
8058 o 4231-0 1629-0 3446-1 7675-2 1810-2 4530-3 ww 5 5903 4324 1 2765 1375 7176 O 3890-0 2173-0 GG 2 2 4 1054 1 4798-0 1486-0 2145-1 3172-2 4791-3 7407-4 GG 8 4
1182 1 5479 o 1782-0 3006-1 5752-2 1248-2 3024-3 ww 5 4456 2939 1 1608 6166 2509-0 1060-0 4632-1 GG 2 2 5 1209 l 5258 O 1524-0 1979-1 2649-2 3637-3 5135-4 GG 8 5
1476 1 6048 o 1683-0 2393-1 4273-2 9191-3 2257-3 ww 5 l 709 1451 2 1159 8407 6368 1 4983 1 3985 l GG 2 3 3 1305 1 6030 O 1921-0 2908-1 4546-2 7266-3 1197-3 GG 8 3 3
2475-1 1473-'l 6769-2 1867-2 5194-3 1458-3 4130-4 ww 6 1355 1072 2 7824 4933 1 3296 l 2285 l 1632 l GG 2 3 4 1688 1 7573 2323-0 3336-1 5008-2 7750-3 1246-3 GG 8 3
2155-0 1176-0 4756-1 1063-1 2409-2 5537-3 1291-3 ww 6 2 9113 6+37 l 3982 1937 1008 l 5483 O 3078-0 GG 2 3 5 1963 l 8475 2465-0 3276-1 4607-2 6719-3 1025-3 GG 8 3
5441 o 2657-0 9153-1 1593-1 2880-2 5433-3 1073-3 ww 6 3 2418 2024 2 1604 1163 8836 l 6933 l 5557 1 GG 2 4 4 2223 1 9836 2935-0 4147-1 6208-2 9736-3 1587-3 GG 8 4
8839 o 3828-0 1116-0 1532-1 2322-2 3902-3 7238-4 ww 6 4 1840 1431 2 1026 2 6519 4340 l 3040 1 2155 1 GG 2 4 5 2636 l 1128 ;j261-0 4420-1 6456-2 9956-3 1595-3 GG 6 4
1179 1 4515-0 1121-0 1270-1 1743-2 2641-3 5293-4 ww 6 5 3123 2592 2 2048 2 1487 1133 2 8896 l 7140 l GG 2 5 5 3H2 1 1341 3816-0 5161-1 7669-2 1205-2 1975-3 GG 8 5
1268-1 6844-2 2723-2 5903-3 1292-3 2854-4 6359-5 ww 7 1 7039 5715 o 4218-0 2553-0 1564-0 9669-1 6043-1 GG 3 l 1 4871-1 6592-2 9014-3 1245-3 1737-4 2448-5 GG 9 1
1285-0 6437-1 2291-1 4131-2 7542-3 1394-3 2610-4 ww 7 2 1509 1186 1 8233 o 4562-0 2559-0 1459-0 8413-1 GG 3 l Z 1418-0 1861-1 2470-2 3312-3 4486-4 6142-5 GG 9 1 2
3696-0 1672-0 5127-1 7302-2 1072-2 1626-3 2555-4 ww 7 3 1558 1143 l 7185 o 3371-0 1607-0 7789-1 3835-1 GG 3 l 3 2230-0
2879-0
2758-1
3266-1
3451-2
3751-2
4366-3
4359-3
5584-4
5126-4
7219-5
6097-5
GG 9
GG 9
6583 o 2654-0 6919-1 7765-2 9417-3 1Z43-3 1784-4 WW 7 4 1375 9271 o 5156 o 1968-0 7649-1 3023-1 1216-1 GG 3 1 4
9350 o 3343-0 7415-1 6765-2 7Z44-3 905Z-4 1287-4 WW 7 5 1181 7275 o 3537-0 1079-0 3356-1 1061-1 3419-2 GG 1 5 3352-0 3406-1 3506-2 3654-3 3858-4 4124-5 GG 9 1
7094-2 3475-2 1194-2 2030-3 3485-4 6038-5 1055-5 ww 0 l 3980 3083 l 2126 l 1169 l 6610 O 3828-0 2268-0 G~ 2 2 4137-0 5288-1 6846-2 8975-3 1191-3 1601-4 GG 9 2
7982-1 3660-1 1140-1 1647-2 2406-3 3556-4 5315-5 ww 8 2 4787 3555 l 2310 1 1165 1 6108 O 3308-0 1842-0 GG 2 3 6537 O 7922-1 9762-2 1223-2 1556-3 2012-4 GG 9 2
2544-0 1062-0 2884-1 3342-2 3969-3 4841-4 6076-5 ww 3 4381 3024 1 1766 1 7508 O 3342-0 1545-0 7369-1 GG 2 4 8484 O 9505-1 1088-1 1273-2 1518-3 1850-4 GG 9 2
4907-0 1837-0 4268-1 3913-2 3817-3 3988-4 4475-5 ww 4 3748 2369 l 1213 1 4172-0 1508-0 5680-1 2212-1 GG 2 5 9933 O 1005-0 1045-1 1116-2 1220-3 1369-4 GG 9 2
ww 7428 5519 l 3636 1 1907 1 1057 l 6072 O 3603-0 GG 3 3 1041 l 1210-0 1444-1 1768-2 2215-3 2844-4 GG 9 3
7388 o 2461-0 4875-1 3603-2 3042-3 2942-4 3210-5 8 5
4260-2 5610-3 746Z-4 1003-4 1359-5 1861-6 WW 9 1 7907 5641 l :.1522 1 1718 1 8919 O 4834-0 2719-0 GG 3 4 1364 l 1489-0 1686-1 1985-2 2405-3 3020-4 GG 9 3
5156-1 5867-2 6748-3 7848-4 922.4-5 1096-5 ww 9 2 6943 4594 1 2568 1057 1 4663-0 2162-0 1033-0 GG 3 3 5 1614 1
1811 1
1616-0
1892-0
1701-1
2096-1
1888-2
2448-2
2163-3
2987-3
2595-4
3779-4
GG 9
GG 9
3
4
1780-0 1637-1 1534-2 1469-3 1437-4 1441-5 ww 9 3 1078 7799 l 5008 2601 l 1443 l 8346 O 4968-0 GG 3 4 4
3675-0 2629-1 1964-2 1543-3 1Z82-4 1132-5 WW 9 4 1092 7599 l 4675 2252 1 1185 l 6399 O 3657-0 GG 3 4 5 2171 l 2128-0 2263-1 2573-2 3070-3 3843-4 GG 9
5835 o 3190-1 1915-2 1Z84-3 9684-5 8160-6 WW 9 5 1408 2 9967 1 6332 1 3291 l 1834 l 1064 1 6345 O GG 3 5 5 2643 l 2495-0 2631-1 3024-2 3684-3 4681-4 GG 9
2699-2 2782-3 2894-4 3040-5 3225-6 3448-7 WWlO l 3312-0 2441-0 1552-0 7349-1 3517-1 1699-1 8294-2 GG 4 l l 3855-1 4065-2 4332-3 4663-4 5071-5 5566-6 GGlO
3451-1 3114-2 2840-3 2619-4 2440-5 2298-6 WWlO 2 8293 o 5934 o 3620-0 1599-0 7160-1 3.2:40-1 1486-1 GG 4 l 2 1129-0 1159-1 1202-2 1260-3 1334-4 1427-5 GGlO
1268-0 9404-2 7094-3 5450-4 4269-5 3413-6 WWlO 3 1032 7007 3950-0 1534-0 6051-1 2418-1 9820-2 GG 4 l 3 1796-0 1748-1 1719-2 1710-3 1720-4 1748-5 GGlO
2354-0 2119-1 1930-2 1776-3 1657-4 1562-5 GGlO
2773-0 1621-1 9834-3 6220-4 4124-5 2876-6 WWlO 4 1042 6603 3355-0 1098-0 3655-1 1234-1 4243-2 GG 4 1 4
2789-0 2271-1 1872-2 1562-3 1320-4 1127-5 GGlO
4616-0 2082-1 1015-2 5430-4 3214-5 Zl02-6 WWlO 5 9738 5701 L572-0 6907-1 1889-l 5249-2 1485-2 GG 4 1 5
1795-2 1442-3 1172-4 96.21-6 7971-7 6676-8 WWll l Z232 1572 9394 O 4045-0 1781-0 8002-1 3663-l GG 4 2 2 3312-0 3317-1 3363-2 3451-3 3585-4 3767-5 GGlO
4617-0 1902-0 8079-1 3520-1 GG 4 2 3 5265 O 5042-1 4885-2 4606-3 4 799-·4 4862-5 GGlO
2384-1 1700-2 1226-3 8934-5 6577-6 4889-7 WWll 2 2998 2046 1155 l
3156 2023 1054 1 3685-0 1341-0 5060-1 1967-1 GG 4 2 4 6952 O 6174-1 5591-2 5162-3 4854-4 4645-5 GGlO 2
9203-1 5474-2 3308-3 2033-4 1270-5 8081-7 WWll 3
2443-0 7503-1 2397-1 7914-2 GG 4 2 5 8269 6688-1 5543-2 4702-3 4077-4 3607-5 GGlO 2
2112-0 1004-1 4923-3 2503-4 1324-5 7314-7 WWll 4 2995 1783 8328 o
6849 O 2891-0 1269-0 5754-1 GG 4 3. 3 8478 7774-1 7296-2 7007-3 6877-4 6891-5 GGlO 3
3665-0 1357-1 5366-3 2295-4 1071-5 5646-7 WWll 5 4521 3032 1707 l
1123 9695-1 8659-2 7981-3 7566-4 7355-5 GGlO 3
1237-2 7758-4 4919-5 3154-6 2036-7 1335-8 WW12 l 5220 3419 1820 l 6687 O 2773-0 1169-0 5099-1 GG 4 3 4
1692-1 9521-3 5413-4 3111-5 1803-6 1058-7 WW12 2 5180 3166 1565 1 5220 O 1869-0 7032-1 2743-1 GG 4 3 5 1345 1072-0 8933-2 7747-3 6951-4 6412-5 GGlO 3
6798-1 3230-2 1558-3 7628-5 3 794-6 1916-7 WW12 3 6790 4355 2373 l 9271 O 3897-0 1718-0 7835-1 GG 4 4 4 1501 1240-0 1079-1 9848-3 9359-4 9205-5 GGlO 4
1624-0 6244-2 2469-3 1006-4 4247-6 1860-7 WW12 4 7379 l 4609 2400 l 8930 O 3600-0 1524-0 6665-1 GG 4 4 5 1816 l 1410-0 1177-1 1044-2 9742-4 9448-5 GGlO 4
1164 1 4919-0 2181-0 9981-1 GG 4 5 5 2223 1 1657-0 1366-1 1219-2 1152-3 1136-4 GGlO 5
2924-0 8844-2 2832-3 9696-5 3 579-6 1430-7 WW12 5 9010 1 5652 1 2994 l
1905-0 1Z73-0 6973-1 2579-1 9638-2 3637-2 l386-2 GG 5 l 1 3126-1 2569-2 2132-3 1789-4 1515-5 1297-6 GGll 1
5117 o 3342-0 1770-0 6193-1 2192-1 7848-2 2841-2 GG 5 l Z 9196-1 7374-2 5975-3 4892-4 4047-5 3380-6 GGll l
7041 o 4402-0 2189-0 6894-1 2201-1 7117-2 2332-2 GG 5 1 1475-0 1127-1 8706-3 6796-4 5363-5 4276-6 GGll 1 3
7796 o 4498-0 2094-0 5708-1 1580-1 4434-2 1264-2 GG 5 l 1956-0 1392-1 1002-2 7294-4 5371-5 3999-6 GGll l 4
7827 o 4305-0 1766-0 4048-1 9434-2 2232-2 5368-3 GG 5 1 5 2349-0 1525-1 1002-2 6662-4 4484-5 3053-6 GGll l 5
1416 1 9J63 o 4719-0 1597-0 5532-1 1940-1 6955-2 GG 5 2 2 2708-0 2123-1 1684-2 1353-3 1098-4 9022-6 GGll 2 2
2026 1 1263 l 6232 o 1976-0 6416-1 2141-1 7306-Z GG 5 2 3 4354-0 3264-1 2483-2 1916-3 1500-4 1190-5 GGll 2 3
2311 1 1371 1 6294 o 1781-0 5220-1 1580-1 4915-Z GG 5 2 4 5787 O <t-062-l 2903-2 2112-3 1563-4 1176-5 GGll 2 4
2360 l 1313 1 5491 o 1338-0 3400-1 8957-2 2435-2 GG 5 2 5 69G8 O 4487-1 2954-2 1967-3 1365-4 9550-6 GGll 2 5
3076 1 1879 1 9137 o 2.851-0 9309-1 3152-1 1102-1 GG 5 3 3 7026 O 5072-1 3741-2 2817-3 2164-4 1695-5 GGll 3 3
3711 1 2195 1021 l 3019-0 9452-1 3096-1 1051-1 GG 5 3 4 9384 O 6402-1 4502-2 3257-3 2420-4 1840-5 GGll 3 4
3935 l 2211 9594 o 2556-0 7290-1 Zl86-l 6805-2 GG 5 3 5 1136 l 7187-1 4734-2 3234-3 Z280-4 1650-5 GGll 3 5
4792 l 2801 1295 l 3874-0 1247-0 4225-1 1485-1 GG 5 4 4 1261 l 8237-1 5634-2 4021-3 2979-4 2262-5 GGll 4 4
5389 l 3053 1 1363 l 3915-0 1221-0 4019-l 1372-1 GG 5 4 5 1538 1 9456-1 6201-2 4300-3 3125-4 2359-5 GGll 4 5
6487 1 3650 1 1637 l 4833-0 1561-0 5315-1 1873-1 GG 5 5 5 1892 l 1115-0 7193-2 4994-3 3666-4 2807-5 GGll 5 5
1232-0 7457-1 3520-1 1016-1 2962-2 8722-3 2593-3 GG 6 l 1 2586-1 1655-2 1071-3 6998-5 4619-6 3079-7 GG12 l l
3434-0 2039-0 9358-1 2580-1 7191-2 2026-2 5768-3 GG 6 2 7632-1 4777-2 3023-3 1932-4 1248-5 8139-7 GG12 1
5008 o 2869-0 1248-0 3150-1 8047-2 2081-2 5447-3 GG 6 1232-0 7381-2 4469-3 2735-4 1692-5 1057-6 GG12 l
5899 o 3213-0 1297-0 2890-1 6532-2 1496-2 3473-3 GG 6 1648-0 9249-2 5250-3 3013-4 1 749-5 1026-6 GG12 l
6255 o 3202-0 1179-0 2256-1 4383-2 8638-3 1728-3 GG 6 1999-0 1031-1 5381-3 2841-4 1518-5 8203-7 GG12 1
9706 o 5673 o 2553-0 6822-1 1854-1 5106-2 1431-2 GG 6 2254-0 1382-1 8575-3 5371-4 3416-5 2192-6 GG12 2
1445 l 8191 o 3539-0 8865-1 2276-1 5978-2 1600-2 GG 6 3645-0 2144-1 1279-2 7739-4 4 745-5 2947-6 GG12 2
1735 1 9412 o 3819-0 6686-1 2033-1 4905-2 1211-2 GG 6 4884-0 2704-1 1522-2 8713-4 5070-5 2997-6 GG12 2
1866 1 9570 o 3576-0 7139-1 1475-l 3159-2 6949-3 GG 6 5938 3034'-l 1583-2 8425-4 4571-5 25Z5•6 GG12 2
2225 l 1243 l 5227 o 1280-0 3256-1 8572-2 2321-2 GG 6 5910 3355-1 1942-2 1146-3 6894-5 4221-6 GG12 3
2766 1 1497 l 6040 1406-0 3423-1 8761-2 2304-2 GG 3 4 7946 O 4276-1 2365-2 1343-3 7815-5 4650-6 GG12 3
3058 1 1592 l 5993 1276-0 2864-1 6805-2 1669-2 GG 3 5 9700 4863-1 2528-2 1359-3 7528-5 4275-6 GG12 3
3587 l 1907 1 759.2 1756-0 4366-1 1139-1 3096-2 GG 4 4 1073 5535-1 2974-2 1661-3 9608-5 5732-6 GG12 4
4124 2126 1 tsl78 1819-0 4401-1 1124-1 2986-2 GG 4 5 1318 6409-1 3302-2 1791-3 1015-4 5967-6 GG12 4
4956 2522 1 9666 o 2166-0 5434-1 1429-1 3903-2 GG 5 5 1628 7563-1 3833-2 2073-3 1183-4 7039-6 GG12 5
 294 RADIATIVE TRANSFER GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS OF GAS-RADIATIVE INTERCHANGE 295

Table 7-7 (continued) Table 7-7 (continued)

End-to-End, EE =Se se/B

2 Gas-to-End, EG = gs ef (KB)B 2

KB=O.O Ool Oo25 o.se 0.75 l.oo lt25 KB•O.O Oal o.25 0 0 50 0.75 leOO la25
KB=O.O Ool Oo25 Oo50 0•75 loOO le25 KB=OeO Ool 0.25 Oo50 Oo75 loOO 1.25 2981 1 2813 1 2587 1 2266 1 2002 1 1784 1 1602 l EG l 1 1 7224-1 3754-1 1408-1 2761-2 5439-3 1077-3 2144-4 EG 7 1 1
1200 1 1063 1 8866 O 6566 O 4873-0 3625-0 2701-0 EE 6162-1 3039-! 1053-1 1798-2 3073-3 5253-4 8980-5 EE 1693 1 1506 1 1269 1 9684 o 7509 o 5912 o 4722-0 EG 1 1 2 2028-0 1039-0 3815-1 7218-2 1374-2 2630-3 5063-4 EG l 2
1200 1 1031 1 8224 O 5682 O 3955-0 2771-0 1954-0 EE 1714-0 8343-1 2834-1 4689-2 7766-3 1287-3 2136-4 EE 5485 o 4365-0 3116-0 1802-0 1060-0 6335-1 3841-1 EG 1 1 3 2984-0 1486-0 5232-1 9242-2 1644-2 2944-3 5310-4 EG 1 3
3968-0 3140-0 2222-0 1262-0 7266-1 4235-1 2496-1 EE 2474-0 1174-0 3837-1 5962-2 9286-3 1449-3 2267-4 EE 2691-0 1928-0 1176-0 5238-1 2376-1 1096-1 5136-2 EG 1 1 4 3523-0 1685-0 5586-1 8933-2 1441-2 2343-3 3843-4 EG 7 1 4
1493-0 1069-0 6511-1 2889-1 1303-1 5962-2 2767-2 EE 2839-0 1297-0 4011-1 5689-2 8101-3 1158-3 1661-4 EE 1598-0 1033-0 5399-1 1860-1 6525-2 2330-2 8463-3 EG 1 1 5 3703-0 1683-0 5170-1 7291-2 1038-2 1494-3 2170-4 EG 7 1 5
7013-1 4534-1 2371-1 8163-Z 2860-2 1019-2 3683-3 EE 2875-0 1252-0 3607-1 4551-2 5776-3 7372-4 9458-5 EE 1 9581 1 8944 1 8116 1 6998 1 6121 1 5418 l 4843 l EG 1 2 2 5748 O 2909-0 1050-0 1937-1 3604-2 6764-3 1280-3 EG 7 2 2
4061 1 3551 1 2914 1 2112 1 1542 l 1133 1 8364 o EE 4818-0 2J20-0 7762-1 1255-1 2036-2 3315-3 5414-4 EE 7 2 2 3753 1 3278 1 2707 1 2018 1 1544 1 1?06 1 9584 o EG 1 2 3 8586 O 4244-0 1481-0 2592-1 4600-2 8270-3 1507-3 EG 7 2 3
2607 1 2211 1 1740 1 1182 1 8147 O 5667 O 3983-0 EE 7079 O 3336-0 1082-0 1669-1 2595-2 4064-3 6408-4 EE 7 2 3 1201 1 9239 o 6332 o 3494-0 1996-0 1111-0 7020-1 EG l 2 4 1031 1 4918-0 1631-0 2635-1 4344-2 7286-3 1245-3 EG 7 2 4
8083 O 6263 O 4319-0 2383-0 1347-0 7766-1 4545-1 EE 8287 O 3782-0 1171-0 1680-1 2442-2 3592-3 5342-4 EE 7 2 4 6059 o 4149-0 2394-0 9991-1 4348-1 1955-1 9018-2 EG l 2 5 1099 1 5009 O 1553-0 2255-1 3362-2 5119-3 7985-4 EG 7 2 5
3081-0 2137-0 1253-0 5318-1 2332-1 1·049-1 4816-2 EE 8545 O 3738-0 1088-0 1416-1 1876-2 2528-3 3458-4 EE 7 2 5 1586 2 1478 2 1340 2 1157 2 1014 2 8985 1 8042 1 EG 1 3 3 1316 1 6403 O 2190-0 3740-1 6551-2 1171-2 2140-3 EG 7 3 3
6623 1 5788 l 4750 l 3449 1 2525 l 1859 1 1376 1 EE 1072 1 4985-0 1590-0 2401-1 3688-2 5750-3 9079-4 EE 7 3 3 5637 1 4903 1 4039 l 3012 1 2308 l 1806 1 1437 l EG 1 3 4 1629 1 7717 O 2551-0 4157-1 7033-2 1220-2 2186-3 EG 7 3 4
3885 1 3293 1 2591 1 1764 1 1217 l 8491 o 5969 O EE 1 3 4 1301 1 5915 O 1830-0 2655-1 3952-2 6010-3 9299-4 EE 7 3 4 1738 1 1320 1 8960 o 4931-0 2822-0 1663-0 9983-1 EG 1 3 5 1786 1 8156 O 2564-0 3880-1 6165-2 1008-2 1714-3 EG 7 3 5
1.1.49 l 8868 6103 O 3372-0 1912-0 1104-0 6474-1 EE 5 1389 1 6111 O 1808-0 2456-1 3452-2 4983-3 7343-4 EE 7 3 5 2212 2 2062 2 1870 2 1616 2 1417 2 1257 2 1125 2 EG 1 4 4 2092 1 9776 O 3188-0 5170-1 8808-2 1558-2 2836-3 EG 7 4 4
9197 1 8040 6604 l 4802 1 3519 1 2594 1 1920 l EE 4 1653 1 7433 O 2278-0 3295-1 4945-2 7631-3 1202-3 EE 7 4 4 7497 1 6Jl2 1 5355 1 4009. 1 3063 1 2409 1 1902 1 EG 1 4 5 2383 1 1087 1 3446-0 5408-1 9018-2 1568-2 2809-3 EG 7 4 5
5158 1 4365 3435 1 2348 1 1616 1 1133 1 7922 O EE 5 1849 1 8152 O 2441-0 3435-1 5059-2 7688-3 1194-3 EE 7 4 5 2839 2 2646 2 2401 2 2076 2 1821 2 1615 2 1446 2 EG 1 5 5 2833 1 1280 l 4042-0 6404-1 1090-1 1938-2 3549-3 EG 7 5 5
1178 2 1030 2 8469 1 6163 1 4519 1 3332 1 2467 1 EE 5 2181 1 9563 O 2863-0 4079-1 6121-2 9490-3 1503-3 EE 7 5 5 9341 7924 o 6205 4149-0 2793-0 1892-0 1289-0 EG 2 l l 5464-1 2571-1 6311-2 1271-2 1953-3 3016-4 4682-5 EG 8 1 1
5390 O 4335-o 3128-0 1818-0 1058-0 6163-1 3596-1 EE 1 4761-1 2126-1 6347-2 8461-3 1128-3 1505-4 2007-5 EE 8 1 1 1482 1211 1 8984 5511 o 3419-0 2145-0 1359-0 EG 2 1 2 1558-0 7240-1 2296-1 3403-2 5073-3 7604-4 1146-4 EG 8 1 2
9340 O 7304 O 5060 O 2756-0 1509-0 8297-1 4584-1 EE 1347-0 5944-1 1743-1 2259-2 2929-3 3800-4 4935-5 EE 8 l 2 1007 7643 o 5079 o 2603-0 1354-0 7146-1 3823-1 EG 2 l 3 2358-0 1069-0 3266-1 4555-2 6393-3 9032-4 1284-4 EG 8 1 3
6490 O 4 788-(l 3044-0 1443-o 6904-1 3334-1 1624-1 EE 2004-0 8646-1 2450-1 3001-2 3683-3 4526-4 5573-5 EE 8 l 3 6273 o 4353-0 2530-0 1038-0 4331-1 1836-1 7901-2 EG 2 1 4 2886-0 1262-0 3654-1 4663-2 5997-3 7773-4 1015-4 EG 8 1 4
3654-0 2490-0 1406-0 5489-1 2171-1 8692-2 3521-2 EE 2394-0 9963-1 2692-1 3036-2 3436-3 3900-4 4441-5 EE 8 1 4 4121-0 2600-0 1310-0 4243-1 1399-1 4689-2 1597-2 EG 2 l 5 3154-0 1316-0 '3560-1 4057-2 4664-3 5412-4 6335-5 EG 8 l 5
2077-0 1294-0 6392-1 1999-1 6350-2 2046-2 6681-3 EE 2533-0 1012-0 2558-1 2596-2 2646-3 2710-4 2789-5 EE 1 5 4003 1 3288 1 2466 1 1553 1 9973 o 6510 o 4310-0 EG 2 2 2 4469-0 2054-0 6413-1 9277-2 1353-2 1989-3 2946-4 EG 8 2 2
2393 1872 1 1302 1 7170 O 3993-0 2243-0 1270-0 EE 3834-0 1675-0 4845-1 6140-2 7804-3 9945-4 1271-4 EE 2 2 3777 1 2988 1 2126 1 1239 l 7421 o 4545-0 2835-0 EG 2 2 3 6828 O 3070-0 9291-1 1280-1 1786-2 2520-3 3597-4 EG 8 2 3
2340 1783 l 1194 l 6228 O 3303-0 1776-0 9653-1 EE 5771 O 2472-0 6948-1 8422-2 1028-2 1262-3 1558-4 EE 2 3 2363 1 1723 1 1090 5256 o 2627-0 1351-0 7107-1 EG 2 2 4 8450 O 3679-0 1063-0 1360-1 1773-2 2346-3 3156-4 EG 8 2 4
1446 1035 1 6336 O 2866-0 1329-0 6285-1 3018-1 EE 4 6985 O 2905-0 7822-1 8863-2 1016-2 1176-3 1375-4 EE 2 4 1467 1 9707 o 5315 2028-0 8069-1 3318-1 1400-1 EG 2 2 5 9330 O 3895-0 1058-0 1229-1 1461-2 1771-3 2192-4 EG 8 2 5
7972 5237 O 2827-0 1044-0 3982-1 1557-1 6209-2 EE 5 7490 O 2996-0 7622-1 7894-2 8310-3 8877-4 9608-5 EE 2 5 6678 1 5407 1 4000 2495 1 1601 1 1047 1 6968 o EG 2 3 1061 1 4693-0 J.391-0 1865-1 2556-2 '3568-3 5080-4 EG 3 3
3911 3029 1 2085 l 1140 1 6340 O 3571-0 2029-0 EE 3 8862 O 3744-0 1033-0 1223-1 1468-2 1786-3 2198-4 EE 3 3 5730 1 4473 1 3149 1825 1 1095 l 6731 o 4231-0 EG 2 3 13:19 1 5778 O 1656-0 2119-1 2802-2 3798-3 5293-4 EG 3 4
3483 2635 l 1754 1 9136 O 4858-0 2622-0 1431-0 EE 4 1099 1 4542-0 1216-0 1381-1 1606-2 1904-3 2294-4 EE 3 4 3458 1 2477 1 1542 7382 o 3691-0 1907-0 1003-0 EG 2 3 5 1509 1 6287 O 1718-0 2051-1 2557-2 3282-3 4364-4 EG 8 3 5
2066 1465 8908 4022-o 1870-0 8878-l 4278-1 EE 5 1209 1 4841-0 1242-0 1325-1 1459-2 1646-3 1900-4 EE 8 3 5 9254 1 7454 1 ::i5oo 3439 2214 1 1454 1 9683 o EG 2 4 4 1735 l 7366 O 2076-0 2625-1 3473-2 4765-3 6727-4 EG 8 4 4
5366 4148 2855 1566 1 8741 O 4937-0 2811-0 EE 4 1408 1 5743 O 1517-0 1707-1 1989-2 2380-3 2908-4 EE 8 4 4 7608 1 5909 1 4160 2414 1461 1 8955 o 5695 o EG 2 4 5 2008 1 8323 O 2277-0 2783-1 3602-2 4849-3 6768-4 EG 8 4 5
4590 3467 1 2311 1207 1 6439 O 3482-0 1903-0 EE 5 1601 1 6399 O J..649-0 1803-1 2060-2 2427-3 2931-4 EE 8 4 5 1181 2 9491 l 7006 1 4391 1 2832 1 1861 1 1240 1 EG 2 5 5 2396 1 9808 O 2661-0 3262-1 4287-2 5897-3 8371-4 EG 8 5 5
6821 1 5274 1 3634 1998 l 1118 l 6319 O 3601-0 EE 5 1893 1 7500 O 1924-0 2116-1 2454-2 2945-3 3617-4 EE 8 S 5 4221-0 3252-0 2202-0 1156-0 6102-1 3238-1 1726-1 EG 3 1 1 4275-1 5069-2 6043-3 7242-4 8722-5 1056-5 EG 9 l 1
2880-0 2104-0 1314-0 5999-1 2742-1 1254-1 5739-2 EE 1 3786-1 3936-2 4094-3 4258-4 4429-5 4607-6 EE 9 l 1 9062 o 6792 o 4407-0 2157-0 1065-0 5304-1 2665-1 EG 3 1 2 1232-0 1421-1 1647-2 1921-3 2252-4 2654-5 EG 1 2
6278 O 4484-0 4704-0 1167-0 5055-1 2196-1 9572-2 EE 1 2 1083-0 1097-1 1112-2 1128-3 1144-4 1162-5 EE 9 1 2 8915 o 6304 o 3765-0 1609-0 6968-1 3049-l 1352-1 EG 3 1 3 1902-0 2075-1 2218-2 2516-3 2797-4 3129-5 EG 1 3
6105 O 4155-0 2339-0 9024-1 3507-1 1372-1 5399-2 EE 1648-0 1585-1 1527-2 1473-3 1423-4 1376-5 EE 9 1 3 7043 o 4625-0 2473-0 8814-1 3189-1 1169-l 4350-2 EG 3 1 4 2389-0 2404-1 2436-2 2487-3 2558-4 2650-5 EG l 4
4541-0 2896-0 1479-0 4869-1 1620-1 5440-2 1844-2 EE 2027-0 1807-1 1615-2 1448-3 1301-4 1172-5 EE 1 4 5291 3194-0 1506-0 4359-1 1282-1 3827-2 ll62-2 EG 3 1 5 2688-0 2437-1 2229-2 2055-3 1912-4 1793-5 EG 1 5
3104-0 1831-0 8332-1 2266-1 6244-2 l 741-2 4912-3 EE 2219-0 1793-1 1455-2 1186-3 9697-5 7961-6 EE 1 5 2335 1731 1 1112 l 5396 o 2664-0 1336-0 6796-1 EG 3 2 2 3565-0 4011-1 4546-2 5192-3 5973-4 6921-5 EG 2 2
1596 1 1129 1 6746 O 2881-0 1242-0 5403-1 2367-1 EE 3114-0 3083-1 3061-2 3045-3 3036-4 3034-5 EE 2 2 2722 1954 1 1200 1 5451 o 2543-0 1213-0 5898-1 EG 3 2 3 5537 O 5932-1 6427-2 7040-3 7793-4 8715-5 EG 2 3
1841 1 1269 l 7311 O 2961-0 1220-0 5095-1 2153-1 EE 4773-0 4518-1 4301-2 4117-3 3961-4 3830-5 EE 2 3 2311 1561 1 8788 o 3481-0 1426-0 6010-1 2592-1 EG 3 2 4 7008 O 6984-1 7072-2 7270-3 7583-4 8016-5 EG 2 4
1513 l 9923 O 5322 O 1927-0 7149-1 2703-1 1038-1 EE 3 4 5925 o 5245-1 4689-2 4232-3 3854-4 3539-5 EE 2 4 1752 1093 5480 o 1799-0 6146-1 2169-1 7855-2 EG 3 2 5 7944 O 7201-1 6667-2 6296-3 6054-4 5913-5 EG 2 5
1065 6518 O 3158-0 9721-1 3084-1 1002-1 3323-2 EE 3 5 6548 5305-1 4364-2 3640-3 3075-4 2629-5 EE 9 2 5 4138 2981 1853 1 8692 o 4222-0 2105-0 1071-0 EG 3 3 3 8694 o 8980-1 9459-2 1015-2 1109-3 1231-4 EG 9 3 3
2754 1906 1 1109 1 4609-0 1959-0 8465-1 3704-1 EE 3 3 7417 6795-1 6307-2 5927-3 5632-4 5407-5 EE C/ 3 3 4269 2989 1790 1 7972 o 3700-0 1769-0 8637-1 EG 3 3 4 1116 1 1089-0 1096-1 1133-2 1199-3 1295-4 EG 9 3 4
2810 1904 1078 4305-o 1767-0 7398-1 3138-1 EE 3 3 4 9367 8154-1 7262-2 6601-3 6107-4 5737-5 EE 9 3 4 3464 1 2280 1251 l 4870-0 1991-0 8416-1 3646-1 EG 3 3 5 1283 1 1159-0 1091-1 1065-2 1069-3 1096-4 EG 9 3 5
2202 1420 7495 2686-0 9962-1 3781-1 1459-1 EE 3 3 5 1054 8553-1 7173-2 6191-3 5471-4 4929-5 EE 9 3 5 5789 1 4108 2524 l 1180 1 5753 o 2883-0 147.3-0 EG 3 4 4 1458 1 1373-0 13;>7-l 1398-2 1491-3 1634-4 EG 9 4 4
3785 2597 1502 6238 O 2662-0 1156-0 5079-1 EE 3 4 4 1210 1022-0 8974-2 8133-3 7563-4 7176-5 EE 9 4 4 5703 1 3941 1 2341 1 1042 1 4557 .... 0 2329-0 1138-0 EG 3 4 5 1710 1 1526-0 1455-1 1465-2 15:37-3 1663-4 EG 9 4 5
3699 2491 1406 5628 O 2321-0 9754-1 4151-1 EE 3 4 5 1396 1 1126-0 9584-2 8508-3 7795-4 7309-5 EE 9 4 5 7387 1 5202 1 3187 1 1495 1 7318 o 3677-0 1882-0 EG 3 5 5 2051 1 1781-0 1695-1 1724-2 1838-3 2023-4 EG 9 5 5
4786 1 3275 1 1895 1 7901 O 3384-0 1473-0 6484-1 EE 5 5 1658 1 1311-0 1117-1 1002-2 9322-4 8882-5 EE 9 5 5 2332-0 1630-0 9538-1 3922-1 1622-1 6740-2 2816-2 EG 4 1 1 3434-1 3174-2 2950-3 2756-4 2587-5 2441-6 EGlO 1 1
1751-0 1160-0 6263-1 2242-1 8027-2 2876-2 1031-2 EE 1 1 3080-1 2498-2 2025-3 1643-4 1332-5 1081-6 EElO l 1 5"/41 3917-0 2213-0 8597-1 3364-1 1326-1 5263-2 EG 4 1 9975-1 8991-2 8148-3 7426-4 6804-5 6267-6 EGlO 1 2
4288-0 2786-0 1459-0 4978-1 1702-1 5831-2 2002-2 EE 4 1 2 8892-1 7040-2 5577-3 4420-4 3504-5 2780-6 EElO 1 2 6816 4445-0 2349-0 8176-1 2875-1 1021-1 3660-2 EG 4 1 1562-0 1339-1 1155-2 1002-3 8751-5 7686-6 EGlO 1
4984-0 3113-0 1539-0 4778-1 1490-1 4673-2 1472-2 EE 1375-0 1039-1 7854-3 5946-4 4507-5 3421-6 EElO 1 3 6360 3899-0 1878-0 5617-1 1701-1 5211-2 1617-2 EG 4 l 2000-ú 1593-1 1278-2 1032-3 8397-5 6877-6 EGlO l
4439-0 2623-0 1195-0 3242-1 8866-2 2443-2 6783-3 EE 1729-0 1218-1 8605-3 6091-4 4320-5 3071-6 EElO 1 4 5368 3068-0 1324-0 3303-1 8356-2 2142-2 5571-3 EG 4 1 2301-0 1667-1 1217-2 8959-4 6646-5 4969-6 EGlO 1
3510-0 1938-0 7982-1 1835-1 4261-2 9996-3 2367-3 EE 4 1 1942-0 1251-1 8083-3 5241-4 3410-5 2225-6 EElO l 5 1517 1022 l 5679 o 2156-0 8313-1 3242-1 1283-1 EG 4 2 2904-0 2559-1 2271-2 2030-3 1826-4 1655-5 EGlO 2
1123 l 7216 O 3725-0 1246-0 4196-1 1423-1 4857-2 EE 4 2 2574-0 1996-1 1550-2 1206-3 9406-5 7347-6 EElO 2 2 1966 1285 1 6841 o 2442-0 8916-1 3323-1 1261-1 EG 4 2 4567-0 3847-1 3273-2 2813-3 2441-4 213.8-5 EGlO 2
1428 1 8944 O 4455-0 1412-0 4543-1 1480-1 4876-2 EE 4 2 3 4001-0 2974-1 2222-2 1667-3 1256-4 9508-6 EElO 2 3 1945 12.09 1 5994 o 1912-0 6291-1 2124-1 7336-2 EG 4 2 5880 4633-1 3702-2 2999-3 2462-4 2046-5 EGlO 2
1365 1 8188 O 3835-0 1105-0 3252-1 9747-2 2966-2 EE 4 2 4 5064 o 3537-1 2491-2 1769-3 l266-4 9125-6 EElO 2 4 1692 9843 o 4428-0 1209-0 3427-1 1001-1 3002-2 EG 4 2 6802 4911-1 3612-2 2704-3 2059-4 1591-5 EGlO 2
1122 1 6344 O 2726-0 6849-1 1769-1 4675-2 1259-2 EE 4 2 5 5729 o 3686-1 2402-2 1585-3 1057-4 7128-6 EElO 2 5 2909 1 1888 l 1001 1 3600-0 1340-0 5131-1 2008-1 EG 4 3 7236 :,881-1 4864-2 4090-3 3493-4 3028-5 EGlO 3 3
2089 1 1302 1 6469 O 2065-0 6749-1 2247-1 7590-2 EE 4 3 3 6279 o 4519-1 3289-2 2420-3 1 797-4 1347-5 EElO 3 3 3239 1 2046 1 1049 1 3602..t..0 1293-0 4793-1 1821 .... l EG 4 3 9408 7243-1 5727-2 4641-3 3844-4 3244-5 EGlO 3 4
2279 1 1.391 1 6724 O 2069-0 6564-1 2129-1 7017-2 EE 4 3 4 8046 o 5511-1 3850-2 2739-3 1979-4 1450-5 EElO 3 4 3018 1 1814 8675 2683-0 8735-1 2949-1 1022-1 EG 4 3 1100 7870-1 5843-2 4481-3 3530-4 2839-5 EGlO 3 5
2048 1!98 5470 1548-0 4504-1 1351-1 4125-2 EE 4 3 5 9226 o 5909-1 3896-2 2636-3 1823-4 1284-5 EElO 3 5 4176 1 2643 1369 4847-0 1803-0 6937-1 2731-1 EG 4 4 1239 9189-l 7112-2 5716-3 4743-4 4042-5 EGlO 4 4
2924 1791 8763 2770--0 9059-1 3030-1 1029-1 EE 4 4 4 1048 1 6952-1 4770-2 3369-3 2437-4 1798-5 EElO 4 4 4396 1 2718 1369 1 4672-0 1683-0 6275-1 2395-1 EG 4 4 1470 1033-0 7707-2 6045-3 4932-4 4150-5 EGlO 4 5
3028 1 1823 8730 2680-0 8537-1 2783-1 9215-2 EE 4 4 5 1224 1 -1747-1 5146-2 3556-3 2533-4 1846-5 EElO 4 5 5369 1 3347 1 1718 1 6087 o 2276-0 8789-1 3466-1 EG 4 5 1773 1 1208-0 '8945-2 7060-3 5835-4 4986-5 EGlO 5 5
3703 1 2251 1 1097 3479-0 1144-0 3840-1 1308-1 EE 4 5 5 1462 1 9028-1 5972-2 4156-3 2997-4 2216-5 EElO 5 5 1462-C 9264-1 4678-1 1504-1 4863-2 1580-2 5160-3 EG 5 1 2818-1 2030-2 1471-3 1071-4 7836-6 5762-7 EGll l 1
1165-0 7001-1 3262-1 9134-2 2559-2 7170-3 2010-3 EE 5 1 2554-1 1615-2 1021-3 6455-5 4062-6 2581-7 EEll l 1 3856-0 2395-0 1174-0 3601-1 1111-1 3452-2 1079-2 EG 5 1 8232-1 5796-2 4104-3 2921-4 2091-5 1504-6 EGll l 2
3042-0 1797-0 8160-1 2192-1 5899-2 1590-2 4291-3 EE 5 7421-1 4590-2 2840-3 1758-4 1089-5 6745-7 EEll l 2 5097 o 3048-0 1413-0 3953-1 1115-1 3173-2 9103-3 EG 5 1 1303-0 8765-2 5931-3 4038-4 2765-5 1904-6 EGll 1 3
3931-0 2245-0 9701-1 2403-1 5976-2 1491-2 3734-3 EE 5 1162-0 6882-2 4081-3 2422-4 1439-5 8559-7 EEll 1 3 5313 o 3013-0 1291-0 3172-1 7878-2 1977-2 5012-3 EG 5 1694-0 1065-1 6744-3 4298-4 2758-5 1781-6 EGll 1 4
3940-0 2145-0 8632-1 1903-1 4222-2 9422-3 2115-3 EE 5 1486-0 8258-2 4598-3 2565-4 1433-5 8025-7 EEll 1 4 4943-0 2628-0 1023-0 2143-1 4546-2 9761-3 2122-3 EG 5 1983-0 1142-1 6635-3 3882-4 2289-5 1359-6 EGll 1 5
3472-0 1781-0 6558-1 1249-1 2401-2 4650-3 9079-4 EE 5 1 1704-0 8712-2 4469-3 2299-4 1186-5 6134-7 EEll l 5 1050 1 6436 o 3099-0 9255-1 2797-1 8543-2 2640-2 EG 5 2 2409-0 1661-1 1153-2 8050-4 5669-5 4013-6 EGll 2 2
8213 O 4794-0 2142-0 5624-1 1485-1 3940-2 1051-2 EE 5 2 2161-0 1310-1 7960-3 4843-4 2951-5 1801-6 EEll 2 2 1454 1 8661 o '+009-0 1127-0 3235-1 9446-2 2803-2 EG 5 2 3824-0 2529-1 1688-2 1137-3 7728-5 5299-6 EGll 2 3
1115 1 6351 O 2742-0 6831-1 1722-1 4391-2 1130-2 EE 5 2 3395-0 1980-1 1159-2 6814-4 4021-5 2381-6 EEll 2 3 1577 1 8987 o 3907-0 9973-1 2614-1 7014-2 1922-2 EG 5 2 4989-0 3101-1 1952-2 1245-3 8029-5 5240-6 EGll 2
1171 1 6415 O 2621-0 5992-1 1396-1 3305-2 7934-3 EE 5 2 4363-0 2400-1 1330-2 7425-4 4172-5 2359-6 EEll 2 4 1504 1 8095 o 3237-0 7227-1 1668-1 3960-2 9633-3 EG 5 2 5864 o 3361-1 1959-2 1160-3 6980-5 4257-6 EGll 2
1066 1 5547 O 2101-0 4263-1 8864-2 1882-2 4069-3 EE 5 2 5028 o 2563-1 1321-2 6879-4 3618-5 1921-6 EEll 2 5 2165 1 1274 1 5818 o 1623-0 4673-1 1382-1 4182-2 EG 5 3 6102 o 3900-1 2530-2 1667-3 1114-4 7542-6 EGll 3 3
1640 1 9252 O 3953-0 9784-1 2476-1 6378-2 1668-2 EE 5 3 5371 o 3035-1 1732-2 9972-4 5791-5 3389-6 EEll 3 3 25.<.5 1446 6381 1702-0 4737-1 1363-1 4021-2 EG 5 3 8018 o 4865-1 3022-2 1920-3 1244-4 8207-6 EGll 3 4
1872 1033 1 .i+289-0 1022-0 2513-1 6322-2 1618-2 EE 5 3 6964 o 3753-1 2057-2 1145-3 6468-5 3700-6 EEll 3 4 2542 1394 5795 1414-0 3633-1 9689-2 2656-2 EG 5 3 5 9500 o 5378-1 3146-2 1896-3 1171-4 7385-6 EGll 3 5
1822 9686 O 3821-0 8437-1 1934-1 4556-2 1095-2 EE 5 3 5 8109 o 4097-1 2124-2 1127-3 6099-5 3358-6 EEll 3 5 3215 1830 l 8077 2187-0 6243-1 1849-1 5619-2 EG 5 4 4 1063 1 6212-1 3769-2 2365-3 1529-4 1014-5 EGll 4 4
2365 '1302 1 5421 O 1312-0 3300-1 8513-2 2235-2 EE 5 4 4 9142 o 4764-1 2558-2 1410-3 7942-5 4558-6 EEll 4 4 3506 1951 1 8381 2196-0 6114-1 1768-1 5248-2 EG 5 4 5 1274 1 7054-1 4123-2 2523-3 1603-4 1049-5 EGll 4 5
2533 1369 1 5585 O 1317-0 3241-1 8192-2 2108-2 EE 5 4 5 1080 1 5365-l 2786-2 1500-3 8316-5 4716-6 EEll 4 5 4192 1 2334 1 1012 1 2728-0 7825-1 2331-1 7119-2 EG 5 5 5 1545 1 8271-1 4778-2 2931-3 1881-4 1248-5 EGll 5 5
3022 1640 1 6765 O 1636-0 4135-1 1072-1 2827-2 EE 5 5 5 1296 1 6266-1 3227-2 1744-3 9761-5 5605-6 EEll 5 5 9977-1 5725-1 2493-1 6260-2 1580-2 4011-3 1023-3 EG 6 2353-1 1322-2 7461-4 4233-5 2414-6 1383-7 EG12 1 1
8273-1 4504-1 1810-1 3960-2 8669-3 1898-3 4156-4 EE 6 1 1 2152-1 1060-2 5226-4 2576-5 1269-6 6257-8 EE12 1 1 2735-0 1543-0 6555-1 1581-1 3836-2 9364-3 2299-3 EG 6 6905-1 3796-2 2099-3 1166-4 6516-6 3659-7 EG12 1 2
2245-0 1204-0 4732-1 9987-2 2110-2 4464-3 9454-4 EE 6284-1 3035-2 1466-3 7086-5 3425-6 1657-7 EE12 1 2 3859-0 2108-0 8534-1 1902-1 4272-2 9667-3 2204-3 EG 6 1102-0 5809-2 3081-3 1643-4 8815-6 4755-7 EG12 l 3
3101-0 1615-0 6078-1 1195-1 2356-2 4658-3 9234-4 EE 9932-1 4609-2 2141-3 9951-5 4630-6 2156-7 EE12 l 3 4331-0 2260-0 8542-1 1701-1 3419-2 6937-3 1420-3 EG 6 1449-0 7179-2 3580-3 1797-4 9080-6 4616-7 EG12 1 4
3366-0 1681-0 5943-1 1054-1 1880-2 3368-3 6062-4 EE 1287-0 5632-2 2468-3 1083-4 4760-6 2096-7 EE12 l 4 4322-0 2130-0 7392-1 1279-1 2236-2 3954-3 7067-4 EG 6 l 5 1720-0 7859-2 3618-3 1678-4 7837-6 3686-7 EG12 1 5
3212-0 1521-0 4970-1 7744-2 1215-2 1919-3 3050-4 EE 1500-0 6075-2 2467-3 1004-4 4096-6 1676-7 EE12 l 5 7624 o 4247-0 1772-0 4160-1 9867-2 2363-2 5713-3 EG 6 2 2 2028-0 1094-1 5935-3 3242-4 1782-5 9856-7 EG12 2 2
6203 O 3290-0 1272-0 2622-1 5428-2 1128-2 2355-3 EE 1837-0 8712-2 4137-3 1967-4 9364-6 4464-7 EE12 2 2 1104 1 5992 o 2409-0 5347-1 1207-1 2762-2 6424-3 EG 6 2 3 3244-0 1682-1 8801-3 4644-4 2471-5 1325-6 EG12 2 3
8817 O 4570-0 1710-0 3353-1 6638-2 1326-2 2670-3 EE 2912-0 1331-1 6105-3 2810-4 1297-5 6009-7 EE12 2 3 1271 1 6634 o 2522-0 5126-1 1067-1 2264-2 4910-3 EG 6 2 4 4276-0 2094-1 1037-2 5196-4 2632-5 1348-6 EG12 2 4
9864 O 4936-0 1757-0 3184-1 5861-2 1094-2 2069-3 EE 3788-0 1640-1 7142-3 3130-4 1380-5 6115-7 EE12 4 1294 1 6415 o 2264-0 4087-1 7609-2 1449-2 2837-3 EG 6 2 5 5091 o 2311-1 1065-2 4982-4 2363-5 1136-6 EG12 2 5
9653 O 4610-0 1533-0 2496-1 4152-2 7039-3 1213-3 EE 6 2 5 4431-0 1785-1 7264-3 2983-4 1236-5 5162-7 EE12 5 1668 1 8914 o 3521-0 7666-1 1720-1 3940-2 9271-3 EG 6 3 3 5207 o 2613-1 1330-2 6861-4 2586-5 1697-6 EG12 3 3
1315 1 6733 O 2483-0 4794-1 9435-2 1888-2 3832-3 EE 6 3 3 4638-0 2056-1 9195-3 4144-4 1881-5 8602-7 EE12 3 2010 1 1046 1 3994-0 8298-1 1801-1 4007-2 9237-3 EG 6 3 4 6901 3297-1 1608-2 8007-4 4060-5 2093-6 EG12 3 4
1554 1 7774 O 2784-0 5167-1 9868-2 1928-2 3834-3 EE 6 3 4 6073 o 2572-1 1106-2 4821-4 2129-5 9508-7 EE12 3 4 2128 1 1064 1 3849-0 7381-1 1495-1 3116-2 6756-3 EG 6 3 5 8265 3697-1 1703-2 8060-4 3906-5 1930-6 EG12 3 5
1595 1 7711 O 2633-0 4557-1 8178-2 1508-2 2839-3 EE 3 5 7161 2852-1 1162-2 4635-4 2048-5 8816-7 EE12 3 5 2564 1 1321 l 4998-0 1044-0 2298-1 5253-2 1235-2 EG 6 4 4 9209 4236-1 2015-2 9886-4 4985-5 2575-6 EG12 4 4
1962 1 9745 O 3474-0 6484-1 1258-1 2507-2 5096-3 EE 4 4 8027 3287-1 1382-2 5946-4 2612-5 ll67-6 EE12 4 4 2866 1 1441 1 5309 o 1075-0 2312-1 5182-2 1195-2 EG 6 4 !5 1112 4855-1 2224-2 1063-3 5260-5 2680-6 EG12 4 5
2152 1 1049 1 3659-0 6654-1 1266-1 2480-2 4959-3 EE 4 5 9567 3737-1 1518-2 6378-4 2754-5 1215-6 EE12 4 5 3405 1 1703 1 6288 o 1297-0 2860-1 6576-2 1555-2 EG 6 5 5 1356 5712-l 2577-2 1230-3 6135-5 3162-6 EG12 5 S
2543 1 1238 1 4341-0 8043-1 1565-1 3137-2 6409-3 EE 5 5 1155 4378-1 1758-2 7386-4 3212-5 1433-6 EE12 5 5
 296 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

Table 7-7 (continued)

Gas-to-Wall, GW = gsw/(KB)B 2 CHAPTER 8
KB=O.o 0.1 0.25 o.se 0.75 i.oo lo25 KB:aO.,O 00 1 o.25 0.50 0.75 leOO l.25
6604 l 6164 1 :J583 1 4790 1 4163 1 3662 l 3256 1 GW 1 1 1 2754-1 1500-1 6048-2 1342-2 3007-3 6805-4 1554-4 GW 7 1
3218 1
2121 l
2675 1
1588 1
2036 1
1034 1
1307 1
5113 O
8505 O
2565-0
5602 O
1304-0
3733-0
6706-1
GW
GW
1 2
3
9822-1
1857-0
5225-1
9513-1
2033-1
3499-1
4255-2
6666-2
8997-3
1284-2
1922-3
2503-3
4149-4
4931-4
GW 7
GW 7 INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE
1582 1 1070 1 5972 O 2288-0 8890-1 3498-1 1394-1 GW 4 2665-0 1299-0 4433-1 7464-2 1272-2 .2193-3 3825-4 GW 7
1263 1 7712 O 3698-0 1099-0 3313-1 1007-1 3093-2 GW 5 3284-0 1508-0 4708-1 6835-2 1005-2 1495-3 2253-4 GW 7
2583-0 1337-0 5001-1 9834-2 1963-2 3982-3 8193-4 GW 7 2
1515 2
7646 1
1374 2
6056 1
1205 2
4346 1
9980 1
2605 1
8514 1
1624 l
7418 1
1044 1
6565 1
6845 O
GW
GW
2
3 5035 O 2529-0 9060-1 1669-1 3144-2 6068-3 1196-3 GW 7 2 3 (Enclosures Containing an Isothermal Gas)
5244 1 3699 2237 1 1012 1 4798-0 2349-0 1185-0 GW 1 2 7435 O 3579-0 1206-0 2019-1 3481-2 6179-3 1127-3 GW 7 2 4
4032 1 2551 1310 1 4534-0 1649-0 6230-1 2419-1 GW 2 9378 O 4280-0 1335-0 1972-1 3021-2 4779-3 7805-4 GW 7 2 5
2251 2 2019 1759 2 1461 2 1255 2 1100 2 9775 l GW 3 3 6838 O 3283-0 1103-0 1855-1 3237-2 5921-3 1118-3 GW 7 3 3
1124 2 8684 6084 1 3635 l 2263 l 1486 1 9653 O GW 3 4 1065 1 4981-0 1621-0 2631-1 4530-2 8242-3 1574-3 GW 7 3 4
7763 l
2950 2
5271 1
2632 2
3082 1
2295 2
1365 1
1920 2
6489 o
1658 2
3173-0
1458 2
1622-0
1299 2
GW
GW
3 5
4 4
1407 1
1175 1
6322 O
5179 O
1952-0
1559-0
2938-1
2280-1
4758-2
3668-"2
8146-3
6425-3
1473-3
1206-3
GW 7
GW 7
3
4
5
4
The radiating and absorbing characteristics of gases (Chap. 6)
1451
3631
1106 2
3232 2
7677 1
2827 2
4648
2379
2894 1
2062 2
1947 l
1817 2
1244 l
1621 2
GW
GW
4
5
1657 1
1652 1
7193 O
6688 O
2147-0
1826-0
3195-1
2443-1
5331-2
3847-2
9686-3
6815-3
1869-3
1307-3
GW
GW
4
5
5
5 and the effect of gas shape on gas emission (Chap. 7) constitute a
1759-1 8681-2 3018-2 5231-3 9158-4 1619-4 2890-5 GW 1 1
2047 1
2258
1805 1
~829 1
1502 1
1339 l
1121 1
8057 O
8509 O
4919-0
6563 O
3045-0
5146 O
1910-0
GW
GW
1 l
1 2 6456-1 3121-1 1052-1 1733-2 2884-3 4849-4 8236-5 GW 1 2 background for evaluation of radiative exchange in gas-containing
1271-0 5944-1 1907-1 2893-2 4436-3 6878-4 1078-4 GW 1 3
1800
1442
1325 1
9620 O
8401 O
5269 O
3980-0
1955-0
1912-0
7356-1
9315-1
2806-1
4595-1
1084-1
GW
GW 2
3
4 1908-0 8535-1 2563-1 3483-2 4788-3 6659-4 9365-5 GW 1 4 systems. But the exchange problem in its general form is so com-
2458-0 1042-0 2877-1 3433-2 4132-3 5033-4 6204-5 GW 1 5
1189
5788
7191 O
4822 l
3396-0
3737 1
9844-1
2555 1
2895-l
1832 l
8631-2
1365 1
2607-2
1049 1
GW
GW
2
2
5
2 1748-0
3506-0
8244-1
1608-0
2681-l
5025-1
4171-2
7350-2
6578-3
1097-2
1053-3
1671-3
1706-4
2594-4
GW
GW
2
2
2
3
plex _as to make desirable, where feasible, the development of ap-
5764 4416 3016 1 1668 l 9643 O 5768 O 3543-0 GW 2
46ú3
374'1 1
3184
2334
1868
1174
8043 O
3921-0
3630-0
1376-0
1699-0
5021-1
8175-1
1887-1
GW
GW
2
2
5365 O
7031 O
2368-0
2956-0
6996-1
8138-1
9371-2
9735-2
1288-2
1202-2
1819-3
1530-3
2630-4
2004-4
GW
GW
2
2
4
5
prox1mate methods for obtaining numerical solutions to practical
8698 1
8605 l
7013
6J7l
5288
4222
3578 1
2299 l
2591 l
1333 1
1955 1
8033 O
1523 l
4969-0
GW
GW
2
2
4942-0
7838 O
2173-0
3355-0
6392-1
9537-1
8551-2
1225-1
1180-2
1654-2
1693-3
2351-3
2497-4
3485-4
GW
GW 8
3
3
3
4
problems. These approximations are of several classes:
6886 1 4570 2581 1085 l 4895-0 2305-0 1116-0 GW 2 1061 1 4376-0 1183-0 1415-1 1806-2 2434-3 3449-4 GW 8 3 5
8962 O 3627-0 9556-1 1103-1 1380-2 1863-3 2686-4 GW 8 4 4
1126 2
1115 2
8901
8073
6664
5294 1
4561
2897
3348 1
1696 1
2555 1
1029 1
2001 l
6391 O
GW
GW
2 4
2 4 5 1271 1 5047 O 1309-0 1518-1 1955-2 2738-3 4080-4 GW 8 4 5 1. The temperature variations in the gas are ignored (this
1364 2
5120 O
1065 2
4101-0
7992 1
2948-0
5546 l
1717-0
4112 1
1010-0
3156 1
6012-1
2480 l
3612-1
GW
GW
2 5 5
l l
1311 1
1190-1
4870-0 1156-0
1593-2
1199-1
2156-3
1441-2
2945-4
1943-3
4065-5
2848-4
5662-6
GW 8
GW 9
5
1
5
1 chapter).
1086 1 8238 O 5467 O 2790-0 1444-0 7567-l 4024-1 GW 2 4451-1 5696-2 7366-3 9625-4 1271-4 1694-5 GW 9 1 2
1201 1 8434 O 4985-0 2098-0 8961-1 3875-l 1701-1 GW 3 9013-1 1071-1 1288-2 1565-3 1922-4 2385-5 GW 9 1 3
1124 1 7235 O 3752-0 1270-0 4365-1 1519-1 5364-2 GW l 4 1398-0
1864-0
1505-1
1777-1
1639-2
1714.;...2
1805-3
167:3-3
2011-4
1652-4
2264-5
1651-5
GW 9
GW 9
1
1
4
5
2. The dimensions of the enclosure, measured in radiation
1007 1 5913 O 2672-0 7191-1 1964-1 5434-2 1526-2 GW 5
2242 1
3297
1662 1
2340
1074 1
1423 1
5362 O
6476 O
2785-0
3083-0
1502-0
1526-0
8370-l
7792-1
GW
GW
1230-0
2522-0
1490-1
L869-l
1829-2
3323-2
2274-3
3919-3
2865-4
4707-4
3655-5
5755-5
GW 9
GW 9
2
2
2
3
mean-free-paths, are large; and radiative transfer may be treated
3349
3064
2200
1840
1193 1
8731 O
4497-0
2640-0
1778-0
8389-1
7304-1
2774-1
3096-l
9463-2
GW
.GW
3964-0
5350 O
4134-1
5002-1
4415-2
4816-2
4827-3
4770-3
5401-4
4857-4
6181-5
5077-5
GW 9
GW 9
2
2
4
5
as a diffusion process (Chap. 9).
3710 2572 l 1539 l 7139 O 3614-0 1951-0 1103-0 GW 3 3659-0 3782-1 4017-2 4391-3 4944-4 5731-5 GW 9 3 3
5894 o
5170
5164
3492
3229
2018
1666
8829 O
6056 O
4175-0
2379-0
2079-0
9827-1
1072-0
4196-l
GW
GW
3
3 8147 o
5729-1
7282-1
5824-2
6917-2
6194-3
6962-3
6880-4
7383-4
7955-5
8185-5
GW 9
GW 9
3
3
4
5 3. The temperature field is unidimensional, and a rigorous
6944 o 5950-1 5446-2 5337-3 5591-4 6222-5 GW 9 4 4
4900
6806 1
3225 l
4433 l
1849
2500 1
8469 O
1092 1
4362-0
5227 O
2404-0
2631-0
1383-0
1367-0
GW
GW
3
3
4 4
4 9923 o 8149-1 7410-2 7405-3 8015-4 9233-5 GW 9 4 5 treatment is feasible (Chap. 10).
5922 1 3746 l 2107 1 9778 O 5140 O 2875-0 1670-0 GW 3 5 1053 1 7448-1 6042-2 5592-3 5777-4 6488-5 GW 9 5 5
1889-0 1378-0 8607-1 3962-1 1842-1 8652-2 4100-2 GW 4 1 8409-2 8786-3 9275-4 9887-5 1064-5 1158-6 GWlO l 1
5230 O
7329 O
3659-0
4817-0
2149-0
2577-0
8939-1
9185-1
3763-1
3317-1
1603-l
1213-1
6913-2
4498-2
GW
GW
4
4
3189-1
6590-1
3199-2
6188-2
3243-3
5873-3
3322-4
5633-4
34:37-5
5461-5
3591-6
5350-6
GWlO
GWlO
1
1
2
3
4. Finally, if the problem at hand fits none of these categories,
8012 O
7915 O
4884-0
4439-0
L334-0
1873-0
6893-1
4495-1
2064-1
1094-1
6263-2
2699-2
1927-2
6753-3
GW
GW
4
4 1
1048-0
1454-0
8994-2
1102-1
7806-3
8561-3
6850-4
6730-4
6078-5
5351-5
5452-6
4321-6
GWlO
GWlO
1
l
4
5
allowance for three-dimensional temperature variation in the gas
1152 1
1908
7804 O
1245 1
4379-0
6646 O
1715-0
2415-o
6892-1
9138-1
2856-1
3585-1
1215-1
145'3-l
GW
GW
4
4
2
2
8952-1
1865-0
8543-2
1679-1
8254-3
1537-2
8073-4
1430-3
7995-5
1353-4
8017-6
1301-5
GWlO
GWlO
2
2
2
3 can be made by the zoning method (Chap. 11).
2273 1394 1 6804 O 2141-0 7048-1 2411-1 8521-2 GW 4 2 2992-0 2487-1 2111-2 1830-3 1621-4 1465-5 GWlO 2 4
2333 1325 1 5774 O 1509-0 4139-l 1181-1 3483-2 GW 4 2 4134-0 3106-1 2395-2 1895-3 1538-4 1278-5 GWlO 2 5
2195 1370 1 6938 O 2393-0 8934-1 3568-1 1503-1 GW 4 3 3 2768-0 2279-1 1922-2 1661-3 1474-4 1341-5 GWlO 3 3 The present chapter treats the case of an isothermal gas in
3225 1 1975 1 9804 O 3319-0 1221-0 4772-1 1947-1 GW 4 3 4 4519-0 3502-1 2621-2 2364-3 2058-4 1858-5 GWlO 3 4
3671 1 2124 l 9731 O 2896-0 9367-1 3207-1 1141-1 GW 4 3 5 6352 o
5456 o
4543-1
3752-1
3427-2
2726-2
2721-3
2102-3
2266-4
1718-4
1968-5
1483-5
GWlO
GWlO
3
4
5
4
an enclosure of any shape and waU:-temperature variation. Though
3077 l 1787 1 8394 O 2739-0 1021-0 4152-l 1789-l GW 4 4 4
4~84 1 2549 l 1211 1 4024-0 1495-0 5923-1 2445-1 GW 4 4 5 7858 o
8545 o
5154-1
4656-1
3690-2
3102-2
2874-3
2226-3
2411-4
1770-4
2149-5
1528-5
GWlO
GWlO
4
5
5
5
such a treatment is strictly valid in relatively few situations (for
3821 1 2088 1 9353 O 3031-0 1154-0 4797-1 2099-1 GW 4 5 5
8699-1
2755-0
5763-1
1765-0
3117-1
9082-1
1128-1
3028-1
4126-2
1021-1
1523-2
3482-2
5676-3
1200-2
GW
GW
5 1 1
2
6159-2
2359-1
5018-3
1852-2
4131-4
1470-3
3434-5
1179-4
2883-6
9549-6
2437-7
7808-7
GWll
GWll
1
1
l
2 example, a furnace chamber in which vigorous stirring is provided
4948-1 3660-2 2736-3 2067-4 1578-5 1217-6 GWll l 3
4474-0
5521 O
2722-0
3148-0
1296-0
1360-0
3804-1
3395-1
1130-1
8586-2
3399-2
2199-2
1035-2
5707-3
GW
GW
3
8017-1 5463-2 3764-3 2622-4 1846-5 1$14-6 GWll 1 4 by a high-momentum jet) it has been markedly successful in appli-
1121-0 6896-2 4292-3 2702-4 1720-5 1107-6 GWll 1 5
5966 O
6556 O
3157-0
4067-0
1221-0
1997-0
2531-1
6220-1
5321-2
1975-1
1133-2
6433-2
2446-3
2132-2
GW
GW 6698-1 5025-2 3815-3 2932-4 2279-5 1792-6 GWll 2 2 cation to many nonisothermal enclosures by the assignment to the
1167 1 6990 O 3272-0 9487-1 2844-1 8798-2 2803-2 GW 1413-0 1004-1 7251-3 5316-4 3957-5 2990-6 GWll 2 3
1536 8726 O 3785-0 9734-1 2606-1 7233-2 2072-2 GW 5 2 2304-0
3242-0
1521-1
1949-1
1023-2
1199-2
7021-4
7557-4
4911-5
4873-5
3500-6
3213-6
GWll
GWll
2
2
4
5
gas of an effective or mean radiating temperature. Recommenda-
1724 9161 O 3603-0 7911-1 1815-1 4330-2 1067-2 GW 5 2
1427 8142 O 3576-0 9559-1 2725-1 8247-2 2629-2 GW 5 3 3 2135-0
3525-0
1396-1
2174-1
9330-3
1387-2
6373-4
9157-4
4453-5
6257-5
3182-6
4418-6
GWll
GWll
3
3
3
4
tions for choosing this temperature will be discussed later (see
2141 1195 1 5127 O 1347-0 3829-1 1159-1 3680-2 GW 5 3 4
2617
2149
1394 1
1129 1
5608 O
4506-0
1337-0
1097-0
3463-1
3030-1
9533-2
9200-2
2741-2
2987-2
GW
GW
5
5
3
4
5
4
5025 o
4343-0
2870-1
2392-1
1717-2
1381-2
1076-3
8392-4
7038-5
5366-5
4790-6
3602-6
GWll
GWll
3
4
5
4
Sec. 8.11).
3038 1591 1 6411 o 1614-o 4590-1 1400-1 4535-2 GW 5 4 5 6304 o 3301-1 18·65-2 1136-3 7406-5 5119-6 GWll 4 5
6996 o 3194-1 1613-2 9024-4 5548-5 3688-6 GWll 5 5
2774 1 1354 1 5034 O 1182-0 3309-1 1029-1 3407-2 GW 5 5 5
4642-2 2950-3 1894-4 1227-5 8035-7 5308-8 GW12 l 1
4647-1
1585-0
2793-l
9266-1
1305-1
4154-1
3702-2
1100-1
1061-2
2946-2
3069-3
7973-3
8963-4
2180-3
GW
GW
6
6
1
1
1
2 1791-1 1101-2 6833-4 4285-5 2715-6 1737-7 GW12 1 2 The problem is to evaluate the net radiative interchange be-
3801-1 2211-2 1299-3 7717-5 4632-6 2807-7 GW12 1 3
2824-0
3805-0
1580-0
2011-0
6633-1
7760-1
1576-1
1602-1
3791-2
3350-2
9223-3
7091-3
2269-3
1519-3
GW
GW
6
6
1
l
3
4 6249-1
8880-1
3371-2
4359-2
1838-3
2164-3
1013-4
1086-4
5644-6
5514-6
3177-7
2830-7
GW12
GW12
1
1
4
5
tween any ,two source-sink wall zones Qi ~ i' or between any wall
zone and the gas Qi~ g' The introduction to Chap. 3 indicates that
4426-0 2189-0 7646-1 1338-1 2373-2 4261-3 7751-4 GW 6 1 5
4001-0 2269-0 9738-1 2413-1 6080-2 1562-2 4076-3 GW 6 2 2 5132-1 3023-2 1801-3 1086-4 6622-6 4083-7 GW12 2 2
7504 O 4119-0 1688-0 3906-1 9283-2 2268-2 5680-3 GW 6 2 1093-0 6126-2 3482-3 2007-4 1175-5 6971-7 GW12 2 3
1056 1
1267 1
5531 O
6254 O
2119-0
2198-0
4410-1
3980-1
9502-2
7507-2
2113-2
1465-2
4851-3
2961-3
GW
GW
6
6
2
2
1806-0
2579-0
9442-2
1236-1
5025-3
6050-3
2723-4
3027-4
1502-5
1548-5
8434-7
8077-7
GW12
GW12
2
2
4
5
in a gray enclosure Qi~ i must of necessity be expressible in the
9721 O
1486 1
5086 O
7587 O
1953-0
2830-0
4132-1
5821-1
9158-2
1285-1
2143-2
3001-2
5230-3
7411-3
GW
GW
6 3
3
3
4
16 76-0
2793-0
8686-2
1368-1
4589-3
6902-3
2474-4
3591-4
1361-5
1927-5
7643-7
1065-6
GW12
GW12
3
3
3
4 form Si Si (E i - E i), where Si Si now allows for the presence of the
4028-0 1833-1 8692-3 429?-4 z208-5 1178-6 GW12 3 s
1900 1
1569 1
9296 O
7537 O
3278-0
2601-0
6206-1
4866-1
1275-1
1018-1
2768-2
2334-2
6356-3
5745-3
GW
GW
3
4
5
4 3500-0 1540-1 7060-3 3384-4 1697-5 8891-7 GW12 4 4 absorbing medium as well as for wall reflections, and that the net
5116 o 2137-1 9542-3 4553-4 2313-5 1241-6 GW12 4 5
2209 1
2114 1
1051 1
9362 O
3629-0
2961-0
6988-1
5193-1
1519-1
1083-1
3587-2
2535-2
8955-3
6379-3
GW
GW
6 4
6 5
5
5 5776 o 2117-1 8467-3 3707-4 1769-5 9093-7 GW12 5 5 radiative loss by the gas will be

297
298 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
Qg,net Qg=l + Qg=2 + ... =L Qg=i
with
Qg=i = GSi (Eg - EJ
Abandonment of the gray-gas restriction introduces the complica-
tion that gas emissivity and gas absorptivity are no longer equal
aiJ.d that gas absorptivity is dependent on the source-surface tem-
perature. Consequently the reciprocity relation for exchange-areas
breaks down, and the radiative exchange between zones becomes
dependent on the zone temperatures as well as the differenc~n
their emissive powers. As in Chap. 5, directed-flux areas SiSí,
~ J 1'
· CS.1 ' Gs.1 ' equal to the ratio of the one-way flux to the black
emissive power of the emitter, are introduced to indicate this de-
pendence on source temperature.
The variables which influence the total-exchange and the
directed-flux areas are many: the system shape; the fraction and
disposition of the surface covered by sink-source as opposed to
no-flux (refractory) surfaces; the emissivities of all the surfaces
and of the gas. Although the calculational methods to be developed
can make rigorous allowance for all these variables, in their gen-
eral form they do not permit a visualization of the relative impor-
tance of the different design parameters. To offset this deficiency
the illustrative problems in this chapter will be based on a highly
simplified model of an enclosure which, though departing from
reality, succeeds strikingly in preserving the substantially correct
relation among the dominant variables. The model assumes that
the entire envelope can be represented by a single sink and a re-
fractory or no-flux surface' and that the disposition of these sur-
faces is such that the view-factor to the sink surface from any
point on the walls is the sarne as from any other point. This is
possible only when the sink and refractory are intimately mixed.
The walls are consequently referred to as speckled.
The general derivation of the exchange-areas and their appli-
cation to the speckled enclosure will be preceded by consideration
of some simple limiting cases.
8.1 Gas Surrounded by Black or Dark Gray Sink
When the bounding surfaces are black or dark gray, the con-
tribution to the radiative exchange by beams that have undergone
more than one reflection at the walls is small, and the calculation
of gas-surface interchange is greatly simplified. Since many in-
dustrial surfaces have emissivities above 0.8, this is an important
INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 299
limiting case. The radiative interchange rate at a black bounding
(8-1)
surface at uniform temperature is given by
(8-3)
(8-2)
where Eg and Cl!g,s are evaluated at the mean-beam length for the
shape. Now consider gray walls of emissivity Es, and focus atten-
tion on the radiation initially emitted by the gas towards a bounding
surface element. Partial absorption occurs at the surface, partial
reflection, partial transmission of the reflected radiation through
the gas, partial absorption on second incidence, etc., giving ris e
to an infinite series capable of evaluation from the absorptivity
relations of Chap. 6. The resulting sum is the gas-to-wall flux,
which must be smaller than that for a black walled system by a
factor lying between E5 and 1. If the emissivity is high (E> 0.8)
the use of the factor (E 5 + 1)/2 as a multiplier on Eq. (8-3) cannot
lead to much error. Then
(8-4)
The error introduced by use of this expression cannot exceed 10
percent if E5 is greater than 0.8; the rigorous formulation may be
found in a later section.
a. Small temperature differences. When Tg approaches Ts ,
Qg=s by Eq. (8-4) depends on the difference between two numbers
of similar magnitude, and accuracy is low. One might be tempted
to conclude that, since Eg approaches Cl!gs as Eg approaches Es,
the desired flux would be given by replacing the last parentheses
of (8-4) by Eg,av(Eg-EJ. But an additional factor (4 +a+ b - c)/4
(the factor K in Fig. 6-13) is needed; and
A Es + 1 -
4 +-a+
- b---c Eg,av (Eg-Es ) (8-6)
2 4
where
Eg evaluated at a temperature equivalent to the arith-
Eg,av
metic mean of Eg and Es, i.e., Tav = 4"1(Tg4 +T 54 )/2
a a1n Eg/a1n (pL)
b aln E/élln Tg
c power on Tg /Ts used to obtain Cl!gs from Eg - generally
about 0.5; 0.65 for C0 2 , 0.45 for H 20 (see Sec. 6.6)
300 RADIATIVE TRANSFER INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 301

As Tg approaches T,;
0.40 o.40

0.20
\U \U
and
b ·,q__-1---.,,,___, o.10 -:;:
b
·::;: o.10 ==ft=~f=tl-=f:Ç_~)'I::
ºú) o.os ==+1==1+1==1-==t --1--"'--__, o.os .úl
.§ o.06 f---tt---lf-+--ff--l-l'----cf+- 0.06 -~
rfJ

~ o.04 ~----+-li_,,_~ "~__..J___J o.04 rfJ The last three equations may be combined to give Eq. (8-6). An
crj
o 1-J~-+-,,__,<.+-,L-1__,,<-\--___,,,__ 6 alternative form is
0.02

(8-7)

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 1000 2000 3000 4000

The bracketed term will be recognized as an equivalent heat-transfer
Temp., ºR Temp., ºR
coefficient due to gas radiation.
Fig. 8-1. Charts for carbon dioxide and water vapor, showing rates of frac-
tional change of emissivity with fractional change in T or pL, as a function
of E: and T.
8.2 Gray Gas Bounded by a Single Source-Sink Surface

The derivation of Eq. (8-6) is given at the end of this section. Figure When the entire bounding surface is substantially uniform in
~emperature and can be treated as a single zone, the gas-surface
8-1 gives values of "a" and "b" for C0 2 and H2 0 vapor. When a
mixture of gases is present, mean values of a, b, and c should be mterchange can be derived from first principles. Of the radiation
used, each weighted for the different gases in proportion to their AEgEg emitted by the gas a fraction as (equal to emissivity Es for a
emissivities. An approximate values of a + b - c suffices, however, gray surface) is absorbed at the surface, anda fraction p is re-
since an er~or of 0.1 in it produces an error of only about three flected. A fraction T of the reflected radiation has a chance of
percent in Q. The use of (8-6) when Tg and Ts do not differ greatly further absorption and reflection at the walls, and so on. A sum-
(9/7 > Tg/Ts > 7/9) leads to results of generally higher accuracy mation of the absorbed terms leads to
than Eq. (8-4), and will usually save time as well by eliminating
the necessity for a tedious evaluation of gas absorptivity. Even Qgs = AEg EgEs [1 + PT + (pT )2 •.. ]
when Tg and Ts differ by a factor as great as two, the error due
to use of (8-6) seldom exceeds 10 percent. = AEg Eg E5 AEg EgEs
1 - PT 1 - (1 - E5 )(1 - Eg )
The derivation of Eq. (8-6) follows: Since a= aln E/aln pL
and b = aln Eg/ aln T g, Eg may be represented over a restricted AEg
(8-8)
range of variables by Eg = g(PL)ª T~. According to Sec. 6.6 1 1
+-- 1

ags = G:) e Eg(pL Ts/Tg, Ts)

Therefore
Eg Es

Evaluation of the above at pL TjTg gives A

GS = (8-9)
1 1
+- - 1
Eg Es
Substitution into (8-4) gives
This case is more rigorous than that of the previous section in its.
treatment of the effect of wall grayness but less rigorous in its replacement
+1
Q• g o=!S = A Es 2 Eg (T4+a+b-c_ T4+a+b-c) of a real gas by a gray one. Only for the latter condition is the transmittance
- - b-e
Ta+ - g s
g
302 RADIATIVE TRANSFER INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 303

through the gas independent of the history of the gas radiation.* Insight into Ai
the relation of this derivation by series summation to the more general one S1 S1 - - S1 S2 S1 S3
appearing later comes from rederiving (8-9) using the concepts of Sec. 3.1. P1
The net flux per unit surface areais (Ws- Hs); and that is to be expressed in D
A2
S1 S2 S2 S2 S2 S3
terms of Eg and E s· Incident flux density Hs is made up of EgEg coming di-
rectly from the gas and Ws (1-ag) coming from opposite walls through the
P2
gas. Leaving-flux density Ws is made up of direct emission EsEs and re- - - A3
flected incident flux (1- Es)H s. Then Sl S3 S2 S3 S3S3 - -
P3

and Allowance for absorption by the gas is included in the direct-ex-

change areas which appear in the determinants. The use of other
equations for SS in Chap. 3, however, must stop short of including
Solution of these for H and W permits evaluating the flux as
those whose derivations made use of the relation [ s 1 si = Ai
which cannot apply to gas-filled enclosures.
. /A _ EsEgEg - EsagEs (8-10)
Qg ;= s s - 1 - (1 - ag)(l - Es) Evaluation of SS for all source-sink combinations, including
the self-irradiation term SiSi, permits a determination of the values
which agrees with (8-8) when ag= Eg. of GS: Of the energy Ai Ei leaving a surface Ai per unit black emis-
sive power, Si Si returns to and is absorbed by Ai, Si Si goes to and
is absorbed by Ai, etc. The residue of the radiation must be ab-
8.3 Multizoned-Wall Enclosure Containing a Gray Gas; sorbed by the gas. Therefore
Diffuse Reflection

The formulation in Sec. 3.5 may be used without modification GSi = AiEi - [ sisi (8-12)
to predict. SS in an enclosure containing an absorbing gas. It is
F.or completeness as well as to present a useful new concept,
(8-lla) GS will be derived in a different way, one which introduces the gas-
surface direct-exchange area. Let the emissive power of the gas
be Eg, and the leaving flux density at any surface i be Wi. The flux
where iWi is the leaving-flux density at zone i when a value of zero incident on i is
is assigned to the E 's of all zones but j. If Cramer 's rule is used
to solve for iwi, (8-13)

- =AiEi AiEi [(-Dii)_ ô··E·] (8-llb)

Si~ D ii i Substitution of Ri from (8-13) into the definition of W,
Pi Pi
where
gives
*The derivation also assumes that all elements of the enclosure have the
sarne values of W and of H. This is rigorously true only for symmetrical
enclosures (spheres and infinite cylinders and slabs) although the error for L (si si - ôii ~) wi = -AiEiEi - gsiEg (8-14)
other shapes is small if Eg and Es are high. i pi pi
This differs from Eq. (3-24a) only in the presence of the term in
Eg.
304 RADIATIVE TRANSFER INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 305

Equations like (8-14) may be set up for each zone in the sys- ~ince by definition GSi = Qj(Ei-Eg), substitution from (8-17) for
tem. ln matri:x form, Qi and from (8-16) for gwi gives

Ai (8-18)
Si Si - - Si S2 Si S3 Wi
Pi
Equations (8- lla) and (8- llb) could have been obtained in like man-
SiS2 S2 S2 - A2 Si S3 W2 ner by letting zone i or j be the sole emitter.
P2
A3 Equation (8-18) may be shown to be the equivalent of Eq. (8-
Si S3 S2S3 S3S3 - - W3
P3 12). Although (8-18) appears to be simpler because it involves
fewer terms to evaluate, (8-12) is as easy to use because an in-
terest in GSi is usually accompanied by an interest in SiS 2, SiS 3 ...
as well; and the only new term to evaluate in (8-12) is SiSi. It is
good practice, however, to evaluate GSi from (8-18) and to use (8-
-Ai Ei Ei 12) as a check on its accuracy.
- gs 1 Eg
Pi
-A2 E2E2 8.4 Multizoned-Wall Enclosure Containing a Gray Gas;
-""'"'---- - gs 2 Eg (8-15) Specular and Diffuse Reflection
P2
-A3 E3E3 No new principles are involved here. The methods of Chap.
- - - - - gs 3 Eg 5 can be extended to a gas-filled enclosure in the sarne way that
P3
those in Chap. 3 were used to develop the material in Sec. 8.3. The
total-exchange areas between surfaces showing specular and diffuse
components of reflection may be determined from Eq. (5-12) when
the attenuation by the gas is included in the evaluation of the direct-
ln general, Eg is unknown and Eqs. (8-15) cannot be solved directly exchange areas (ll)s, (12)s ... The gas-surface total-exchange
for the W 's. They can however be used to determine total-exchange area is then obtained by difference
areas. Let all source-sink zones be kept at absolute zero and let
g be the only original emitter; and append a presubscript g to the
resulting W's to identify the restriction. The methods of Secs. 3.8 cs i = Ai Ei - L sis j
to 3.10 may be used to solve for gWi. ln determinant form
Alternatively, GSi may be derived in a manner analogous to
(8-16) that following Eq. (8-12) and extending through (8-18), with the fol-
lowing obvious replacements to allow for partial specular reflec-
tion:
where gDi is obtained by replacing the i th column of D by the coef-
ficients of Eg: -gsi, -gs 2 , -gs3, ... 1. gsi becomes (gs;)s, where
The argument from here on, to find GSi, is similar to that of
Sec. 3.5. Since Ei is here O and Wi equals PiHi
(gsJs = gsi + L (gsJm,n,p... Ps,rnPs,n Ps,p

2. sisi becomes (si si )5 , analogous to Eq. (5-12) but with gas

attenuation included.
(8-17)
3. wi becomes Wu, i ' and gwi becomes gwD, i .

4. p becomes Pu .
306 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
5. The radiation balances and the matrix equations are like
(8-14) and (8-15), except for substitutions 1-4.
6. Finally, GS 1 is given by (8-18), with substitutions 1-4.
8.5 Radiatively Adiabatic Surfaces; Gray Gas
As pointed out in Sec. 3.6, the formulation of the total-exchange
area between any source-sink zone pair can include the contributions
of any surface zones in radiative equilibrium. Briefly to recapitu-
late: At a gray diffuse-reflecting no-flux surface there is no means
of distinguishing the radiation which leaves the surface as a result
of absorption and reemission from that which has been reflected.
The calculation of the interchange is therefore simplified by assign-
ing the no-flux surfaces an emissivity of O and assuming that all
radiation incident on them is reflected. The total-exchange areas
so obtained are identified with a subscript R, for example, (GSh.
8.6 Equilibrium Temperatures of No-Flux
Surfaces; Gray Gas
At a no-flux surface Ar, Er = Wr [ see Eq. (3-4)]. The prob-
lem of determining the temperature thus becomes one of finding wr .
If Eq. (8-15) is solved by letting each zone in turn be the sole emit-
ter, Wr is given by the sum of the partial Wr 's
Er = Wr = W + \' ;W =gDr E + \' A1E1E1 (-Dri) (8-19)
g r L.... 1 r D g L.... D
i i P1
where gDr and Dri retain the meanings assigned them following
Eqs. (8-16) and (3-36). Equation (8-19) expresses quantitatively
the obvious qualitative conclusion that Er is the weighted sum of
the black emissive powers of the various original emitters present,
including all source-sink surfaces and the gas.
8. 7 Enclosure with a Single Refractory and a Single
Sink; Gray Gas · between surfaces. Then
As an example of the application of the above principles, con-
sider the simplest possible system capable of representing inter-
action among gas source, wall sinks, and no-flux surfaces, viz., a
gas at Tg interchanging radiation with a single sink zone of area
Ai,* the enclosure being completed by refractory surfaces grouped
*Equations (8-3) to (8-10) use the subscript s to designate a surface. From
here on, with an adiabatic zone r present, source-sink surfaces will be des-
ignated by 1, 2, ....
INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 307
together into a single no-flux zone Ar. The net interchange between
gas and sink is
where
(8-20)
and
(8-21)
The derivation is given at the end of this section. The separation,
in (8-20), of the reciprocal total-exchange area into two additive
terms, one allowing for the effect of surface grayness and one for
gas radiation and absorption and refractory-wall absorption and
reradiation, is a fortunate simplification specific to the two-wall-
zone + gas system; it is not a general property of gas-filled en-
closures.
Even (8-21) is somewhat difficult to visualize, with its three
direct-exchange factors each containing a mean gas transmittance
T as well as a view factor. If the sarne mean value of T is used in
all three terms, and Tis set equal to 1 - Eg, (8-21) becomes
(8-22)
a form which permits visualizing the relative contributions of Ai
and AR to the net flux from gas to Ai. Further simplification comes
from assuming the enclosure to be speckled. Then the mean beam
lengths for the evaluation of the transmissivity between Ai or Ar
and itself or between the two are all equal; and the view factor to
Ai (or Ar) from any point in the enclosure equals the fraction of
the total surface area covered by Ai (or Ar). Let Cs denote the
"cold" surface fraction Ai/ (Ai + Ar) and T the mean transmissivity
Substitution of these values into (8-21) and replacement of T by
1 - Eg yields
308 RADIATIVE TRANSFER INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 309

which, on substitution in (8-20), gives

1 1 (1 1) 1 (8-20)
(GSi)R = Ai ~ - + (GSik, black
(8-23)
1
+- - 1 Equation (8-22) is obtained from (8-21) by the substitutions: 11 = A 1F 11 T=
Eg Ai(l-F1r)T=(A1 -ArFr 1)T; lr=ArFr1T;rr=Ar(l-Fri)T;T= 1- Eg•

where Ar is the total surface area.

Equation (8-23) has a striking simplicity in view of the com-
plex process of heat-transfer it represents - emission from the
gas; reflection, absorption, and reradiation at the refractory sur-
faces; gas absorption; and multiple reflection at the sink surfaces.
Some practical consequences of the equation will be considered in
Sec. 8.10.
The derivation of Eqs. (8-20) and (8-21) follows. From Eqs. (8-11)
and (8-12)
8.8 Allowance for Nongray Radiation
The effect of nongrayness of gas on radiative interchange has
already been taken into account in some of the relations presented
[Eqs. (8-3), (8-4), (8-6) or (8-7)]. Only when the surrounding sur-
face is black and uniform in temperature is the problem manageable
with rigor by the simple replacement of the product (E g - E i) times
a single gray factor by the difference of separate terms, Eg E g -
ag,iE 1 • But an analogous procedure can be used as a first approxi-
mation toward allowance for nongrayness - the evaluation of two

- s,s, " A, 1, - A~:{A~:· 111 ~~~p: ~lr 1 - '•l

GS i 's, one based on gas emissivity to multiply Eg and one based
(as,). " A, 1, on gas absorptivity to multiply E 1 • Equation (8-20), for example,

l lr rr -Ar
then yields, for a single sink surrounding a gas,

1
(G8ih
and the net flux is*

Ei ) (8-'25)
1 1
Designation of the determinant in the numerator by B, partial expan- - 1 +- 1 +-1-
Eg 0'g, i
sion of the determinant in the denominator into B - (rr - Ar )(A ifp1), replace-
ment of p1 by 1 - E1, and the taking of reciprocals yield
Similarly, (8-22) or (8-23) is used without change if (GS 1)R is a
multiplier of Eg to obtain Q g->I.• but with D'gs replacing Eg if (GS 1 )R
is a multiplier of E 1 to obtain Qi-. g'

The above rather casual treatment of gas nongrayness suf-

1 ( 1 fices for many engineering applications. But in systems the walls
1) 1
=Ai ~ -
(8-24) of which are not dark gray the calculation of transmission between
+ A1 - 11 + (lr) 2 /(rr - Ar)
the zones of a system must take into account the variation of trans-
mittance with wavelength. ln the spectral regions of strong band
When E1 becomes 1, (GS 1 )R by definition becomes (GS 1 )R,black and,-from
(8-24),
*Thereader may bepuzzled by anapparent conflict between (8-25) and (8-10),
which covers the sarne physical situation and which was derived without as-
(8-21) sumptions as to gas grayness. An examination of the derivation of (8-10)
indicates, however, that the ªg in it is a gas absorptance for radiation W,
Equation (8-24) may therefore be written which in a nongray system is radiation of unidentified source made up partly
of direct surface emission and partly of multiply-reflected gas-transmitted
surface radiation and of gas radiation. The derivation provides no informa-
tion as to what ag should be used unless the gas is gray.
310 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
absorption the radiation from a zone will be attenuated after a short
passage in the gas, whereas in the spectral windows or in weak ab-
sorption bands substantially complete absorption of the radiation
leaving a zone may occur only after several passages through the
gas and several reflections at the walls. It is apparent that ex-
change between zones i and j is inadequately described by a single
exchange area sisi since the quality of the radiation will change on
successive passages through the gas, with the radiation in the strong
bands being filtered out first. One approach to this problem is to
follow separately the radiation in the wavelength regions corre-
sponding to different absorption coefficients in the gas. When the
surfaces are gray it is necessary to keep track only of the fraction
of the radiation corresponding to each absorption coefficient with-
out regard to spectral distribution. This approach will be con-
sidered in greater detail now.
Allowance for the variation in absorption coefficient may be
made as rigorously as desired by representation of the gas emis-
sivity and absorptivity as that from a weighted sum of gray gases.
ln the nomenclature of Sec. 6.11
Eg Or (li g, Si ~[a g, n(T)
= /_, g or as,n(T 1-)J (1-e-KnL)
The methods of Secs. 8 .4 and 8. 5 may then be used to obtain the
total-exchange area for each gray-gas component. Just as the total
emissivity has been expressed as the ag -weighted sum of individual
gray-gas emissivities, so the directed-flux areais now the ag- or
as -weighted sum of the gray-gas total-exchange areas
(8-26)
(8-27)
n
The subscripted symbols "a" and GS or SS have been written to
show that they are functions of T and KnL, respectively. (Note
that some of the flux from Ai to Ai will occur through windows in
the spectrum, where K = O; SiSi is then evaluated as in Chap. 3.)
When the surfaces are not gray, their spectral emissivity-
wavelength relations may be approximated by step functions, and
the directed-flux areas may be evaluated in each spectral range in
which the surface emissivities can be treated as constant. The in-
crease in computational effort is proportional to the number of
steps required to describe the surface emissivities.
INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 311
8.9 Allowance for No-Flux Surfaces; Nongray Gas
The spectral distribution of radiation emitted by a nongray
gas is unaltered on reflection from a gray surface; but the process
of absorption and reemission redistributes the energy throughout
the spectrum. Thus the transmissivity of the reflected and of the
absorbed-and-reemitted radiation will differ, and the magnitude of
the directed-flux-areas will depend on the emissivity of the no-flux
surface. This dependence can be allowed for by treating that sur-
face as a source/sink, with the no-flux condition considered only in
setting up the total energy balance on the surface; and the surface
will then be a net sink for some spectral bands and a net source for
others. The one exception in which the no-flux surface need not be
treated as a source/sink is the perfectly diffuse-reflecting surface;
the use of p = 1 in the exchange-area formulation is then valid.
8.10 Application of Principles
Once the total-exchange or directed-flux areas have been ob-
tained for a gas enclosure, an energy conservation statement con-
cerning each zone yields a set of equations which can be solved for
the unknown temperatures and fluxes. Energy conservation in the
gas takes the form
(8-28)
where
Q,, = total rate of energy transfer from the combustion gases,
the total-enthalpy decrease from feed to exit
Qu, g = transient terms
The corresponding equation for a surface i is
(8-29)
where Qnet, i includes useful flux, wall losses, anda transient term
if any, and is positive when the net flux is out of i into the enclosure.
Although the above procedures can in principle be used to
handle enclosures of any degree of complexity confining an isother-
mal nongray gas, an enormous amount of effort is involved if many
zones and many gray-gas components are used to describe the sur-
face of the enclosure and the gas emissivity. To illustrate princi-
ples (fortunately often without too much sacrifice of reality) the
312 RADIATIVE TRANSFER INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 313

next two examples will use the one-sink one-refractory speckled-
enclosure model of Sec. 8. 7.
a. Gray gas, gray sink Ai , no-flux surface AR, with Ai and
Ar intimately mixed (the speckled enclosure). The derivation in
Sec. 8. 7 led to the simple relation
(8-23)
Eg approached 1 the radiation from the gas envelope has only one
chance for absorption at the surface, and (GSi )R becomes propor-
tional to Cs Ei . Similar arguments could be used to arrive at (1)
and (2).
Knowledge of the equilibrium refractory temperature is often
of interest. Solution of the speckled enclosure case for Wr ( = Er)
gives

ER = Eg - ---[---=-
1 + Eg
Eg - Ei
-----
1
+2 - -
2-]
(8-30)
Some practical consequences of this relation are presented graph-
ically in Fig. 8-2: Cs Ei(l - Eg) Ei

(1) When the enclosure An example will be given of the usefulness of the concepts
<l=i
~ 1.0 surface approaches complete just presented: Early petroleum heaters and cracking-coil furnaces
. _...,
Q)
coverage by a sink which is were designed with separate heat-transfer and combustion cham-
~~
b.O
0.8 black, i.e., as Cs Ei approaches
bers. Attempts to employ some of the space in the combustion
chamber for heat transfer started cautiously, with the placement of
1, the effect of gas emissivity
too few tubes in the chamber; and these tubes were the first to burn
on (GSi )R becomes one of pro-
portionality. out. The cause of these failures was eventually recognized and the
flux density onto the tubes reduced by greater coverage of the sur-
(2) When the furnace wall face of the combustion chamber with tubes. The well-stirred speck-
is covered to a considerable led-furnace model will be used to demonstrate the effect of sink
extent by refractory surfaces coverage on the heat flux to the combustion chamber walls of such
and/ or the sink emissivity is a furnace, for the following conditions: Total wall area AT = 1,000
o 0.2 0.4 sq. ft.; Ei = 0.81; Ti = l000°R; the gas is gray and Eg = 0.4; the
Eg (if gray gas); low (Cs Ei << 1), the effect of
changing Eg is to produce a firing rate is 20 x 106 Btu/hr ., above a base temperature of 60 ºF;
or Eg/a ( if real gas, white refr.)
and the heat-capacity flow-rate product (IhCp) of the combustion
much less than proportional
Fig. 8-2. Performance of speckled products (assumed independent of temperature) is 5000 Btu/(ºF)(hr.).
enclosure filled with gray gas (real
effect on (GSi )R. Making a
Convection is to be neglected. The governing flux relation and energy
gas if refractory is white, see Sec. flame luminous, for example,
balance are
8.lüb). Gas - surface total- exchange then has a limited advantage.
area, in dependence on gas emissivity
Eg, sink emissivity E1 , and fractional (3) With a fixed furnace AT 1_ _
Q g o= s = __1___
coverage C, of envelope by sink. size and therefore a fixed en-
+- - 1
velope area, decreasing the C sEi Eg
surface emissivity or coverage of the surface by a sink from unity
to, say, O.5 when the gas is very transparent produces almost no and
effect on (GSi)R. (8-31)

(4) Decreasing Cs Ei from unity when the gas is substantially
opaque produces a proportional decrease in (GSi )R.
A little consideration could have led to the above conclusions: when
the gas is very transparent the beams reflected from the surface
have many chances for further absorption at it, in consequence of
which a decrease in C5 Ei produces little effect on (GSi)R; but when
These may be solved for the unknowns, Tg and Qgo=s· The depend-
ence, on C 5 , of TG and the flux density q at the sink surface
(= Q ~/CsAT) is shown in Table 8-1. ln the limit of zero sink
cove~age the enclosure becomes a blackbody cavity at the adiabahc
flame temperature, with enormous flux densities at the walls. The
punishment on the sink surfaces decreases with increased coverage
314 RADIATIVE TRANSFER INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 315

· Table 8-1. (GSi)R, gray-gas

cornponent
The Dependence of Radiating Temperature and Flux Density
at the Sink on the Fractional Coverage of an Enclosure with
Sink Surface
The desired directed-flux areais the ag-weighted value of the above:
2
Conditions: Firing rate= 20 x 10 6 Btu/hr; AT = 1,000 ft ;
E1 = 0.81; Ti = lOOOºR; gray gas, Eg= 0.4
(8-33)

Cs O* 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0

q(10 3 Btu/hr sq ft) 573 82.2 34.4 22.4 16.6
Tg ( °R) 4520 2875 2435 2280 2200
(Eg- Er)/(Eg- Ei) o 0.1106 0.2814 0.407 0.563 0.612
*V alues at C s = o are highly unrealistic because of the assumption of no
radiative losses through the area of gas efflux from the chamber.
of the walls by the sink, in consequence of a decrease in gas tem-
perature and the smaller fractional absorption of the gas emission
per unit sink are a. The refractory surface tem per ature, obtainable
from (8-30) which gives (Eg -Ei)/Eg-Er) = 0.812 + 0.823/C., is
1550°F when Cs = 1/2.
b. Nongray gas (1gray+1 clear), gray sinkAi, and com-
pletely diffuse-reflecting no-flux surface Ar forming a speckled
enclosure. Although the accurate expression of a real-gas emis-
sivity as the weighted sum of a gray-gas series requires several
terms, a simplification which gives remarkably good results is
fortunately feasible. If the surface reflectivities are not very large,
a beam of radiation from the gas is attenuated rapidly in its suc-
cession of reflections and transmissions, and an adequate descrip-
tion of gas emissivity is given by the one-gray-plus-clear-gas
description of emissivity. Briefly to review that model of gas emis-
sion [ see Eqs. (6-69) to (6-74) J: if Eg (Lm) and Eg (2Lm) are deter-
mined for mean beam lengths of Lm and twice that value, then the
energy fraction ag of the blackbody spectrum in which the gas
radiates and absorbs is given by
12.0
(Gsi)R differs from (GS1h only in the replacement of Eg and ag(T g)
2120 by QI gs and as (Ti). If the net flux is wanted and Tg and Ti do not
differ by more than a factor of 2, then Eg evaluated at the arithmetic
mean temperature and m~ltiplied by (4 +a+ b - e)/ 4 (see Sec. 8.la)
can be used to obtain a (GSih which will serve as an approximation
for both emission and absorption. (The double arrow over GS indi-
cates that, even though the gas is nongray, reciprocity has been
established between the directed-flux areas by use of the methods
of Sec. 8.1.) ~
Figure 8-2 is a graphical representation of Eq. (8-33), with
Eg /ag as abscissa and (GSi )R/agAT as ordinate. A comparison with
the gray-gas model [Eq. (8-23)] is desirable. As CsEi _, 1 the two
models give identical results. At lower Cs Ei the nongray gas sur-
face exchange will be smaller than the gray-gas equivalent, for a
given Eg, since a nongray gas absorbs a greater fraction of the gas
emission (Eg/ag vs Eg). Consider an enclosure with CsEi = 0.4 and
Eg = 0.3. If the gas is gray, Eq. (8-23) gives
(GSi)R 1
_A_T_ = 2.5 + 3.33 - 1 = º· 207
If the emissivity is the sarne but the gray-plus-clear-gas white-
refractory model is used anda= 0.4, Eq. (8-33) gives
(Gsih = 0.4 = o 141
AT 2.5+3.33X0.4-1 .

(8-32) The true answer is about 0.165 (see end of part e, this section).

e. Nongray gas, gray sink Ai. gray refractory surface A 2 •

If the refractory walls are perfectly reflecting, the emission from
the gas ' of emissivity Eg /a s in this fraction of the spectrum, is
.
eventually absorbed at Ai or in the gas; and the gas-surface total-
exchange area in the spectral fraction agis, according to Eq. (8-23)
The latter is here temporarily designated by A 2 - a sink - rather
than by Ar because, although it is truly a no-flux surface for radia-
tion (with convection balanced by conduction through the wall), it
acts like a sink for gas radiation in that part of the spectrum where
316 RADIATIVE TRANSFER INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 317

the gas is an emitter and like a source with respect to Ai in the heat transfer is not without its cost, since it is accompanied by an
windows of the gas spectrum. The net radiative loss of the gas is increase in refractory temperature and external heat losses. For
the net radiative gain of Ai, given by enclosures in which the latter factors are important, as in an open-
hearth furnace, a low refractory emissivity is to be preferred.

(8-34) Although it is desirable in furnace calculations to allow for

the effect of both the gas not being gray and the refractory not being
white, there are two difficulties:

The term in the bracket, allowing as it does for the radiation from
gas to Ai with the aid of the no-flux surface A2, is properly desig-
nated (~)R. For a speckled enclosure it takes the form (with E2
now redesignated Er)
(8- 35)
(1) Allowance for grayness of refractory is in general com-
plicated; and a readily usable expression like (8-35) is available
only for this simplest of models of enclosures.
(2) More often than not, almost nothing is known about the
emissivity of the refractory surfaces of a furnace interior, partly
because of effects of contamination and crystal growth and partly
because refractories are often replaced during the life of the fur-
nace.

The derivation of Eqs. (8-34) and (8-35) and the definition of equiv-
alent gray emissivity Eg, e are presented at the end of part d of this
section.
The above expression for (GSih reduces to the gray-gas ex-
pression, Eq. (8-23), when agis set equal to 1, and to the nongray
white refractory expression, Eq. (8-33), when Er is set equal to zero.
Unfortunately a simple graphical presentation of the relation is not
possible since four independent variables are involved, -Cs Ei,
(1 - Cs)Er' Eg,e, and ªg· To illus-
trate the effect of the refractory
LO emissivity Er , which appears here
as an independent variable for the
Cs=O
o.8 1-----+------+-----''-+--~ first time, a specific problem will
be considered. Figure 8-3 shows
:€0.6 (GSi_)R per unit of sink area for an
~ enclosure in which Eg, e = O. 3, a =
180.4 0.4, and Ei = 0.8. Increasing the
refractory emissivity increases the
heat transfer to the sink, particularly
when a significant fraction of the wall
is covered with refractory (low Cs ).
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 LO This increase is a result of the re-
refractory emissivity, Er distribution, throughout the spectrum,
of the energy absorbed and reemitted
Fig. 8-3. Effect of refractory
emissivity on the gas-surface
by the refractory, with attendant in-
total- exchange area for a real crease in radiation reaching the sink
gaS ill a Speckled furnace; E g, e = through the windows in the gas ab-
0.3, a= 0.4, E1 = 0.8. sorption spectrum. The increase in
A reasonable refractory emissivity is 0.5 (a number of materials
are in that range), and in the absence of specific knowledge that is
as good an assumption as can be made. The (GSi)R of the real-gas
gray-refractory model always lies between that of the gray-gas
any-refractory model [Eq. (8-20) and (8-21) or (8-22) J and that of
the real-gas white-refractory model [ Eq. (8-33)]. The two limiting
cases are relatively easy to evaluate, even for geometrical models
less simple than the one used in this section; and comparison of
Eqs. (8-23), (8-33) and (8-35) indicates that (GSi)R obtained by use
of the correct (8-35) on the assumption that Er(= E2 above) is 0.5,
is roughly one-third the value from (8-23) plus two-füirds the value
from (8-33). That is the basis for the recommendation: Unless the
radiating characteristics of a furnace refractory are known and the
design merits the expenditure of a large effort, (GSi )R - which is a
full characterization of the radiative performance of the chamber -
may be obtained as the weighted mean of values of (GS i)R obtained
for the two models, (a) the gray-gas model and (b) the real-gas
white-refractory model, with double weight being given to the latter.
But this is an empirical approximation, valid in the range of most
industrial furnaces.
d. N ongray gas, enclosed by two gray sinks Ai and A 2 . This
variation on case (b) has interest for at least two reasons: it yields
the basic equations from which case (c) above is derived, and it
covers the case which follows. Consider a gas, a primary heat
sink Ai, and a refractory surface the externa! loss through which
is so large that it cannot be treated as radiatively adiabatic be-
cause the interna! gain by convection is so much less than loss by
318 RADIATIVE TRANSFER INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 319

conduction through the wall (e.g., the roof of an open-hearth fur- If the furnace is treated as speckled, with e denoting thewallfractioncovered
nace). Then the refractory surface becomes a secondary heat sink, by A 1 and T the gas transmissivity, the following substitutions may be made
and is designated by A 2 rather than Ar· into the above relations:

Three total-exchange are as are needed, GS1 , GS 2 and S1 S2

or, if allowance is to be made for lack of reciprocity, six. The
heat transfer relations are
__;. ~
These yield
Qgc=l = GS1 Eg - GS1 Ei + hiA1 (Tg - Ti) (8-36)
__;. ~
s;B;:, s;s;-, or GS 1 [CsE1T, (1- Cs)E2T, or (1- T)] CsEl
Qgc=2 = GS 2 Eg - GS2 E2 + h2A2 (Tg - T2) (8- 37) AT 1- T+ (CsE1 + (l -Cs)E2]T
~ (8-42)
Q2c=l = S2S1 E2 - S 2 S1 Ei (8- 38)
Expressions for S 2S 2, and G~ are obtained from (8-42) by the inter-
If surface A 2 is losing heat to the outside at a rate A2U (T2 - To) change of E2 and E1, and of 1 - Cs and C,. The transmittance T for the gray-
an energy balance on A 2 yields gas component has different values in different terms of the above relation
(8-42); it depends on the temperature of the source of the radiation and, for
(8- 39) the one-gray + one-clear-gas model, it is [ 1 - Eg/ ag (Tg )] , [ 1 - agi/ as (T1)],
and [ 1 - a g2/ as (T2 )] for radiation originating in the gas, at surface 1, and at
surface 2, respectively. For the clear-gas component T equals 1. The di-
When the source temperature T g and the primary sink temperature rected-flux areas are given by the weighted sums of the effects of the gray
T 1 are specified, (8- 37) through (3- 39) constitute three equations in and clear components, i.e.,
Qgc= 2 , Q 2""' 1 ' and T 2 (or E 2 ). A solution for the unknown refractory
temperature T2 (by trial and error since it appears raised !º the
(8-43)
first and fourth powers) permits calculation of the desired Q's.

For the design of the radiant sections of many industrial fur-

naces cases (c) and (d) represent adequate models. If any attempt and
is to be made to predict the details of flux distribution over the sur-
faces, however, some allowance must be made for gas temperature
variation within the chamber (Chap. 11).

The derivation of the relations used in examples (e) and (d) follows: [1 - as(Tl)]Cs(l - C,)E1E2
+ (8-44)
From Eq. (8-12) CsE! + (1 - Cs)E2

The second term in Eq. (8-44) corresponds to the clear-gas component - the
radiation passing through the windows in the spectrum. Since (8-43) and (8-
From Eq. (8-llb) 44) must in principie be rewritten with arrows reversed, the terms Eg• ag 1 ,
a g2, a g• a, 1 and as 2 will appear; and a simplification is desirable. Compari-
son in Sec. 8.1 of Eqs. (8-4) and (8-6) indicates that separate values of Eg and
a gs can for a geometrically simple system be replaced by a single term,
(8-40) (4 + a + b - e)/ 4 times a gas emissivity evaluated at a temperature equivalent
11 - Ai/p 1 12 1 to the arithmetic mean of the emissive powers of the gas and sink. Let the
product Eg, av(4 + a+ b - e)/ 4 be called the effective or equivalent-gray emis-
12 22 - A2/p2
1 sivity Eg, e· Let Eg,e be determined at Lm and at 2Lm, anda single ag be de-
termined from them as in the paragraph preceding Eq. (8-32); and in (8-43)
and
and (8-44) let the single Eg,e be used wherever a gas emissivity or absoríi-
tivity appears, and the single ag be used wherever an ag or as appear~Then,
(8-41) in (8-43) E g is changed to E g, e and a doubled-ended arrow is put over GS ;
and (8-44) becomes
320 RADIATIVE TRAN8FER
INTRODUCTION TO GA8-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 321

___;i,. _...:i.. .t........- L-- ____li. L..-

(a) Surface As is black. GS = gs and GS = gs. gs or gs,

from Sec. 7.4, is As times Eg or ags· These are based on the av-
erage mean beam length Lm.
(1 - ag)Cs (1 - Cs)Ei E2
+ (8-44a)
CsEi + (1 - Cs)E2 (b) Surface is gray
The directed-flux areas in Eqs. (8-44) and (8-36) to (8-38) become the ex-
change-areas Gsi, GS2, and 8i82. 1 1 ( 1
Gs or Gs = As -;: - 1 + Eg (8-2 5)
ln example (e), h 2A2 (Tg - T 2 ) = A2 U(T 2 - T0 ), and the corresponding
net radiative flux at A 2 is zero. Then or use approximations (8-4).
~

G82 (Eg - E2) = 8i82 (E2 - Ei) (8-45) (2) The gas is gray - Eg ags. There is then no distinction
between Gs and Gs above, and
8olution for E 2 gives

E2 =
Gs2 Eg + S;-8 2Ei
,,_____,. (8-46) Qgc='s = GS(Eg - Es) = 1 A~ 1 (Eg - Es)
G82 + 8i82 - - 1 +-
Es Eg
Addition of the radiation terms of (8-36) and (8-37) gives the net rate of loss
of radiation by the gas; a corresponding addition of terms in (8-36) and (8- (3) Single-gray-plus-clear-gas model [ see Eq. (8-32)]
38) gives the net rate of gain of radiation by surface Ai· The two are equal,
and substitution of the value of E 2 from (8-46) yields, after some rearrange-
ment -----' agAs
GS = from (8-33)

[
Gsi +d-: ~J
8i82 G82
(Eg - Ei)
(8-34)

Gs from Gs by
1
Es
ag
- 1 +-
Eg

replacement of ag by as, Eg by ags·

8ubstitution from (8-43) and (8-44a) into the bra~eted ter!!1_. [ designated
(Gsi)R] and interchange of subscripts to obtain G82 from GSi finally yields
b. Gas at uniform temperature surrounded by sink A 1 and a
refractory or radiative-equilibrium surface Ar, each at a uniform
temperature.
1
Qgc='l = (Gsi)R Eg - (Gsi)R E1

with (Gs 1)R a function of Eg or of Eg and ag, and (Gs1 )R the sarne
When Ti < T g/2 the distinction between Eg,e and Eg may be ignored.
function of a gl or of ag1 and ªsi·

8.11 Recapitulation of the Simpler Cases Treated (1) Partial allowance for nongrayness of gas; Eg 7" agl·

a. Gas at uniform temperature completely surrounded by a (a) Surface is black

sink As ata uniform Ts. ln general,
(8-22)
Qgc='s = Gs Eg - Gs Es x_1 )
(1) Partial allowance for gas nongrayness made by distin- Fr1
guishing between Eg and ags
322 RADIATIVE TRANSFER INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 323

~ agAT
(b) Surface is gray (GSi )R = --~-- (8-33)
1 ag
- - +-- 1
1 1 (1 ) 1 (8-20) Cs E i Eg
(Gsi )R = Ai fi" - l + [ (Gsi )R] black
(4) Single-gray-plus-clear-gas model, gray refractory of
(2LThe gas i~gray; Eg = O'gs· There is then no distinction area Ar.
between (GSi)R and (GSi)R in (1) above.
,_____, Ar
(3) Single-gray-plus-clear-gas model, diffuse perfectly re- (GSi)R = - - - - - - - - - = - - - - - - - - (8-35)
flecting refractory [see Eq. (8-32) for ag]· 1
+ (1- e s)Er ag
(2- -
1) + (-1 + _1
Eg,e CsEi
1 1 [ 1 ( 1 1)
(Gs1)R =-;;;Ai + Ei" -
Ai
_IT: . lr
2

rr - Ar
]
[ Eg,e defined in paragraph following Eq. (8-44)].

8.12 Effective Radiating Temperature of the Gas

with 11, lr and rr based on a gas transmittance of 1- Eg/ag. This
yields The calculational methods of this chapter are based on the
assumption that the whole gas mass can be assigned a single ef-
1 1 (1 fective radiating temperature. This temperature is obtained by
--=::::;::--- = -- -
(GSi )R agAi Ei simultaneous solution of one or more heat-transfer equations plus
an energy balance on the gas; but the bookkeeping on energy quan-
tities can cause difficulties. Let the enclosure contain sinks, Ai,
A 2, ... at fixed temperatures and some adiabatic refractory sur-
faces Ari As .... There are two cases, the well-stirred and the
(4) Single-gray-plus-clear-gas model, gray refractory of not-so-well stirred enclosure.
area Az.
ln the well-stirred enclosure the radiating-gas and leaving-
(8-34) gas temperatures are the sarne. That temperature is affected by
net radiative exchange with all surfaces and by convective transfer
at all surfaces except that through which the gas flows as it leaves
the chamber. Let Ai be a sink (such as the first row of a tube
c. Sarne as case b, except that Ai and Ar are intimately nest) at which the gas leaves the combustion chamber. It is clear
mixed (the speckled furnace) that the stirring of the gas will stop short of an imaginary surface
near the exit grid and that convective transfer at Ai will in con-
(1) Partial allowance for gas nongrayness; Eg "" ct gs· sequence not affeét the mean radiating temperature of the gas.

The imaginary surface divides the furnace into a radiant sec-

(8-2 3) tion or combustion-chamber section, and a convection section; but
+- - 1 radiation from the first to the second crosses the boundary. * The
heat-transfer equation for the gas is then
(2) Gas gray; Eg = ctgi· There is no distinction between Qg,net = Q g""'i + Qg""'2 + · · • + Q c,ref (8-47)
(Gsi )R and (Gsi )R
(3) Single-gray-plus-clear-gas model, diffuse perfectly *This causes some difficulty in comparing calculated with experimentally
reflecting refractory determined separate performance of the two sections of a furnace. An esti-
mate must be made of the radiation crossing the imaginary surface.
324 RADIATIVE TRANSFER INTRODUCTION TO GAS-RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 325

where will de_pend solel! on the local temperature, and the interchange
Qg~l = (GS1)R Eg - (Gs1k Ei are_a~ mvolved w1ll be based on a two-dimensional model. But the
:rahdity of the assumption that radiant flux in the gas-flow direction
Q g~ 2 = (Gs2)R Eg - (Gs2k Ez + h2A2 (Tg -T2) etc. is of secondary importance must be established. The calculation of
the_ perfor_m~nce of this type of enclosure and the conditions under
and wh1ch radrnhon along the axis can be neglected will be discussed
Qc,ref = convective transfer from gas to refractory in greater detail in Sec. 14. 7.

externai loss through refractory (by assumption)

The energy balance on the gas up to the imaginary surface is

(8-48)

The right-hand terms represent enthalpy flux in and out of the cham-
ber fed at the mass rate rh, with entering enthalpy evaluated above
the base T0 • Simultaneous solution of (8-47) and (8-48) yields Qg,net
and Tg.

Many furnace chambers, however, are not well-stirred.

Sizeable temperature gradients occur in them as a result of a com-
plex interaction between mixing, chemical reaction or combustion,
gas recirculation and heat transfer. ln these cases the heat trans-
fer may be smaller or greater than the well-stirred prediction.
Of the two possibilities the smaller heat fluxes are rarely en-
countered but they may occur when mixing is slow and a large sec-
tion of the enclosure is occupied by incompletely burned fuel. ln
general the well-stirred model predicts a minimum performance
of which the system is capable; and it is found that better agree-
ment between predicted and experimental results is obtained, for
a given class of furnaces, when the assumption is made that the
radiating temperature and the exit-gas temperature differ by a
known amount. ln a number of marine-boiler tests used to deter-
mine what value of this difference produces agreement between
experiment and the equations recommended, the difference was
found to be about 300ºF. This value will differ slightly with oper-
ating conditions and significantly with furnace type; a fuller dis-
cussion of the factors which influence the difference will be given
in Chap. 14. Meanwhile it is recommended that, for ptedicting fur-
nace performance with Eqs. (8-47) and (8-48), this relation be used:
(T g , for heat transfer) - (T g , for energy balance) = 2 00 º F to
300°F.

Another type of enclosure representing a limiting condition

is one in which reaction or combustion occurs substantially instan-
taneously at the inlet and the temperature falls continuously from
inlet to outlet. When such an enclosure is long compared with its
cross section normal to the direction of gas flow, the local flux

CHAPTER 9
RADIATION AS A DIFFUSION PROCESS
9 .1 Introduction
The introduction to the previous chapter indicated the possi-
bility of sometimes simplifying the treatment of radiation flux in
gas-containing systems by making use of the diffusion character-
istics of radiation. Consider an absorbing* medium in dynamic
radiative equilibrium. A photon emitted by a particle or molecule
travels in a straight line until absorbed, and a newly emitted photon
proceeds in a direction unrelated to that of the first. When the mean
free path of the photons is small relative to the system dimensions
the photon flux, by analogy to molecular transport processes, will
be described by a diffusion equation. The diffusion processes are
somewhat different, however; molecules collide with one another
and travel with a Maxwell distribution of speeds; photons collide
with particles, not with one another, and their speed is constant.
Photon diffusion is also similar in some respects to neutron diffu-
sion [3 ]. Methods developed for quantitative treatment of any one
of the three diffusion processes have some applicability to the other
two.
Radiative flux through pores and cracks in nonconducting
solids may also be treated as a diffusion process analogous to Knud-
sen diffusion of gases in pores. Photons streaming through one end
of a pore collide with the walls whence they proceed, as a conse-
quence of diffuse reflection or of absorption followed by emission
of new photons, along paths which bear no relation to those of the
incident photons. After a number of such collisions the photons
may emerge from either end of the pore. When the characteristic
length-diameter ratio is large, the flux through the pores is de-
scribable by a diffusion equation.
9.2 Diffusion through Absorbing Media
Rosseland derived the photon diffusion equation in 1931 [ 17]
by extension of a basic notion of Jeans [ 12]; it has been rederived
many times since [ 5, 13, 15]. Either a discrete or a continuum
model may be used to derive the equation. The derivation for a
gray medium will be given first.
*Scattering media are discussed in Chap. 13.
326
RADIATION AS A DIFFUSION PROCESS 327
a. Discrete model. Designate the velocity of photons in a medium of
refractive índex n by c/n, the average distance between collisions*- the
mean free path-:- by e (the r_eciprocal of the absorption coefficient K), and
the energy dens1ty at any pomt by u. If photon transfer is analogous to the
molecular transport of energy or momentum the heat flux vector will take
the form
( c/n) e
q = - - - grad (u) (9-1)
3
To obtain this relation consider, in a unidimen-
sional temperature field varying in the x direc-
tion, a beam of radiation (Fig. 9-1) streaming
through and at an angle 13 to the normal to area
dA lying in an isothermal plane. In unit time
the energy content of a column c/n long and of
cross-sectional area dA cos 13 passes through
the area. If the total energy density is u and
the divergence angle of the beam is dn (formed
by rotation of the plane angle dl3 around the nor-
mal; dn = 277 sinlJ d13), the flux density in <ln is
X dn e e sin e cos e dlJ
dq = u - - cos 13 = - u - - - - - - (9-2)
477 n n 2
Fig. 9-1. Coordinate sys-
tem for unidimensional Since temperature and therefore u varies with
temperature field. normal distance from the plane of interest, that
value of u which characterizes the photons
undergoing collision as they cross the plane at x 0 corresponds to the average
position of their last collision, which occured at distance e from dA or at
X = Xo + e cos 13 • Approximation of the u-x variation by '
u = u(Xo) + (x - x 0 ) (du)
dx x=xo
substitution of u into (9-2), and integration over all 13 gives
q = _ (~)~ du
(9-3)
n 3 dx
A derivation perhaps more readily visualized is this: Again consider
photon flux through dA within the solid angle dn and in direction e with the
x direction. The flux is Idn dA cos e. Any photon passing dA has traveled
on the average the distance e/2 since its last collision, or e cos e/2 in the
direction of the temperature gradient. The average x distance traveled in
that sarne time by photons moving in ali directions is the weighted-mean
value of e cos 13 /2 weighted in proportion to energy flux in direction e, or to
dn cos 13. Then average x distance traveled is e/3, from the following: t
*Collision refers here to isotropic scatter by molecules and atoms or ab-
sorption followed by emission of new photons.
tThe value e/ 4 has been obtained [ 14] , presumably by mistakenly weighting
the length traveled in proportion to dn rather than to dn cos e. See also ref. 9.
328 RADIATIVE TRANSFER RADIATION AS A DIFFUSION PROCESS 329

fo
77/ 2 " e-K lxl t

J277 2f cose do cos e E sin e cos 2 e d e

3
J1 t2 dt
2177/2
J277 do cose
=

0
sin e cos e df! which is the second exponential integral of Klx I, designated by
8;2 (Klx l)(see Chap. 10 Appendix). Representation of E (x) by a Taylor
The x direction flux through unit area in the x 0 plane is due to the difference series
in energy content of photons arriving from planes, on the average, at xo plus
and minus e/3, and equals the photon velocity times half the difference in x2 x3
energy densities associated with those two planes. (The half allows for the E(x) = E(O) + xE'(O) + 2! E" (O)+ 3! E"' (O)+ ...
fraction of the photons participating in a +x or -x flux.) The flux is then
given by
and substitution into (9-6) yields

q+ or q_= J0
""
00

or - 2K[E(O) +xE'(O) + ~~E"(O) + ... )8; 2 (Klxl) dx

If the energy-density gradient du/dx is a constant, the above yields (9-3)
directly. Integration of each term by parts, using the properties of the expo-
nential integrals summarized in the Appendix to Chap. 10 yields
When the medium is in local thermal equilibrium the energy density
is equal to 4nE/ e (see Sec. 1.2), and Eq. (9-3) becomes

q=--=
-4 EdE -16n 2Eo-T 3 dT
q+ = E(O) - 3~ E' (O)+ 2 ~ 2 E" (O) -
5 ~ 3 E"' (O) (9-7a)
(9-4)
3 dx 3 dx and

E in the above relations is the black emissive power in the medium, equal to 2 1 2
n 2aT4. The analogyto Fourier's law is evident; 16n 2EaT 3/3 (=16n 2aT 3/3K) q_= E(O) + KE'(O) + K 2 E"(O) + K 3E"' (O) (9-7b)
3 2 5
may be considered a pseudoconductivity for radiation. The range of validity
of the above equations will be discussed in the derivation which follows. The net flux density across the plane then is
b. Continuum model. Select a coordinate system such that 4
the plane of interest is parallel to the yz axes at x = O, and denote q = q+ - q = _:!E' (O) - - - 3 E"' (O) ...
- 3K 5K
the one-way flux densities in a direction of increasing (decreasing)
x by q+ (q_). The radiation emitted by a volume element d V is
L
4K dV E(x) (Fig. 9-1). A fraction dA cos 8/41Tr 2 is directed towards
surface dA, and of this e-Kr is transmitted. The flux density at dA
. -4
=
rn=l (2m +
1 d 2rn-1E
1)K2m-lctx2rn-1 (9-8)
dueto radiation emitted at dV then is
The only assumptions introduced up to this point are that, within
cos e several mean free paths on either side of the reference plane, E(x)
4K dV E(x) - - e-Kr (9-5) can be represented by a Taylor series, and that scatter is absent
47Tr2 (see Sec. 13.4).
Formation of a figure of revolution about the x axis, substitution of
If the variation in emissive power over one mean free path is
dV = 21Tr sin e (rd8/cos e)dx and r = x/cos e, and integration over
small enough that 3d 3E/d (Kx) 3 and all other higher-order terms are
X from Ü to co (or - co) and 8 from Ü to 1T/2 gives
much less than 5dE/d (Kx), only the first term in (9-8) need be re-

q+ or q_ =2
"" or -oo
K E(x)J
Í77/2
e-Kixl /cose sin 8 d8 dx
tained. The result is the diffusion equation, Eq. (9-4). The restric-
tions on the use of
J0
1

0
(9-6)
4 dE 16n2aT3 dT
q=---=-
Let t = sec 8; the inner integral then becomes 3K dx 3K dx
330 RADIATIVE TRANSFER RADIATION AS A DIFFUSION PROCESS 331

The net flux at the boundary when the latter consists of a gray sur-
are to be emphasized: The equation should not be used in the vicin-
ity of boundaries where the 'Taylor series expansion of E is invalid; face of emissivity E and black emissive power E s is
and 3dE3/d(Kx)3 should be much smaller than 5dE/d(Kx).

Derivations of the general form of duffusion equation for a

If the heuristic .assumption is made that (dEg /dx) bulk = (dEg /dx)x= 0 "'
three-dimensional temperature field may be found in the literature
dEg /dx, the above relations yield
[4, 8].
=
q
'\' 1 vzm-1 E (9-9)
4
- L (2m + 1) K 2 m-l
m=l
Solution for [Eg (O) - E s] gives
9.3 Boundary Conditions
(9-10)
Solutions at the boundary which appear in this chapter are
specific to bulk materials with a refractive index near 1; i.e., they
apply rigorously only to gases. Integration of (9-9) and replacement of Kx by T, the number of mean
free paths, gives the emissive power Eg of the gas at any position T.
Section 9 .2 has given the formulation of the diffusion equation
in the bulk of a medium. Visualization of the conditions to be ex-
pected near a boundary may be aided by Fig. 9-2. Whereas photons
which have crossed a plane in the
bulk may be reradiated back across Combination of the above with (9-10) gives
the plane (Fig. 9-2a), such a possi-
bility is excluded for photons cross-
ing a boundary into free space or Eg - Es = - ~ qnet [T + t (~ - ~)] (9-11)
absorbed by a black surface (Fig.
9-2b). The diffusion equation coupled with the boundary-gradient assump-
tion therefore predicts a linear distribution in E which, for a black
The net flux across the bound- surface, starts at zero at Kx = - 2/3 or at a distance of two-thirds
ary must for the steady state equal of a mean free path beyond the boundary. The rigorous solution for
the net flux in the bulk. The latter a black surface is shown for comparison in Fig. 9-3; it may be ap-
is given, when derivatives beyond proximated to within 0.3 percent of the exact value [ 16] by
the first are ignored, by
Eg - Es =' - ~ qnet { T +O. 7104 [1 - 0.3429 0 2 (T) + 0.3159 &3(T)]}
Fig. 9-2. Path of a photon
- qnet
4
= 3K
(dE
dx
g)
across a plane (a) in the bulk
bulk
of an absorbing-emitting me- At many mean free paths from the boundary the true Eg - Es is
dium and (b) at the surface of The one-way flux q_ incident ( T + O. 71)/( T + O. 67) of that corresponding to the diffusion equation.
the medium.
on the boundary is, from Eq. (9-7b)
given by 9.4 Diffusion in Nongray Media

One of the most extensive applications of the photon diffusion

equations to engineering problems has been the calculation of radia-
tive transfer in glass melts by German researchers [1, 2, 6, 11].
332 RADIATIVE TRANSFER RADIATION AS A DIFFUSION PROCESS 333

This section will present -4 dE

some of the methods they q = 3K ctx (9-16)
developed for allowing for
the nongrayness of glass.
One proposed method for evaluating K involves the introduc-
OJJ
tion of a function f* of À and T, defined as
~_µ The equations devel-
oped in Sec. 9.2 for gray
:g""'
J,\ (3E,\)
1 1-----+--/-----t-------t----1 gases are of course applica-
:;;:. ble over any small spectral f* = - d,\
_..;, 3E ,\
Exact region in which K can be 0

ÜL---"-----'---~------'--~--l--~~
considered constant. The
-1 o 1 2 flux density in the region À This enables the replacement of ( 3E,\ / 3E)\ d À by df*. Therefore
T, depth below surf. meas. to À + dÀ is given by
in mean-free paths
= (9-17)
Fig. 9-3. Distribution of black emis-
sive power in a semi-infinite slab for
constant net flux density qnet and
- 4 L(
rn=l
1
2rn-1
2m+ 1) K,\
black bounding surface. Solid line The function f* is given in terms of ÀT / c 2 in Table 9-1.
corresponds to exact solution, dashed
line to diffusion approximation. X ( 3 2rn-1E,\)
(9-12) Table 9-1
3x2rn-1 ,\
f* as a Function of ÀT/c 2 (From ref. 2)
where E,\ and K,\ are the monochromatic values of E and K. Inte- ÀT/c 2 f*(ÀT) f*(ÀT) f*(ÀT)
ÀT/c 2 ,\T/c2
gration over the spectrum gives the total flux density
o o 0.20 0.4088 0.45 0.8886
= = 1 3 2rn-1 E ,\) 0.08 0.00494 0.22 0.4867 0.50 0.9153
q = - 4 Jo L
rn=l
(2m + 1) K 2rn-l ( 3x2rn-1 ,\ dÀ
(9-13) 0.09
0.10
0.01295
0.02703
0.24
0.26
0.5558
0.6157
0.60
0.80
0.9481
0.9767
0.12 0.07584 0.28 0.6772 1.00 0.9878
If E,\/3(K,\x) 3 << 53 E,\/3(K,\x) over the_ entire spectral_range of
333 0.14 0.1482 0.30 o. 7112 1.20 0.9928
significance only the first term in the series need be retamed. Re- 0.16 0.2340 0.35 0.7945 C(; 1.000
placement of (3E.,\/3x),\ by (3E,\ /3E) ,\ (dE/dx)* then gives 0.18 0.3232 0.40 0.8505

dE
q = - dx
s= 3K,\
4
3
( E,\)
3E ,\ dÀ
(9-14) f* may be calculated from the function f(,\T)-the fraction of blackbody
radiation emitted below,\ (see Chap. 5):
0

Define a mean absorption coefficient K-the Rosseland mean-by J 0

,\
E,\ d,\ = [f(,\ T)] E

Differentiation with respect to E at constant ,\ gives

(9-15)

J,\ (d E,\)
0 \ aE A
d,\= f(,\ T) +E (df(AT))
aE A
Then

*Because E depends on x alone.

334 RADIATIVE TRANSFER RADIA TION AS A DIFFUSION PROCESS 335

Replacement of the left side by f* and aE/E by 4aT/T = 4a(AT)/AT then givest 2 dEg
Es,1 - Eg,1 (2 : E1) - (9-21a)
1 3K dx
AT df(AT)
f* = f(AT) + - and
4 d,\T

2
~ 2 dEg
We now return to the evaluation of flux density q. Sub- E g,2 - Es,2 (2 E2) (9-21b)
stitution of K from Eq. (9-17) into (9-16) gives 3K dx

q
4
3
dE
dx
J l_j_
KA
df* (9-18a)
where the subscripts s and g
refer to black emissive power 800 1000
T, ºK

1
1200
1 1
1400
1 1
0 50 1 1 1
at the surface and in the vol- 1 1 1 1 1
f-.200
ume. The results differ from

(
16n2aT3
3
J1 -KA1 df* ) dT (9-18b)
the gray-gas solution only by
the substitution of the Rosse-
0 dx
land ~an absorption coeffi-
cient K for the gray-gas K.
The integral is the area under a curve of 1/KA vs. f*. The term in
A refinement of the above [ 4]
parentheses is the pseudoconductivity for radiation-designated by
consists in retention of the
Àrad with apology. term involving the second de-
rivative of the emissive
If the K - .\. relation is expressed as a step function, with Ki
power.
representing the absorption coefficient over the wavelength range
Ài-l to .\. i' it follows from Eq. (9-18b) that
When the distance be-
tween bounding walls is less
q (9-19) than several mean free paths
and especially when large de- T, ºR
partures from local radiative
The absorption coefficient of a number of glasses can be described equilibrium exist in the vol- Fig. 9-4. The effective thermal con-
adequately by a two-step function, with K = K 1 for O s .\. s .\.1 and ume, it is necessary to ex- ductivity (conductive plus radiative)
K = K 2 for .\.1 :::: .\.. From (9-19), the pseudoconductivity for this amine carefully the validity of several glasses: (a) window, (b)
case becomes of using diffusion approxima- contairier, (e) chrome oxide, (d) X-ray
guard, (e) brown, (f) green. (From
tions. <See Secs. 9.5 and Genzel, ref. 7. See Table 6-4 for
10.3. glass composition.)
(9-20)
9.5 Application of the Diffusion Equation

Genzel [7] used an expression which may be shown to be the equiva-
lent of (9-20) to obtain the values of Àrad presented in Fig. 9-4.
The discontinuity in emissive power at the wall for the non-
gray volume and gray-wall system can be obtained in a manner sim-
ilar to that for a gray gas. For the case of parallel gray walls at E 1
and E 2 , confining a volume in thermal equilibrium,
trt may be readily shown that f* = f(AT) + AE,\/4E, a possibly more useful
expression for calculations than that given in ref. 2.
The diffusion equation reduces the calculation of emissive
power distribution or radiative flux in an absorbing medium to the
solution of differential equations. ln this section a few problems
will be studied as an illustration both of use of the method and of its
limitations.
a. Gray gas between concentric, coaxial, infinite cylinders.
The inner and outer radii, emissivities, and black emissive powers
of the surfaces will be denoted by r 1 , r 2 , E1 , E2 , Es,l, Es, 2 ,
336 RADIATIVE TRANSFER RADIATION AS A DIFFUSION PROCESS 337

1.0
respectively, and black emissive power within the confined volume by
Eg. The basic differential equation describing the net flux in the gas
is .8
_g_ 4 dEg '?,
w
27Tr 3K dr i:il
.6

with the following boundary conditions, from (9-10) '"w"'.

i:il
'S .4

Es,l
_E
g,l
= _ (~)
El
_g_
3K
(dEg)
dr_
"'
~.
,._,
r- r1 "' .2
and I
I
I

Eg,2 -Es,2 = -(2 :2E2) 3~ (d:rg)r~r2 o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

K(r2 - r1), thickness of annulus, mean free paths

The solution of these for the net heat flux density at the inner cylin- Fig. 9-5. Net radiative flux between two infinite circular cylinders.
der' surface when both cylinders are black, Comparison of rigorous calculation (solid lines) with diffusion ap-
proximation based on one term (dotted) and two terms (dashed).
1
3Kr 1 Comparison of the above results with exact values [18] supports the
ln (r 2 /r 1 ) + (r 1 /r 2 ) (1/ E2 - 1/2) + (1/ E1 - 1/2)
4 conclusion reached in the preceding subsection.
(9-22)
e. Gray gas between parallel plates. This case is considered
is shown as a function of K(r 2 - r 1) for three values of ri/r2 in Fig. in the next chapter, Sec. 10.3c.
9-5 (dotted lines). The values are compared with the solutions [4, 10]
obtained (i) rigorously (solid lines) and (ii) from the diffusion equa- d. Nongray media. The Rosseland mean free path will in gen-
tion using the more refined formulations of the boundary conditions eral be a function of temperature. ln a unidimensional temperature
which retain the second derivative of the emissive power (dashed field in which the diffusional treatment is valid the radiative flux is
lines, sarne as dotted line when r 1/r 2 = 1). The diffusion equation is
seen to be at its best in optically thick media [large K(r 2 - r 1)'s]
-16n 2 crT 3 dT
and when the variation with distance of the emissive power is ap- q = 3K(T)
(9-24)
proximately linear (large r 1/r 2's). The discrepancies between the dx
diffusion and rigorous solutions decrease as the surface emis-
sivities decrease [4]. When the system contains no energy sources or sinks within the
volume, q is constant along x; and the temperature varíation is then
b. Gray gas between concentric spheres. The net flux across obtainable from
the gas between two concentric spheres with common centers can be
obtained by arguments similar to those used in (a). The net flux
density at the surface of the inner sphere, surface 1, is given by
J T -16n2 crT 3 dT -_ Jx q dx -qX-X1
_ ( )
Ti 3K (T) x1

q 1 (9-23) where T 1, T are the temperatures in the bulk at x = x 1, x. The value

Es,l - Es,2
( 1.
E
2
- 1)2 + (...!.El - l)2 of q must first be obtained by integration between the boundaries.
ln principle, if n is not 1 (glass, for example) there is the problem
referred to in Sec. 9.3; in practice, glass masses generally extend

338 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
for so many mean free paths between boundaries that the error in-
troduced by ignoring any temperature jump at the wall is quite small.
If K(t) can be approximated over a moderate temperature
range by
K(T) = gTrn (9-25)
Eq. (9-24) becomes
-16n2 a (9-26)
q = 3(4 - m) g
Equation (9-26) predicts that T 4 -rn will vary linearly with distance.
m is equal to zero for a gray gas and is negative for most nonmetals.
This approach has been used by Czerny et al. [2] to calculate the
temperature distribution in glass melts; for some glasses they found
it necessary to use more than one function of the type of (9-25) to
cover the temperature range of interest.
The use of the diffusion equation with the Rosseland mean ab-
sorption coefficient requires that 3d 3 E/d(Kx) 3 be much smaller than
5dE/d(Kx) over the entire spectral range of interest. To allow for
regions of low }(,\ a modified procedure is necessary. For all spec-
tral regions Àrn-l to Àrn in which the diffusion equation is valid a mod-
ified Rosseland mean absorption coefficient is defined as
The flux in these spectral regions is then given by
-4
q =~ dE )1 D.f*
dx L rn
(9-27)
3K rn
where D.f* is the difference in the values of f~ at Àrn-1 and Àrn (see
Table 9-1). The flux in the remainder of the spectrum must be cal-
culated from a solution of the appropriate integral equations by
methods to be described in Chaps. 10 and 11. Since an energy bal-
ance on a volume element involves the energy throughout the spec-
trum the integral and diffusion equations must be solved simultane-
ously, with one exception: When KÀ equals zero outside the spectral
range in which the diffusion equation is applicable, the radiation in
the windows of the spectrum does not interact with the medium; it
RADIA TION AS A DIFFUSION PROCESS 339
can be calculated separately and then added to the solution of the
diffusion equation obtained by applying Eq. (9-27).
9.6 Diffusion Through Pores
Photons in a narrow crack or pore in a material will follow a
random walk in a manner analogous to the radiative flux through an
absorbing-scattering medium. The mean free path here is a meas-
ure of the distance a photon travels before colliding with the walls;
the analogy to Knudsen gas diffusion is obvious.
The energy flux across a plane, so far removed from the ends
of the pore that radiation from the ends can be neglected, should be
expressible as a diffusion equation of the form
-d du -H dE
q=3 dx= 3 (9-28)
dx
1
where u is the energy density, equal to 4E/c when the walls are in
radiative equilibrium. Q is the mean free path of the photons in the
pores. The validity and limitations of Eq. (9-28) can best be dem-
onstrated by its rigorous derivation from the integral equation de-
scribing the flux in a pore.
The flux through a plane cutting across a pore at x = O can be
formulated in terms of the flux density W(x) leaving those pore sur-
faces which can see the plane. If ss(x) represents the exchange area
between parallel pore cross sections separated by x, then -ss'( lxl) dx
represents the exchange area between a cross section and a strip of
width dx around the pore at distance x. The flux at the cross sec-
tion from the pore walls on its +x side is then
Q_ = L00
W(x) [-ss'(l x[)]dx (9-29)
W(x) can be expanded in a Taylor series and the integral evaluated
term by term. The flux density through the cylindrical pore can be
obtained by substitution of ss' from Table 2-2 into (9-29), integra-
tion, and division by the pore area. It is
q_ = W(O) - 32D W'(O) + · · ·
and
 RADIA TION AS A DIFFUSION PROCESS 341
340 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

2D whi_ch _assumes a linear gradient in emissive power and no discontinuity in

q+ = W(O) + 3 W'(O) + · · · em1ss1ve power at the ends of the opening. From Eq. (9-32)

-q X X _
Neglect of all derivatives of W greater than the second yields, for dE/d(x/D) =D (S1S2)R/A =D F (9-33)
the net flux across the plane at x = O,
F is a function of D/X, expansion of which gives
q = _ 4D
3
(dW)
dx x=O
(9-30)
D2 -
F(D/X) = F(O) + Q F' (O) +
X
.-1
2!
X F"(O) + ...
If the pore surface is in radiative equilibrium, W =E and Eq. (9-30)
When it is noted that F(O) is zero, Eq. (9-33) becomes
becomes*

(9-31)
-q -
dE/d(x/D) = F'(O) + 2 !
1 (D)
X -F"(O) + ...
q- -4D (dE)
-
- - 3 dx x=O
At the or~gin (D/_X = ?)
the slope in F therefore equals the proportionality
which is in agreement with Eq. (9-28) if the mean free path of a constant m the d1ffu_s10n equat_10n, 4/3 for a circular opening and infinity for
round poreis the pore diameter. Since ss/A for pores whose cross a very long slot. Figure 3-4 is consistent with this.
sections have a variety of shapes is approximately the sarne when x
is expressed in units of mean hydraulic radius rh (Fig. 2-5), Eq. Boundary conditions at each end of the pore may be calculated
(9-30) may be used for other shapes when D is replaced by 4rh. An by the method~ of Sec. 9.3. Let the boundaries of the pores normal
exception is a pore which in cross-section normal to the direction to t.he .pore ax1s be gray surfaces of emissivity Ea and Eb and black
of the temperature gradient is an infinite slit. (See footnote.) en:1ss1ve powers Ea and Eb. Select a coordinate system such that
x mcreases from a to b. Then by analogy to Eqs (9-21a) and
The proportionality constant in the equation for diffusion in pores (9-21b) ' .
could have been obtained from Fig. 3-4, which presents the factors for calcu-
lating the radiative flux through openings of various shapes as a function of
the ratio D/X (diameter or least width/length of opening). The flux density E(O) - Ea = (2~
-E ) 2Q
3
dE
dx
(9-34)
through the openings
and
(S iS2)R - (9-32)
q1=2= -A-- (E1 - E2) = F (E1 - E2) (2-Eb) 2Q dE
E(~) - Eb = - ~ 3 dx
(9-35)
can be written in a diffusion form by replacing the difference in emissive
powers by
where E(O) and E(X) are the black emissive power of the pore wall
dE dE X at O and X; ~nd f., the mean free path is the pore diameter if the
X or by P.ores ~re circular and approximately four times the mean hydrau-
dx d(x/D) D
hc radrns for other shapes.
*With dE/dx constant and the pore infinitely long the diff~rence in the emis-
sive powers of the ends of the pore will be infinite; and it might at first be
thought this would produce infinite flux density along the pore. The exchange CHAPTER 9. LITERATURE CITATIONS
area compensates for this, however, on pores of finite cross section. When
the pore is a slit or crack of width L 1, with the other dimension L 2 in an
isothermal plane infinite, the value of q along the slit is Li [ ln(2X/L i) - 1. Czerny, M., and L. Genzel: Glastechn. Ber., 25: 134 (1952)·
1/2] dE/dx. There are two cases: (a) If the value of X/L1 is infinite be- 25: 387 (1952). '
cause L 1 is finite and X is infinite, the E's at the two ends must differ by 2. Czerny, M., L. Genzel, and G. Heilmann: Glastechn. Ber.
infinity to make dE/dx finite; and q is infinite. (b) If X/L1 is infinite be- 28: 185 (1955). '
cause L i approaches zero and X is finite, the E' s at the two ends must dif- 3. Davison, B.: "Neutron Transport Theory "Clarendon Press
fer by a finite amount to make dE/dx finite; and q is zero. The doubly in- Oxford, 1957. ' '
finite narrow slot is consequently not a useful model.
342 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER

4. Deissler, R. G.: J. Heat Trans., 86C: 240-246 (1964).

5. Fillipov, L. P.: Izvestia Akad. Nauk. SSSR, OTN, No. 1, 155-6
(1956).
CH PTER 10
6. Geffecken, W.: Glasteehn. Ber., 25: 392 (1952); 29: 42 (1956).
7. Genzel, L.: Glasteehn. Ber., 26: 69 (1953). THE UNIDIMENSIONAL PERATURE FIElD
8. Goody, R. M.: J. Fluid Meeh ., 1: 424 (1956).
9. Hottel, H. C.: International Developments in Heat Transfer, It is instructive to consider problems associated with calcu-
ASME, 1962. lating radiative transfer in nonisothermal gases first in relation to
10. Howell, J. R., and M. Perlmutter: J. Heat Transfer, 86C: 116 the unidimensional temperature field and in the absence of scatter;
(1964). other configurations will be treated in Chap. 11 and scatter in Chaps.
11. Huhmann-Kotz, I.: Glasteehn. Ber., 32: 189 (1959). 12 and 13. Unidimensional here refers to the variations in temper-
12. Jeans, J. H.: Monthly Nat. Roy. Ast. Soe., 86: 328 (1926). ature, pressure, and concentrations, all of which are functions only
13. Kellet, B. S.: J. Opt. Soe. Am., 42: 339 (1952). of the distance from the surface; the motion of the photons, however,
14. Konakov, P. K.: Jnt. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 2: 136 (1961). is generally three-dimensional.
15. Kourganoff, V.: "Basic Methods in Transfer Problems," p. 6,
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1952.
16. Morse, P. M., and H. Feshback: "Methods of Theoretical 10.1 Radiative Transfer in a Known Temperature
Physics," pp. 186-187, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953. Field-The Effective Radiating Temperature
17. Rosseland, S.: "Astrophysik und Atom-Theoretisches Grund-
lage," pp. 41-44, Springer Ver lag, Ber lin, 1931. ln this section methods will be developed for calculating the
18. Sparrow, E. M., C. M. Usiskin, and M. A. Hubbard: J. Heat directional distribution of intensity and the net flux in gray systems
Transfer, 83C: 199 (1961). throughout which the temperature distribution has been specified.
The parts of such systems are, in general, not in radiative equilib-
rium.
a. Formulation of directional intensity distribution. The in-
tensity, ata distance x from the surface, of a beam travelling in a.
direction specified by polar angle e with the positive x axis and azi-
muthal angle 1/J will be denoted by I(x, e, \fl). The beam on passage
through a slab of thickness dx travels a distance dx/cos e, along
which a fraction K dx/cos e is absorbed; and an amount KIB(x) dx/
cos e is added to its intensity in consequence of emission within dx.
Therefore

cos e dI(x,ct!, 1/J) = KIB(x) - KI(x, e, 1/J) (10-1)

When the distribution of the radiation incident on the boundaries is

axisymmetric, 1/J may be omitted from the above formulation. With
this restriction and the definitions µ = cos e, and T = J0x K dx, Eq.
(10-1) becomes

(10-2)

The boundary conditions associated with (10-2) are the specifications

of the intensity distributions, I (O, µ) for positive µ and I (Tl' µ) for

343
344 RADIATIVE TRANSFER THE UNIDIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 345

Ti= DO

"'~
1.0
negative µ, of the radiation incident on the bounding surfaces. Ti is §~í? IT1 =2_:51
the number of mean free paths across the slab. The solution to this :;; '"líl 0.8
~.s-
first-order linear differential equation is obtained by multiplying ~ ~~ 0.6 '1i=l.O
"O- -
through by the integrating factor eT/11 d T/µ. For radiation travelling (a) 15 .õt:' 0.4
in a direction of increasing x (µ positive) integration then gives ~·~-- 0.2
Fig. 10-1. Intensity distribu- E2 ~ IT,-;;0.1
z.s~ o
tion of radiation leaving slab o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
e-T//1 JT having an emissive power dis- sin 2 e
I(T, µ) = I(O, µ) e-T/11 + --- IB(T') eT/11
1
dT' (10-3) tribution given by E(T)/E(O)=
µ o IB(T)/IB(O) = 1 + 2T/T 1 , for dif- .o-
·-º 1.4 1

ferent values of the optical ~ õ:l T1 =1·0

$t::'. 1.2
For radiation in a direction of decreasing x (µnegative) thickness Tt - Kxi; (a) slab .s~
viewed from hot si de [Eq. roo 1.0
(10-5)]; (b) slab viewed from .§~
~<ll
()
0.8
()
e-T//1 J Tl ' cold side [Eq. (10-6)].
I ( T, µ) = I ( T 1 , µ) eCT1 -T)/11 - µ T IB( T') e T 111 d T' (10-4) .~~ 0.6
(b) "O
"O-
"O
<ll o
N ü 0.4
· - bl)
=0.l
~·~ro 0.2
T
(It must be remembered that in (10-4), and in (10-6) below, µ = -lµI.) H
o <ll
The two terms on the right side of eách of the above two relations z- o
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1. o
represent respectively the attenuated flux contributed by the boundary- 1- 11 2 = sin2(eJ
incident radiation and the attenuated flux from that part of the slab
viewed by the instrument sensing I ( T, µ).
is viewed both effects act in the sarne direction to give a monotonic
b. Numerical evaluation of directional intensity distribution. increase in intensity as the angle with the normal increases (Fig.
When the black emissive power varies linearly with the optical 10-la). When the cold surface is viewed the effects are opposed,
thickness from the surface, i.e., when giving rise to the maxima in intensity observed at Ti 's of 0.1 and
1.0 (Fig. 10-lb).
e. Intensity distribution at the surface of a semi-infinite me-
and when no radiation is incident from outside onto the bounding dium. When Ti approaches infinity (and a is not related to Ti as in
surfaces of the slab, the flux in the positive direction is, from Eq. the previous example) Eq. (10-6) giving the intensity distribution
(10-3), leaving the cold face, becomes

I(T, µ)/IB(O) = (1 - aµ) (1 - e-T/11) + aT ( 10- 5) (10-7)

and in the negative direction, from Eq. (10-4),
[µ
These relations have been used to determine the intensity distribu-
tion of the radiation leaving the boundaries of a slab of thickness Ti
of 0.1, 1.0, and 2.5 and for a value of a of 2/Ti, which corresponds
to a three-fold variation in IB across the slab. The results are
shown in Fig. 10-1. The highly non-lambertian distributions can be
attributed to the increase, with increasing angles with the normal,
of both the path length in the slab and the relative weighting given to
emission from layers near the surface viewed. When the hot surface
In words, the intensity of the radiation emerging from the surface at
an angle 8 with the normal corresponds to blackbody emission at a
temperature equal to that at a distance of cos 8 mean free paths
from the surface; or, for normal emission, the effective radiating
= -1µ1] (10-6) temperature is equal to the gas temperature at a distance of 1/K
from the surface. This result indicates the possibility of determin-
ing the temperature distribution below a surface by measuring the
surface intensity distribution at various angles or at a number of
wavelengths corresponding to different K's. Possible applications
are the determination of sky temperature by measurements on the
ground or the determination of the temperature distribution in a
glass mass from surface measurements. The analysis would of
course have to be refined to allow for variations in emissive power
346 RADIATIVE TRANSFER THE UNIDIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 347

with distance other than the linear one leading to Eq. (10-7). Rela- 1- 203 (T)
tions (10-1) to (10-7) are restricted to gray systems or monochro- 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 09 10
20,-~--'~-,-----'-~~-f--~--jl--~,--L~,-l,.~-,----::.L:-~-,-::.L~~~·_:_~_::_:·
matic radiation. Section 10.8 covers other cases.
d. Formulation of the radiative flux through a plane. In engi- 18~~~~r--~~f--~--t~--t~+---+~~~kt..,,.....,..,h-J~~~
neering applications there is often more interest in the total net flux 16j-~~~r-~~-t-~~t--~+----+~-l----+--t~~~~~~~
across a plane than in the directional intensity distribution. The ";j_,
~14r--~~~--t~~~-t-~~+-~---l-~-+~--l-------+~~~~~~-.JJ~~
flux density from a differential element at x of thickness dx to the ]
bounding plane at x = O was shown in Sec. 7.3 to be ~12r--~~~--t~~~-t-~~+-~-+~-+~+---+-=~~~~~~~~
E
M~ 1or--~~~--t~~~-t-~~+-~-+~-+~-+-----,.!~~~~
(10-8) :=l
~~ 8J-~~~--t~~~-+-~~+-~---l-~-+~~~~~t:::
E-<
The second bracketed term represents the emission to one side of ~ 6t--~~~--t~~~-t-~~+.c~~.L-,,
the volume element, the first the transmission to the bounding sur- ril
4 A
face. Introduction of the identity
2 I
(10-9) H
o 0.() 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 2
Tl
into Eq. (10-8) (see Appendix) and integration over the gas depth T=Kx
yields
Fig ..10-.2. Ill~s~ration of graphical procedure for evaluating the heat flux
density ma umd1mensional system. Cross hatched area shows the net flux
(10-10) at a black surface (left) at 1000° ~ as. a consequence of exchange with (1) a
gray gas whose temperature varies lmearly with distance from 1200º R at
T = O to 1600º R at T = 0.8 and (2) an 1800° R black surface (right) at 7 = 0.8.

If E(T) is plotted versus [1 - 20 3 (T)], the area under the curve is di-
rectly the radiation crossing the plane at x = O. The graphical eval- con.tri?utions to the incident flux density; IEFGHI represents the
uation of the flux is facilitated by preparing graph paper with the T em1ss1on by the surface; the net flux, given by the difference of the
ordinate so selected as to give a scale linear in 1 - 203 (T) (Fig. incident and leaving flux densities, is represented by the cross-
10-2). The nonlinearity in T of the scale demonstrates the greater hatched area and is equal to 7,650 Btu/(hr) (ft2) [20,800 Kcal/m2 hr].
weighting given to emission from gas layers near the receiving
plane, an effect which is most pronounced for large values of the When the v~riation in E(T) is fairly regular, the problem may
optical thickness Ti. For example, of the flux crossing the boundary be h~udled .analyhcally, such as by expression of E(T) in the poly-
of an isothermal slab, 54, 71, and 94 percent originates in the half nomrnl series
slab adjoining the boundary for optical thicknesses of 0.1, 1.0, and
4.0, respectively.
(10-11)
The flux from the wall beyond a gas layer of,optical thickness
Ti is equal to the product of the total leaving flux density W at the
wall and the transmissivity 20 3 (Ti) (see Sec. 7.3). On figures such The flux density from a gas of optical thickness T is therefore given
as 10-2 it is an area, equal to that under a horizontal line of height by 1
W extending from Ti to co. As an illustration of the use of Eq.
(10-2), the net flux density at a surface will be determined for the
following set of conditions: The surface is black at 1000º R (555º K); (10-12)
it is separated from another black surface at 1800º R (1000º K) by a
gray gas whose temperature varies linearly with T from 1200º R
(667º K) at T = o to 1600° R (889° K) at T = 0.8. Areas ABGHIA and Integration by parts yields
BCDFGB represent the gas-to-surface and surface-to-surface
348 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER THE UNIDIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 349

gas elements, sometimes referred to as the equations of transfer.

q Their solution gives the temperature distribution in the gas, which
may then be substituted into the equations of Sec. 10.1 to obtain the
directional intensity distribution and the net flux.
a. Integro-differential formulation. The term IB( T) in Eq.
(i: i) ,J}) (10-2) is no longer known but must be related to I (T, µ). When the
gas is in radiative equilibrium, the rates of absorption and emission
(10-13) are equal, or

An alternative form to the r.h.s. of (10-13), particularly useful when

tables of exponential integrals of higher orders are available, is J 477
KIB(T) ctn = J KI(T, µ) ctn
477
(10-17)

fu
n

2ai [ i i+! 2 - Tl i_i;3(T1) - i T(l (i;4 (T1)

With the emission isotropic and dD = 277 sin e d8 = - 277 dµ

IB(T) 1
= 477 J
477
I(T, µ) ctn = 21 J
-1
1 I(T, µ) ctµ (10-18)
(10-14)
Substitution for IB into (10-12) yields the equation of transfer

e. Flux from a semi-infinite medium. As the optical thickness

Ti tends to infinity, all terms in (10-13) or (10-14) tend to zero ex- µ
dl (T µ)
d~ = 21 J I(
1
T, µ) dµ - I ( T, µ) (10-19)
cept i l /(i + 2), and the net flux across the bounding plane becomes -1

t 2 i! a,
o i + 2
(10-15)
Since the unknown intensity appears both as a differential and under
the integral sign this is an integro-differential equation. Alterna-
tively, and preferably in this case, the energy balance can be formu-
lated as an integral equation.
For a linear variation in emissive power, all values of a1 other than
a 0 and a 1 are zero, and (10-15) becomes b. Integral formulation. Consider a gas confined between two
infinite parallel plates (Fig. 10-3). Select a unit cross-sectional
area as a basis and formulate an energy
qg_,s = ao + 32 a1 = E (2/3) (10-16)
balance about a volume of optical thick-
ness ÕT. For radiative equilibrium the
where E (2/3) is the emissive power of a blackbody at a temperature rate of emission, 4E( T) ÕT, must equal
T-
equal to that in the gas at two-thirds of a mean free path from the the rate of absorption of energy origi-
surface. Thus a 277 steradian, total-radiation pyrometer external to nating at both walls and in the gas, or
the slab and facing its surface records a temperature lying, as ex- after dividing the emission and absorp-
pected, between the extremes of that recorded by a directional in- tion terms by 2 ÕT,
w,
strument [Eq. (10-7)].
!@
%
,'0
10.2 The Equation of Transfer dT dT '
Tl
Section 10.1 is based on the assumption that the temperature
distribution in the slab is given. Generally this is not true, and it is
+ Jo
E(T') 01 (IT - T'l)dT' Fig. 10-3. Radiation bal-
ance about a differential
necessary to formulate one or more energy balances on differential (10-20) gas element dT.
350 RADIATIVE TRANSFER THE UNIDIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 351

where W0 and W1 are leaving-flux densities at the boundaries, Es,1. Solution of Eq. (10-20) gives the
0 2 ( T) and 0 2 (T1 - T) are gas-surface transmission factors, and emissive power distributions shown in
201 IT - T'I ôT dT', as was shown in Sec. 7.3, is the gas-gas exchang1 Fig. 10-4. The first solution to this
~o
factor. The leaving-flux densities at the surfaces are composed of problem was given by Walther, Dõrr, 00

the emitted and reflected contributions, as given by and Eller [8] who showed that to a good µ;J
1 o.6 H--+-+--+--+-~~L
approximation E varied linearly with
00
distance between the walls. Improved µ;J
:;:;: 0.4
numerical values for the E distribu- o
tion were later obtained by others
and using iterative techniques [4, 6], the
method of undetermined coefficients
[7], the zone method [5], and Monte
W1 E1Es,l +2p1 [J; 1
E(T)02(T1 -T)dT+03(Ti)Wo] Carla methods [2].
o o.2 o.4
x/L
o.6
e= T/T 1
o.s 1.0

(10-22) The net radiative flux to the sur-

Fig. 10-4. Steady-state
face is shown in Fig. 10-5; the top emissive power distribu-
where Eo, E 1 , p 0 , Pp Es,o, Es,l are the emissivities, reflectivities, curve represents the total net flux tion in a gray gas confined
and blackbody emissive powers of surfaces O and 1. q 1.= 0 -the d ire ct transmission be- between two infinite par-
tween s1 and s 0 plus reradiation qg.=so allel black surfaces. Ef-
c. Nonradiative equilibrium. The equations derived above (= qs 1.=g); the bottom curve represents fect of optical thickness.
may be modified to allow for departures from radiative equilibrium. the gas- surface exchange q g""so·
The difference between the rates of absorption and emission, obtain-
able from the difference between the left and right hand sides of b. Comparison with solution for small optical thicknesses.
Eqs. (10-19) and (10-20), should be equated to the net rate of energy The adequacy of different approximate methods of calculating radia-
accumulation within the volume element as a result of unsteady state tion from nonisothermal gases should be judged not by the value of
effects, convection or conduction across its boundaries, or any
mechanisms of energy withdrawal or generation.
d. Methods of solution. Equation (10-20) is a Fredholm inte-
gral equation of the second kind, similar to that encountered in
Chap. 3. It may be solved by the methods presented in Sec. 3.3. In
the extremes of large and small optical thicknesses approximate
analytic solutions may be obtained: for large optical thicknesses, ô
the diffusion equation and the methods of Chap. 9 are applicable; for 00 0.61-----+-----+--l-----"'l-~+------1-------l---L---1---I
r:r:I
small optical thicknesses, the attenuation of the radiation in passing 1

through the gas can be neglected and the intensity at any point in the
enclosure determined from that of the surfaces viewed from it. The
range of validity of these approximate solutions will be discussed in
the next section

10.3 Radiation Between Parallel Plates Separated

by a Gray Gas º~'--:--~--,:-"-::------'--~__J~L_L_L__L_J___ _ __ l __ _ _ i_ _j___J~L.__L.J___l_
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10
An example in which the three regimes of radiative transport Slab optical thiclrness T1 = kx
stand out clearly comes from consideration of a gray stagnant gas
Fig. 10-5. Net radiative flux in a gray gas confined between two infinite
in radiative equilibrium between hot and cold infinite parallel walls. parallel black plates; top line represents total flux, bottom line the rate
a. Black walls. When the walls are black, the leaving-flux of exchange between gas and surface. Dashed line represents diffusion
densities W0 and W1 equal the blackbody emissive powers Es,o and approximation; dotted line, optically thin approximation.
 THE UNIDIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 353
352 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

net interchange between the walls-interchange which at low optical An interesting difference between the regimes of small and
thicknesses is mainly surface-surface exchange-but by the inter- large optical depths is the change, in dependence of flux on Ti from
change between the gas and one of the walls. When the optical thick- a direct to an inverse proportionality. '
ness is small, all elements of the gas see the two walls equally well, d. Additivity of solutions. The integral equation ( 10-20) is
and are at the sarne temperature-that corresponding to the arith- ~inear in E; consequently, solutions to problems involving radiation
metic mean emissive power (Es,o + Es,l )/2. With the emissivity of rn the absence of other modes of heat transfer can be subdivided into
the gas slab at low optical thicknesses* equal to 2T1 , the net gas- a number of subproblems, each solved separately, and the solutions
surface exchange is summed. This principle [6] has been used to obtain the E distribu-
tion in a heat-generating gray gas between two parallel plates main-
Es,o + Es 1 ) tained at different temperatures by addition of the solutions of the
qgo=s,O = 2Ti (
2
' - Es,O = Ti(Es,i - Es,O) (10-23) E distributions (1) in a heat generating gas between two plates at
absolute zero and (2) in an inert gas between two plates at different
A comparison in Fig. 10-5 of the flux calculated from this approxi- temperatures.
mate equation (dotted line) with the exact numerical solution indi- e. Gray walls. Since the only difference in the equation of
cates that the approximation is valid for KL less than 0.1. transfer on changing from a black to a gray-walled enclosure is the
e. Comparison with solution for large optical thicknesses. replacement of Es,o and Es,i by W0 and Wi
The net flux density between two parallel black surfaces calculated
by use of the diffusion equation together with an approximate allow- (10-25)
ance for the temperature jump at the boundaries was shown in Chap.
9 to be
and
q (10-24)
qio=o ) ( qio=o ) (10-26)
( Wi - WO gray = E E
s,i - s,O black
=" 1/J( Ti)

The gas-surface flux, obtained by subtracting the surface-surface

where cp(T) and 1/J(Ti) (with T = Kx and Ti = KL) are functions which
contribution of 2& 3 (Ti) (Es,i - Es,o) from Eq. (10-24), is shown as may be read from Figs. 10-4 and 10-5.
the dashed line in Fig. 10-5. The surprisingly good agreement be-
tween the approximate and exact solutions at low Ti 's is specific to Radiation balances at surfaces 1 and 2 give the additional re-
this problem. If the true E distribution in the gas had not been ap- lation among q, E and W
proximately linear the results of the approximate analysis would
have differed significantly from the true values. Systems not in
Eo Ei
radiative equilibrium or containing a nongray gas are characterized qio=o = Po (Wo - Es,o) = Pi (Es,i - Wi) (10-27)
by marked departure of the E distribution from linearity, and the
radiative transfer at small optical thicknesses in such systems can
therefore be expected to differ significantly from that calculated by From (10-27) and (10-26) it is seen that qio=o may be written in three
use of the diffusion approximation. ways, each expressing the ratio of a potential difference to a resist-
ance; and these may be added to eliminate interior potentials
ln general, the diffusion equation should not be applied when
the product of the absorption coefficient and the system 's charac- Wo - Es,O
teristic dimension is less than three. Po/Eo
*Easily shown by equating the gas emission per unit Eg -4KV-to the total-
surface-area gas-emissivity product 2A Eg, which gives Eg = 2KV /A= 2KL =
(10-28)
2T 1 (or see Table 7.3).
354 RADIATIVE TRANSFER THE UNIDIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 355

2 -2
The terms 1/i,l;(Ti), p 0 /Eo, Pi/Ei represent resistances to radiative Ei P2 SiS2
transfer through the gas, at surface O, and at surface 1, respectively. (10-30)
1 - Pi p 2 si sj
The fractional change in emissive power from surface O to a
point x (or T) in the gas comes directly by a similar argument, or by
elimination of W's between (10-25) and (10-27). It is Ei E2 Si S2
(10-31)
1 - Pi P 2 - 2
si s2

E(T)-Es,ü and
(10-29)
Es,i - Es,O
Ei (g;8"1 + P2 8182 ~)
(10-32)
1 - Pi P2 Si si
This represents the E distribution in the gas volume lying between
two isothermal gray plates in the absence of energy generation or where si s 2 , g i si, g i s 2 are the direct-exchange areas defined in
withdrawal within the gas. Chap. 7. Similarly, when gas zone gi is assigned an E of 1 the
rate of absorption of radiation at another zone gi is
10 .4 The Z one Method
Experience has shown that the subdivision of an enclosure into P2 gi S2 + Pi P2 gi Si Si S2
a number of zones--each treated as isothermal-and the formulation gi gj + gj S2
of energy balances on each zone provides a method of solving for the 1 - Pi P 2 si sj
temperature distribution which, though not always the most efficient,
and in application to unidimensional problems certainly not the most Pi gisi +Pi P2 gis2 Si S2
elegant, is applicable to a large range of engineering problems and + gj Si (10-33)
is well suited for machine computation. A major advantage of the 1 - Pi P2 si si
method is that it can be extended readily to the three-dimensional
temperature field to be considered in Chap. 11 and to the geometri- Expressions (10-30) to (10-33) are the total-exchange areas defined
cally complex problems of furnaces, Chap. 14. above. They are denoted by the upper-case letter combinations:
a. The total-exchange area. The total-exchange area concept SiSi, SiS 2, SiGi, and GiGi.
introduced in Chap. 3 and applied to single-gas-zone systems in
Chap. 8, depends on the facts that the net radiative flux between any Energy balances of the form
two isothermal zones in a system must be proportional to the differ-
ence in their black emissive powers, and the proportionality con-
stant, called the total-exchange area must allow for gas absorption
or emission and for multiple reflection at bounding surfaces but (10-34)
must ignore all radiation except that originating at one of the mem- may be written for each gas zone i; Q i, nr represents the loss rate
bers of the zone pair in question. ln application of this principle the from Vi by nonradiative mechanisms. Similarly, an energy balance
radiation reaching any surface or gas element, including that re- on surface Ai takes the form
flected one or more times at the bounding surfaces, is identified with
its point of origin. Let gray surface 1 have a blackbody emissive (10-35)
power of one. If all beams that it emits are traced until they are
absorbed it can be shown that the rates of absorption at surface 1,
surface 2, and any intervening gas zone gi are* with Qi,nr representing nonradiative loss rate from Ai. As an ex-
ample of use, let the surface E 's be fixed, and conduction or convec-
*The general relation from which Eqs. (10-30) to (10-33) are derived are tion or energy generation in the gas be absent. T,he Qi's are O;
presented in Chap. 11. For the present simple one-dimensional system they
come readily from first principles. Designation of the two surfaces has been
there are n unknown Ei 's, two unknown surface Qnr's, and (n + 2)
changed, from O and 1 in Secs. 10.1-10.3, to 1 and 2 here for consistency
with Chaps. 3, 7, and 11.
 THE UNIDIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 357
356 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

factor, from Fig. 10-6, should be applied to the tabulated values of

available energy balances. Solution involves first determining the the interchange areas between contiguous zones.
unknown E's and then evaluating the Q's.
b. Criteria for zoning. Any desired accuracy may be obtained Although the above criteria were obtained for a unidimensional
with the above method by using a sufficiently fine subdivision of the system they can be used as a guide in the selection of zone sizes for
enclosure.* To establish what constitutes a reasonable subdivision, other configurations.
the problem whose solution was presented in Sec. 10.3 was solved
by the zone method, the space between the walls being subdivided 10.5 Nongray Emission
into an increasing number of zones of equal size. The effect of gas
zone size KB on the ratio of the exact gas-surface exchange to that a. Evaluation of intensity distribution or net flux. The mono-
calculated using the zone
method is shown in Fig. 10-6. chromatic intensity distribution IA(B) and the monochromatic flux
The fluxes calculated using density q,\ in a nongray medium may be calculated from Eqs. (10-3),
the zone method are high but (10-4), and (10-10), with T replaced by K,\x, IB by IB/\, and E by E/\.
the error introduced is ac- As an illustration of the effect of departures from grayness, con-
ceptable (less than 5 percent) sider the emission from a semi-infinite body in which E increases
~
2 for KB's less than 0.4. The linearly with distance from the surface. For this case, according to
<> .81----
P<
error for a given KB depends Eq. (10-7), the intensity normal to and at the surface will correspond
o<"' to the value of IBA ata depth 1/KA. With many K's involved in a non-
'-:.., . 7 1 - - - - - + - - on the total optical thickness
C)

Ti of the system; it is a min-

gray system the spectral energy distribution of the flux from the
"'"' surface will therefore correspond to many temperature levels, with
cr" imum when Ti == KB (one
zone), approaches a maxi- flux in the spectral regions of low KA corresponding to the higher
mum as Ti __, oo. temperature. This simple relationship between emission and KA is
limited, however, to narrow spectral regions since the complex de-
Large values of K may pen.dence of IB/\ on À and T makes it impossible to satisfy, over the
KB, optical thickness of each zone
be encountered in certain enhre spectrum, the condition that h shall increase linearly with
Fig. 10-6. The effect of zone size problems, such as those in- depth.
KB on gas-surface exchange, for two volving the emission by the b. Equation of transfer. The equations defining the absorption
limiting cases: the optical thickness 4.3µ band of C0 2 , where a or emission of radiation at any wavelength differ from the gray-gas
T 1 of the whole slab equals (a) KB
criterion of a maximum zone case only in the substitution of E,\ for E and KA for K. Energy bal-
(one zone), or (b) approaches infinity.
size of 0.4 would be imprac- ances on nongray gases must however refer to absorption and emis-
tical. Fortunately a simpli- sion integrated over the entire spectrum. Thus, though total ab-
fication is possible. When sorption equals total emission in a gas in radiative equilibrium, the
KB is greater than three, the radiation can be treated as a diffusion absorption and emission in a narrow spectral band need not be, and
process and the flux between adjacent zones approximated by generally are not, in balance. The need to integrate over the spec-
trum greatly complicates the solution of the equations of transfer.
A few methods of solution will be presented in the following sub-
(10-36)
sections.
c. Mean absorption coefficient. One method of approach is
where Ei and Ei are the midzone temperatures, and B is the zone the reduction of the problem to one of radiative transfer in a gray
width. medium by assigning the gas a mean absorption coefficient, K.
Zone sizes the KB value of which lies in the range 0.4 to 3.0 When the optical thickness is large, the radiative flux is proportional
should be avoided. If a zone size falls in this range a correction to the product of the gradient in emissive power and the reciproca!
of the absorption coefficient, and the appropriate K is the Rosseland
mean (Sec. 9.5), the reciproca! of which is the weighted mean of the
*A refinement of the method, in which the E distribution is represented by
straight line segments instead of a step distribution, has been used by Wal-
reciproca! of KA. At the opposite extreme of very low values of op-
tical depth the radiation passes without attenuation to the absorbing
ther, Dõrr, and Eller [ 8] .
walls. The emission by a differential volume element dV,
358 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
W_!itten in terms of a mean absorption-coefficient, K, becomes
4KE dV. Here
(10-36)
in which f(,\T) is the fraction of blackbody radiation emitted in the
wavelength interval O to ,\ (see Table 5-1 for tabulated values). K
so evaluated is the Planck mean absorption coejjicient applicable to
emission. Equation (10-36) is also used for calculating the mean
coefficient applicable to absorption, with E,\ now corresponding to
the radiation incident on dV. There will be as many such mean co-
efficients to describe absorption as there are E,\ 's of the different
surfaces viewed by dV. It is apparent that even for this simple case
it is not possible to select a single mean absorption coefficient with-
out introducing errors. Other methods of selecting means have been
reported in the literature [1, 3] but, with the exception of cases
where the Rosseland mean is applicable, they all give approximate
solutions to problems in nongray radiation.
d. Iterative methods. The iterative method of solving integral
equations may be readily applied to nongray systems. Consider gas
in local radiative equilibrium. Assume a temperature field, and
designate the first trial temperature of a particular gas zone by T 1 ;
this fixes the volumetric emission rate Qv, e of the zone. The volu-
metric absorption rate Qv, ª can be formulated from the first-guess
temperature field. With emission approximately proportional to the
fourth power of the temperature a revised estimate, T 2 , of the zone
temperature may be obtained from the relation
(10-37)
The difference between Q V, a and Q V, e may be eliminated by repeated
application of this procedure. The resulting temperature distribu-
tion will satisfy the equation of transfer.
e. Weighted sum of gray gases. When the gas spectral distri-
bution is considered to be due to a number of gray components each
producing a fractional absorption, in a wavelength interval, which is
independent of spectral position, then the gas emissivity and absorp-
tivity are given by
THE UNIDIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 359
Eg = O'gs = L~ (1 - e-Knx) (10-38)
where an is the ene~gy fraction of the blackbody spectrum occupied
by the_ component with an absorption coefficient K n- * It is customary
to omlt from the summation in (10-3n8) the fraction of the spectrum
in which K is zero; consequently, L an is the asymptotic emissivity
1
of an infinite layer of gas.
An energy balance on a differential slab between two infinite
parallel black plates now takes the form, by analogy to (10-20),
2 (~ an Kn) E(x) = [ ~ an Kn 0 2(Kn x)] Es,1
+ { ~ an Kn 02 [Kn(L -x)]} Es, 2
+ ~ an J0LK; 0i(Knlx-x11) E(x 1 ) dx1
(10-39)
As an illustration of the application of this method, the E distribu-
tion between two black plates has been calculated by the zone method
(30 zones) for the following emissivity relation:
Eg = 0.398(1- e-0. 2lpx) + 0.121(1 - e-3.Slpx) + 0.025(1 - e-47.4px)
(10-40)
where px is the partial-pressure-length product, in foot-atmospheres.
Th~ res~lts, for three values of pL, are shown in Fig. 10-7. Two
maJor d1fferences between the gray and nongray solutions may be
noted: the strong absorption band causes the nongray solution to
curve appreciably near the walls; and the nongray E distribution is
relatively insensitive to a sixteen-fold change in path length as a
result of partial compensation between the increases and decreases
i~ the contributi?ns of the bands of different strength (compare with
Fig. 1~-4). O.bv10u.sly, the gray-gas treatment of this problem would
have g1ven qmte m1sleading results; it must be applied with caution.
The emissivity function given by Eq. (10-40) shows the sarne
path-length dependence as an equimolal C0 2 -H2 O mixture in the
*This may be called the picket-fence model of mixed gray gases. It .suffices,
however, that Eq. (10-38) describe the emissivity of the gas in question over
the temperature and path-length range involved, even though the picket-
fence model may be a relatively poor physical model. See Chap. 6.
360 RADIATIVE TRANSFER THE UNIDIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 361

and a subscript n on the total-exchange area indicates evaluation

Fig. 10-7. The emissive power based on an absorption coefficient Kn. Short-hand notation for the
distribution in a stagnant carbon
ru'" o.3 1-----'.o.4;.~"'= dioxide-water vapor mixture be-
a weighte.d total-exchange area~, fo~ample ~rms in the
::::: tween two infinite black walls; brackets m Eq. (10-41), are S1 Gi, S 2Gi, and GiGi, where the tail
-,..., 0.2
p = p = O 125 atm T = 2500ºR of the arrow is above the letter denoting the emitting zone.
":'" O. l '----_j_--+---~--g-a-1-s-------< (Ú89ºK). (~e + Pw,: P on chart,
-;; midplane and p in text.) Because of the dependence of the weighting factors on temper-
ru o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
ature, the equation of transfer for a real gas is no longer linear in
x/L, fractional distance across slab
E, and it is no longer possible to build up a solution to a problem
from those to cSubproblems (Sec. 10.3d). For more detailed discus-
temperature range 2000 to 3000º R. (p represents the sum of the sion of the effects of nongray gases, see the treatment under the
partial pressures of C0 2 and H 20.) However, the calculation of ra- zone method, Chap. 11.
diative flux in a real gas is complicated by the temperature depend-
ence of the emissivity, approximate allowance for which can be made
using the methods described in the next subsection. CHAPTER 10. LITERATURE CITATIONS

f. Directed-flux areas. An exact solution for the temperature 1.
distribution in a nongray gas would involve the formulation and so-
lution of the equation of transfer at all wavelengths, a task which 2.
would require a detailed description of the variation of the absorp-
tion coefficient with wavelength and temperature. Practical consid- 3.
erations have forced most investigators to use one of the emissivity
models to average the absorption coefficient over parts or the whole 4.
of an absorption band (the approach of Penner and associates to the
problem of flux in a known unidimensional temperature field). An
alternative procedure which lends itself more readily to problems Of
interaction of radiation with other modes of energy transport or gen- 5.
eration as well to geometrically more complex systems is to modify
the sum-of-gray-gases treatment to allow for the temperature de- 6.
pendence of the emissivity and absorptivity. As described in Sec.
6.10, weighting factors an which are functions of the emitting zone 7.
temperatures may be used to account for the effect, on emissivity or
absorptivity, of the shift in spectral energy distribution with temper-
ature. An equation of emission and absorption ata gas zone i takes 8.
the form
Chandrasekhar, S.: "Radiative Transfer," Oxford U. Press,
Oxford, 1950.
Howell, J. R., and M. Perlmutter: Am. Soe. Mech. Engrs.
Paper No. 63-AHGT-1 (1963).
Kourganoff, V.: "Basic Methods in Transfer Problems," Ox-
ford U. Press, Oxford, 1952.
Meghreblian, R. V.: Radiation Exchange between Two Flat
Surfaces Separated by an Absorbing Gas, Jet Propulsion Lab.
Tech. Rep. 32-197, California Institute of Technology, Pasa-
dena, 1957.
Sarofim, A. F.: Se.D. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 1962.
Usiskin, C. M., and E. M. Sparrow: Int. J. Heat Mass Trans-
fer, 1: 28-36 (1960).
Viskanta, R., and R. J. Grosh: International Developments in
Heat Transfer, Part IV, pp. 820-828, Am. Soe. Mech. Engrs.,
New York, 1961.
Walther, V. A., J. DÕrr, and E. Eller: Glastechn. Ber., 26:
133-140 (1953).

Es,1 [~ as,n (Ti) (S1GJn]

n

+ Es,2 [ ~ as,n (T2) (S2GJn]

(10-41)

wherein dependence of the a-weighting factors on temperature is

noted by appending the emitting-zone temperature in parenthesis,
 THE UNIDIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 363

=
"\' xn
&1 (x) = -Y - ln X - L (- l)n (10-46)
n=l n(n!)
CHAPTER 10-APPENDIX
where Y = 0.577216 ... is the Euler-Mascheroni constant. The
The Exponential Integrals, &n(x) asymptotic form of &n (x) for large values of x is

a. Definition. The nth exponential integral is defined, for &n (x) = e-x [ 1 _E. + n(n+ 1) _ n(n+ 1) (n+ 2) .. ·] (10-47)
positive values of the argument x, and for n an integer 2: 1, by x x x2 x3

-e-xt dt, or X n-l 5= -e-t dt, Or Jl e-x/µ µn-2 dµ

Therefore, as x _, co, &n(x) _, e-x /x _,.O.
Q;n (x) =
f
00

1 tn x tn O (10-42) d. Tabulation. Table 10-1 presents excerpts from the exten-

sive tabulations, by Placzek, of &n (x) for values of n up to 20, and
values of x up to 10.
The third of these forms, with µ = cos e, is the one most commonly
encountered in radiation calculations. Table 10-1
b. Recurrence formulae. By differentiation of Eq. (10-42) the
following recurrence formula can be established The First Four Exponential Integrais*

X &1 (x) &2 (x) &3(X) &4(X) &i(x)

d &n(x) (10-43)
dx = - &n-1 (x) dx X
o co 1.0000 0.5000 0.3333 -co
0.01 4.0379 0.9497 0.4903 0.3284 -4.0179
Another useful recurrence formula, obtained from (10-42) by partial 0.02 3.3547 0.9131 0.4810 0.3235 -3.3147
integration of &n+l (x), is 0.03 2.9591 0.8817 0.4720 0.3188 -2.8991
0.04 2.6813 0.8535 0.4633 0.3141 -2.6013
1 (10-44) 0.05 2.4679 0.8278 0.4549 0.3095 -2.3679
&n+dx) = - [e-x - X &n (x)]
n 0.06 2.2953 0.8040 0.4468 0.3050 -2.1753
0.07 2.1508 o. 7818 0.4388 0.3006 -2.0108
By means of Eq. (10-44) all exponential integrals can be reduced to 0.08 2.0269 0.7610 0.4311 0.2962 -1.8669
the first exponential integral* &1 (x). 0.09 1.9187 0.7412 0.4236 0.2919 -1.7387
e. Asymptotic forms. From Eq. (10-42), at x =O 0.10 1.8229 o. 7225 0.4163 0.2877 -1.6228
0.12 1.6595 0.6878 0.4022 0.2796 -1.4193
0.14 1.5241 0.6560 0.3888 0.2716 -1.2438
&n(O) = s= dttn = _1_
1 n - 1
(10-45) 0.16
0.18
1.4092
1.3098
0.6267
0.5995
0.3759
0.3637
0.2640
0.2566
-1.0887
-0.9491
0.20 1.2227 0.5742 0.3519 0.2495 -0.8218
&1 (x) is infinite at x = O, but for small values of x it may be obtained 0.25 1.0443 0.5177 0.3247 0.2325 -0.5425
from the first few terms of the expansion 0.30 0.9057 0.4691 0.3000 0.2161 -0.3027
0.35 o. 7942 0.4267 0.2777 0.2025 -0.0894
*&1(x) is sometimes written -&i(-x);and &i(x) is referred to as the exponen- 0.40 o. 7024 0.3894 0.2573 0.1891 0.1048
tial integral. 0.45 0.6253 0.3562 0.2387 0.1767 0.2849
-1 f-= T 0.50 0.5598 0.3266 0.2216 0.1652 0.4542
0.7699
1 0.2762 0.1916 0.1446
e-xt xet
0.60 0.4544
&i(x) = _"' -t- ctt = ctt
0.70 0.3738 0.2349 0.1661 0.1268 1.0649
0.80 0.3106 0.2009 0.1443 0.1113 1.3474
(Integration is from -"' to -E and from +E to x, where E is near zero.)

362
364 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

Table 10-1 (Continued)

CHAPTER 11
The First Four Exponential Integrals*
&, i(x)
THE THREE-DIMENSIONAl TEMPERATURE FIELD-
X &, 1(x) &,2(x) &, 3(x) &,4(x)
RADIATIVE EXCHANGE IN SYSTEMS CONTAINING
0.90 0.2602 0.1724 0.1257 0.0978 1.6228
0.1097 0.0861 1.8951 VOLUME EMITTERS
1.00 0.2194 0.1485
1.2 0.1584 0.1111 0.0839 0.0668 2.4421
1.4 0.1162 0.0839 0.0646 0.0521 3.0072 The objective in this chapter is the development of methods of
1.6 0.0863 0.0638 0.0499 0.0407 3.6053 allowing for gas temperature gradients in enclosures of any config-
1.8 0.0647 0.0488 0.0387 0.0319 4.2499 uration - an objective motivated initially by an interest in more
2.0 0.0489 0.0375 0.0301 0.0250 4.9542 quantitative design of industrial furnaces. Elimination of the re-
2.5 0.0249 0.0198 0.0163 0.0138 7.0738 strictions of gas temperature uniformity imposed in Chap. 8 and of
3.0 0.0130 0.0106 0.0289 0.0277 9.9338 a unidimensional temperature field imposed in Chap. 10 enormously
3.5 0.0270 0.02 58 0.0249 0.0243 13.926 widens the type of problem capable of solution, enabling the evalua-
4.0 0.0238 0.0232 0.0228 0.0224 19.631 tion of the effect of such complex factors as recirculatory flows and
4.5 o.o 221 0.0218 0.0216 0.0214 27.934 the progress of combustion on the heat transfer in rocket combustion
5.0 0.0211 0.0210 0.0388 0.0378 40.185 chambers and in furnaces. The analysis here will be limited to the
6.0 o.o 336 0.0332 0.0328 0.0325 85.990 heat transfer problem, i.e., flow and combustion patterns are as-
8.0 o.o 438 0.0434 0.0431 0.0429 440.38 sumed available. * The presentation follows the material of refer-
10.0 o.o 541 o.o 538 o.o 535 o.o 533 2492.2 ences 3 and 4.

*Excerpted from Placzek, G., "Exponential ~tegral for Real Ar.gument,"
Mathematical Tables for the Applied Mathematics Panel of the Nat10nal De-
fense Research Committee. The following shorthand representation is used:
0.00045 = 0.0345.
Although a rigorous formulation of energy balances on the
various surface and gas elements yields an integral equation, the
complications introduced into the boundary conditions by the complex
configuration of many enclosures almost force acceptance of the
procedure of zoning the system, both gas and surface. For a gas
zone the sum of the radiant energy flux ultimately absorbed from all
zones in the system (both gas and surface) plus the net conduction or
convection rate to the zone from adjacent gas or surface elements
plus the net enthalpy flux ( chemical and sensible) to it due to bulk
flow must equal the rate of emission in the gas zone - plus any rate
of increase in its enthalpy during the time interval if the process is
unsteady intime. Similarly, for a surface zone forming part of the
enclosure the sum of the radiant flux absorbed from all zones (gas
and surface) plus the net convection rate to the surface must equal
the sum of the emission rate from the surface, the net flux out
through its external face, and - if the process is unsteady in time -
its rate of increase in enthalpy. For any specific problem for which

*The interaction between flow and energy transfer is small enough in many
problems to permit separation of their solutions. An important exception is
that of enclosures where buoyancy forces are significant; in such systems
the equations defining the velocity and temperature fields must be solved
simultaneously.

365
366 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 367

the flow pattern is given or assumed, every term in these equations,

with the exception of the net external wall fluxes, may be written as (4) the difference in entering and leaving enthalpy, both sen-
a function in which the only unknowns are temperature, and the num- sible and chemical, of the gas crossing the boundaries of dVi
ber of equations will be found equal to the number of unknowns (tem-
peratures or wall fluxes). A solution of a set of these equations, one
for each zone in the system, yields the desired distribution of tem-
perature and flux throughout the enclosure. where u is the velocity vector, p0 the density, and is and ic the sen-
sible and chemical enthalpies per unit mass;
The sequence of exposition is the formulation of the integral
equations (Sec. 11.1); the extension of the zone method of Chap. 3 to (5) radiation emitted by dVi
enclosures containing absorbing media (Sec. 11.2) allowance for non-
gray gases (Sec. 11.3); total energy balances (Sec. 11.4). 4dVi Jo
00

K,\ ,1. E,\ ) 1. d,\,

11.1 Rigorous Formulation of Energy Balances (6) and, for the unsteady state, the rate of increase in en-
thalpy
The various terms involved in an energy balance on a volume
element d Vi are:

(1) the absorption of the radiation, emitted by gas elements

dVi , which reaches dVi directly When the sum of (1) to (4) is equated to (5) plus (6), an integro-
differential equation is obtained.

00
1 4K/\,i E/\,i e · 0
-f r 1 iKt.( r) dr Similarly, for a surface dAi the various terms in an energy
d V·1
1
À=O V
2
41Tr ij
dV.]
balance are:

(1) absorption of gas-emitted radiation

where r is the distance along the straight line connecting dVi and
dVi , and rii is the distance separating them;
(2) the absorption of the radiation leaving all surface elements

oo 1 w,\ . f rij
e - o K/.( r) dr where eii is the angle between rii and the normal to dAi;
l
,\=O A ,J
2
1Trij
(2) absorption of radiation leaving all surface elements

where dAn,i is the surface area of element dAj projected normal to

8 -Jorii Kt_( r) dr
r ii, and W;.,, i is the total leaving-flux density (emitted plus re-
flected) at dAi ; J J _w_/\_,_i_e______c_o_s_i_i
00
_c_o_s_e_i_i_dA_i_· /\_,_i_d_Ã
_E

(3) convection from any contiguous surface elements of area ~O A 17~

dAk and temperature Tk
where eii is the angle between rii and the normal to dA. . Integra-
tion is over the entire surface area. i

where h is a convection coefficient of heat transfer;

368 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 369

(3) convection from the gas flowing over the surface

h(T.1 - T-) dA-1 or

1

(4) emission by the surface

*(11-1)
00

dAi Jo EÀ ,1· EÀ ,1· d,\ Let ~here be n surface and m gas zones. Equation (11-1) may be
apphed to each surface zone to give a set of simultaneous equations
(5) the net flux extracted through the surface
Ai
Si Si Si S2 Si sn
Pi Wi

A2
(6) and, for the unsteady state, the rate of increase in enthalpy Si 82 S2 S2 S2 Sn W2
P2

where ii is the enthalpy of the mass associated with unit area of

surface Ai. Terms (1), (2), and (3) when equated to (4), (5), and (6)
give rise to a second integro-differential equation. Transfer matrix Response
vector
ln the pre-digital-computer days the simultaneous solution of
these equations for a complex configuration would not have been con-
sidered feasible; but today a suitable subdivision of the gas and sur-
face into zones and the spectrum into a number of regions in which
the properties are approximately constant enables an approach to a
rigorous solution. It is advantageous to tackle the problem in
stages, first setting up radiatíon balances in gray-gas systems in (11-2)
order to determine the effect of multiple reflection at the walls, then
introducing the complicating factors of nongray emission and other
modes of heat transfer.

11.2 Radiation Balances in an Enclosure:

The Total-Exchange Area Excitation vector t

Consider an enclosure of any shape with walls and gas varying

*According to the definitions in Chap. 7 of S:-S.1 and g. s. S.--s·W· rep t
in temperature in any manner; let the walls and gas be gray. Divide th di ti th t i i i i resen s
~ s~reams away from zone Ai (due both to emission and to
1, 1
era. a on
the system into zones small enough to justify ignoring the tempera- reflect10n) and impmges on Ai , g i si E g, i that emitted by Vi which reaches
ture in each, following a coordinate system for which direct-
A;. The summations E· L - g s E and L --W h ·
exchange areas are available (see Chap. 7). The leaving-flux density 1 i i ; g,j . E; i si s; i are t e mtegrations,
W at any surface zone is equal to the emitted and reflected fluxes. º:'er ~i , of the first and second terms of the energy balance of a surface
A radiation balance on surace zone i gives g1ven m S~c. 11.1, evaluated for gray surfaces anda gray gas of uniform
concentrat10n t~ro~ghout. the enclosure. The approximation of neglecting
the W and E vanations w1thin surfac~ and gas zones is introduced.
tEac~ row corresponds to asingle element in the vector. Equations (11-2) dif-
fer _m ~orm from Eqs. (3-25) only by __!;ge presence of the gas terms in the
excitat10n vector and the redefinition of s; si to include gas absorption.
370 RADIATNE TRANSFER
THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 371

Allowance for surfaces in radiative equilibrium may be made as

before by assigning a p of 1 to each such surface.
Equations (11-2) can be used directly to evaluate net radiative
flux at any zone, given the temperatures of all zones; or, more im-
portant, to evaluate total-exchange areas for use in energy balan·ces
not restricted to radiative transport. These two uses will be dis-
cussed in order.
Let i be a surface zone. From Eq. (3-4)
E;
q net,i -- -Pi (E s,1· - W)
1
(3-4)
Solution of (11-2) for Wi thus enables determination of the net
radiative flux at A;. Let i be a gas zone. The net flux at i is simply
the difference between the emission and absorption rates at the zone
qnet,i = 4KVi Eg,i - L gjgiEg,j - L Sj gi Wj (11-3)
J
a. Total-Exchange Areas. The temperatures throughout an
enclosure are generally unknown, and Eqs. (11-2) are best used to
determine the net relative radiative exchange between a specified
pair of zones, including both the direct interchange and the c?ntri-
butions from multiple reflection at other surface zones. As m Sec.
3-5, this exchange is most simply evaluated by assigning an E of
zero to all surface and gas zones but one and then solving for the
net fluxes at all surfaces. The form of the solution is simplified by
assigning a temperature to the one emitting zone that will make its
black emissive power 1.
(11-4)
The presubs.cript on the brackets is again a reminder of the limited
meaning of Q. The net interchange between a pair of zones must be
proportional to the difference in their E' s; and for surface zone j
and gas zone i the proportionality constant is given by - .[Q .J
since in the derivation of Eq. (11-4) E g,1· and E s ,)· were s~t ~eqii~1 to
one and zero, respectively. This constant is designated G; Si, and
called the gas-surjace total-exchange area.
-- Ai Ej
G·S·
1 i
=
-
-Pi
- g, ·W·i
1 (11-5)
and Qi""i = GiSi (Eg,i - Es,j). Surface-surface total-exchange
areas are obtained similarly by assigning an E of 1 to one of the
surfaces and zero to all other zones.
-- Ai Ej
.. E·)
S;Si· = -pí- ( s,1·Wi - 5 1i 1 (11-6)
The gas-gas total-exchange area may be calculated from the
values of g,; Wk (k is a surface zone). If zone g. is the original
emitter, then the total reception at any other g~s zone g· is g. g.
(the direct radiation from gi to g í) plus the sum of the ~rodu~t~ of
the leaving flux at each surface in the system multiplied by the
fraction of that flux which reaches and is absorbed by gas zone g ..
Again, since the E of g; is assigned a value of 1, the flux repres~nts
the desired G; Gí; or

When the original emitter is gas zone i, each row in the exci- GiGí = gigi + L skgi g,iWk (11-7)
k
tation vector in Eqs. (11-2) contains but one term, and the vector
becomes -s 1 g;, -s 2 gi, ... -s0 gi. The total leaving-flux densities Two important consequences of the definitions of these three
obtained by solution of Eqs. (11-2) are designated g,iW1 , g,iW2 , ••• kinds of total-exchange areas are: The emission from a surface i
g,
1
·Wn' the presubscript g ' i indicating which zone was assigned
. . an per unit of its emissive power must equal the sum of all total-
E of 1. The value of g, ;Wi is given by g, iwi = iDj/D m wh1ch D exchange areas between it and all other zones, surface or gas; or
represents the determinant of the transfer matrix of (11-2), and
iD i a determinant formed by replacement of the j-column of D by
-s1 gi, -s 2 gi, ... -s gi. The net flux from surface j may then be
0
L
j, incl. i
SjSi + L GjSi =Ai Ei (11-8)
obtained by applying Eq. (3-4)
Similarly, for gas zone gi,

4KVi (11-9)
j, incl. i
or
372 RADIATNE TRANSFER
The values of s 1. w.J and g, 1.w.J required in the above calcula-
1
tions may be obtained from (11-2) by using Cramer's rule (Sec. 3.9)
or by standard techniques of solving simultaneous linear equations
(Sec. 3.10). The arder of the transfer matrix is equal to the number
of surface zones; the number of excitation vectors equals the total
number of zones, gas and surface, in the enclosure.
b. Criteria for zone sizing. The use of the ss, gs, and gg
factors presented in Chap. 7 in the radiation balances given by Eqs.
(11-1) and (11-2) assumes that the W variation over a surface zone
and the E variation within a gas zone may be neglected: Rough
guides for deciding on the size of surface zones were given in Sec.
3. 7; in general, the fineness of subdivision of a surface affects the
details of its flux distribution much more than the errar in calculat-
ing its total net flux. The discussion of criteria for sizing gas zones
in Sec. 10.4b permits the conclusion that if 5 percent accuracy in the
calculated fluxes is to be assured, the zone size should be such that
the product of absorption coefficient and zone dimension lies outside
the range 0.4 to 3, and where it is above 3 all but adjoining-zone
flux should be ignored and the latter calculated by the Rosseland
diffusion equation.
A little consideration indicates that the zone method can be
applied in two limiting ways: The interchange area between two
zones may be calculated rigorously, with each zone treated as iso-
thermal; or the interchange area for every pair of points, one in
each zone, may be approximated by that of a point pair located at
the centers of the two zones. While these two methods approach
each other in the limit as the zone size is decreased, each has its
range of superiority over the other in permitting coarse zoning with
minimum error. Other variations of the zone method introduce still
smaller error, but are more time-consuming to use. If the temper-
ature field is one-dimensional so that the zones are parallel slabs,
rigorous allowance can be made for a linear variation in emissive
power across each zone [6]. If the temperature field is two-
dimensional and the zones are rectangular in cross section, semi-
rigorous allowance can be made for the emissive-power variation
over each zone as shown by T. H. Einstein [1, 2]: An energy balance
is drawn about a differential element in the center of a zone in place
of an entire zone. And, in the calculation of radiative flux from gas
zones in a two-dimensional system, the E within a zone is approxi-
mated by a two-dimensional linear function of the form
E(x, y) = Em,n + (Em+l,n - Em,n) x/X + (Em,n+l - Em,n) y/Y
THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 373
where X and Y are the zone length and width and E m,n, Em+l, n, Em, n+ 1
are the values of E at the center of the (m, n)th and two contiguous
zones. Three integrals to be multiplied by Em , n' (E m+l ,n - Em ,n ) ' and
(Em, n+l - Em, n) must be evaluated for the different relative disposi-
tions of gas-surface zone pairs, and gas-gas zone pairs. The radi-
ative balance on the central element of a gas and surface zone will
involve a weighted sum of the E's of the different zone centers,
similar in form to Eqs. (11-1) and (11-3). The configurations con-
sidered by Einstein were two-dimensional cartesian and cylindrical.
The method gave results in good agreement with exact computations
on a unidimensional system for the entire range of optical thick-
nesses studied (KL s 3) using a ten zone subdivision; but the need
for generating three variations on the interchange area is a draw-
back.
11.3 Allowance for a Nongray Gas
A real gas, in contrast to the hypothetical uniformly absorbing
gray gas of the preceding derivations, exhibits a variation in absorp-
tion coefficient with wavelength and temperature. Allowance for the
nongray character of the gas may be made by methods similar to
those used in Secs. 7.5b and 8.8. The gas absorptivity and emissiv-
ity are described empirically as a weighted sum of gray gases
Eg (11-10)
n
CJlgs (11-11)
Experience indicates that n need not exceed 3; 2 or even 1 (the gray-
plus-clear gas model) often suffices. Next, n sets of values of SS,
SG, or GG are calculated from Eqs. (11-2) to (11-7) using values of
ss, sg, and gg based on the n values of k. The radiant flux between
two zones in an enclosure containing a real gas is then the weighted
sum of the independent contributions of gray gases of different ab-
sorption coefficients km weighted in proportion to the coefficients
a 0 evaluated at the temperature of the emitting zone. * The a-
weighted values of t~al _!E:terch~ge areas (the directed-flux areas)
are represented by SS, SG, or GG, with the direction of the arrow
in the direction of the radiative flux. ln this nomenclature
*The validity of this procedure of allowing for the temperature dependence
of properties is examined in Sec. 6-11.
374 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
____,_ ..,__
Es,iSiSi - Es,i SiSi (11-12)
wíth
(11-13)
Similar expressions can be written with SG, GG, etc. No conflict
exists, in Eq. (11-12), with the second-law condition that net radia-
~ transport must stop when no temperature difference exists;
Si Si approaches Si Si in the limít as Ei approaches E i.
a. Local variations in concentration of absorbent. When the
concentrations of the absorbing components of a gas vary locally
without causing the absorption characteristics or the proportions of
the various components to change, allowance for the variations can
be made. Reevaluation of the integrals leading to the direct-
exchange factors is of course possible, but is rarely justified. In-
stead, approximate allowance can be made for the variation in K by
modifying the direct-exchange factors evaluated for a constant K
system. The average K (= kPp) along a path r is given by
When a gas volume Vi is radiating to a gas volume Vi and their
distance of separation r is large compared with the characteristic
dimension of each, their exchange area wíth K varying is given by
(11-14)
(g 1. g.)
J var
= 4K.1 V.1 K-J V.J e-Kavr/rrr2
whereas the corresponding relation based on a fixed K (= Kav) is
(g 1. g.J \'Kav = 4K2av V·1 V·J e -Kavr/rrr2 (11-15)
Although the assumptions that emission from gi is associated with
a fixed Ki and that absorption at gi is associated with a fixed Ki
lose validity as the center-to-center separating distance approaches
the characteristic zone size, the use of the ratio of (11-14) to (11-15)
to correct the value of (gi g i) Kav evaluated for a homogeneous system
should introduce little error. Then
THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 375
(11-16)
Similar reasoning leads to the recommendation that Kav be deter-
mined as the integrated mean of K along the path connecting the
zone centers, from the value Ki at the emitting zone to K at the
absorbing _zone, and that the interchange areas ss, sg, g~, and gg
be determrned as though K were constant at Kav and then corrected
by the factors 1, Ki /K 2 v, KjK 2 v, and KiKj/K;v, respectively. This
procedure permits approximate allowance for conditions such as
those of combustion products of higher concentration in the center
of th~ combustio_n chamber than near the wall (but with no change in
relahve proportions of the various components contributing to ab-
sprption or emission).
11.4 Total Energy Balances
The general problem to be solved is the prediction of the tem-
perature distribution in the gas space and the temperature and heat-
flux d_istributio~ ~long the walls of an enclosure of specified shape
and s1ze, contammg a gas whose composition and flow pattern are
specified. The sequence of procedures, including a recapitulation of
material needed from the preceding two sections, follows:
1. From the data on the gas of interest, fit emissivity-length
and absorptivity-length relations of the type of Eqs. (11-10) and
(11-11) to determine a suitable set of K 0 's and the variation of a
and ag,n with temperature. s,n
2. Zone the system into the coarsest structure consistent with
the accuracy desired, in a manner dictated by the configuration of
t~e enc_losure and by prior knowledge, or guess, of where steep gra-
dients m the temperature field necessitate fine-scale zoning.
3. Evaluate direct-exchange areas ss, sg, gg, one set for
each of the n values of K.
4. Use Eq~(ll-2), (11-5), (11-6), and (11-7) to formulate the
set of values of SS, SG, and GG, one set for each K 0 •
5. Estimate the temperature field, and for it evaluate Ss, sG,
GG from relations like (11-13), for each zone-pair combination.
6. Formulate the total-energy balances on those zones of un-
known temperature. Balance on Ai:
L~iEs,i + LGiSiEg,i -AiEiEs,i + hiA(Tg,k - Ts,J = Qnet,i
(11-17)
376 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
'Yhere Tg, k is the temperature in the gas zone contiguous to Ai, and
Qnet,i includes useful flux extracted from Ai ora transientterm if any.
Similarly, for Vi:
L ~iEg, j + L ~iEs, j - L 4ag,nKii Vi Eg,i + Q e,i = Qu, gi - Qc, i
(11-18)
where
Qc, i = energy release rate, dueto combustion
Q e, i = rate of decrease in sensible enthalpy of gas flowing
through the zone and convection from any contiguous
surfaces
transient term, rate of storage in the zone
This gives a system of as many simultaneous nonlinear equations as
there are unknown zone temperatures, gas and surface. At such
zones the r.h.s. of (11-17) and (11-18) is either known or expressible
i.n terms involving no new unknowns (e.g., ata refractory surface
<;!net equals E!ither O or UA(T - T 0 ); at a gas zone in steady state
Qu = O, and Qc must be given). The set of equations may be solved
by iterative techniques. If the terms involving powers of T other
than 4 are not large, they may be cast in a form which makes the
equations linear in T 4 (see Sec. 3.lla). Generally, the enthalpy
terms are significant and an iterative procedure, such as the com-
bination of the Gauss-Seidel and the Newton-Raphson methods de-
scribed in Sec. 3. llb, will give faster convergence to the correct
solution.
7. Insert the temperatures determined in step 6 into energy
balances, like Eq. (11-17), on those surfaces of known temperature
(the source/sink surfaces), to evaluate their net flux.
Note that steps 1 through 4 produce a complete description of
the radiation characteristics of the system. Studies of the effects
of changes not affecting the system shape or size, wall emissivity,
or gas compositions, of changes in factors such as flow rate, flow
pattern, enthalpies. of the entering gas, heat generation, temperature
distribution of the controlled part of the walls - all these studies
are made by changes in steps 5 to 7.
For a discussion of the above procedure in application to fur-
naces, see Sec. 14.12.
THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE FIELD 377
Other methods. A formulation of energy transfer from gases
with temperature gradients in terms of the basic temperature-
dependent parameters governing gas emission has been given by
Penner [5]. ln comparison with the method summarized here the
'
latter formulation is more rigorous in its allowance for property
variations along the direct radiation path, but less general in that it
does not include radiative transport from source to sink via indirect
paths involving wall reflection. Moreover, the complicated form of
the equations, the difficulty of applying them to irregular shaped en-
closures such as furnaces, and the uncertainty as to the correct
values of the parameters describing the fine structure of the spectra
of molecules of interest probably make unjustifiable the use, in most
engineering calculations, or a more rigorous description of the ef-
fects of nongrayness of gases and their temperature response than
that outlined above.
Monte Carlo methods in which the passage of unit beams of
radiation are traced until they are ultimately absorbed have also
been used to solve problems in gas radiation. ln general, they re-
quire an excessive amount of computer time to obtain a solution.
CHAPTER 11. LITERATURE CITATIONS
1. Einstein, T. H.: NASA Tech. Rept., R-154, 1963.
2. Einstein, T. H.: NASA Tech. Rept., R-156, 1962.
3. Hottel, H. C., and E. S. Cohen: J. Amer. Inst. Chem. Engrs.
4: 3 (1958). '
4. Hottel, H. C., and A. F. Sarofim: "Theory and Fundamental
Research in Heat Transfer," J. A. Clark (ed.), pp. 139-160,
Pergamon Press, New York, 1963.
5. Penner, S. S.: "Quantitative Molecular Spectroscopy and Gas
Emissivities," Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1959.
6. Walther, V. A., J. Dorr and E. Eller: Glastechn. Ber. 26: 133
(1953). '

CHAPTER 12
SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES
This chapter presents the scatter characteristics of single
particles and provides the data required for the calculation (in Chap.
13) of radiative transfer in systems containing scattering particles.
The interaction of a particle with radiation incident on it depends on
the dimensionless quantities: the complex refractive index, n(l - iK);
the ratio of characteristic particle dimension to wavelength; and the
particle shape. In principle, the relation may be determined by
solving Maxwell's equations for the boundary conditions correspond-
ing to the different particle shapes. Solutions, however, are avail-
able for only a few shapes-spheres, spherical shells, infinite cyl-
inders, and infinite cylindrical shells-and even these are difficult
to evaluate. Fortunately it is possible to obtain limiting solutions
without recourse to Maxwell' s equations when the parti eles are
either very large or very small relative to the wavelength of the
radiation. Emphasis in this chapter will be placed on these asymp-
totic solutions, which provide a physical picture of the phenomena of
scatter. A more complete coverage of some of the subjects treated
here will be found in Van der Hulst [12].
12.l Definitions
a. Coefficients and cross sections. A collimated beam tra-
versing an absorbing-scattering medium is attenuated in consequence
partly of absorption and partly of any deflections from the direction
of propagation of the beam. The fractional decrease in intensity of
a monochromatic beam over small distances is proportional to dis-
tance, or
(12-1)
- dl/l = K d.e_
The proportionality constant in the absence of scatter is the absorP-
tion coejficient, Ka; in the absence of absorption it is the scatter
coejficient, K 8 ; and in the presence of both absorption and scatter it
is the total attenuation or extinction coefficient Kt, equal to the sum
of Ka and K 8 •
Measurement of Kt or Ks is complicated by the difficulty of
separating the forward scatter from the transmitted radiation. This
separation can be achieved in principle by using an incident or pri-
mary beam of vanishingly small divergence and measuring radiation
transmitted in the sarne small angle. ln practice, of course, there
378
SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 379
is a low~r limit to the experimental value of the angle, within which
scatter lS not sepa~able from the transmitted radiation. Corrections
to the ap~arent extrnction coefficient measured with cone half-angles
up to 1.4 have been computed by Gumprecht and Sliepcevich [5].
~f th_e _coefficient K-reciprocal length or area per unit vol-
ume_--1s div1~ed by the number of particles per unit volume, the re-
sultrng area lS called the particle cross section e· and the ratio of
C tº the geometrical cross se~tion is known as th~ efficiency factor
X. K, _e, and X carry subscnpts a, s, or t to indicate relation to
absorption, scatter, or total extinction.
b._ Phase function. Let a primary beam of intensity lo and
sma~l d1vergence angle be incident on a particle of scatter-cross-
section Cs_. Let the scattered flux in the direction e, l{I, per unit
angle ~f d1vergence of the incident bt:;am and per unit angle of diver-
gence m scatter, be represented by Q( e, 1.f;). The total scatter
throughout an angle l2s of 4ir steradians is then
If the scatter were isotropic Q would be constant over e l{I and
equal to the total scatter divided by the total solid angle,' or to .
loCs /4_ir. Let the factor for converting this term to non-isotropic Q
be d~s1gnated by p( e, l/J), called the phase function, the ratio of in-
tens~ty scattered in the direction e, l/J to that scattered by an iso-
trop1c scatterer; or
· l 0C
Q( e, l/J) = p( e, l/J) 4irs
From the above two relations
4 ir Q( e, l/I)
P( e, l/J) = (12-2)
Q( e,
J
47T
l/J) dl2s
c. ~catter diagram. A graph of Q( e, l/J) or p( e, l/J) is called a
sc~tter diagr~m. Such diagrams for symmetrical or many randomly
onented_ parhcle~ are independent of l/J and are normally presented
as funchons of e rn polar coordinates. For that case dl28 = 2ir sin e
de= 27T d (-cos e) or, to make the parameter run from o to 1 as e
changes from O to 1T, 21T d(l - cos 8). Then
*The efficiency factor is variously denoted by Q, K, and E in the literature.
 SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 381
380 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

the projected area of the particle (Sec. 12.2c). If the diffracted en-
Q(B) (12-2a) ergy is separated from the transmitted energy, the effectiveness
p(e)
~os
factor for extinction is increased by one, making Xt equal to two.
{ Q(e) d (1 - e) A clear distinction between the diffracted and reflected radiation is
possible only in the case of particles with perimeter /wavelength
ratio >> 1. The desirability of counting the diffracted energy barely
anda rectilinear plot of Q(B) versus (1 - cos B)/2 ~ermi~s _clirect deflected from a linear path as scatter may be questioned. However,
visualization, by areas, of the fractional scatter lym~ wühm any the gradual transition from narrow- to wide-angle diffraction as
range. The area under a p(B) vs (1 - cos B)/2 curve is 1. particle size is decreased prevents the establishment of a clear rule
d cos e A value of interest in some radiation calculations . for separating the diffracted and reflected energies. In the calcula-
is the i~tegral. of the intensity of the scattered radi~ti.on, resolve? m tion of the radiation scattered by large particles, proper allowance
the direction of propagation of the primary beam, d1v1ded by the m- should be made for interference between rays diffracted, reflected,
and refracted in a given direction but following different paths; these
tegral of the intensity:
effects become important when rays scattered in the sarne direction
but having different histories are of comparable intensities.
J
477
Q(B) cos e dDs J p(B) cose dDs (12-3) Attention will be confined at first to the dispersion of the ra-
cos e- 477 47T diation that is intercepted by the particle; diffraction will be included
J
477
Q(B) dDs at a later stage. The behavior of the radiation at an interface has
been described in Chap. 4; part of the radiation is reflected, either
cos e might be called the jorwardness of scatter; it is a measure of specularly or diffusely, and part is refracted into the particle. If
the imbalance of the radiation scattered fo~war~ and backward: and the particle is opaque, the scatter diagram is determined completely
is positive for preferential scatter in the direction of propagation, by the surface reflectivity and the particle shape. A few simple
zero for scatter that is isotropic or has forward-backward symme- cases will now be studied.
try, and negative for preferential scatter towards the source .. It a. Specular total reflectors. The simplest of all scattering
finds use in the calculation of net forward-scat~ered flux d.ensüy particles is a large perfectly reflecting sphere. The sphere reflects
across a plane normal to an incident beam, or rn formulati_ng t~e . all the energy incident on its surface to give a cross section for
effective mean free path in radiative transport by photon d1ffus10n rn scatter Cs equal to its geometrical cross section 7Tr 2 • Let the beam
a scattering medium. incident on the sphere be of intensity I and let its divergence angle
e. Size parameter. The ratio of perimeter to wavelength, be dDi. Consider the energy incident on a differential ring confined
27Tr /Ã, occurs frequently in the descripti.on ~f the sca~ter character- between the angles rp and (rp + drp) (given by the revolution of Fig.
istics of spheres and infinite cylinders; it w1ll be des1gnated by x. 12-1 about the axis). The incident flux

f. Albedo for single scatter. The ratio of the scatter coeffi- (2 1T r 2 sin <P drp) (cos rp) (I dD;) (12-4)
cient to the total extinction coefficient is commonly referre~(to as ) ~ ~
the albedo for single scatter and is denoted by Wo. Wo = Ks Kª + Ks · are a projection incident
normal to flux
12.2 Large Particles (minimum dimension)/ primary beam density
(wavelength) >> 1
is totally reflected at angles of 2rpto 2(<;b + d<;b) with the incident
A particle much larger than the wavel~ng~h of the incident ra- beam; the divergence of the incident beam adds a second-order dif-
diation will intercept radiation equal to that rnc1dent o_n th.e area . ferential which is neglected. To a distant observer the reflected
projected normal to the primary beam, .i.e., the c~ntnbuhon of d1.- _ flux appears to be confined in a solid angle
rect blocking to the efficiency factor X is 1. The rntercepted ~adia
tion will be reflected, refracted, and absorbed to an extent wh1c~ ~an (27T sin 2<;b) (2d<;b) = 87T sin cpcos <;bdrp (12-5)
be calculated by applying the laws of geometrical optics. ~n ~ddit1on,
the particle will diffract radiation equal in amount to that rnc1dent on
 SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 383
382 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

where 8, .the ~ngle the reflected ~eam makes with the direction of
Division of (12-4) by (12-5) and assign- propagahon, is .equal to 1T - 2cp. Q(8) on division by the flux per unit
ment of 1 to I ctni gives the reflected sohd.angle for isotropic reflection, 7Tr2Ip /47T gives the phase
flux Q per unit incident flux density funchon h '
and per unit solid angle of scatter
p(8) = p(cp)/ ph
r2 (12-6)
Q= or in terms of the phase an-
4
gle
Since the reflected intensity is inde-
pendent of cp, scatter by totally reflect- (12-8)
ing spheres is isotropic. Consider now <N 0.4
"-
Fig. 12-1. Scatter by a any randomly oriented perfectly re- ED
surface element of a spec- flecting particle with a surface having The scatter diagram may be __!; 1
0.3
ular ly reflecting sphere. constructed from the reflec- Q)
no negative curvature. Any surface
element has equal chances of orientation tivity diagrams of Chap. 4, ""' Q)
'"d 0.2
with backward and forward 'ü
over 47T steradians and will therefore behave like part of a sphere scatter corresponding in their .s'+-<
(see Sec. 6.2). The average cross section for scatter is consequently limits to reflection at normal o Q)
one quarter of the total surface area, and the average reflected ra- and grazing incidence. The on
diation is distributed isotropically. ln summary: if diffracted radi- intensity of the radiation scat- .,.,,"'roro 0.1
ation is not included, large perfectly-reflecting randomly oriented tered by opaque insulators
particles whose surfaces have no indentations are characterized by: .,.,,~
therefore shows a peak in the '::;' 0.08

forward direction (8 = O), falls :;:J 0.06

(Surface Area) p( 8) =1 off rapidly with increasing 8 .;:::" Q)

Xs = 1 Cs = 4 Q)
and is relatively constant at i:i:::
larger 8's. The state of po- I~ 0.04
b. Opaque specular partial reflectors. The reflectivity of a larization varies from O at
Q

real surface is dependent on angle of incidence and state of polari- ~

8 = o, to 1 at the equivalent of 0.03
'\ 17-2 tan-l i.5
zation of the radiation. Denote the surface reflectivity for an angle c9 ~ 67.3°,
Brewster's angle (8 = 1T - 2 Brewster /
of incidence cp by p(cp). Of the flux incident on a ring element, Eq. tan -1 n) and decreases to a \ Angle
( 12-4), the fraction p( cp) is reflected, or the amount value of O at 8 = 1T. A scatter 0.02 ~r
/'ô"\ 'e
l t:lv \ __L \
1
(reflection) diagram for a di-
p(cp) 27Tr2 sin cp cos cp dcp I ctni (12-7)
electric opaque large sphere
1
Surface \ 1
with a refractive index of 1. 5
lntegration over the incident area gives the total reflected flux is shown in Fig. 12-2. 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 o
Backw 'd Forw 'd
rr/2 By arguments similar e
7Tr2 I ctni
J p( cp) d sin2 cp = nr2 I ctni ph to those used for total reflec-
0 tors (Sec. 12.2,a), the above Fig. 12-2. Phase function for a sin-
results can be shown to apply gle large opaque dielectric (specular)
where Ph is the hemispherical reflectivity. Division of the reflected to any randomly oriented par-
reflector, n = 1.5-sphere or ran-
radiation, (12-7), by the solid angle dns (12-5), gives, per unit inci- domly oriented particle of no nega-
ticles which have no negative tive curvature. Inset: sarne diagram,
dent flux density, surface curvature. ln sum - polar coordinates.
mary, the scattering charac-
Q(8) = p(cp) r~ teristics of partial specular
refle ctor s (omitting diffrac -
tion effects) are:
 SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 385
384 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

= (Surface Area) ph Substitution from (12-10) into (12-9) followed by integration over the
Cs
4
area common to observer and source gives the total energy flux per
unit solid angle and per particle, scattered at an angle 81 with the
e. Opaque, diffuse reflectors. Particles "".h~ch h~ve rough direction of the incident beam. It is
surfaces or which are not homogeneous will exh1bit a d1ffuse re-
flectance. As an illustration of the scatter by such surfaces. the
the moon can be cons1dered a pr2
l dS1i J" sin3 f{; df{;
Jrr/2-11 cos i.fJ cos (l/J + 8i) dl/J
1

1T cp=O ijI=f712
particle, scattering by diffuse
reflection, in a system of as-
tronomical dimensions: max- 2 I dS1i
= - pr2 1T [(7T - 81) cos 81 + sin 8i] (12-11)
imum scatter in the direction 3
of observation occurs when
the source and observer are By convention the angle of scatter is measured relative to the direc-
in the sarne direction (8 = 1T, tion of propagation. Substitution of 8 for 1T - 8 1 and division by the
full moon); zero scatter oc- energy per unit solid angle 7Tr2I dS1i/47T that would be reflected
curs when the source and the were the scatter isotropic gives the phase function
observer are on opposite
sides of the particle (8 = O,
new moon). The scatter dia-
p( 8) = -ª-
3 7T
(sin 8 - 8 cos 8) (12-12)
gram for a sphere whose sur-
face is a Lambert reflector The scatter diagram for a diffuse sphere (Fig. 12-4) shows a pro-
Fig. 12-3. Coordinates of an element will now be constructed. If nounced back scatter ( 5/6) in contrast to the preferential scatter in
dA on the surface of a sphere, in re- the angle between the source the direction of propagation
lation to source and observer. and point of observation is 81, exhibited by most homogene- 2.8
the surface of exposure com- ous particles. Equation (12-12) 2.6
mon to source and observer is the area confined between the azi- was first derived by Schoen- 2.4 /
muthal angles ( 1T /2 - 81 ) and - 7T/2 made with the direction to t?e berg [11] in connection with /
photometry of the moon. The 2.2
source (the area free from shading in Fig. 12-3). A beam of mten-
sity I and divergence angle dS°2i incid~nt on. a surface element dA at phase function of the moon, 2.0 /
an angle O' gives rise to a flux, per umt sohd angle reflected at an however, is considerably more :§ 1.8 V
angle Y to the normal, of complicated, since the sur- e.
.§ 1.6 /
face of the moon is not a
(dA cos (p) (cos Y /1T) (12-9) Lambert surface as evidenced g 1.4 /
(I dS°2i)
~ ~
O')
'----y----' ~ by its nearly uniform bright- .E
1.2 Q)
1
fraction in ness at full moon (vs sin 1>- ~ /
incident area normal fraction ã: 1.0
flux to primary reflected a unit solid distribution for a Lambert
surface). 0.8
/
density beam angle about Y
0.6 /
Scatter by a diffuse 0.4
/
dA, and y are related to the polar and azimuthal angles by
O',
sphere is again applicable to 0.2 l7
dA (r sin 1> d l/J) (r df/>) any randomly oriented object /
with no surface indentations. o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Forw'd Backw'd
(12-10) Such parti e 1 e s, therefore,
cos O' = sin 1> cos i./J (1- cos e)/2
have the following scattering
characteristics (again omit- Fig. 12-4. Phase function for a large
cos Y = sin 1> cos (1.f; + 8i) diffuse reflecting parti ele, spherical
ting diffraction): or randomly oriented.
 SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 387
386 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

sin (rr/2 - x) = sin (rr/2 - cp)/n (12-15)

Xs =P
e,, = (Surface Area) P p(B) =~ (sin 8 - 8 cos 8)
4 31T It is given by

1 ~~1
d. Diathermanous particles. If a particle is not opaque the
radiation reflected from it is augmented by beams refracted and in-
= 1 2 2e sinc:p 2 1 (12-16)
(n - cos2 c:p ) 1/ 2
ternally reflected one or more times before emergence of the por-
tion not absorbed. Multiple partial internal reflection in spheres The solid angle of the emergent beam is sin e de dijJ which, on substitution of
(Fig. 12-5) received early attention because of the interest in rain- de from Eq. (12-16), becomes
bows. The derivation given here follows that in Van der Hulst [13]:
sin e 2e srn
· c:p - 2 1 d c:p dijJ (12-17)
1 (n2 - cos2 c:p) 1;2

Incident
beam, Il....-----'-'----.-"l"--i' Fig. 12-5. Trace of a beam in a
diathermanous sphere through the
second internal reflection.
The contributions of the different beams to the phase function can now be
calculated. Of the energy incident on a differential element relation (12-13)
the ~ra?tion (1 - p) 2p emerges at an angle e, directly related to the angle of '
the rnc1dent beam </> by Eq. (12-14), and is contained in a solid angle given by
(12-17). If the ~merge~t energy per unit solid angle is divided by r2I dD;/4
(the fl~x due to ISotrop1c scatter by a nonabsorbing sphere) the contribution,
for a flxed e, to the phase function by the energy incident on a surface ele-
ment at an angle c:p is

Pe(e)= 4(1- 8 )2//~osq,sinp > 1 (12-18)

sine 1 2 smc:p 21
The energy incident on a differential surface element with polar co- (n 2 - cos2 c:p ) 1/ 2
ordinates cp 1 ,ijf is
and for the first reflection p 0 (e) = p. In Eq. (12-18), c:p ande are related
(12-13) through Eqs. (12-14) and (12-15).
The phase function is obtained by evaluating Eq. (12-18) for all inci-
where I is the incident intensity and dfh is the solid angle subtended by the dent angles c:p and summing over all values of e, including the surface-
source at the particle. An angle c:p is defined as (rr /2 - </> 1) to simplify the refle~tio~ contribution (f = O) of P· If the spheres are not transparent the
form of the equations to be developed in this section. A fraction p of the in- contribution to the phase function for each e must be multiplied by ~ before
cident energy is reflected about an angle 2c:p to the direction of propagation. ~he summation over e ; and the final phase function is then obtained by divid-
(1 - p) is refracted into the particle and impinges on the inner surface of the mg the above summation by its integrated value, integrated over e and
particle at 1. The beam is attenuated by a factor T = exp (- 2Kr sin :0 be- weighted in proportion to (1/2) sin e, a measure of solid angle.
tween positions O and 1 (K is the absorption coefficient). At 1, fractions p
and 1 - p of the transmitted beam [ (1- p )p T and (1- p)2T of the incident The phase function finally obtained is
beam] undergo internal reflection and emergence after refraction, respec-
tively. The emergent beam makes an angle 2(x- cp) with the direction of the 00

primary beam. The internally reflected beam after traversing the particle
is once more reflected and refracted at position 2. A fraction (1 - p ) 2pT2 of p + [ ri Pe (e)
the incident energy emerges at 2 at an angle of 2(2x- c:p) to the direction of
p(e)
e= i (12-19)
the primary beam. The fraction of the beam that is internally reflected un-
dergoes further absorption, reflection, and refraction ad infinitum. After sin e de
(f - 1) internal reflections, a fraction (1 -p ) 2pf-lTf emerges at position e,
and the deviation e' from the direction of the primary beam is 2(fx - c:p).
2
The deviation may differ from the angle of scatter e by multiples m of 2rr
(12-14) ln (12-19), p is the contribution of surface reflectance, Pe (8) the
e' = ± (e - 2Ill7T ) = 2 (f X - cp) contribution of the beam which has traversed the sphere p_ times be-
fore emergence, and T the transmittance for a single traversal.
The spread de of the rays leaving the sphere per unit change in c:p may be
calculated by differentiation of the angular deviation and elimination of x by Normally the contributions fall off very rapidly with the number of
use of Snell's law,
388 RADIATIVE TRANSFER SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 389

increasing internal reflections. Interference has not been included
yet, but even without this added complication the de~e~mination of
the scatter diagram is laborious [p in Eq. (12-19), ü is to be re-
membered, is determined by Fresnel's equations and is therefore a
function of <P].
To indicate how the emergence angle e varies with incidence
angle rp, Eqs. (12-14) and (12-15) were used to show the range of 8
as rp varies from O to rr/2, for each value of Q. The lower part º!
Fig. 12-6 shows this range, for incidence on a sphere of refrachve
index 1.5. The directly reflected radiation, Q = O, is distributed be-
tween angles of O and 180°. The direction of the arrow indicates the
movement of the reflected beam as the point of incidence shifts from
the central spot of the spheres (rp = rr/2) to the edge (rp = O). The
lines numbered Q = 1, 2, 3, ... 6 give the corresponding angles of
emergence of beams which have traversed the sphere 1, 2, 3,.:. 6
times. The angle of emergence is seen not to change monotomcally
for Q 's greater than 1; d8/d<P reverses sign ata certain critical an-
gle e. This is known as the rainbow angle since the large intensity
to be found at these positions is responsible for the phenomenon of
rainbows (the most commonly observed rainbow when n = 1.33 (wa-
ter) is that at Q = 2). The contributions to the phase function by the
different terms in (12-18) are shown in Fig. 12-6, dashed lines. The
solid line represents their sum. Note that the contributions of the
higher members are negligible except for a sharp peak shown about
o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
rimary
=~~~Arai w {1-cos e)/2
__J_
the position of the rainbows. Of the infinite number of peaks possi-
ble only a few have appreciable energy contents. The summation
curve of Fig. 12-6 is replotted vs (1 - cos 8)/2 in Fig. 12-7, which
includes for comparison the performance of diffuse and specular
reflectors. It is seen that about 94% of the incident energy is for-
ward scattered, even prior to the inclusion of the diffraction term;
and three-fourths of the scatter lies within a cone of 45 º half-angle.
However, the prevalence of forward scatter decreases with increas-
ing values of the refractive index. The limiting cases are easily
deduced: a particle with an infinite refractive index is a perfect re-
flector and consequently scatters radiation isotropically; at the other
extreme, a particle with a refractive index of unity does not deflect
any of the radiation incident on it. Figure 12-8 shows the trend of
cos e in the region of intermediate refractive indices [3].
The phase differences between the different beams emerging
in the sarne direction will lead to favorable or unfavorable interfer-
ence, the effects of which are discussed in some detail by Van der
Hulst [12].
4.0 Diffuse
Fig. 12-7. Sum of contributions total
f-1------+----+-to---+-c--T-----ireflector
to phase function, large diather-
manous sphere with n = 1.5. For
comparison, diffuse and specular
total reflectors.
o 0.1 0.2 o. 3 0.4 0.5 0.6 o. 7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Forw 'd. Backw 'd.

Another example will be

Fig. 12-6. Phase function for a
large diathermanous sphere with
n = 1.5, showing contributions of
surface reflection (C = O), and of
beams undergoing E interior trav-
ersals. Bottom diagram shows
emergence angle, for various E' s,
as the position of incidence of the
source radiation moves from the
10-5 center (e) to the edge (e) of the
sphere. r denotes rainbow angle.
E- 1
1- o tive index.
o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
e, angle of scatter
0.81--"'--------+-----+----1
QL__.l__J__L___l__l_L__L_J__L_J_2_----'_
Refractive índex, n
Fig. 12-8. cose for large trans-
parent spheres; effect of refrac-
presented, to indicate the ef-
fect of interna! absorption.
Interest in radiative transfer
to heavy fuel oil droplets in a
furnace prompted Simpson
[ lla] to study the distribution
of absorbed energy in dia-
thermanous spheres. From
spectral data the total absorp-
__L3_J_~4
tion of 1000 º C black radiation
was calculated and fitted to the
gray-body and gray-plus-clear
body models (see Sec. 6.11) at
the path length 0.035 cm.
Table 12-1 gives the constants.
390 RADIATNE TRANSFER SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 391

Table 12-1. e. Diffraction. The dif-

fraction about an object can 10
Constants for Calculating Total Absorption
be related to the familiar dif- KRI= o
of 1000º C Radiation by Heavy Fuel Oil
fraction patterns produced by
an aperture in a screen. Let
Gray-Plus-Cle3;-r Model
Gray-Body [a = a(l - e -K x)] a plane wave be intercepted r 1
Fuel Abs. Coeff. K
(cm- 1 ) K' (cm- 1 ) a (cm- 1 )
by a screen with a section cut
out, and then let the sarne
plane wave impinge on the
u
>

§ 6
R=~
:\ ~5

cutout. If the radiation from ~o KR - 0.5 \

Bunker-C Fuel A 30.2 38.9 0.88 "'
Bunker-C Fuel B 23. 7 45.9 0.71
these two experiments is su-
perimposed the original plane
~
OI 4 1
\\
wave is reconstructed. The ..s" KR -1 '
6 pure HC's* 14.3-17.6 28.4-29.3 0.61-0.73 \ r\ \
fluctuations inamplitudes giv- 1!
\
ing rise to the diffraction pat- ~"" 2 \
'"
*Cetane, n-eicosane, wax, m-terphenyl, phenanthrene, acenaphthene.
terns must be complementary
for the two patterns, i.e., of z
s
...
o
lUt~
KR- 3_ n;
1
i---

~
I""-.
~ ""'
~'
Simpson then followed the history of a beam incident on a sphere at equal magnitude but of oppo- o KR /,,
an angle e, using the Fresnel equations [(4-20) and (4-21), or (4-22) site sign; the diffraction pat- o 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
and (4-23)] and the gray-plus-clear model to determine the reflec- Center Surface
terns for the cutout and the (r/R)
tion loss at the first interface and the path length, absorption, and aperture are therefore iden-
interior reflectance for each successive pass. Integration over all tical. This last statement is Fig. 12-9. Internal local volumetric
angles of incidence yielded results of two kinds: an expression of Babinet's absorption rate in an absorbing-
(1) The total absorptance a was found to increase with KR principie. A large particle reflecting sphere the surface of
(R = sphere radius), and for material of refractive índex 1.5 had the therefore diffracts a quantity which is uniformly irradiated with
of energy equal to that falling hem is p he ri e al flux; refractive
values 0.53, O. 71, and 0.87 at KR = 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0. Increasing n índex= 1.5.
lengthens the interior paths through the droplet and increases the on an aperture with the sarne
surface reflectance. When KR is small the first effect is dominant cross section as the particle,
and a increases; when KR is large the second effect is dominant and and in consequence has efficiency factors for capture and for diffrac-
a decreases. (ln the present example, a = Xª.) tion of one each, or a total extinction efficiency Xt of two.

(2) Much more striking are the results on distribution of ab-
sorbed energy within the droplet. Let the local volumetric absorp-
tion rate per unit absorption coefficient and per unit emissive power
incident on the droplet surface be called Cv. Figure 12-9 shows Cv
versus the relative radius r /R. For a highly absorbing drop (KR > 3)
the density of absorption is greatest just inside the surface, as ex-
pected. But for lower KR 's the maximum absorption occurs at an
interior shell tangent to the cone of complete internai reflection-the
Brewster cone where the relative radius r /R equals 1/n. Irradi-
ated droplets that are sufficiently small or diathermanous may start
to boil internally ! However, residual fuel oil droplets (R = 25-100µ)
have a total absorptance a of the order of 0.12-0.39; and the ratio of
radiant to gas-convective flux aaT 3/hc is in the range 0.02-0.20
when T = 1273 K. ln problems involving larger droplets or a higher
ambient temperature the phenomenon of Fig. 12-9 could become im-
The distribution of the diffracted energy can be calculated by
applying the Huygens- Fresnel principle - namely, that a wave front
can be approximated as a sum of infinitesimal sources each gen-
erating a spherical wave. The diffraction pattern is obtained from
a superposition, with proper allowance for phase difference, of
the waves generated by differential elements replacing the cross
section of the particle of interest. This analysis should be used to
calculate only narrow angle diffraction, a condition imposed by the
range of validity of the Huygens- Fresnel principle.
Application of the above procedure to calculate the contribu-
tion by diffraction to the phase function for a sphere gives
P( 8) = x2 [
2J 1 (x sin 8)] 2

portant. It is to be noted that the total droplet absorptance a equals X Sin 8 (12-20)

(KR/3) J Cv d (r /R)
1

0
3 •)
392 RADIATNE TRANSFER SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 393

where x is the perimeter-wavelength ratio. The dependence of p(B) 1.6

on sin e is shown in Fig. 12-10. The maxima and minima in the (b)
z
(a) 1.4 1\ I
intensity distribution are re-
1.2
\ 1/
sponsible for the familiar dif-
1.0
1\ fraction rings. Since at nar- 1.0 1"'- "( c--.L +li 1/
row angles the abscissa in V
0.8
\
Fig. 12-10 is proportional to ~0.8 ~--- -- --- -
1'.... /
- -- --- --- --,
lo X \~ I

xe, the angles at which the 0.6 ' ' I

IT- Lf -:\ '<

I

\ 1 ~ diffraction rings occur are

\
~. ,'
0.6 u 0.4
"' '' V
\ ' Divi< e ordinate inversely proportional to the ' '/1 _/
/
~ \ ' , /bv 20
1
1
particle size. As the particle 0.2 ...
... ,
/
p; 0.4 ,'
.._, size is decreased these angles o -
...
'"
'
'
exceed the range of validity o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
\
1
1 '' (1- cos 8)/2
0.2
1 ' of the Huygens- Fresnel prin-
\\ ' : '
''
. -....
ciple, and recourse must be
Fig. 12-11. Rayleigh scatter. (a) Vibrations of a dipole. (b) Partial phase
' made to the rigorous solution
'
1'._ \
1
I

oo 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
'
/
--- functions for radiation polarized perpendicular (.L) and parallel ( 11 ) to the
of Maxwell' s equations. The
xsin e scatter plane (dashed), and their sum (solid line).
contribution of the diffraction
given by Eq. (12-20) should
Fig. 12-10. Fraunhofer diffraction for
a sphere.
be added to the scatter dia- incident beam is in the plane of the incident beam and the direction
grams for large particles of observation, and is constant when the electric vector is perpen-
given in Secs. a to d. Rig- dicular to the plane of observation. The intensities of the compo-
orously, amplitudes and not intensities should be added. nents of the scattered radiation resolved in and perpendicular to the
plane of observation are proportional to the square of the amplitudes
of the waves and therefore assume the following dependence on e
12.3 Small Particles (maximum dimension/
(when expressed per unit flux density of the incident beam):
wavelength ;5 0.2/n)

Scatter by a particle can be considered the result of electro-

(12-21)
magnetic wave generation by dipoles set in motion by the primary
beam. The contribution to the scattered radiation by the vibrating
dipoles is readily calculated when the electric intensity and the
The scatter diagram for small particles is shown in Fig. 12-llb.
phase angle throughout the particle are equal to those of the incident
The proportionality constant C 1 was first derived by Rayleigh for
radiation. These conditions are usually satisfied when the maximum
nonabsorbing particles.
particle dimension is less than 0.2 wavelength, measured in the
particle.
a. Rayleigh scatter. Consider the vibrations of a dipole under
the action of radiation propagating along the x axis (Fig. 12-lla).
( ~)2
n2+ 2
(12-22)

The electric vector vibrating perpendicular to the direction of prop-

agation (Sec. 4.1) may be resolved along the y and z axes. Dipoles
Py and Pz proportional to the electric vectors Ey and Ez will give
rise to electric fields of intensity proportional to the dipole moments
projected normal to the direction of observation. To an observer
situated on a circle in the xz plane the apparent length of the dipole
Py is independent of e, whereas the apparent length of the dipole Pz
is proportional to cos e. The amplitude of the scattered radiation is
therefore proportional to cos e when the electric vector of the
The amplitude of the emitted radiation is proportional to the number
of dipoles or the volume V of the material because all the dipoles
are substantially in phase; and, since intensity is proportional to the
square of the amplitude, the scattered radiation is proportional to
the square of the volume of the particle. From this discussion it is
clear that those amplitudes (or volumes) may be added which lie
within a space small compared to wavelength, and that intensities
(or square volumes) may be added when the volumes are randomly
 SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 395
394 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

separated by distances large compared to a wavelength. This indi-

cates the change in structure of the scatter law as particle size in-
creases. A more general solution of the problem of interaction of
radiation with small spheres which includes absorption by the parti-
cles gives the efficiency factors
Xa/x
VS IlK

! x \~:~ ~1
2
4 t---+-----i 3
Xs = :
(12-23)

X2 =- 4x Im n '2 -
( n' 2 + 2
1)
where x = 2 nr /À and the bars and Im denote the absolute value and
imaginary part, respectively, of the complex number inside. The
apparent difference in proportionality constant in (12-22) and (12-23)
may be readily reconciled. The scatter cross section, by definition,
is

(
j477
Q(B) dQs ~ J
477
[QJ.(e) + Q11 (e)] dQs
Cs = ----,----
Io Io
Also Cs Xs 1Tr2 2 3 4 2 3 4
IlK IlK
On substitution for QJ. (e) and Q11 (e) from (12-21) this becomes
Fig. 12-12. Ex~i~ction efficiencies for very small particles; effect of n and

Cs =~ C1 J: (1 + cos2tJ) 21T sin 8 dB = t 7TC1

llK. Left, eff1ciency due to scatter; right, efficiency due to absorption.

These relations are presented graphically in Fig. 12-12. Note that

and, since V= (4/3)1Tr3 and x = 21Tr/À the efficiency factors calculated from (12-24) for x << 1 are much
smaller than unity, and that the concept of a physical blocking of the
2 radiation breaks down.
Cs 8C1 8 (n2 - 1)
Xs = 1Tr 2 = 3r2 = 3 x4 n2 + 2 T?e r~tio Xs /X 2 from Eqs. (12-24) provides the parameter
needed m Fig. 4-20 for the calculation of the reflectance or emit-
tance of particle clouds or layers, provided that mutual interfer-
Thus (12-23) is seen to include (12-22) as the special case of K =O. ence of the radiation scattered by the different particles can be ne-
The insertion of n' = n(l - iK) into Eq. (12-23) gives glected. Figure 12-13 presents Xs /(X 2 x 3) as a function of n and K.
An examination of Figs. 12-13 and 4-20 leads to the conclusion that
Xª = - - - -24n2KX
------ when x < 1/4 the entire range of variables given in Fig. 12-13 cor-
[n2 (l - K2) + 2]2 + 4n4K2 responds to absorptances.greater than 0.8, and that low absorptances
are therefore achievable m small particle systems only when K ap-
and 2 proach.es ze~o (_or_unrealistically large values). The curves in Fig.
{[n2(1-K2) - 1] [n2(1-K2) + 2] + 4n4K2} + 36n4K2 12-13 m the1r hmits approach their asymptotic values,
Xs = -8 x4 ...::.__-------------------~ 2
3 {[n2 (1- K2) + 2]2 + 4n4 K2}
x3(n2 -1)2.
(12-24)
9n2 K '
 SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 397
396 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

Table 12-2
It will be noted that at the
lower K limit, X s/Xa is the u G(u) u G(u) u G(u) u G(u)
sarne function of n that it is
of 1/n. o 1.0 2.4 0.531 4.8 -0.038 9.0 0.035
0.4 0.984 2.8 0.406 5.2 -0.071 10.0 0.024
b. Rayleigh-Gans scat- 0.8 0.938 3.2 0.287 5.6 -0.085 11.0 -0.002
ter. The restriction on the 1.2 0.863 3.6 0.179 6.0 -0.084 12.0 -0.018
size of the particles for which 1.6 o. 766 4.0 0.0807 7.0 -0.040
the limiting relations are 2.0 0.653 4.4 0.014 8.0 0.013
valid may be relaxed when
the refractive index of the
o. 2 L__J~W-LJ..l.L-___L--1-JA-llli.l-----'----'--'--"--'-~ particles is near one. As the 12.4 Spheres of Any Size
0.5 1.0 2 5 10
0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 particle size is increased the
K
radiation travelling to differ-
ent points in the particle is on the ~~~l~~~~~~~ ~~ºtX::e p~~tilcl.esh too Ralarge. to satisfy the restrictions
Fig. 12-13. Normalized ratio of (2x 1 n 1 I Y eig or yle1gh-Gans equations
no longer in phase; moreover,
scatter to absorption cross-section using t~e H<< 1) an~ too smal~ to_ permit the calculation of radiation
Xs/(X x 3 ) for Rayleigh scatterers
2
the beams leaving the differ- uy?ens- resnel prmc1ple as in Sec. 12.2e must be calcu-
(x « 1), as a function of n and K. ent points follow different ~ated by the rigorous solution of Maxwell' s equations The sol t.
path lengths to the point of or a sphere, obtained by Mie in 1908' is summarized below. u ion
observation, to introduce an additional phase difference. For parti-
cles which satisfy the conditions ln - li << 1 and x 1 n - 1\ << 1,
e ª· ~~e
Mie equations. The solution to Maxwell' s equations is
xpres~e
. m terms of scattering functions ij_ and i11 so defined tha
the velocity of the radiation inside the particle is approximately
for an mc1dent beam of unpolarized radiation of intensity I and di t,
vergence ~S1i' ~he energy rate Q( 8) scattered per unit solid an l;
equal to that in free space and the differences in phase can be en-
tirely attributed to the difference in path length of the radiation from
the source to observer. The contributions of differential volume ele- ~~d per umt sohd angle of divergence of the incident beam is gi~en
ments can then be added to determine the interference effects, and
the results of such an analysis expressed as a correction to be ap-
plied to Rayleigh's equations. The multiplication factor for spheri- Q(8) (12-26)
cal particles, first derived by Rayleigh and independently 2 by Gans,
depends on u[= 2x sin (8/2)] and is designated by [G(u)] . It is given or
by p(8) = 2[il.(8) + i 11 (8)]/(X 5 x2).
2 (12-25)
[G(u)]2 = [(97T/2u3) 112 J 312 (u)]
The e çres.srn~
th · of lj_
· and 111
· as functions of the size parameter x
The function, calculable from Table 12-2, behaves somewhat like the . e re racti:re mdex n'' and the angle 8 and the definition of ass~
function in x sin 8 appearing in Eq. (12-20) (see Fig. 12-10). It ~iateddfXunchons needed to evaluate extinction and scatter efficien~y
t an s are presented below:
is unity for 8 = O, the position of forward scatter, decreases with
increasing 8 to zero, and then shows several small peaks. Increase
in particle size causes scatter in the forward direction to prevail as
a result of interference effects between the radiation dispersed by i l. (ti) = [~
&r 2m ++ 11) (3m7Tm + bm Tm)
ffi(ffi
]2
different elements of the particle. For a compilation of factors for
shapes other than a sphere the reader is once more referred to Van (12-27)
der Hulst. The cases he covers include ellipsoids, spherical shells,
circular cylinders, thin disks, and randomly oriented rods and disks. i li ( e) -- ~ 2m + 1
[ f;-t_m(m+l) (amTm +bm7Tm) ]2

7Tm and Tm are angular functions derived from the Legendre polynomials
 SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 399
398 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

dPm (cos e)
"m (cos e) (12-28)
a cose (12-33)

and
ª"m(cos e) Xa is obtained by difference. The value of cos e is also of interest and may
Tm(cos e)= cose "m(cos e) - sin 2e d cose be calculated from

p m, the Legendre polynomials, are finite series defined by Xs cose 4 'f'

x2 ~
1 dm(x 2 - l)m (12-29)
Pm(x) = - -
2mm! dxm

am and bm (the amplitude functions) are given by (12-34)

S~(y) Sm(x) - n' S~(x) Sm(Y)

S:O(y) <Pm (x) - n' <P~ (x) Sm (y) The above equations should gíve the reader some feeling for
(12-30) the complexity of evaluating the scatter properties. The numerícal
n' S~ (y) Sm (x) - S~ (x) Sm (y) evaluation of the equations is further complicated by the absence of
bm = n' S~(y)<Pm (x) - <P~(x) Sm(y) tabulations of Bessel functions for complex arguments. Tables of
the coefficíents have been published for a range of the síze parame-
where y = n' x, and ters and the refractive índex; computer programs are available to
extend these to any value of the complex refractive índex [4]. The
Sm(z) = (,,z/2)112 Jm+112(z) evaluation of the amplitude functions represents the major computa-
(12-31)
Cm(z) = (-l)m (,,z/2)11 2 J_m-l/2(z) tional effort, and consequently am and bm are sometimes the only
values tabulated. ln such cases the cross sections for scatter and
Here J m+l/2 and J -m-1/2 are Bessel functions of the positive and negative extinction and the íntensity function i may be obtained by the sub-
half-orders, and stitution of am and bm in Eqs. (12-27) and (12-33) above. Some se-
lected results of the effect of size on scattering by a sphere will be
cPm(z) = Sm (z) + iCm (z) presented after consideration of some limiting forms of the Mie
S~(z) = iJSm(z)/âz (12-32) equations.
b. Asymptotic forms of the Mie equations for small spheres.
q,'m (z) = aq, m
(z)/a z A quantitative measure of the range of validity of the equations for Rayleigh
scatter can be determined by evaluating the second term in the expansion of
Some physical significance can be attached to the amplitud~ functions am. and Mie' s equations
bm. Thus a 1 and b 1 represent the contributions of electric a~d magnetic
dipoles respectively, a 2 and bi the contributions of the. ele.ctr1c and mag-
netic quadrupoles, and the higher values of m the contribut10n º.f th~ c?~re­
sponding multipoles. For small nonmagn~tic parti?les only a1 is s1gmf1cant
-4 X Jm -
1
n 2-- -
1) [ 1 + -x2 (n'2
{( n 1 2+2
- -- -1) (n'4 + 27n'2 + 38) ' ' '
15 n' 2 +2 2n' 2 +3
J}
and gives a solution identical to the Rayleigh equat10n (~2-21); .bu~ ~s the
particle size is increased the higher values of m contribute s1gmflcantly.

The efficiency factors for extinction and scatter can be derived from + -8 x4
3
1 (n'-n'2-+-2lJ (1 + -53 -n'n' 2-+-22 x2 + · · ·)
2 - 2 - 1
2
(12-35)
the values of am and bm.

= The terms containing Im and an absolute value are the absorption and scatter
2 "\' (2m + 1) Re (am + bm) (12-33) efficiency factors respectively. The value of x at which the second term in
x2 L (Cont.) either the absorption or scatter efficiency factor becomes appreciable marks
m:::: 1
the upper limit of the validity of Rayleigh's equations. At values of x not
much larger than the value at which the second terms become appreciable,
 400 RADIATIVE TRANSFER SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 401

higher arder terms must be included. Consequently, the range in which the that nK << 1 in addition to ln - 1 I << 1, the extinction and absorp-
two-term expression gives a useful improvement over the one-term expres- tion efficiencies are given by [15]
sion is small. The upper limit of x for which the first term only is adequate
is found to decrease with increasing n, and is very approximately 0.6/n Xt 4 Re F(ia)
[10, 14]. (12-38)
For small particles of metals and other materials with a large refrac- 2 F(4xnK)
tive index, an alternative expansion of Mie's equations is available:
where F(y) = 1/2 + e -y /y + (e-Y -1)/y 2 • The effect of increasing ab-
sorption is to decrease the value of the first maximum and the am-
(12-36) plitude of the fluctuations in Xt and to shift its first maximum to
-- -4x4 26x6 smaller values of a. The absorption cross section increases mono-
Xt cos (J = - - + 46 tonically with increase in K over the range covered by (12-38).
3
and

i_j_ ((J) = x6 ( 1 - -} cos (J
i 1 (e)=x6(cose-~)
r d. Large spheres. The size above which scatter diagrams
may be calculated by superposing the separately calculated trans-
mitted, diffracted and reflected contributions depends on the optical
properties of the sphere. For highly
2
reflecting spheres (n --... w), good agree-
ment exists between the intensities cal- 1

Unlike Rayleigh scatter the intensity distribution of the radiation scattered

culated by the simple procedure and 6 1 t---1---+--+--+--+--+--+--+---j
by small spheres with a large n is strongly directed towards the source from the Mie equations for values of x
(Fig. 12-14). greater than five [16]. A comparison of
the approximate and rigorous solutions
e. Refractive indices for x = 5 and n = ro is shown in Fig.
2.8
near one. The efficiency fac- 12-15. The intensities calculated as the
1,
1 2.6 ~-+-
1 T7 tor for extinction for nonab- sum of the reflected and diffracted con-
tributions (solid lines) are in good agree-
h 2.4 sorbing spheres with a re-
fractive index close to one is ment with the average of the intensities
2.2
1 ) given by [15] calculated from the Mie equations for
2.0 the two components of polarization
./ i
1.8 (dashed lines). The simple treatment, 0.8 1.0
) (12-37) however, does not correctly predict the
1.6

~ 1.4 - - ----
-_[+1\;
1/ 1
1

= 2 _ 4 sina + __! (1 _ cosa)

state of polarization of the scattered
radiation. For transparent spheres Fig. 12-15. Components
/)
1.2 a a2 (K = O), the restrictions on the use of the of phase function, for a
:Jmna!:: V ,./1/
~ -

laws of geometrical optics to calculate spherical particle with

large sphere, 1 n~l ]/' /1
1-

1-t --+t.2r,f-
1.0 i n = and x = 5. Compar-
t- scatter diagrams are much more se- N

0.8 ~~ -}+-~ where a= 2x ln - 11. The first

four maxir.ia in X t (and the
vere. ln this case the ray-tracing pro- ison of calculations based
on Mie equations [1] with
0.6
1 / 1 /
cedures of Sec. 12.2.d give intensity approximation based on
: values of a at which they oc-
o. 4 ----r---v í
/ distributions which show the general summing the diffraction
,
1
u~v cur) are 3.17(4.09), 2.40(10.79), trends exhibited by particles whose a n d specular-reflection
o. 2~ - 2.25(17.16), 2.18(23.52); the
o ... - -~ . . .
1 /
perimeter /wavelength ratio is greater contributions.
0.8 1.0
first three minima (and their than thirty; but the values predicted
o 0.2 0.4 0.6
location) 1.54(7 .63), 1. 73(14.00),
Forw'd Backw'd for the polarization ratio show little
(1- cos e)/2 1.81(20.33); also see Fig. resemblance to the rigorously calculated
Fig. 12-14. Phase function for a
12-16. ln the presence of a values for x < 2000.
small sphere (x « 1) with n = N.
small absorption index, such
402 RADIATIVE TRANSFER SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 403

e. Nonabsorbing spheres. Dielectric materials are character- to show a series of maxima

ized by low absorption indices, except in narrow wavelength regions and minima separated by an -
about absorption bands, and by refractive índices of 1 to 3. The effi- gles of approximately 180/x
X= 6
ciency factor for extinction, equal to the efficiency factor for scatter degrees. Figure 12-17 shows
since absorption is negligible, is shown in Fig.12-16,which includes the angular distribution of in-
Van der Hulst's solution for n __.. 1 [Eq. (12-37)]. The major fluctu- tensity for an n of 1.55 and
ations in the efficiency factor for extinction are due to interference four different values of x.
between the diffracted and transmitted radiation; the peaks for dif- The calculated values [9] were
ferent refractive indices are seen to occur at the sarne value of tabulated at 10º intervals,
2x 1n - 11. Minor fluctuations, which become more noticeable at which is not sufficiently fine
higher n's, are not shown in the diagram. Many of the earlier cal- to describe the details of the
culations of the extinction cross section were carried out at inter- curves at large values of x.
vals of x too large to show these fluctuations in X. The limiting The intensity functions are
values of Xt of 2 for large particles is indicated on the right of the plotted on a linear scale ver-
diagram. Limiting values for small particles with n = 1.5 [Rayleigh sus (1 - cos 8)/2 to give areas
scattering, Xs from Eq. (12-23)] appear in an upper right inset, which are proportional to the
with abscissa x instead of 2x 1n - 11. The line represents Rayleigh energy. It is to be noted that
scattering, the heavy points rigorous Mie scattering. The difference the peaks in intensity, although
between rigorous theory and Rayleigh's equation decreases with x; useful for identifying particle
it falls below one percent at values of x which vary from 0.1 at size, are usually of negligible ./-
importance in energy trans- 0.0015 ~'
n = 1.05 to 0.8 at n = 1.5. The angular distribution of intensity for \
\ X= 1/2 ,/
small particles is given by Rayleigh's equations (Fig. 12-llb) and is fer calculations. The fraction 0.0010
'""'!
li
/
symmetric. As x increases the forward component of the intensity of radiation back-scattered 0.0005
,, /

shifts from 0.5 for x < 0.5 " " ' ,

/
i..----- 0.8
increases. In addition, mutual interference of the radiation from dif- 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0
ferent parts of the particle causes the angular distribution of intensity (Rayleigh scattering) to a min-
i~o
Ili 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

imum of approximately 0.04 o 30 60 90 120 1

150
at x around 2, then to a maxi- 0-cos th/2 or e
nt'\2.0 mum whose magnitude in-
51------l-----+L'~'\------i---+---+---+----t0.31-----l-----l--+=--+~ Fig. 12-17. Angular distribution of
creases with n when 2(n - 1)
:><"'o .2 !-----+---+--+--++-~ x ~ 8, falling thereafter with radiation scattered by spherical non-
absorbing particles with n = 1.55.
further increase in x until, at Components of polarization resolved
very large values of x the in and perpendicular to scatter plane
scatter is mostly forward (ex- distinguished by dashed and solid
cept for reflection contribu- lines, respectively. (4/x 2 ) x (sum of
tions to back-scatter); see areas under .L and 11 curves) = effi-
Fig. 12-18. cos 8, giving ciency of scatter; x = 277r/A.
a measure of the relative
contributions of the forward and back scatter, has already been pre-
sented in Fig. 12-8 for the limiting case of very large spheres. Ad-
ditional computations of the extinction cross sections of nonabsorbing
spheres and an extensive bibliography are given by Kerker [8].
00L.<:~--12-~-4L_~__j6~~_J_a~~~1-0~~1~2~~~14-:--~~1~6:--~~1~a~------;;'20 f. Absorbing spheres. Dueto the complexity of evaluating the
a"' 2ln-1\x coefficients in the Mie equations the scattering characteristics for.
only a few values of n and K are available. With the increasing
Fig. 12-16. Extinction efficiencies as a function of the size parameter availability of high-speed digital computers the situation will doubt-
2x ln - 1\ for different n' s (nonabsorbing particles). Inset: comparison less improve. The limited results presently available show the fol-
with Rayleigh's equation for n = 1.5.
lowing trends:
404 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 405

:§" 0.24HH---+----c+l-lr+-+--+----l----l
~
.?:: 0.20 --1-l--+---+lil--4i-l--1---1-----L__J
ãl
2 0.16 --1e+--+-m-+-~l+l-lo---_j_---l-__J

'o[;li o.12t----i\-t---fli--+-A+"t-~++...,Hi----l---I
~ o.081---'ll-"--+-J+"-----+J~W.J--\l-J.~-\.A-1
i!l
0.041---l'-~~-J..-L-J--+--+----l---I

00:--'2--'4-..L6-L8_1L0_1L2---114__j16 Fig. 12-19. Efficiency

X factors for extinction and
scatteringfor n' = 1.27 - Fig. 12-20. Effect of extinction coefficient on angular distribution of radi-
Fig. 12-18. Fraction of radia- l .37i, in dependence on
ation scattered by spheres with n = 1.29, x = 10, and with n = 1.315, x = 3.0
tion back-scattered from non- x(= 277r/A). (Calculations (from Deirmendjian [4]).
absorbing spheres (from Chin by Schalen, from Van der
and Churchill [2]). Hulst.)
More recent computations by Fahimian [6] were used to deter-
(1) For values of K between O and O. 5 the effect of increasing K mine the ratio Xs /Xa, pertinent to the calculation of the emittance
is that stated in Sec. 12.4d, namely, a shift in the first maximum in of clouds of particles (Fig. 4-20). The refractive index selected
Xt to smaller values of 2x(n - 1) and a decrease in the amplitude of n' = 2. 00 - 1. 20i, is characteristic of a carbon black with a low hy-
the fluctuations. drogen content. The results given as a function of x in Fig. 12-21
show the approach of the Mie solution to the limiting Rayleigh and
(2) The secondary fluctuations in the curves of Xt versus x geometrical optics regions at small and large x's.
and i(B) versus e are smoothed out.
Numerous recent calculations have been made giving the Mie
(3) The value of Xs decreases at the expense of increase in X 2 • coefficients for spheres of various materials. Values are available
(4) At large values of K the curves for the efficiencies of ex- for copper, cobalt, carbon, nickel, fog oil, iron and water [llb ].
tinction and scatter show a single pronounced maximum at an x of These yield maximum extinction cross sections per gram at particle
about one and then decline rapidly towards the asymptotic values of size-wavelength combinations given in Table 12-3. The fraction of
2 and (1 + p). A study [7] of the effect on Xt of changes in K for a the total extinction cross section which is due to scatter-the scatter
constant n of 1.29 showed that the value of the first maximum in the albedo Wo-is given in parentheses after the extinction value.
Xt-X plot decreased with increase in K except in the K range 0.5 to Table 12-3
2.0, where it increased.
Wavelength = 0.4µ Wavelength = 1.3µ
The enumeration by Schalen of the scatter functions of iron
for a wavelength of 0.44µ has been plotted by Van der Hulst and is Particle Diam., Corresponding Particle Diam., Corresponding
Material
reproduced in Fig. 12-19. At very small values of x, absorption µ, for Maximum Extinction µ, for Maximum Extinction
Extinction per Cross Section Extinction per Cross Section
prevails. As x increases, the value of Xt approaches the value of Mass (cm 2 /mg) Mass (cm 2 /mg)
2 and Xa a value of (1 - Ph), as expected from the theory for large
particles. It is to be observed that the plot of X versus x does not Iron 0.075 52 (0.15) 0.38 16 (0.54)
show marked maxima and minima. The trend in cos e is consistent Copper 0.084 57 (0.79) 0.39 12 (0.91)
with the earlier conclusion that as the particle size is increased a Carbon 0.13 120 (0.30) 0.42 50 (0.40)
larger fraction of the radiation is diffracted into a narrow solid an- Fog Oil 0.45 156 1.25 49
gle about the direction of propagation. The effect of absorption on Water 0.64 85 2.0 26
intensity distribution is illustrated in Fig. 12-20 by the computations
of Deirmendjian [4].
 SCATTER BY SINGLE PARTICLES 407
406 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

6. Hottel, H. C., A. F. Sarofim, and E. J. Fahimian: Solar

"'Xt -/1 + Po\:'11h Energy, 11:3 (1967).
~~~~ttrWif~n
1
2.5 7. Johnson, J. C., R. G. Eldridge, and J. R. Terrell: Sei. Rept.,
1

1Y LJf ,IX't.- __ , ___ , __

1.0 ·Large-particle' 11mit= Í\ "-- +---- ~ -~~

--- 4: M.I. T. Department of Meteorology, 1954.

2.0
mittm"
' act on
8. Kerker, M., J. P. Kratohvil, and E. Matijevic: J. Phys. Chem.
?<' ph/ Eh 65: 1713 (1961). '
...o 'Mie ec uation
1.5
9. Lowan, A. N.: Tables of Scattering Functions for Spherical
Is....1 o
-t:"' 0.1 1
o
Particles, Natl. Bur. Standards, Appl. Math. Series 4 Wash-

- ington, D. C., 1948. '

'
><' _, ::; Small particle limit, ><' 0.5 CoSil
1

slope - 3 v 10. Penndorf, R. B.: New Tables of Mie Scattering Functions for
o J liI Spherical Particles, Part 6, Geophysical Research Paper No.
45, Air Force Cambridge Research Center, Bedford, Mass.,
5
l/ March 1956.
0.01 1 10 100 - 0· o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x = circumference/wavelength X 11. Schoenberg, E.: Handb. Astrophysik, 2: 255 (1929).
lla. Simpson, H. C.: "Combustion of Droplets of Heavy Liquid
Fig. 12-21. Total extinction effi- Fig. 12-22. Extinction Fuels," Se.D. Thesis in Chem. Eng., M.I.T., Cambridge,
ciency Xt and ratio of scatter to efficiency Xt and cos e, Mass., 1954.
absorption efficiency, for sphere for sphere with n = ~.
llb. Staackmann, M., R. L. Baker, C. B. Calvin, T. C. Coovdale,
with refractive index 2.00 - 1.20i and M. B. Hawkins: Final Results of Smoke Screen System
(typical of carbon black), as a func-
Development, URS Corporation, Burlingame, California, 1966.
tion of x(= 2ITr/A).
12. Van der Hulst, H. C.: "Light Scattering by Small Particles "
Wiley, New York, 1957. '
The Proceedings of the Interdisciplinary Conference on Elec- 13. Ibid., p. 200.
tromagnetic Scattering are useful sources of additional numerical 14. Ibid., p. 271.
values of scatter cross sections and phase functions for spheres and 15. Ibid., p. 176-179.
other simple shapes, including spherical shells and spheres of 16. Ibid., p. 163.
radially-graded properties.
g. Spheres of infinite refractive index. Extinction cross sec-
tions for the limiting case of n = oo are shown in Fig. 12-22. The
angular distribution of the scattered radiation for this case shifts
from predominantly backward scatter at small x's (Fig. 12-14) to
predominantly forward scatter at large x's (Fig. 12-15) with a tran-
sition at an x of approximately 1.5.

CHAPTER 12. LITERATURE CITATIONS

1. Blumer, H.: Z. Physik, 32: 119-134 (1925).

2. Chin, J. H., and S. W. Churchill: Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp.
Series, 56: 117-127 (1960).
3. Debye, P.: in H. C. Van der Hulst, "Light Scattering by Small
Particles," p. 226, Wiley, New York, 1957.
4. Deirmendjian, D., R. Clasen, and W. Viezee: J. Opt. Soe. Am.,
51: 620-633 (1961).
5. Gumprecht, R. O., and C. M. Sliepcevich: J. Chem. Phys., 57:
90-95 (1953).

CHAPTER 13
RADIATIVE TRANSFER IN AN
ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM
The magnitude and polar distribution of reflection by refrac-
tory oxides or by surfaces covered by pigments, thermal radiative
transfer through powder or fibre insulators or beds of crushed sol-
ids, the emission from rocket combustion products, solar radiative
flux through the atmosphere and the oceans-these are examples of
the wide class of problems in which multiple scatter is of impor-
tance. Radiative scatter is a large field, and a full coverage is be-
yond the scope of this book. This chapter will introduce the engineer
to methods of approximation hopefully sufficient for most of his
needs. Complementary material will be found in Chandrasekhar [3].
The problem is first to calculate bulk absorption and scatter coeffi-
cíents and then to use them in the formulation and solution of the
equation of transfer.
13 .1 Bulk Absorption and Scatter Coefficients
In the absence of interference between particles the absorption
coefficient, the scatter coefficient, and the phase function in a parti-
cle cloud or bed are simply the sums of the individual particle con-
tributions in a unit volume. Let N(f) dr be the number of particles
per unit volume having a characteristic dimension between r and
r +dr. Then
(13-1)
(13-2)
and
p(e) L Ío=
=1 N(r) Cs (r) p(e, r) dr (13-3)
where Ca (r), Cs (r), and p(e, r) are the cross sections for absorp-
tion and scatter and the phase function for individual particles of
size r.
408
IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 409
The condition under which interference between particles can
be neglected has been cíted as a center-to-center distance of sepa-
ration of 3 radii [21 ], in substantial agreement with experimental
values of 3.4 radii for a latex dispersion [7] and 30 volume percent
(which corresponds to 2. 7 radii for spheres in close packing) for
oxide dispersions [1].
a. Large particles, 27Tr /À> 5. The scattered radiation from
large particles can be separated into diffracted and reflected com-
ponents. The diffracted radiation is concentrated in a small solid
angle about the direction of propagation, with angle of peak intensity
inversely proportional to particle size. Although this is significant
for particle size determination, for most radiative transfer calcula-
tions the diffracted radiation need not be separated from that which
is transmitted. On this basis the scatter properties are determined
entirely by the reflected component, and the phase function for an
agglomerate of specularly reflecting particles (see Sec. 12.2b) is
(13-4)
and for diffuse reflectors (see Sec. 12.2c)
p( e) = _..! (sin e - e cos e) (13-5)
3 7T
Both formulations are independent of particle size distribution.
Since for large particles the effective absorption or scatter cross
section is the projected area times Eh or ph (i.e., Xa = Eh and
x;, = ph) and the geometrical cross section of a particle with no
negative curvature is one-quarter of its surface area, the absorp-
tion and scatter coefficients, from Eqs. (13-1) and (13-2), are
(13-6)
and
( 13-7)
where At is the total surface area of the particles in a unit volume.
The variations of Ka and Ks with wavelength correspond to those
of Eh and Ph·
b. Small particles, 27Tr/À<0.6. The phase function is obtained
from insertion of (12-21) into (12-2a), and the coefficients of absorp-
tion and scatter from insertion of C(= 7Tr 2 X) from (12-23) into (13-1)
and (13-2), to give
410 RADIATIVE TRANSFER IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 411

13.2 The Equation of Transfer

p( e) ~ (1 + cos2 e) (13-8)
4
Within a scattering-absorbing medium the intensity I of radi-
and ation is a function of position and direction. A volume element õu
within the medium is bathed in a 41T flux* equal to J477 I dn; and scat-
Ka -61T
-
À
2
I m (n' - 1)
n•2 + 2
1= N(r) V(r) dr (13-9) ter from the volume occurs in all directions at the rate [;77 Ks Idnõ,u.
If the scatter is isotropic, Õff produces an intensity of scatter in any
direction which is the above quantity divided by 41T. If the scatter is
and

Ks = 24n'
;\4
1n''2 - 11'
n' +2
r
o
N(r) [V(r)]' dr (13-10)
not isotropic, the intensity per unit volume of scatterer is

_!__ J Ks I(n) p(®) ctn

41T 477
The absolute value and the imaginary part of the term involving the
complex refractive index have been presented in Se~. 12.3a. The _ where ® is the angle between the fixed direction of the emergent
above relations permit the very interesting conclus10ns that the ab- scattered beam and the incident beams I(n). Now consider, still
sorption coefficient is proportional to the total particle volume and, within the scattering medium, a beam of intensity I passing normal
for gray materials, inversely proportional to wavelength; and that to surface element dA and traversing the distance d.Q, where black-
the scatter coefficient is proportional to the sum of the squares of body radiation in equilibrium with the local temperature has an in-
the volumes of the particles and, for gray materials, inversely pro- tensity IB. The contributions of various factors to the change in
portional to the fourth power of the wavelength. The emissivity of intensity of the beam are:
fine particle clouds (the luminosity of a sooty flame, for example,
as pointed out in Chap. 6) is therefore proportional to the volume. -Ka I d.Q due to absorption
fraction of space occupied by the particles and independent of t~eir +KaIB d.Q dueto emission
size or size distribution. On the other hand, because of the we1ght-
ing by the square of particle volume, the distribution and magnitude -Ks I d.Q due to out-scatter
of the scattered radiation may be representative of a few large par-
ticles, in some cases present in amounts of only a few particles per + _!_ ( KsI(n)p(®) dnd.Q dueto in-scatter.
41T J477
thousand smaller ones [12, 17].
c. Particles in the intermediate size range, 0.6<21Tr/Ã<5. Summation of these yields
Calculations of scatter coefficients and phase diagrams for poly-
disperse particles in this range have been reported only for limited
values of wavelength, refractive índex, and particle size distribu-
-dl = - (Ka +Ks) 1 + KaIB + -Ks
d.Q 41T
l
477
I(n) p(®) dn (13-11)
tion. Examples are the calculations on haze particles by Chin and
Churchill [ 4], Deirmendjian [10], and Bullrich [2], on zinc oxide It is convenient to make the following substitutions: express dis-
particles by Donn and Powell [11 ], on soot by Stull and Plass [19], tance in total-extinction mean free paths T, i.e., (Ka + Ks) d.Q = dT;
Erickson [12], and Dalzell [9]. The generalizations that can be express absorption and scatter as fractions of their sum, i.e.,
drawn from their studies are that polydispersity smooths out the Ks/(Ka +Ks) = Wo, called the albedo for scatter; and Ka/(Ka +Ks) =
fluctuations in the diagrams of intensity versus angle of scatter and 1 - w 0 • Indicate by 1( T, a) the dependence of 1 on position and
scatter cross section versus particle size.
Most of the studies in this size range have been restricted to
spherical particles. When in other shapes the ratio of maximum to.
minimum distance to the center of mass does not greatly exceed 1 it
is to be expected that the Mie equations for spheres can safely be
used to predict scatter diagrams. Confirmation of this comes from *Clearly, this is 4H, where H is the hemispherical emissive power of a small
the results of measurements of the scatter by monodisperse sols of black probe in local radiative equilibrium (not temperature equilibrium); or
cubic and octahedral silver bromide particles [16]. it is c times the local energy density u [see Eq. (1-11)].

412 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
direction (an inadequate specification for shapes of any complexity;
see later). Equation (13-11) then becomes*
dl(T, O') = - I( T, O')+ (1- wo) lB(T) + Wo
dT 47T
Í 4rr
The last two terms, representing contributions to an increase in flux
density, may be combined to define a new function j called the
source function:
(1 - Wo) lB( T) + Wo r
J4rr
l(T, 0'
1
) p(®) dn/41T ;;:; j (T, O')
Justas -I dT [energy/(time) (volume)/path length] represents the
rate of loss by absorption and out-scatter, so j dT represents the
rate of gain by emission and in-scatter. ln the absence of scatter
(w = O) or for a medium in local radiative equilibrium (dl/d.T = O),
0 13.3 lsotropic Scatter
j equals IB. With the substitution of j into (13-12), the equahon of
transfer becomes
Expression of ( 13-14) in integral forro gives, on multiplication
through by er and integration from O to T,
l(T, O') = 10 e-r + f~ j (Tu O') e-Cr -r1) dT1
Since the source function j is in general not known in advance,
(13-15) is an integral equation and (13-14) an integro-differential
equation.
Despite the complexity of Eq. (13-12)-there are many systems
for which no solution has been obtained-a number of interesting
conclusions can be drawn. As the scatter albedo is increased from
O without changing the total extinction coefficient (Ka reduced, Ks
increased), the absorptance of an irradiated slab of scattering ma-
terial will decrease, the transmittance will increase somewhat, and
*The more general vector form of Eq. (13-11) or (13-12) comes from locat-
ing I in position by a vector r and in direction by n, a unit vector in the di-
rection of I. dI/df is then replaced by (n · grad) I(r, n). I' is similarly iden-
tified in location and direction by I(r,n'), and the dependence of p on angle
between the directions of I and I' by p(n, n'). Equation (13-1) then becomes
1
K +K (n·grad)I(r,n)=-I(r,n)+(l-w0 )I 8 (r)+ 4rr
a s
IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 413
the reflectance will rise from zero. As the scatter albedo ap-
proaches 1, absorption disappears and all the incident radiation is
either reflected or transmitted; andas the slab thickness or the an-
gle. o~ t.he incident beam increases, the reflectance increases toward
l(T, O'')p(e) dn
a hmitmg value, 1 for a semi-infinite slab (snow).
. Scatter problems tend in general to be so complex that solu-
(13-12)
hons to most of them are characterized by assumptions necessary
to make the problems tractable. lsotropic scatter however can be
handl.ed with acce~table numerical accuracy for s;stems of ~ny geo-
~etncal complexity. The sequence of presentation here will be:
~sotrop~c scatter in a slab, introduced by a single-scatter model;
(13-13) iso.tr.op1c ~catter in a slab, treated by the method of finding the co-
eff1c1ents m a polynomial expression of the intensity variation · iso-
tropic scatter in three dimensions; scatter treated as a diffusÍon
process; and finally, anisotropic scatter, treated at several levels
of approximation.
.a. L.ocal radiative equilibrium. Of the energy incident from
(13-14) any ?irechon on a volume element in space containing an absorbing
medrn.m in ra?iative equilibrium, all the energy absorbed by the ele-
~ent.1s ~ee~1tted equally in all directions, and without spectral re-
distnbuhon if the element is gray. The sarne statement is true if
the element is an isotropic scatterer rather than an absorber and re-
emitter. Consequently, the intensity distribution and local radiative
(13-15) flux are everywhere independent of whether the medium is an iso-
tropic scatterer or a gray absorber-emitter in radiative equilibrium ·
the phenomena cannot be distinguished by their effects on flux den- '
sity patterns: [ln terms of equations, the source function j is lB;
and the solut10n of Eq. (13-14) therefore does not involve w 0 .]
. b. Single-scatter model of radiative transfer through or re-
fle~hon .from a slab. A major reason for finding the consequences
of ignormg all scatter beyond the first is to establish the conditions
under which the single-scatter solution is adequate. Consider a
s~ab of thickness L, at a temperature low enough to suppress emis-
s10n, and let a unit collimated beam impinge on the surface at an
angle e t? the normal: At distance x into the interior the intensity
Of the pnmary beam IS e-(Ka+Ks)x/cosOor e-rlµ.o, where T=(Ka+Ks)X
and µo = cos e. Within a thin interior slab of thickness dT the
primary-beam intensity decreases by d(e-r/µ.o ), of which the frac-
tion 1 - Wo is absorbed and the fraction wo is scattered isotropi-
cally, half toward each of the slab boundaries. The overall trans-
mittance of radiation emitted uniformly throughout a hemisphere
~1 I(r,n')p(n,n')dOn toward a plane at an optical distance T was shown in Sec. 7.3 to be
4rr
(13-12a)
414 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
the second exponential integral 0 2(T). In the present application the
question arises as to the effective optical thickness in the path of
scattered radiation secondary scatter from which is somehow to be
terminated. The limiting assumptions are that (1) all secondary
scatter is absorbed, in which case the optical path lengths to the
boundaries are T and Ti - T [Ti = (K 2 + K 8 )L]; (2) all se~onda_ry
scatter has the direction of the primary scattered beam, i.e., is
forward-scattered in which case the optical path lengths to the
boundaries are (1 ~ wo)T and (1- w 0 ) (Ti - T). For generality during
derivation assume the multiplying factor on T or Ti - T is b. Then,
of the flux scattered by the slab slice at T, 02(bT) arrives back at_
the surface on which the original beam impinged and 02[b(Ti - T)] is
transmitted to the face at L. Summation of these effects over the
whole slab yields the reflectance R s and the partial transmittance
T s , due to primary scatter.
Wo
(13-16)
0 2 (bT) d(e -rlµo)
2 tion that the transmittance of an isotropically scattering slab may
(13-17)
To Ts must be added the direct transmittance e-r1/flo, to obtain the
total transmittance.
Integration of (13-16) and (13-17) by parts* yields
(13-18)
(13-19)
*For the properties of the first and second exponential integrals 01 and 02
and the exponential integral 0i, see Chap. 10, Appendix.
IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 415
Limiting forms:
When bTi ---.o, 2Rs/Wo = 2Ts/Wo = 1 - e-r1/flo
When bµ 0 ---. 1, the term {} of (13-19) becomes {Y+ln (bTi)}
(Y is the Euler-Mascheroni constant, Chap. 10.)
When µ 0 ---. O, Rs = wo/2
Figures 13-1 and 13-2 show these relations.
In the derivation of (13-18) and (13-19) the term b was intro-
duced. Consider its effect on T s . With b = 1, all secondary scatter
is assumed absorbed; and it is clear that the calculated Ts is less
than the true value based on multiple scatter. With b = 1 - w 0 , all
secondary scatter proceeds in the direction of primary scatter; and
the calculated T s is the upper bound of the true value. As will be
shown later when multiple scatter is considered, Ts based on
b = 1 - w 0 is so near the true value as to justify the recommenda-
be estimated by adding the direct transmittance e-r1/flo to T 8 calcu-
lated from Eq. (13-19) (or read from Fig. 13-1) with b = 1 - w 0 •
The value will usually be less than 5 percent high, and the absolute
error never more than 0.06.
The effect of b on reflectance Rs is different. The assump-
tion of b = 1 again leads to a value too low, but b = 1 - w0 does not
give the upper bound of R 8 • The single-scatter model predicts a
maximum reflectance of 0.5 instead of 1 for a conservative system
(w 0 = 1) of infinite thickness. But if Ti/µ 0 is less than 2, values
from Eq. (13-18) or Fig. 13-2, with b = 1 - w 0 , will not be more
than 12 percent low.
Figures 13-1 and 13-2 or Eqs. (13-18) and (13-19) may be
used to determine the emittance (or emissivity) of a scattering slab,
since emittance, transmittance, and absorptance add to 1. With the
usual designation E for emissivity
This is a directional emissivity; the hemispherical value
E = f E(µo) d(µo2)
is obtainable most readily by graphical integration. Since for the
single-scatter model the errors in Ts and Rs tend to cancel, pre.-
dictions of E based on Figs. 13-1 and 13-2 should be good up to val-
ues of (1 - w) T of about 0.5, 2, 4 when w0 is less than 0.9, 0.6, 0.3.
 IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 417
416 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

0.4 1
1
1
1
~,
\1
1
\\---
\1
0.10

ffi,~ 1--0.15
I\\1 \
1 1
0.3
\
t 0.3
d\
1\\
-0.25
t
o::"'
~ 0.4 0.21-+--\-f----'..---f~-'.ç-j-~---'~-~~o:-+----t-----t-------i
I
/
y ~OÍ3
1

t
'f \1)1 ~.5..,,,.,-o.4
.......... 0.2 J
é-!"'
11 ~ \ \ ~
e-

V Y\ \ .~~ v-0.5
1
/

~~i.----"'---
l'\."V
""'~
/
1!.../'0.6
/
V ~lr\ '\
~!l>
'
1"-~
~"-
/\ ' --~ ... 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

A 07í\ """ ~" ""' ~--

0.2

~~ ~ ~ ~
o. 1 ~
/' / 1 \ ~
/ ~
........ t-- Fig. 13-2. Single-scatter reflectance Rs [Eq. (13-18)]. Asymptotic solu-
- tion as br 1 ., =is: R 5 /w 0 == [1 - bµ ln (1+1/bµ)]/2.
V
\ ' l'Y-/ ~ º·lo----~
-- -
i--._

~_\? -'Z.~
'
~
?< ..__
Although the results of multiple-scatter calculations are pre-
sented in the next subsection, those pertaining to hemispherical
~
~v ---... J4QQ_
____ L> r--_ emissivity may properly be presented here. Consider two slabs
r--_
having the sarne value of K,. L[= (1 - w0 )71 ], i.e., identical in thick-
- b71 0.02 ness measured in absorption mean free paths but quite different in
thickness measured in extinction mean free paths, 7 1 • For con-
o 0.6
1

0.8 1 creteness let one slab be a pure absorber (w 0 == O), and let the other
o 0.2 0.4
have a total extinction path five times as great (Wo == 0.8); how do
they differ in emissivity? If the slabs are thin, scatter is without
Fig. 13-1. Single-scatter transmittance Ts [Eq. (l~-19)] ~s a effect and the emissivities tend to the sarne value. Figure 13-3 sup-
function of the albedo w 0 for single scatter, the optical thick- ports this conclusion. It shows multiple-scatter calculations of
ness r and b where b == 1 - cw0 • When e == O, all secondary hemispherical emissivity E vs (1- w0 )71 for different w0 's, with
scatte~ is abs~rbed; e== 1, all secondary scatter is rescattered the bounding curve at the top representing the E of a pure absorber
in primary scatter direction.
 IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 419
418 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

1'
The problem definition is completed by specification of the intensity
1.0 wo=O
L---'
~~,õJ distribution of the radiation incident on the boundaries. Alterna-
Q,)
e:..>
§ 0.8
0.9
1-28 3 [(1-wo)Ti] \------" 1/
l.iw
,/,,.
y

-- -J-Jõ.17
-
/

.....
--~o4
~o-1 '1 tively, the equation may be reformulated in a manner that avoids the
complications associated with polar asymmetry of the flux incident
on the surface from without or with the peaking in the intensity dis-
~ 0. 7
·s 0.6 "1/ L-"'
li l.- 1° 1 1 tribution about the direction of the transmitted beam which occurs
when the incident radiation is collimated.
JÕ=~~
Q,) ~

- _.... -
~ /
e:..> 0.5
.....
~ 0.4
V Let the boundary conditions for collimated* incidence be
represented by l+(O, µ 0 , 1./1 0 ). At position T within the slab the
1,,/
/
-§. scattering particles will be bathed in a flux composed in part of the
.~ 0.3
sQ,) 0.2 J..v
/ attenuated original beam I+(O, µ 0, 1./1 0 ) e-r lµo and in part of azimuth-
independent scattered flux, which will be called I D (D for diffuse).
::e: Since the particles scatter isotropically their response to the first

---
1-'J..-
0.1 '--
of these two flux components will depend not on its azimuthal vari-
L - - J..--
o 0.1 1.0 ation but on its mean intensity averaged over 47T steradians. Let
0.01 that intensity be represented by Is.
(1- Wo)7i.

Fig.13-3. Hemispherical emittan?e as a function of th~ product ~f absorp-

tion coefficient and slab w1dth (1 - wo )r 1 , for d1fferent wo s ·

{= 1- 2& 3 [(1- w0 )T 1 ]}. Values of E at identical (1- w 0)T's are seen

to be substantially independent of the value of w0 so long as the slab
thickness is small. What is perhaps unexpected is how thick a slab
can become before scatter has much effect on its emissivity. With
Ka = Ks (wo = 0.5), scatter reduces the emissivity only from 0.78 to This is a known function of T. For a collimated beam it is simply
o.75 for a slab one absorption-mean-free path thick (T = 2). The al- l+(O, µ 0 , 1./1 0 ) e-r lµo / 4JT; for black radiation impinging on the surface
bedo must be very high or the slab quite thick to make scatter have it is IB, surf &z (T)/2. Is(T) times Wo dT/µo is the increment in the
an important effect on emissivity. * But reflectance will go up and diffuse intensity contributed by the attenuated original beam tra-
transmittance down. versing the depth dT. If this is added to the r.h.s. of (13-20), the
I's in that equation become Iu, they are independent of 1./1, the last
e. Isotropic multiple scatter in a slab. Equation (13-12) is
term can be integrated over 1./1', and the equation becomes
applicable. With a polar coordinate system, beam I is at polar and
azimuth angles e and 1./1, and the path length dT of (13~~2) beco~es
dT/cos e= dT/µ. The dependence of intensity on pos1hon and direc-
µ dlu~ T, µ)
T
= -ln( T, µ) + (1 - Wo) IB(T) + I s(T) + Wo
2
J 1

-1
In(T, µ') dµ'
tion will be indicated by I( T, µ, 1./1); similar ly for the beam l( T, µ', 1./1')
(13-21)
causing in-scatter into beam I. The solid angle dS1 becomes
-di./I' sin e' de:: di./I' dµ' (with n increasing from 8' =. -7T(2 to 8' = O).
Since scatter is isotropic, p(®) = 1. With these subshtuhons (13-12) *rt has been pointed out that a beam of no divergence and finite intensity con-
11
tains no power (Sec. 1.3). A collimated beam here means that
becomes
fidO:: fidµdi,&=4(0,µ 0
,i,&0 )
µdl(T,µ,1./l)=-l(T,µ,1./1)+(1-wo)IB(T)+ Wo íl 1 l(T,µ',1./l')dl./l'dµ' and that I is an infinite spike in the direction (µ 0 , i,&0 ) given by
dT 47T L J2rr (13-20) I = I+(O, µ 0 , i,&0 ) o(µ - µ 0) o (i,ir - i,&0 )
where o is the Dirac delta function.
*The common tendency is to think of T constant, and w0 changing · Then K aL (o(X - Xo) = Ü When Xi Xo,and J o(X-Xo)dx= 1 when the integrationlimits in-
clude x 0 ] .
changes, and the effect on E is of course large.

'•I
'1
 420 RADIATIVE TRANSFER IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 421

and, at the boundaries, Iu(O, µ)=O for O 2: µ 2: 1, and Iu(Ti, µ)=O 0.8 1
for -1 < µ ::::; O. 1 5 , as already given, makes allowance for any ra- \ 1 T1 = 1.0
diation incident from without. Solution of (13-21) for Iu gives that (]) \ T1 =0.5 (]) Wo= 0.9
diffuse intensity identically equal to I outside the range of µ and i/J § 0.7 \ Wo =0.9- u 0.6~-\---+-~~f--~-l--~~~~~

.....u \ µ 0 =0.5 @
in which I+ (O µ 0 , i/; ) e- 7 1110 makes a finite contribution. Inside that
0 Í\. \ , / -n= 3 .....u
range the term just given must be added to Iu to obtain I. ~ 0.6 ~ 0.5r-~::-+>.-----i~~~-~--l~~~

n~
(]) .......
(])
M
M
Approximate methods for solving Eq. (13-21) [5,6] are some- ~ Cd o.4 i----+-----P'~--l----1--_____j
s:::: 0.5

~
times based on the replacement of the integral term by a weighted o
...... .u.....
sum of the intensities evaluated at discrete values of µ (e.g., the .....
u
M
(!)

~ -§.0.3r--~-+~--'r-~-+--~_-...:::i~~~
two-flux, six-flux, and quadrature methods). A method found to give ...... 0.4 '\ Cll
good accuracy with minimum effort [15]-though not small-is to :si
take advantage of the fact that the integral term in (13-21) is a ,.Q
~ .....__ 'ê
~ o.2r--~-+-~~e--~--+--~~'--~~
Six-flux
,,...:: 0.3
continuous well-behaved function of T, and to replace it by an nth
degree polynomial in T, the coefficients of which are found later. In
.:f
~
~ ~
........
o
.3 0.2 -=::0.11---~+-~-+~~+---~-l--~_J
the following treatment a nonemitting slab (IB = O) will be consid- ~

ered and I will be used to designate the total intensity. The substi- o:: o::
tution 0~-----,~--=-1---;,-----~--_[__-~
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
µ, cosine of angle of reflection µ 0 , cosine of angle of incidence
( 13-22)
Fig. 13-4. Left ~ Part.ial. or bidirectional reflectance, R(µ 0 .µ); isotropic
scatter,. albedo - 0.9, mc1dent angle cos- 1 0.5; optical thiclmess = 0.5.
Compar~son of present method (3 and 5 term polynomials)with Bellman's
permits integration of (13-21), yielding calculations (data points). Right: Comparison of hemispherical reflect-
ª'.1-ce calculated several ways: Exact iterative method (data points) vs
n-1 i . . . . s1x-flux method (from Ref. 7a) vs 5th and 7th order polynomial method.
)'. ) ' (-l)lµJT1-1 . (13-23)
I(T,µ)=L1!AiL (i-')! +c(µ)e-rlµ
i=O j=O ) Figure 13-4 compares the results of the method with exact*
c~lculations."
Left.: R(µ, µ 0 ) vs µ, when µ 0 = 0.5, w 0 = 0.9, Ti = 0.5.
Specification of boundary conditions determines c(µ), after which I R1ght: hem1sphencal R, for collimated incidence at µ when w 0 =
·1 from (13-23) is put back into (13-22), which is then integrated. If 0.9, Ti = 1.0. Figure 13-5 gives R 0 (see 2b. above) a~d Tn vs wo
1
the resulting relation is evaluated at n different T's, the n linear for values of Ti of 0.1, 0.5, and 1.
.1
i' simultaneous equations in n A's may be solved. The above method
l,h\ has been used to determine: Calculations, by this method, of integral reflectance and trans-
.. 1. The partial or bidirectional reflectance R(µ, µ 0 ) in direc- mittance for collimated incident radiation at µ constitute the basis
·.'·\' tion µ due to collimated incident radiation at µ 0 ; R is the ratio of for the .recommendation in Sec. 13.3b that the iingle-scatter model
intensity to that from a perfectly diffuse white surface similarly often y1elds an answer of sufficient accuracy.
irradiated.
. .d. Three-dimensional temperature field. For engineering ap-
2. The integral or hemispherical reflectance, due to phcahon the need sometimes to allow for the effects of geometri-
a. collimated incident radiation at µ 0 and cally complex boundaries or temperature patterns makes the ele-
gance of the one-dimensional analysis appear somewhat artificial.
b. polar-symmetrical hemispherical incidence following
Considera~ enclosure of.any shape, filled with absorbing-emitting
the law I(µ 0 ) <X: µg (or I+(O)= µºin Fig.13-5). n = -1, O (black- and scatterrng matter wh1ch will hereafter be called the gas; anél let
body hemispherical incidence), 1 and 2.
3. Integral transmittance, for conditions similar to 2. *Reference is to the method of invariant imbedding tedious, but converging
numerically on the correct answer [3,la]. '
 IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 423
422 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

the walls and gas be gray and vary in temperature in any manner.
The terms in a radiative energy balance on a differential volume õ V
are the emission, absorption, and scatter. The emission depends on
temperature-to which the hemispherical black emissive power E
corresponds-and is 4KaE ôV[Eq.(1-25)etseq.]. The rate of scatter
of energy incident on õV from whatever sources is Ks õV [4" I dn,
or 4KsH õV (see Sec. 13.2, first paragraph). The rate of absorption
1-----º+..... is 4KaH õV. By analogy to the definition of source function 5, de-
fine a leaving-jlux density W such that
li
~ ô
,. . ,
li
+
1---1---,_.-->H---+ or
~
4(1 - w 0 )E + 4woH = 4W (13-24)

The leaving-flux density is seen to be the emitted fraction of

the flux density E which characterizes temperature plus the scat-
tered fraction of the flux density H which characterizes incidence.
~
,...., Equation (13-24) is seen to be the complete equivalent of (13-13),
~---'Ir'.--'<-+--~..-- li except that it is restricted to isotropic scatter; W = 1T5.
The net radiative loss per unit volume-the emission less the
absorption - is

dQ = 4K (E - H). (13-25)
dV ª

which becomes, with (13-24) used to eliminate H, *

dQ = 4Kt 1 - Wo (E - W) (13-26)
co c:o dV Wo
o ci
c:o When the gas is in local radiative equilibrium, E= H = W, in agree-
o ment with the earlier statement that in such systems the scattered
and emitted fluxes are indistinguishable.
'""!
o
e--!----'1+-1---\-+------t--1 li The problem is now one of determining the W distribution in
~
...;
the gas and over the walls. An integral equation in W can be de-
rived by equating incident-flux density H, calculated from (13-24),
to all the radiation reaching dV as a result of emission and reflec-
tion at the surfaces plus emission and scatter from all the volume
elements. Let the position of an element be identified by its radial
vector r (Fig. 13-6). At volume element i, the balance is

*In this treatment of scatter in a volume the reader will note the analogue to
flux at a surface, Chap. 3. At a surface H and W are incident and leaving-
flux density and E is characteristic of local temperature. Net flux is
(E - W) (1 - p)/p ata unit surface; here it is (E -W)4Kt (1 - w0 )/w0 ata unit
volume.
424 RADIATIVE TRANSFER IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 425

1 - Wo Ai
1 d\j
H(r;) - W(ri) - - - E ( r i ) - pi (Ws,i - EiEs,i)
Wo Wo

Ws (ri) e -Kt\ ri-d dAn (ri) (~ s,s, w,,, + ~ g,s, w,)

47Tjri - r;j 2 (13-29)

where the summations represent the total

fluxes directed to Ai from all the surfaces
(13-27)
and gas zones. Similarly, the energy which is Origin
abs.orbe?-. and ~cattered by a volume vi may
be ldenbfied Wlth the beams reaching Vi from Fig. 13-6. Coordi-
(A subscript s on W or H denotes a surface, absence of a subscript all surface and gas zones, or nate system.
a volume.) The integrals over Ai and Vi represent the contribu-
tion by reflection and emission from all surface elements and by
scatter and emission from all volume elements to H at a position
ri. dA 0 (ri) is the surface area at ri projected normal to the con-
4Kt ViHi = 4~ vi [_!_Wo
w. _
i
1
- wo
Wo
E-J
i

necting line ri - ri from dV(r i); in vector notation

dA0 (ri) = dA(ri) ·(ri - ri )/\ri - ri\. = L sjgi Ws,i + [gigi wj (13-30)
i
A similar balance may be written on a surface element i
where si gi and gi gi are the direct-exchange areas evaluated using
Kt (Chap. 7). Rearrangement of Eqs. (13-29) and (13-30) to bring
the unknown surface and gas W' s to the left yields

Ai Ei
Ws(r;) e-Kt\ri-ri\ dAn(ri) dAo(ri) ---- Es,i
pi
2
7rJri - ril (13-31)
and
KtW(ri) dV(ri) e-Kt\ri-r;\ dA 0 (r;)
7Tlri - r;J2
[ s,g, W,,; + ~ (g;g; - õ;; 4K~oV;) W;
(13-28)
where dA 0 (ri) and dA 0 (ri) are the surface areas projected normal
to the line connecting ri and ri . Wo
(13-32)
The above equations can be solved by finite difference tech-
niques. lf W and Ws are assumed constant over finite volume and These equations, as many in number as there are gas plus surface
surface elements the integrals in Eqs. (13-27) and (13-28) may be zones, may be solved simultaneously for the unknown W's which
replaced by summations. The enclosure is subdivided into a number may then be substituted into Eq. (3-26) or (13-26) to obtain the net
of surface and gas zones and radiation balances formulated on each flux ata gas or ata surface zone. As the E distribution is gener-
zone. For a surface zone of area Ai and reflectance pi, the ally unknown, the above equations are best used to determine total-
incident-flux density Hi equals the sum of the incident fluxes from exchange areas, defined now to include scatter. As in Chap. 3 the E
all sources, or of each zone in turn is set equal to one, all other E 's set equal to
zero, a~d a pres~bscript added to the resultant values of W to indi-
cate wh1ch zone is the sole emitter. When V. is the sole emitter
J '
426 RADIATIVE TRANSFER IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 427

the energy absorbed at any zone Vi must have originated at Vi . 4 4

From Eq. (13-26)
q = -
3Kª
grad E =-3Kt grad E (13-38)

(13-33) ln the case of conservative scattering w0 = 1, Ka =O, Kt = Ks,

W = H, and
This and the other total-exchange areas of interest are obtained 4
q = (13-39)
from the W's by arguments completely analogous to those of Sec. 3Kt grad H
3.5, and are tabulated below:
When the absorbing-scattering medium absorbs without reradiating
1 - Wo (for example, in the passage of light through fog where the absorp-
(13-34)
GiGi = 4Kt
Wo
V·[
1 JW·1 - õii (1 - wo)] tion is insufficient to raise the temperature significantly), E O, =
=
W w 0 H, and
Ai Ej 1 - Wo 4wo
or 4Kt vi iwi (13-35) q = grad H (13-40)
GiSi iwi Wo
pi 3Kt

Ai Ei
(13-36)
When the medium is in local radiative equilibrium, W = E = H, and
Si Si cwi - Ôij Ej)
Pi 4 4 4
q =-
3Kt
grad W = -3Kt grad H = -3Kt grad E (13-41)
There should be no ambiguity about when i or j is a gas or surface
zone. The total-exchange areas so obtained will, when used to cal-
culate net radiative interchange between two zones, make full allow- The objective of the above exercise was to emphasize that W
ance for multiple reflection at the walls and multiple isotropic scat- and not E is the driving potential for radiative transfer in scatter-
ter in the gas. They have validity independently of what other heat ing media. E may be used only when it can be shown equal to W,
transfer mechanisms are operative, and may be substituted in the i.e., when the medium is in local radiative equilibrium or when
total energy balances developed in Sec. 11.4. Wo = 0.
ln the diffusional treatment of scatter an approximate allow-
13.4 Photon Diffusion in Scattering Media ance can be made for anisotropy by application of a correction fac-
tor [5] of 1 - cos e to Ks, in recognition of a tendency to forward
a. Isotropic scatter. The derivation of the diffusion equation (backward) scatter when cos e is positive (negative). (See Chap. 12.)
in Chap. 9 may be extended and generalized to include the case of an A more nearly rigorous treatment of anisotropy appears in the next
isotropically scattering medium by replacing the emission 4KªE dV section.
of a differential volume dV by the emission and scatter 4Kt W dV.
The heat-flux vector, over the range in which 5d3 W/d(Ktx) 3 << 12 .3 Anisotropic Scatter
3dW/d(Ktx), is then given by
Equation (13-12a) is applicable. Its solution presents enormous
4 (13-3 7) mathematical and computational problems, and has been obtained ex-
q =- grad W actly only for plane parallel dispersions. Let a polar coordinate
3Kt
system be adopted (Fig. 13-7), with axis normal to the layering.
Together with the definition of W- Equation (13-12) or (13-12a) becomes the sarne as (13-20) except
that the phase function must be included inside the integral scatter
(13-24) term. '

--Eq. (13-37) gives the general formulation of diffusion through ab-

sorbing isotropically-scattering media. When there is no scatter,
w0 = O, Kt = Ka, W = E, and
428 RADIATIVE TRANSFER IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 429

L
n
d!( T, µ, 1/J) p(®) = aiPi (cos ®) (13-45)
µ dT i=O

A characteristic of Legendre polynomials is that, when cos ® is re-

+ Wo 11 rzir l(T, µ', 1/J') p(®) dl/J' dµ' (13-42) lated to µ, µ' and 1/J' by (13-43),
4 7T J_1 Jo
i

with which goes the relation giving the angle ® between beams I(e) Pi (cos ®) = Pi(µ) Pi (µ') + [ f(µ, µ', m, i) cos m (1/1' -1/J) (13-46)*
and 1(8') (see Fig. 13-7) m=l

cos e cos e• + sin e sin e' cos (1/1' -1/J) The substitution of ( 13-45) and (13-46) into the interior integral of
cos ® (13-42) yields, as a factor in the term carrying the summation sign,
µµ' + v1-µ2 V1-µ• 2 cos (1/l'-1/1) (13-43) Ío 277 cos m ( 1/1' - 1/1) dl/I', which is zero for integral values of m.
Consequently the second term disappears, and the interior integral
becomes 7TL;~=o aiPi(µ) Pi(µ'). Equation (13-42) then becomes
T
The cases which will be treated here
include azimuthal-independent external dl( T, µ)
irradiation, the two-flux approximation, µ dT
and the six-flux approximation.
n
a. Azimuthal-independent irradi- wo (1 V
ation. This important case arises when .+ 2 L I(T, µ') L..i aiPi (µ)Pi(µ') ctµ' (13-47)
the externally incident flux is either i=O
polar symmetrical or absent. Then a relation containing no azimuthal angle.
I is no function of 1/1, and (13-42)
One method of solving (13-47) is to let I( r, µ ') have fixed values over
becomes a finite number m of µ' intervals, complete the integration, and thereby
generate m simultaneous linear differential equations the solution of which
Fig. 13-7. Polar gives the variation, with r, of each I(µ ). Let I(r, µ) = 11 (r) from µ = -1 to
coordinate system. µ 1 , I 2 (r) fromµ 1 toµ 2 , . . . Ik(r) fromµk-l toµk, ... Im(r)fromµm-l to
+ Wo
2 1T
f-1
1 l(T, µ') f o
ir p(®) dl/J' dµ'
f1m= 1. Equation (13-47) then becomes, for direction k,

(13-44)
Pi(µ') dµ'
The interior integral over 1/1' can be evaluated. Express the phase
function as an n-term power series in cos ®, the members of the (13-48)
series being themselves Legendre polynomials (see Sec. 12.4)* The integral may be expressed in terms of the next higher and next lower
order P' s: <•·

*The first five Legendre polynomials are (13-49)

1 with which goes the statement that P (µ) = O and P 0 (µ) = 1.
P 0 (x) = 1
p 3 (x) = -2 [-3x+ 5x 3
]
1

Pi(x) = x P 4 (x) = i [3-30x +35x2 4

]
*For use in (13-46) the structure of f need not be known.
scatter problems
For use in other

p 5 (x) = i [15x- 70x 2 + 63x 5 ]

430 RADIATIVE TRANSFER IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 431

Substitution into (13-48) will yield m linear differential equations,
with coefficients on I( r) which are linear in the n values of a chosen to
represent the phase function and power functions of the m values of µ'
chosen to represent the range -1to1. Standard techniques for the solution
of simultaneous linear differential equations may be used to obtain numerical
results. The method has been applied recently to the study of radiative
transfer in nonisothermal media [15b, 15c] and of scatter by pigment layers
(particles of one refractive index embedded in a matrix of another) [15a].
A second method of solution of (13-47) is to evaluate the integral by
quadrature. m discrete values of 11 ' are chosen instead of m 11'-intervals,
and the integral replaced by a weighted summation. Opportunity exists for
optimizing the choice of the m positions from lmowledge of the phase func-
tion · or a Gauss quadrature could be used. m simultaneous differential
equ~tio~s are so generated. Because the intensity distribution in µ shows a
discontinuity at the boundary at /1 = O, it is advantageous to evaluate the in-
tegral over two separate hemispheres.
Approximate methods of treating anisotropic scatter for engi-
neering application have been presented by Chu, Churchill, and co-
workers [5,6,13]; and the results have been compared with those
obtained by the rigorous method of Chandrasekar [3]. Two of these
will now be presented.
b. The two-flux method (proposed by Schuster [18], extended
by Hammaker (14] and by Churchill et al. [6]. The applicable equa-
tion is (13-12a), which may be wr~tten
With this simplification and with I(r, n) and I(r, -n) replaced by
I+(r) and L(r) since only the sign of n counts, Eq. (13-50) becomes
(13-52)
A similar equation can be written for radiation proceeding in the
opposite direction
(13-53)
The intensities of the radiation incident on the bounding surfaces
with directions + and - must be specified before the equations can
be solved. When the temperature distribution in the medium is
known, IB(r) may be calculated and the set of simultaneous linear
differential equations given by (13-52) and (13-53) solved for I+(r)
and L(r).
One application of these formulae has been the calculation of
the fractions of a plane parallel beam that are reflected or trans-
mitted by an absorbing-scattering slab. The emission by the slab
was considered to be negligible (IB = O). Equations (13-52) and
(13-53) become

dI(r ' n)
Kt d.Q
= -I(r,n) + (1-w 0 ) IB (r ) + -Wo
2
I: I(r, n')p(e) d cos 0
and
dl+(T)
dT
(13-54)

(13-50)
where .Q is the path length along the direction of the primary beam. (13-55)
In the two-flux method all the radiation scattered is assumed to be
in the direction of or opposed to that of propagation of the primary
beam. The integral term of (13-50) is then the sum of two terms, where µ 0 is the absolute value of the angle of the externally incident
beam made with the x axis and T = f 0x Kt dx. The boundary condi-
i.e.,
tions are I+(O) = 1 and L(T 1 ) = O, where T1 is the optical thickness
-Wo
2
il
-1
I(r, n') p(e) d cos 0 = w0 [fI(r, n) + bI(r, -n)] (13-51) of the entire slab. The fractions of the radiation reflected and
transmitted are given by

where f and b are the fractions of the radiation that would normally (13-56)
be scattered into the hemispheres facing and opposed to the direc-
tion of propagation.

f = -1
2
11
o
p(0) d cos 0 b ~ Lºp(e) d cos 0
and
I+(Tl) , 2g e-gr1/f10
(13-57)
I)O) 1 - Wof + g - (1- w0 f - g) e- 2 gr1/11o
432 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 433

where T~e fraction scattered into the solid angle formed by de is

27Tp(e) sm e de/47T, and if the forward and radial fractions of that
~catter a~e ta~en as cos 2 e and sin 2 e, then the fractions scattered
If the temperature is unknown, the value of IB(r) must be ob-
m each direchon are represented by
tained from an energy balance on the gas. ln the absence of other
modes of heat transfer, the steady state corresponds to local radia-
tive equilibrium, emission equals absorption, and f =
1 f77/2
2 0
p( e) cos2 e sine de = t (1 Jo p(µ) µ2 dµ (13-62)

IB(r) = l I(r, n') dS1'/47T

77
477

The introduction of this function into (13-52) and (13-53) would de-
feat the purpose of the two-flux approximation. One method of over-
b = 2
1 1 77/2
p(e) cos 2e sine de = .!.
2
Jº p(µ) µ2 dµ
-1
(13-63)

coming this difficulty is further to simplify the two-flux method and S=(l-f-b)/4
(13-54)
assume that in a unidimensional temperature field the two fluxes ~
and L refer to the total hemispherical fluxes across a plane paral- where for symmetrical or randomly oriented particles the one-side-
lel to the surface. ln this case scattered fraction. is the sarne for all four side-scattered components
an~ would be 1/6 if p were 1. Equations of transfer may now be
wntten for the intensities I 1, ... , I 6 of radiation directed along the
(13-59) axes o~ any orthogonal system of coordinates. With 11 and 1 rep-
2
resen~mg the fo~w~rd- and back-scattered radiation along the x axis,
and with the em1ss10n term Kah/6 omitted from each equation,
(13-60)
1 dI1
-
and for local radiative equilibrium Kt dx = -(1- wof) Ii + wabI 2 + w0 s(I 3 +I4 +Is +Id (13-65a)

1 dI2
(13-61) -
Kt dx = -(1 - wof) 12 + w 0 bI 1 + w 0 s(I3 + I 4 +Is+ I 6 ) (13-65b)

Approximate allowance for the three-dimensional motion of the pho- 1 dl3

tons may be made by using in Eqs. (13-59) to (13-61) a T equal to -
Kt dy = -(1 - Wof) I 3 + w0 bl 4 + w 0 s(I 1 + I 2 +Is+ I 6 ) (13-65c)
1.76 times the optical distance from the surface (see Table 7.3).
1 dl4
Churchill, Chu et al. have compared values of reflectance and
transmittance calculated by the two-flux method with the exact solu- Kt dy = -(1 - Wof) I4 + Wo bI3 + WoS(I1 + I2 +Is+ I5) (13-65d)
tions. The two-flux method gives good agreement for integrated re-
flectance and transmittance for diffuse incident radiation but does 1 dls
not provide a reliable measure of the effect of angle of incidence for Kt dz = -(1 - Wof) Is+ WobI 6 +WoS(I 1 +1 2 + I 3 + I 4) (13-65e)
plane parallel incident beams. Evidently, the two-flux method will
give a much truer representation of the scattered radiation when the dl5
1
intensity of the radiation incident on a particle is symmetrically
distributed than when it is collimated. Kt dz = -(1- Wof) I5 + wabis + wos(I 1 +I 2 +1 3 +1 4) (13-65f)

c. The six-flux method. A considerable improvement on the

two-flux method is that of assuming the radiation to be scattered by
a particle in six mutually perpendicular directions-forward, back-
ward, and to the four sides.
vyhen th~ intensities at the boundaries are specified the above set of
lmear d1ffe~ential equations may be solved simultaneously. For the
case of coll1mat~d radiation incident on one of the boundaries best
results are obtamed by selecting the direction of the beam as' one of
the axes.
434 RADIATIVE TRANSFER IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 435

Symmetry may reduce the number of equations to be solved
simultaneously. For example, in the case of a collimated beam in-
cident normally on a plane parallel dispersion, the side-scattered
components are independent of y and z, and are given by
(13-66)
The transmission and reflection from plane parallel disper-
sions are much more closely approximated by the six-flux than the
two-flux method. For diffuse radiation at the boundaries the six-
flux method gives adequate results for all the conditions studied;
however, sizable differences between exact and approximate calcu-
lations are observed at some angles of incidence of a plane parallel
beam.
d. Comparison of isotropic and anisotropic scatter. The in-
tensity distribution of radiation emerging from slabs of isotropic
and Rayleigh scatterers has been evaluated for a number of values
of optical depth and scatter albedo [3,8, 13, 14]. Some of these re-
sults, for isotropic scatter, were presented in Figs. 13-3, 13-4 and
13-5.
Exact calculations of flux in anisotropically scattering disper-
sions are laborious to perform and serve the engineer best as a
check for approximate calculational methods. The importance of
anisotropy has been investigated by Evans, Chu, and Churchill [13],
who calculated the reflectance and transmittance of slabs for differ-
ent phase functions, albedos, and optical thicknesses. They repre-
Peakedness is a measure of how much the forward scattered radia-
tion peaks in the direction of propagation of the primary beam and
is 1/3 for isotropic scatter. The transmittance, for diffuse r~dia­
tion, of a slab consisting of a dispersion which scatters either iso-
tropically (a1 = a2 = O) or strongly in the forward direction with
f = 0.933 and J?e = 0.4821 (a.1 = 1. 7~2, a 2 = 1.00) is shown in Fig. 13-8.
Naturally, a h1gher transm1ttance is observed when single scatter is
predominantly in the forward direction. Similar calculations for
other conditions showed that:
(1) the importance of the shape of the phase function decreases
as w 0 decreases;
(2) results for isotropic scatter and Rayleigh scatter (f = 0.5,
pe = 0.4) are nearly identical except at high optical densities when
lower transmittances and higher reflectances are found for Rayleigh
scatter;
(3) the transmittance varies little with peakedness for a range
of pe from 0.389 to 0.550;
(4) the six-flux method gives results in fair agreement with
the exact calculations.
1.0
r==-:..:_- - - -----
---
-----.: .,--~º·~
-- -,_
0.8
-----°"'-
i-...._

...........
r--
L> t-.._
....
~ ',
OJ
sented the phase function by the first three terms of a Legendre u ............ Wo - 0.6 ........
............ ' :~
polynomial expansion @ 0.6
:jj
·s ~ ~:~:-, ~
"'
--- ---
p(µ) = 1 + ª1 µ + ª2 [~ (3µ 2 - 1)] Ul (,.~·
, /Jo ~~
'- 1'-
.....,r-......_
@ 0.4 <S>c w0 - 0.3
~
E-< qlt{'>.f> 1 1 -.........,
·~-
Two derived values of interest are the fraction of the radiation
1'~
scattered forward 0.2 ~V' ª1 = '1'3, ª2 = 1 <é'
O ª1 =O, a 2 =O (isotropic scatter)
1 1 1 1
í~ .........._
f = .!. (1 p(µ) dµ = .!. + ª 1
o
2 Jo 2 4 o.05
1

0.1 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.50 1.0

1

1.5 2 .o
0.25 0.40
and the peakedness, pe, defined as the ratio of the second and zeroth Tl =KtL
moment of the phase function in the forward direction

pe = -1
2
1 1
o
p(µ) µ2 dµ/f = ( -1 + -ª1 + -ª2
6 8 15
)yí(-21 + -ª1)4
Fig .. 13:-8. Bih.emispherical transmittance. Comparison of isotropic
(solid lmes) w1th forward dominant scatter (dashed lines). (Adapted
from Refs. 13 and 20.)
436 RADIATIVE TRANSFER IN AN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIUM 437

From their results, Evans et al draw the important eonelusion that 15. Hottel, H. C., A. F. Sarofim, and D. K. Sze: Proeeedings of
radiative flux is insensitive to the details of the seatter diagram, the Third International Heat Transfer Conferenee, Vol. 5, p.
that eomplex seatter diagrams may be represented, for the pur- 112, A.I.Ch.E., New York, 1966.
poses of ealculating radiative transfer, by the fraetion seattered 15a. Hottel, H. C., A. F. Sarofim, L. B. Evans, and I. A. Vasalos:
forward and the peakedness. Caleulations by Sze [20], however, "Radiative Heat Transfer in Anisotropieally Seattering Media:
suggest that although the above generalization is valid for wo's ap- Allowanee for Fresnel Refleetion at the Boundaries," submitted
proaehing one, reflectanee may be strongly dependent on peakedness to the J. Heat Transfer, Mareh 1967. ASME Paper 67-HT-19.
at small w 0 's. 15b. Hsia, H. M., and T. J. Love: "Radiative Heat Transfer between
Parallel Plates Separated by a Nonisothermal Medium with
Anisotropie Seattering," ASME Paper 66-WA/HT-2 8.
CHAPTER 13. LITERATURE CITATIONS 15e. Love, T. J., and R. J. Grosh: J. Heat Transfer, 87C: 161-166
(1965).
1. Blevin, W. R., and W. J. Brown: J. Opt. Soe. Amer., 51: 129 16. Napper, D. H., and R. H. Ottewill: ICES,* p. 377, Maemillan,
(1961). 1963.
la. Bellman, R. E.: "Invariant Imbedding and Time Dependent 17. Rossler, F.: Optik, 10: 531 (1953).
Transport Proeess," Ameriean Elsevier Pub. Co. (1964). 18. Sehuster, A.: Astrophys. J., 21: 1-22 (1905).
2. Bullrieh, K.: ICES,* p. 191, Maemillan, 1963. 19. Stull, V. R., and G. N. Plass: J. Opt. Soe. Amer., 50: 121 (1960).
3. Chandrasekhar, S.: "Radiative Transfer," Oxford University 20. Sze, D. K.: Se.D. Thesis in Chemieal Engineering, M.I.T.,
Press, London, 1950. Cambridge, Mass. (in preparation, 1966).
4. Chin, J. H., and S. W. Churehill: Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp. 21. Van der Hulst, H.C.: "Light Seattering by Small Partieles," p.
Series, 56: 117-127 (1960). 5, Wiley, New York, 1957.
5. Chu, C. M., and S. W. Churehill: Institute oj Radio Engineers,
Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, Vol. AP-4, No. 2,
142 (1956).
6. Chu, C. M., and S. W. Churehill: J. Phys. Chem., 59: 855-863
(1955).
7. Churehill, S. W., G. C. Clark, and C. M. Sliepeevieh: Discus-
sions of the Faraday Society, 30: 192 (1960).
7a. Churehill, S. W., C. M. Chu, L. B. Evans, L. C. Tien, and
S. C. Pang: J. Heat Transfer, 83C: 381 (1965).
8. Coulson, K. L., J. Dave, and Z. Sekera: "Tables Related to
Radiation Emerging from a Planetary Atmosphere with Ray-
leigh Seattering," University of California Press, Los Ange-
les, 1960.
9. Dalzell, W. H.: Se.D. Thesis in Chemieal Engineering, M.I.T .,
Cambridge, Mass., 1966.
10. Deirmendjian, D.: ICES,* p. 171, Maemillan, 1963.
11. Donn, B., and R. S. Powell: ICES,* p. 151, Maemillan, 1963.
12. Eriekson, W. D., G. C. Williams, and H. C. Hottel: Combus-
tion and Flame, 8: 127 (1964).
13. Evans, L. B., C. M. Chu, and S. W. Churehill: J. Heat Trans-
fer, 87: 381 (1965).
14. Hamaker, H. C.: Phillips Research Reports, Vol. 2, pp. 55,
103, 112, 420 (1947).
*Proceedings of the Interdisciplinary Conference on Electromagnetic Scattering, M. Kerker *Proceedings of the Interdisciplinary Conference on Electromagnetic Scattering, M. Kerker
(ed.). (ed.).

CH PTER 14
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES
If the previous chapters have given the impression that the
authors favor rigorous analysis of problems, here is the place to
underline the statement that, in engineering, unnecessary rigor is
more often than not a sign of bad judgment. Visualize an industrial
furnace burning pulverized coal for the purpose of transferring heat
to water-cooled walls, and consider the complex picture of the fur-
nace interior (perhaps as large as a small lecture hall) as seen
through a peephole. One needs no background of experience or vivid
imagination to conclude that the details of the process of transfer of
energy from the entering fuel and air to the heat-sink surfaces dis-
posed on the walls-involving as they do a combination of problems
in fluid mechanics, molecular and turbulent diffusion, chemical ki-
netics, radiation from solid particles and from gases, absorption of
radiation by those sarne particles and gases, reradiation from re-
fractory surfaces, natural and forced convection, wall conduction,
et aL-are not susceptible of rigorous mathematical representation.
Even if an analysis of a reasonably complex model were feasible,
that would not be the place to start on the problem. The human mind
visualizes a function of two variables with some facility because it
is representable as a family of curves. A function of three variables
is beyond the capacity of most good minds to visualize; and fairly
simple derived functions of that function definitely beyond all-except
by the process of holding constant one variable at a time. It is clear,
then, that either improvements of a particular furnace design or
imaginative changes in the basic features of the design are most ef-
fectively stimulated by mathematical models of the process which
are the simplest possible consistent with realism-those which in-
clude only the key variables. This is not to say that one should stop
short of allowing for factors of significance just because there are
so many of them. But it is usually the part of good engineering to
construct the simpler model first, use it to test whether the varia-
bles are significant, and then perhaps construct a more complete
model. The meaning of these comments will hopefully have become
clearer by the end of this chapter.
Two classes of furnaces will be considered, electric and fuel-
fired.
438
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 439
ELECTRIC RESISTOR FURNACES
. Consideration of electric resistor furnaces logically comes
flrst ~ecause of the far greater ease of their quantitative treatment.*
The kmds of problems that arise in the area of radiative transfer
are many: S~ould the furnace design aim at operation of all resis-
tors near the1r peak permissible temperature, or should resistor
temperature vary locally with stock temperature in a continuous
furn~ce? If the resistors are flat strips, is there a preferred ori-
entat10n of _them against a refractory backwall? Considering the
cos_t of res1st~rs and cost of furnace setting, what is the economic
optim~m _spacmg _of resistors? Should it vary along the furnace?
Quan~ita~1ve cons1deration of questions of this kind starts with a de-
termmat10n of the radiative characteristics of an array of resistors.
14.1 The Effective Emissivity E' of Resistor
Arrays on a Backwall
. The technique of replacing a system of parallel electric re-
s1stors and the ba~k-insulated refractory wall on which they are
mo~nt~~ by a n equ1valent continuous gray plane [8], of effective
1
em1ss1vity E and temperature equal to that of the resistors has
already been pr_esented in Sec. 3.13. In brief review, the net flux
across the conhnuous plane Ai due to the joint presence of black
tubes or rods or stri~s of area A 2 and of the refractory surface of
are_a ~r(= Ai) on wh1ch they are mounted is (SiS 2 )R per unit black
em1ss1ve power of the source. Division by Ai gives the emission
per unit area, or equivalent-pl_ane emissivity E~. This emissivity
depends on_ the shape and spacmg of the resistors, or on their shape
~nd the ra~10 P /C, wher~ C is the center-to-center spacing and p
~s t_he penmeter of a ~es1_stor cross section. With a subscript B to
md1_cate that formulahon lS on the basis of black resistors the
eqmvalent-plane emissivity is '
(Si S 2)R,B
- - - - - = f(shape, P /C) (14-1)
~pproximate allowance for the grayness E 2 of the resistor material
lS made by use of the one-zone approximation, Eq. (3-46)
*The~e is little doubt that capability of quantitative design was a major fac-
tor m th~ large scale shift ofmany processing operations from gas furnaces
to el~ct_ric ones; a gener~tion ago gas furnace design was not generally ver
soph1s~1cated, and ele,ctric furnace design was enough ahead to permit com~
pensat10n for the greater cost of electrical energy.
440 RADIATIVE TRANSFER APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 441

1 (14-2) for strip width

parallel to E'1 (14-4)
1 P2 refractory backing,
+--
(S1S2)R,B A2 E2

which is adequate unless the clearance between resistors is much

less than their maximum dimension in cross section. From (14-2)
1 1 (14-3)
1 e
+-
d.,B p
The effective emissiv-
ity of various resistor-
0.9 >------+-Round refractory backwall systems
rods has been calculated by the
methods of Chap. 3, with the
one-zone approximation re-
placed where necessary by a
more nearly rigorous treat-
ment. The results are given
in Fig. 14-1 for each of six
arrays-thin strips with ori-
entation normal to the refrac-
tory backing (bottom curve,
a/b = O) or parallel to it
(a/b = cx:i), rods of 1x4 rec-
tangular cross section with
long dimension normal to or
parallel to the refractory,
square rods, and circular
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
P/C (resistor perimeter)
rods. All are based on resis-
' (center-center distance) tor material of emissivity
O. 74, p = 0.26, characteristic
Fig. 14-1. Equivalent-plane of a material widely used in
emissivity of various regular resistors (Nichrome IV).
assemblies of resistors on a
refractory backwall. Resistor An interesting and some-
metal emissivity = 0.74.
times practically important
point emerges from a
comparison of the two thin-strip arrays, normal to and parallel to
the refractory. Their equivalent-plane emissivities (based on the
one-zone assumption) are,
for strip width
perpendicular to E'1
P/C (14-5)
refractory backing, 1
Vl + (P /2C) 2 - P /2C
Figure 14-2, which compares the effect of the two orientations at
different surface emissivity levels, shows that for materials of high
emissivity the parallel-to-refractory orientation is superior up to
the point of abuttment of the strips, that for low-emissivity material
the perpendicular orientation is better if high flux del!_sity is desired.
Fig. 14-2. Comparison of thin-
strip resistors in two arrays on a "
refractory backwa11 . E2 = emis- ~_
sivity of resistor metal. ~
04
•
_::;
i 0.21-----1-A---.=-- --+---f-----1---+-
1 2 3.5
p /C (resistor perimeter)
' (center-center distance)
14.2 Examples of Calculation of Exchange Area (S 1S2)R
As an example in calculating the performance of an electric
furnace, consider one which is long enough compared to its height
and width to permit two-dimensional treatment (restriction not nec-
essary; it simplifies discussion). Figure 14-3a shows a cross sec-
tion normal to the major axis, with the system of roof resistors al-
ready replaced by an equivalent plane of area, effective emissivity
and temperature A1 , E1, T 1, and with the hearth partly occupied by
stock forming a plane of area, emis.sivity and temperature A 2, E2, T 2 .
Per unit of furnace length the flux Q is given by

(14-6)
442 RADIATIVE TRANSFER APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 443

~----Li--------:1 As a second example consider the furnace represented in

1 K J H Sink. Totalplane
~
Resistor and refractory backing
replaced by roof-plane area, both sides )1
cross section by Fig. 14-3b. The stock consists of roof-chain-
r -~--+-""

L,
=A,.
conveyed pans extending downwards the distance L2 from the roof.
The wall resistors and their backing have been replaced by continu-
1
--+----1----rlr Source planes ous planes extending from the roof downward the distance Li, in a
replacing resistors.
Refractory L, Total inside plane
walls Ar area=A1. furnace Li + L 3 high by 2L 4 wide. The pans are so spaced along
1 G
the conveyor chain that they occupy the fraction q; of a continuous
~~-·st1oc1k, 1,1,,1,,1,-~'• __l_
L,
_t__ surface L 2 high, and therefore occupy the area fraction qyL 2/
A T
(Li+ L 3 ) of the vertical midplane of the furnace. The flux per unit
'~---- L 2 --------'j' (a) (b) length is given as before by Eq. (14-6); and, if the furnace is divided
into three zones as before, the exchange area (8i 8 2)R is given by
Fig. 14-3. Cross section through two electric furnaces. Eq. (14-7) [but not by (14-8) because surface Ai can see itself
through the gaps in the stock]. By the methods of 8ec. 2.4,
The exchange area (8i 8 2h may be approximated adequately by con-
sidering the system to consist of a single no-flux or refractory º.r 1> (vLi2 + L~ 2 2
+ /L/+ L4 - L4 - /L4 + (L2 -Li)2)
radiative-equilibrium zone Ar, a single source zone Ai and a sm-
gle sink zone A 2. From Eq. (3-46) or (3-23) 11 2 ( VLi2 + (2L4)2 - 2L4) (1 - 1>)
(14-10)
1 (14-7)
(8 i82 )R lr Ai 11 - 12 = 2L - 11 12
p~ P2 1
+--+
Ai EÍ A2 E2 1
12 +
1 1
-+-
lr 2r The flux to the stock per unit length of furnace is thus established.

1 If somewhat greater accuracy is desired, single-zoning of the

p~ P2 1 fact that different parts of the refractory surfaces have different
--+-- +
Ai Ei' A2 E2 1 views of source and sink. 8ince the roof and floor have essentially
12 + +
A1 - 12
Use of the crossed-string method of 8ec. 2.4 to evaluate 12 gives
If (8 8 ) so obtained is divided by the area of the plane the
1 2 R
resistors replace (in this case Li) the resu lt"mg d'imens1on
. 1ess
quantity, called E", may be thought of as that emissivity which a
surface of area equal to the resistor plane must have to transfer
energy to black stock seen in all directions by the resistor. pl.a~e, ~r
to black stock coextensive with a black resistor plane and mfmites1-
mally separated from it, at the true rate of the n~n?lack, *nonplane
system. E" may be called the resistor-plane efflc1ency.
*In the earlier nomenclature of one of the authors [10], E 11 would have been
called '.f, thetotal-viewfactorbasedon the area of the plane of the resistors.
(14-8) refractory could be dropped, and allowance could be made for the
1
A 2 - 12 similar views, little would be gained by division of Ar -roof, floor,
and sidewalls below resistors, Fig. 14-3b-into a roof zone anda
floor zone. A better investment of calculation time would be made
by division into zone Ari consisting of perimeter DE +AH, and
(14-9) zone Ar2 consisting of perimeter BCD + EFG. Another improve-
ment would come from allowance for some specularity of the re-
flection from the pan surface A 2 , by the methods of Chap. 5, with
A 2 fine-zoned. 8till another improvement would come from allow-
ing for convection between the furnace atmosphere and the various
radiation zones, and for externa! lasses through the refractory sur-
faces [8ec. 3.11 and, particularly, Eqs. (3-58) to (3-60)]. As an
alternative to making allowance for externa! losses the furnace
could be designed for operation at a resistor temperature one or
two hundred degrees below the accepted safe design limit, with the
expectation that the extra temperature is available to offset losses
not allowed for in the design. 8ince electric resistor furnaces in-
volve only well-known principles of heat transfer, it may be stated
444 RADIATNE TRANSFER
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 445

categorically that they are presently capable. of ~e.rformance predic-
tion with an accuracy limited only by the avallab1hty of knowledge of
the properties of the materials involved and by ~he availability of
time to include secondary effects in the calculahons.
14.3 Economic Optimum Resistor 8pacing
It is clear that the further apart the resistors are in a furnace
the higher the effectiveness of each resistor in transferring heat,
and the larger the furnace. The other extreme, fo~ a given tot~l
load is a minimum-size furnace crowded with res1stors. To fmd
the ~conomic-optimum combination, let the annual fixed charge-:
interest, depreciation, maintenance, etc.-on ~he furnace (~xclus1ve
of resistors) divided by the plane area occupied by heat smk or
stock surfac~ (both sides counted, if heated from two sides), be G;
and let the area of resistor surface-true surface, not equivalent
plane-on which there is the sarne annual fixe~ charge G. be 8.
(This second fixed charge includes that on res1stor ter~mals and
accessories that are proportional to the number of res1stors us~d.)
Consider now a unit length of furnace--normal to the cross sechon
represented by Fig. 14-3b, for exam~~e-for which (81.82 )R p~r unit
of furnace length, and consequently E [= (8 1 8 2 )R/Ai], lS obta~nable
as a function of P /C by the methods discussed. The annual f1xed
charge on the furnace exclusive of resistors is then GA2, that on
the resistor system GA 1P/C8. The annual fixed charge on t?e total
furnace system, per unit of energy transferred to the stock, lS
~)
Figure 14-3b will be used to discuss a numerical example.
Let the stock be a row of sheets being enamelled, of vertical dimen-
sion L2 = 5 ft, width 3 ft, horizontal clearance 6 in. ( cp = 6/7), clear-
ance at the bottom 2 ft, stock emissivity 0.85. The horizontal clear-
ance L4 between the stock and the vertical plane of the resistors is
2 ft. The resistors run vertically on the sidewalls and occupy the
plane of height Li = 4 ft; they are nickel-chromium strips 1x1/4 in.
with their 1 in. dimension parallel to the refractory backwalls· thei;
emissivity is O. 74. Furnace and resistor costs are such that the
value of 8 (which is dimensionless) is 3.5. A 2/A = rpL /L = (6/7)
1 2 1
(5/4). What should the spacing of resistors be, and what perform-
ance is expected?
From Eqs. (14-10), 12, lr and 2r are respectively 5.61, 1.34,
and 2.96 ft2/ft. According to (14-7), (8 18 2)R,black = 6.44, and
(8182)R 1
1 - E~ (14-12)
- - + 1.407
El
According to Fig. 14-1, line marked a/b = 4, the values of E~ at
P/C = 1, 5/4, 3/2, 7/4, and 2 are 0.58, 0.67, 0.73, 0.765, and 0.769.
This, with (14-12), permits plotting E~' vs P/C; the relation appears
in Fig. 14-4. The distance 8A:i/A 1 = 3.5(6/7)(5/4)=3.75islaidoff
to the left of the origin; tangency to the resistor performance curve
occurs at P /C = 1. 6. Then for minimum furnace cost the resistor
strips should be 2.5/1.6 or 1.56 in. apart on centers * for which ar-
rangement E1" = 0.57. The flux to the stock per unit 'of furnace length
is 0.57(2L 1) a (T 14 - Ti).

__ Q,6 - -

For optimum design the above ratio is to be 8: minimum; its deriva-

Fig. 14-4. The relation of E 11 to
tive with respect to the design variable P /C lS therefore set equal
the ratio P / C, for an array of rec-
to zero, giving tangular rods mounted on a refrac-
O},f------t-+-+-+-----1
/
tory backwall (a/b = 4). E" equals / o. 3r--i--i----r-i-----i
E " (14-11) resistor plane efficiency; see text // t
p following Eq. (14-9). // <! 0.2
-+
e /// 1 O. lH--t---+---1~--j
/ A2

Graphical solution is easy. Given a plot of E as or?inate vs ~/C

11 0
°"'---SA;:- ~ 3.75---.,c----c~,___,~---=<
1 2
-P/C-
as abscissa the distance 8A2 / A1 is laid on the x ax1s, measurmg
to the left f;om O; through the point found a tangent is drawn to the
curve. The abscissa of the point of tangency is (P /C)optirnurn ·
*Even if resistors were free (s = =) the furnace wall should not be covered
with them (P/C = 2.5). Instead, the economic optimum would occur at the
physical optimum, P/C = 1.9.
446 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
Many other questions arise in connection with the problem.
How, for example, do the net flux densities into the sheets at their
top edge, center, and bottom edge compare? Answering this neces-
sitates finer zoning. How sensitive is this distribution of flux to
changes in the clearance distance L 4 ? How must the current through
the resistors be varied along the furnace length?
14.4 Variable Resistor Spacing, Temperature,
or Current
The analysis leading to Eq. (14-11) was based on the assump-
tion that all resistors would operate at the sarne safe temperature.
Consider the furnace operation to be continuous, with the stock flow-
ing in a direction normal to the axes of the resistors. Since the
stock temperature varies along its flow path either the resistor
temperature or the exchange area (Si S 2 )R per unit furnace length or
the current through the resistors must vary. The flux per unit of
furnace length is WE" a(T14 - T24), where W is the area of effective
resistor plane per unit of furnace length (W = furnace width Li for a
roof resistor system occupying the whole roof, Fig. 14-3a; W = 2Li
for Fig. 14-3b). Let the enthalpy of the stock flowing in unit time
change by .6.Hs in the furnace length C, the spacingbetween resistors.
Then
WCE" a(Ti 4 - T24) = .6.Hs = I 2 R
where I = current through resistors and R = resistance of those
elements associated with the length C. If .6.Hs <<(Hs, out - Hs, in)
it may be replaced by C dH 5 /dx, giving
dH
wE" a (Ti 4 - T24) = dxs = I 2 R / C (14-13)
The pair of equations represented by (14-13) express the general
case, for which a number of solutions exist:
Case I. Current I and spacing C are constant, and Ti varies
with x. This case is almost trivial; from (14-13), X= C(Hs - Hs, in)/
I 2 R, and Ti 4 must increase with T 2 in such a way that Ti 4 - T2 4 is
constant (provided the small variation of R with Ti is ignored). If
the exit stock absolute temperature is the fraction a of the local
resistor surface temperature and the ratio of entering to leaving
stock temperature is (3, the ratio of cold-end to hot-end resistor
temperature is
[1 - a4(1- (34)]114
The life of the resistors and the size or capacity of the furnace de-
pend on Ti, and a high stock exit temperature makes a small.
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 447
For a low-stock-temperature furnace, say a = 0.5 and (3 = 0.5, the
resistor temperature T 1 will vary only 1.5%. When a = 0.9, how-
ever (stock coming within 150º C of the permitted maximum Ti) and
(3 = 0.5, Ti,cold is only 79% of Ti,hot and the cold-~d resistors
are grossly underloaded.
Case II. Current I and resistor temperature Ti are constant,
and spacing c increases towards the hot end of the furnace. c and
Ti are related, from (14-13), by
(14-14)
With C and T 2 fixed at the hot end, I 2 R is established; and the re-
lation between E"[= E" (C)] and T2 is given by combining (14-14)
11
with the C- E relation from a curve such as that in Fig. 14-4. Call
the resulting effective emissivity E"(T 2 ). Then from (14-13)
or
1 (dHjdT 2 )
X (14-15)
Wa
Graphical integration yields directly the T 2 -X relation; the C-X re-
lation follows by use of the known E"-T and E"-C relations.
Case III. Resistor temperature Ti and spacing C are con-
stant, and current I varies with x. Equation (14-13) yields
and
(14-16)
Integration of the first of these gives the desired X - T 2 relation
1 T2
X = aWE" J
T2,in
(14-17)
If the stock specific heat cp(= 1/m dH 5 /dT2 ) varies with T 2 , inte-
gration may be done graphically. If it is constant, (14-17) yields
 448 RADIATIVE TRANSFER APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 449

m Cp T2 T2, in ~eldo~ warra_nted. Instead, a preliminary desi,gn is carried through

X [ tan-i - tan-i
3
Ti Ti m wh1ch the time-average energy flux density q through the surface
2WE" aTi
of the stock is determined without allowance for the difference be-

1
+- Qn
2
Ti + T2
Ti - T2
Ti - T2.in
Ti + T2,in
l (14-18)
and the relation between resistor element position and current is
obtained by noting that (14-16) and (14-18) are a pair of parametric
equations relating X and I through the parameter T 2 .
Although it may seldom be practical to change either resistor
spacing or current from element to element, zoning of the furnace
into sections with different current supply or resistor spacing is
feasible; the former is generally preferable. There is of course a
large variation in the cost of an electric furnace of optimum design,
depending on the specified range of expected variation of its thermal
load.
14.5 The Batch Furnace
The factor (Si S2 )R, with subscripts 1 and 2 referring to re-
sistors and stock, is determined by the methods of Chap. 3 (or pos-
sibly Chap. 5). If the enthalpy-temperature of the stock (the space-
mean value in depth x normal to the surface) is the sarne as the
stock-surface temperature T 2 , and the enthalpy of the stock is Hs,
then
dHs dT2
(14-19)
dT2 dt
The current through the resistors may be varied in response to the
need for following a rigid temperature-time relation of the stock or
for preventing excessive temperature rise in the resistors; or the
current may be held constant. The use of (14-19) to determine per-
formance is in either case straightforward.
,,!1
When the stock to be heated is so massive that its mean
enthalpy-temperature Trn is significantly lower than T 2 , allowance
must be made for the difference. If rigorous allowance must be
made for the temperature field within the stock, the problem is one
primarily of unsteady heat flow with surface flux known-an area
outside the scope of this book. *A rigorous treatment, however, is
tween Trn and T 2. ln a second-round calculation q and therefore
T2 - Trn is approximately known, and allowance can be made for it.
For example, consider a constant flux density q into the surface of
a slab of material of thickness L and thermal conductivity k heated
from one side in a furnace chamber. It is easy to show that the tem-
perature profile in the stock approaches a repeating parabolic pro-
file, with
(Continued from Page 448)
surroundings and surface, then a rigorous solution of the fourth-power-flux
pro~lem may be constructed graphically from the simpler one. The princi-
ple mvolved (~up_erposition) is a consequence of the linearity of the equation
of heat flux withm the shape: if the boundary conditions can be represented
as the sum of a number of different boundary conditions for each of which the
solution is known, the desired solution is the sum of those separate solutions.
Let T(x, t) = temperature at time t and position x (measured from the un-
heated face or midplane), and let
T(x, t) - T0
Y(x, t) = Too - To
This ~s the fractional accomplished temperature change due to sudden im-
mers10n, at t = O, of a body of uniform temperature T0 into surroundings at
con~tant t~mperatu_re T"', when the surface flux density is h[T"' - T(L, t)]; y is
ava1lable m graph1cal form as a function of normalized time and position
groups At/ cp L 2 and x/L, and of the group A/hL, for slabs, cylinders, and
sphe_res (see, for example, Ref. 19). Now define a time-varying apparent
ambient temperature TA(t) such that, following a linear heat-flux law, it
would reproduce the true surface flux, i.e.,
(S1S2)R
h[T A(t) - T(L, t)] = A o-{T14 - [T(L, t)J4}
Choice of h or TA(O) is arbitrary. If TA(t) is assumed to vary stepwise with
tim~ and to have the value TA (O) from t = O to t 1 and TA (tn) from t = tn- l to
tn, it then follows from the superposition principle that the surface tempera-
ture is given by
T(L, tn) = 1-0 + [TA(O) - To] Y(L, t) + [TA(ti) - TA(O)] Y(L, t-t 1)
+ [TA (t2) - TA(ti)] Y(L, t-t 2) + • · • [TA (tn+ 1)
- TA(tn)J Y(L, tn+ 1- tn)
If the TA - t variation is continuous
TA(t)
T(L,t) =To +(TA(O)-T 0 )Y(L,t) + fTA(O)
Y(L,t-t')dTA(t')

*It is perhaps worth pointing out, however, that if the shape is one for which After one of these has been used to determine the TA - t relatÍon, L may be
a solution is available for the case of surface flux from constant-temperature replaced by x and the process repeated to find the time history of the tem-
surroundings at a rate proportional to the difference in temperature of perature of any interior point.

450 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
Tx -
Tx~O = _5!__
2ÀL
x2
and
- 3. Ease of design. Combining the combustion and heat trans-
T x--L - T.m = T2 - Tm = -qL
3À
An electric furnace problem often encountered in experimental
work is the design of a laboratory tube furnace with a given axial
temperature pattern and/or a given heat-sink distribution along the
axis. The size of a furnace is of course no measure of the difficulty
of designing it, and a balance must be struck between expenditure on
overdesign of the resistance and control elements and expenditure
on engineering optimization studies. The laboratory furnace is
commonly cheaper to overdesign than to design "properly." Some-
times, however-particularly when the furnace is to be pushed to its
limit-careful design is necessary. Covering the resistor elements
with refractory cement increases the energy-dissipating capacity of
the resistance wire by providing a heat-flow path from the back side
of the wire to the tube space between wires. Except for flux within
the tube, the problem is one of conduction rather than radiation.
A good example of a radiation problem of considerable degree
of calculational complexity but involving only the simplest of princi-
ples is the design of a one-open-end tube furnace along the axis of
which the radiant energy density is to be kept constant. This and
other problems are handled by the methods of Chap. 3.
FUEL-FIRED FURNACES
14.6 Introduction
The two functions of a fuel-fired furnace are combustion of
the fuel and energy transfer from combustion products to stock.
The furnace may be so designed as to allow burning to be completed
before heat transfer begins; and the problem is then one of design-
ing a combustion chamber followed by a heat-transfer section. Al-
ternatively, the furnace may combine the operations of heat transfer
and combustion in a single chamber (possibly followed by a second-
ary heat-transfer section if the temperature of the sink is low
enough to justify it). The choice between the two extremes depends
on the following factors:
1. Size of operation. A small or low-fuel capacity system may
require delay of the heat transfer process to prevent excessive chill-
ing of the furnace gases before completion of the combustion reac-
tions; and the combustion chamber may then profitably be substanti-
ally sink-free.
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 451
. 2. Quality of fuel. The fuel may have such a low burning po-
tenbal _due to ~ow heating value or nonreactivity (blast-furnace gas,
peat, ?1gh-mo1s_ture coal, moist wood waste) that loss of E(nergy is
undesirable unbl the combustion process has been completed.
fer processes in a single chamber often makes the overall perform-
ance diffícult to predict with confidence; and there may be need for
careful control of the pattern of heat flux into the stock.
4. Total furnace cost. If the furnace is large and the firing
rate high there is no need to protect the burning gases against pre-
mature heat lasses. Moreover, the separation of combustion and
heat transfer into two chambers tends to raise the cost of the sys-
tem above that of an integrated operation. In oil refinery tube-still
and cracking-oil design, for example, the cheapest furnace is that
one with the highest practical heat transmission occurring in the
tube-lined combustion chamber.
It is clear from the above that more often than not furnaces
will be ?esigned to carry out the combustion and heat transfer proc-
esses s1multaneously rather than consecutively. Additional ques-
tions such as these arise: Should the combustion process be de-
sign~d to make the flame as luminous as possible? How is luminosity
p~ed1cted? Should combustion be completed quickly (as near as pos-
s1ble to the burner) orbe distributed throughout the gas-flow pas-
sage? Should t~e combustion chamber be compact, approaching a
cube or sphere m shape; or should it be long in the flow direction?
As might be expected, these questions cannot be answered
simply; in fact, some of them cannot be answered well. For exam-
ple, divergence of views on the question of luminosity and ignorance
of how to control it have stood as a clear indication of the need bet-
ter to understand the mechanism of energy transport by radiation in
furnaces. * Quantitative treatment of that energy transport will be
preceded by a brief qualitative summary of combustion-radiation
interaction; a comprehensive treatment would go far outside the
scope of the present work.
The luminosity of flames is due somewhat to large-particle
residues of the heavy fuel oil or coal particles entering as fuel, and
much more to soot formed from hydrocarbon decomposition (see
Sec. 6.10). The burning rate of gaseous or gassified fuel is limited
*Responsive to this need an International Committee on Flame Radiati.on was
set up in 1950-later the International Flame Foundation-to sponsor re-
search on flames in furnaces. With headquarters and chief research ac-
tivity at IJmuiden, Holland, it receives industry support through various
national committees, including the American Committee on Flame Research.

452 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
primarily by the rate of mixing of fuel and air; and any change in
operation or design which tends to increase the air-fuel mixing rate
tends to decrease the luminosity. Such changes include increasing
the momentum of either the air or the fuel stream to increase the
shear between the two and consequently their mixing rate; increas-
ing the momentum of both fuel and air when combustion is limited
by the rate of mixing of reactants with hot gaseous products to initi-
ate ignition; decreasing the burner size and increasing the number
of burners. Since these changes tend to shorten the flame and in-
crease the contribution of convective heat transfer to the total en-
ergy flux, it is clear that the different effects are in opposition; and
no unqualified statement that luminosity is or is not good can be
true. Even under conditions in which luminosity is clearly advanta-
geous, excessive luminosity can be harmful. Consider a chamber
throughout the volume of which soot is uniformly distributed, with
combustion progressing everywhere in the volume. Clearly the en-
ergy liberated in the chamber center must be radiated to the walls.
If the soot concentration is too low the rate of radiation of the core
is low; if the soot concentration is too high the walls are blanketed
from seeing the core of the flame.
Another factor of significance is the relation of flame temper-
ature to mixing. If perfect mixing of fuel and air (with attendant
completion of combustion) occurs rapidly near the burner port, the
temperature attained approaches its maximum value, the adiabatic
flame temperature. If delayed mixing is built into the burner sys-
tem, combustion proceeds while heat is being transferred and flame
radiation tends to be high because of luminosity and low because of
temperature; but the flux is more nearly equalized in different parts
of the furnace.
The above discussion may leave the reader with the feeling
that the prospects are very poor for setting up, for the combustion-
and-heat-transfer process occurring in a furnace, a mathematical
model that shows how performance responds to changes in design or
operating variables. He may feel that reliance must instead be
placed on generalizations coming out of well-controlled experiments
on full-scale or at least reasonably large scale performance. The
tripartite reply:
1. Some relatively simple predictive models have had good
success in application to those furnace design problems in which
prediction of the detailed flux density pattern over the surface of the
sink is of secondary importance relative to prediction of total en-
ergy transfer.
2. Allowance for simplified but reasonable patterns of flow
and of combustion progress in the furnace gases combined with al-
lowance for temperature gradients in the gas and for temperature
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 453
variation over those surfaces in radiative equilibrium (the refrac-
tory surfaces) permits performance predictions which are closer to
reality the better the assumptions as to flow and combustion. The
tedious calculations require machine computation, but the method
holds promise of predicting the effects of operating variables on
flux-density distribution over the heat-sink surfaces with sufficient
accuracy greatly to reduce the need for full-scale-experimental
~tu.dies. This stage in the advancement of furnace design methods
is m d~vel?pment_ (see Sec. 14.13), and is currently being used by at
least nme mdustrrnl groups to predict heat-flux distribution in proc-
essing furnaces.
3. For detailed accurate knowledge of how the flux distribution
on the walls of a furnace is affected by operating variables reliance
must for some time be put on experimental studies of the f~rnace
itself. As is the case for all good theory and good experiment, the
two c~mplement each other; and interaction between the approaches
descnbed under (2) and (3) above is to be encouraged.
The. sequence o~ quantitative presentation will be (a) the long
furnace with combushon atone end, (b) the well-stirred combustion
ch_am_ber, including empirical allowance for departures from perfect
shrrmg, (c) allowance for gas flow and temperature gradients in the
prediction of furnace performance.
14. 7 The Long Furnace
This furnace system is characterized by the three assumptions:
1. combustion occurs so rapidly compared to total gas resi-
dence time in the furnace that the gas temperature at the burner end
is the adiabatic flame temperature;
2. the furnace length in the direction of gas flow is so great
compared to its height or .width that net radiative flux in the gas-
flow direction (x directiori) may be ignored relative to flux normal
to it;
3. the gas at any flow cross section is characterized by a
single temperature.
From these assumptions it follows that the local flux density at the
sink at the downstream distance x is expressible in terms of local
gas and sink temperatures and the local configuration--the shape in
cross section and the disposition of sink and refractory surfaces.
Thus qg.=l = qg-=l (T g, Ti, P1 ), where P 1, the perimeter occupied by
sink surfaces, is a partial measure of the shape at x. Similarly,
the local external lasses to surroundings at To may be represented
454 RADIATIVE TRANSFER APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 455

=
by qg 0 qgo (T g, PR) where PR is the perimeter occupied by re- wher~ ~ci is the convective heat transfer coefficient, gas to refrac-
fractory surfaces from which there is an externa! loss. ln the length ~ory ms1de, and Uio is the overall coefficient from the refractory
dx the net energy flux from the gas dQ g,net is given by ms1de to the furnace surroundings at To[= 1/(L/k+ 1/hc+r, 0 )].

(14-20)
Example: The use of the long-furnace model will be illustrated
by an estimation of the performance of a galvanizing furnace with
where H is the hourly enthalpy of the combustion products (dH = submerged heating of a molten bath of zinc. Blue water gas is avail-
m Cp dT). Since H, qg;=-i and qg 0 all depend on Tg, Eq. (14-20) able as fuel; it contains 51.8% H 2, 43.4 CO, 3.5 C0 2, 1.3 N2 by vol-
may be integrated to find the length x, measured from the burner ume. Premix burners (see sketch, top of Fig. 14-5) fire a mixture
end, to cool the gases from Tg, in to T g of fuel gas plus 2% excess air
into the end of each submerged
tube, a 6-in. I.D. 0.4-in. wall
(14-21) thickness (15.2 cm; 1.0 cm)
steel pipe, at a firing rate of
1,000 cu ft of fuel gas (meas-
with which goes ured at 60° F, 30-in. Hg, dry)
per hour per tube (26.84 m3 /hr,
(14-22) s.t.p.). Each combustion tube
runs the full length of the mol-
To evaluate (14-21), qg.=i must be expressed in terms of T g. ten bath, 16 ft (4.88 m). (a) The ~
This has been discussed in Chap. 8 (Secs. 8.7, 8.8, 8.10, 8.11) where operating temperature of the 1

a number of models, of different levels of validity and complexity, steel must not exceed 1200° F t.oi---t----·--t----=~"'~~~~~~
were presented. ln application to the present problem the local (922º K); how may this be
cross section and local temperatures at x are assumed to apply to achieved? (b) With the furnace
points up- and downstream, and the view factor or exchange area is operated to keep the steel tem-
that of a two-dimensional system. If the total gas-sink exchange perature within limits, what GáB Gas
area (GSi)R is the two-dimensional value per unit length normal to thermal efficiency may be ex- inlet Gas temperature, º R outlet
3360R

the cross section, then Pi qg;="l is directly (GSi )R a (Tg'i - T 14 ). But pected of the furnace?
the evaluation of (GSi k depends on the model chosen. * qg .=l de- Fig. 14-5. Relation of MCp/q to
pends on the sink temperature Ti as well as Tg. Sometimes T 1 Additional data: average gas temperature, for a fired tube.
may be assumed known well enough to make the error in T 14 negli- convection coefficient, combus- Inset: Cross section, along tube
tion gases to tube inside = 3 .O axis, through the furnace.
gible compared to Ti; in any case an additional relation is available
to determine Ti -either one of stock enthalpy change if the furnace 2
Btu/ft ºF hr (14.6 Kcal/m2 ºC
is continuous, with stock flow parallel or counter to gas-flow; or hr); molten liquid film coefficient, 40 Btu/ft2 ºF hr (195Kcal/m2ºC
one of heat transfer if the furnace sink is thermally linked to the hr). Conductivity of steel at operating temperature = 22 Btu/ft2 ºF
stock (se e example below). The other term needed for integrating hr/ft (32.8Kcal/m 2 ºC hr/m). Steel is gray, emissivity = 0.8. Mol-
(14-21) is qg 0 PR> which can generally be expressed as proportional ten bath to be at 850º F (728º K). Net heat of combustion of H2 and
to T g - T 0. If the refractory surfaces are in radia tive equilibrium CO = 104,000 and 121,700 Btu/lb mole at 60º F(57.78and67.61Kcal/g
mole). Air enters at 60º F (15º C) 50% saturated; fuel is at 60º F,
Tg - T 0 saturated.
(14-23)
1 1 To control the steel temperature at the burner end there are
+-
hei Um several possibilities, not all consistent with the statement of the
problem. These include:
*To the question, "Why not choose the best model ?" the answer: the "best"
model is that one consistent with the numerical accuracy of the parameters 1. Firing at a lower rate to reduce the convection coefficient.
and with the time available to make the calculation. (GSi)R, for example, ln addition to its obvious disadvantages, this may not suffice.
may be made to include convection.
 456 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 457

2. Adjusting the excess air. Reducing the flame temperature 0.0371

by increasing the excess air will decrease the furnace thermal effi-
ciency, and may enhance steel oxidation as well. Ew = 0.0212Xl,11 0.0225
3. Reducing the diameter of the combustion tubes, thereby re- !:::.. E, overlap -0.0010
ducing the gas emissivity. Eg 0.0586
4. Delaying completion of air addition.
(This could have been obtained from Fig. 6-13.) Gas absorptivities,
5. Coating the inside of the tubes with ceramic of thickness from equations like (6-60), are:
varying with distance from burner.
6. Recycling some of the combustion products from the tube 3300)º
outlets to the burner discharge point to reduce the combustion = 0.056 ( - - .65 0.0876
1660
temperature.
The last method will be chosen, and the necessary recycle
ratio determined. 0.0547

The combustion products of 100 moles of fuel gas (dry basis)

are 287.4 moles, containing 19.3% H 2 0, 16.3% C0 2 , 0.3% 0 2, 64.1% !::..a, overlap -0.0020
1· N 2, and having an MCP of ll.24-4154/T+0.97Xl06/T2 (T= ºR).
1
The flux density, based on the inside tube area and expressed in 0.140
English units is, ata point where the inside tube wall surface tem-
perature is T s, (This value is numerically of low importance in this problem). In-
cluding convection, the total flux density to the wall is
Ts - (850 + 460) Ts - 1310
q=--------- (14-24) q = 3(3300 -1660)
1 0.4/12 0.0234
40(6.8/6) + 22(6.4/6)
+ º· 82+ 1 0.1713xlo-s (0.0586x3300 4 - 0.140xl660 4 )
At the hot end where the maximum permissible Ts = 1200 + 460º R,
the permissible q, from (14-24), is 14, 950 Btu/ft2 hr (40, 550 Kcal/
4920 + 8180 = 13,100 Btu/ft 2 hr
m 2 hr). This must equal the sum of convection and radiation from
products at Tg,max . The average mean beam length Lm (Table 7-3)
(assumed T g too low). A second trial plus interpolation gives
is 0.9 times the tube diameter, or 0.45 ft (0.137 m); PcLrn, P;.,m =
0.073, 0.087 ft atm (0.022, 0.026 m atm). The approximation Eq. Tg,max = 3360º R. Since this is much lower than the adiabatic flame
(8-4) is adequate:* temperature, recirculation is necessary for tube-wall protection.
Let the mass ratio of returned stack gases to air-plus-fuel at the
burner (the recirculation ratio) be g. The molal feed rate of fuel
gas per tube (dry basis) is 1000(492/520)(30/29.92)/359 = 2.64 lb
moles/hr; the hourly molal gas flow per tube is then

As a first approximation try Tg,rnax = 3300° R. From Figs. 6-8, 2.64 X 2.874(1 + g) or 7.59(l+g)
6-10, 6-9, and 6-11:
With q designating the total thermal flux density at position x, the
equating of heat transfer to enthalpy change gives
*The gray-plus-clear-gas model would give somewhat better results because
of multiple reflection at the walls of a chamber of such small characteristic -0.57Tqdx = 7.59(1+g)MCP dTg
dimension; but the effect is small and the added labor probably unwarranted
in view of the approximate nature of the surface emissivity 0.8. Integration gives the total tube length X
 APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 459
458 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

instead of the desired 16 ft. Another trial plus interpolation gives a

Ig2
recirculation ratio of O. 764 anda gas-outlet temperature of 1840º R
X = 4.83(1 + g) 13360 (14-25)
(749º C). The thermal efficiency of the furnace follows readily; with
lasses ignored it is
where Tg 2 is the tube-outlet temperature. A second equation_ ex-
pressing the equality of the sum of the enthalpies of the ent~rmg fuel 100 [1 - 7.59(1840-520)8.28] = 70 5o/c
281 600 . o
and recirculated flue-gas to the enthalpy of the resultant m1xture at '
3360º R gives, with 520º R taken as a base temperature,
Table 14-1
Ig2

(104 ' OOOx0.518 + 121 ' 700X0.434)2.64 + 7.59g 520 1 MCµ dTg q and M CP vs T g, for Galvanizing Furnace Problem

Ts,
First q,
6 from q
336 º (11.24 - 4154 0.97X 10 ) Tg, ºR Eg Guess Cl'gs Btu/ft2 MCp (MCµ/q) X 103
= 7.59(g+ 1)
1520
-T +
T
2 dT Ts, ºR hr
[Eq.
(15-23)]
6 3360 - 1660 - 14,950 1660 10.09 0.675
ln (3360/520) 0.97X10 )
7 .59(g + 1)(3360 - 520) ( 11.24 - 4154 3360 _ 520 + 3360 X 520 3000 0.0706 1590 0.143 11,642 1582 9.96 0.856
2500 0.0936 1490 0.147 7,547 1487 9. 73 1.290
or
2000 0.1206 1400 0.148 3,900 1401 9.41 2.414
Í
T g2
281, 600 + 7. 59g M Cp dTg = 195, 500(g + 1)
520
or It is to be noted that Fig. 14-5 is applicable for calculation of
the performance of furnaces of any length, firing rate and recircula-
281,600 - 195,500 (14-26) tion ratio provided the fuel composition, excess air, and tube diam-
g
195,500 - 7.59(Tg2 - 520)MCp,av eter are unchanged; and provided the effect of changing gas flow on
the gas convection coefficient is ignored.
wh ere ·Me p, av i' s the mean molal heat capacity given by
14.8 The Well-Stirred Combustion Chamber [10, 13]
6 ln (T g2 /To )
MCµ,av = 11.24 + O.~g72xT~O -4154 (Tg2 -To) [To ::520)
Radiative transfer in this model of furnaces was the subject of
the whole of Chap. 8, where it was pointed out that many industrial
Since the furnace length X is known, (14-26) and (14-25)-the furnaces operate with sufficient momentum in the entering air
latter after graphical integration-constitute two equations in g and and/or fuel to assure a reasonably well-stirred combustion cham-
Tg . To integrate (14-25), q and Me;, are evaluated at several ber, and to justify the assignment of single values to the composi-
2
T 's (three or four generally suffice for errar < 5%). Each calcu- tion and temperature of the radiating gases in the chamber. The
lation of q, however, is trial and errar becau_se q depends on Ts performance of a still simpler model will be presented first-the
as well as Tg, and Eq. (14-24) must b~ satisfle_d. Table 14-1 shows well-stirred speckled furnace model referred to in the introduction
the results of such calculations, and F1g. 14-5 is a plot of M CPjq to Chap. 8-because it serves to classify furnaces and to illustrate
vs Tg. As a first trial, take T g2 = 2000 R. From (14-26), g -
0
many of the effects of their major design and operating variables.
0.850. Integration under the curve of Fig. 1~-5 from 3360 to 2000 The model makes use initially of the following assumptions, some of
gives an area of 1.667, from which (14-25) g1ves which will later be relaxed:
X= 4.83x1.85x1.667 = 14.9 ft
460 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
1. The gas rnass and flarne in the furnace charnber can be as-
signed a single rnean ternperature T g;
2. the gas is gray;
3. the surface of the heat sink, of area A 1 , is gray and can be
assigned a single temperature Ti;
4. external losses through the furnace walls are negligible,
and internal convection to refractory walls of area Ar is negligible;
5. the disposition of sink and refractory surfaces is such that
frorn any point on the walls the view-factor to sink surfaces is_ the
sarne as frorn any other point; this is possible only when the srnk
and refractory surfaces are intirnately rnixed-the walls are
speckled;
6. the charnber gases leave the cornbustion charnber for the
convection section (if any) at a temperature A degrees below the Tg
which characterizes heat transfer. The apparent clairvoyance needed
in choosing A deserves attention, and will receive it later;
7. convection frorn the gases to the sink is negligible (later
relaxed).
It has been shown [Eq. (8-23) and Refs. 10, 11] that assumptions
1 to 4 and 7 lead to the relation for net flux frorn gas to heat sink
(14-27)
with
AT
1 1
- + - 1
Eg CsEi
where C is the cold or sink fraction of the total surface envelope
of area ÀT; i.e., Ai = Cs AT; Ar = (1- C s) AT· EqUation (14-27) is
to be cornbined with an energy balance. Let HF represent the en-
thalpy in the feed strearn (air and fuel) entering the charnber per
hour, rneasured above a base ternperature T 0 • From assumptions
(4) and (6) and an energy balance
HF - Qg ""'"i Tg - A - T 0
(14-28)
HF TAF - To
This is both an energy balance and a definition of T AF, which is that
adiabatic flarne ternperature (HF /m CP) obtained by ignoring dissoci-
ation and by using, over the interval T 0 to T AF , the sarne rnean
heat capacity of the gases as is applicable over the interval T0 to
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 461
the outlet gas ternperature (Tg - A). Elirnination of Tg between
(14-27) and (14-28) and the dropping of subscripts on Q yields
Q 4
+ T 14 = TAF4 [ 1 + - A - Q(TAF -To)] (14-29)
a(GSih TAF HF TAF
Let the following dimensionless groups be defined:
Q' = reduced furnace efficiency, the actual efficiency Q/HF
times the temperature ratio (TAF - T 0 )/TAF;
HF
D' reduced firing density, *
a(GSi)R T,J. (TAF - T 0 )
the ratio of energy input to a kind of radiating ability;
T = ratio of sink temperature Ti to pseudoadiabatic flarne
temperature TAF ; and
A' A/TAF , the ratio of gas temperature drop, frorn radiat-
ing point to chamber outlet, to the flame temperature.
(Q' and D' simplify if the base temperature T0 is absolute zero).
Expression of Eq. (14-29) in terms of the new groups gives
Q'D' + T4 = (l+A'-Q')4
(14 .. 30)
The efficiency of the charnber is seen to be a function of the firing
density, the heat-sink ternperature and the gas temperature drop A-
at this point the one arbitrary quantity; and the firing density term
makes due allowance for such operating variables as fuel type or
excess air or air preheat which affect flame temperature and gas
emissivity, for f.ractional occupancy of the walls by sink surfaces,
and for wall emissivity.
If the furnace gas is well-stirred the radiating gas tempera-
ture and the gas exit temperature approach one another and in the
limit, A' drops out of Eq. (14-30) to give t '
4
Q'D' + T = (1-Q')4 (14-31)
*Firing density to the furnace engineer is fuel feed rate per unit area of heat-
transfer surface. Since HF is proportional to feed rate and GS has the di-
mensions of area, D' includes and generalizes a long known factor of im-
portance in furnace design.
t~quation (14-31) may be made to include (14-30) by redefining all terms.
Q' and Tare füvided by 1+11', D' by (1+11 1 ) 3 • But inclusion of 11' in only
one term, as in (14-30), is preferable.

462 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
The resulting idealized furnace may be called the well-stirred
speckled-walled gray-gas combustion chamber; its characteristics
are shown in Fig. 14-6, which gives Q' vs D' for different T's, on
logarithmic coordinates. A number of characteristics of interest
appear:
1. As the firing rate goes down (D' decreases) the efficiency
rises and approaches 1 - T in the limit.
2. Changes in sink temperature have relatively little effect on
furnace efficiency if the sink temperature is low compared to the
adiabatic flame temperature (T < 0.3).
3. As the furnace chamber wall approaches being completely
covered by a black sink, i.e., as Cs Ei approaches 1, the effect of
flame emissivity on D' becomes on.e of inver se proportionality. At
extremely high firing rates where Q' becomes inversely propor-
tional to D', this calls for efficiency of heat transfer varying di-
rectly as Eg; but at low firing rates the effect of Eg is much less.
4. When the furnace wall is covered to a considerable extent
by refractory surfaces and/ or the sink is not black (C s Ei << 1), the
effect of changing flame emissivity is to produce a much less than
proportional effect on heat transfer. When, for example, .T is 0.6,
Ei = 0.8, Cs = 0.4, Eg = 0.3, and the chamber efficiency Q' is 0.25,
a doubling of flame emissivity from.0.3 to 0.6 increases the heat
transfer only 11 percent, changing Q' from 25 to 27 .8 percent.
~Rad, section, oil tube stills, cr. coils
~Domestic boiler cornbustion chambers
~Open-hearth
~Soaking pits
fumaces
10 Gas turbine combustors-off scale, far right
0.04 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.01 0.02
Reduced firing density, D'
Fig. 14-6. The thermal performance of well-stirred furnace chambers.
Reduced efficiency as a function of reduced firing density D' and reduced
sink temperature T.
Q
., Q
= HF D' = and, from Sec. 6.11 and Eqs. (6-66) ~d (6-77), GSi may be expected
(GSi)R = (l/<'g) + (1/Cs<'i) - 1
T = Ti/TAF
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 463
. The full r~nge of operating variables covered by the well-
shrred combust10n chamber equation makes Fig. 14-6 attractive for
use in _thermal classification of furnaces. Approximate ranges of
operahon of the combustion chambers or radiant sections of oil re-
finery cracking c~ils and tube stills, domestic boilers, open-hearth
furnaces and soakmg pits have been indicated by shaded areas which
indicate graphically whether a furnace type is in the range where a
change. in des.ign or operating variables Cs, Eg, T AF, firing rate, ex-
cess a1r or air preheat will have a major or minor effect on cham-
ber performance. Even when furnace conditions fail to justify ac-
ceptance of all the assumptions underlying Fig. 14-6 and the absolute
magnitude of predicted efficiency is known to be in error the effect
of a considered change may be estimated semiquantitativ~ly.
14.9 Effect of Departure from Perfect Stirring in
the Well-Stirred Chamber
The existence of a departure from the perfect stirring that
makes gas heat-transfer temperature and gas-exit temperature dif-
ferent has been recognized by inclusion of the temperature difference
 in Eq. (14-29) [or 1::1/TAF = Â' in (14-30) ]. If allowance is to be
~ade. for imperfect stirring, however, other departures from the
ideahzed furnace must also be included. Convection must be in-
cluded, and Eq. (14-27) is therefore replaced by
Qg"="l = (GSi)R a(Tg4 - Ti 4) + Aihi (Tg - Ti) (14-32)
s.ince ~adia.tion is dominant the convection term can profitably be
lmeanzed m Ll.T 4 by replacing it bya(T 4 -T 4)Ai (h /4aT3 ) in
wh'ic h T gi is
· a mean temperature adequately
g i represented
i gi
by 'the
arithmetic mean of Tg and Ti. The term h /4aT 3 being the
quantity by which a(Tg4 - Ti 4) is multiplied t~ obtaI~ 'convective flux
density,. may be thought of as a sort of pseudo-emissivity due to
convechon Eg, e • (This is in inver se analogy to the convention of
adding a first-power radiation coefficient hr to the convection co-
efficient in systems in which heat transfer is responsive substanti-
ally to a first-power temperature difference.) Eq. (14-32) becomes
~]
Qg""'i = [(GSi)R +Ai a(Tg4 - Ti4 ) (14-32a)
4aTgi
The other modification necessary t.2._(14-32) is to replace the gray-
gas-El_ode 1 ~Y a r~l-gas model. (GS i ~ a (T g4 - Ti 4 ) should really
be (?Si)R ~g - (G~i)R Ti4 (see,~.g., Sec. 8.llb). ln the range of op-
erahon of mdustnal furnaces GSi is found to vary almost exactly
inversely with gas temperature (see e.g., Sec. 6~ and Fig. 6-14);
~vary the Eme way with Ti that GSi varies with T g; i.e.,
GSi XTg = GSi xTi. Then, by substitution of the above,
464 RADIATIVE TRANSFER APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 465

of 62,500 to 10 6 Btu/ft 3 hr (0.556 to 8.9x10 6 Kcal/m 3 hr)were stud-

ied-three rates on each of four furnaces (2 and 4 diameters long,
and 4 feet diameter), and at each of two sink temperatures, corre-
sponding to T = 0.33 and 0.57. The calculations were extensive, in-
~
3
4 4 (1-k ) volving many solutions of 10 simultaneous equations, each represen-
(GSi)R (Tg - Ti ) l _ k4
tative of the performance of one of the interacting zones of the
furnace (see Sec. 14 .12). The results bearing on the present discus-
where k represents Ti /Tg. With this additional modification Eq. sion, when plotted as reduced efficiency vs reduced firing density,
(14-32) becomes gave a single smooth curve for each of the two T's, even though each
T corresponded to data on four different furnaces each at 3 firing
rates. The twelve data points corresponding to T = 0.33 appear as
triangles on the top line of Fig. 14-7. The ability of two groups, the
revised D' and T, to correlate data for a flow pattern differing so
markedly from that of the perfectly stirred reactor (heavy line of
= (GSi
-
)R, e a (Tg4 - Ti 4) (14-32b) Fig. 14-7) is encouraging.
in which the bracketed term is defined as (GSi)R,c, the radiative 1.0
---:;:;Limit D' ~ O ~ Plug flo'Y, ,n~ ~~,if-1 T. grftdiei,its 1
exchange area term in a form allowing for refractory su~f~~es, for
the real-gas effect, and for gas convection. The new defm1hon of
.... .-o

-~
X
~· "
/

E=:::::::-"'X::- ~
17Plug flow, radial T. gradients
I/ Parabolif flo;.v
--
reduced firing density D' in (14-30) is x~r-;-....
~ ~ ,.._ ~ ;::::- i-..
l/~Well-stirred furnace
r--. :;;;:: r--i:::: t:
t-s.
L/"-XY: "V':: ;>-.:: >:
J..- X t--r--..._
f - - - - - ~·· -Ct = 0.033
V/ ,,,..t- 1--r-~
1 11
Ct=0.18
1
t1 b< ~ ~
v'/
b,..

v ·-......~

f
!'...
c!t,; o'.s 1
1

1'x . ~

~ ~:~
Furnace with '' x, "
recircu~ati~n, ~~f !'...
' ')

0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0

With this redefinition, Eq. (14-30) is ready for use in differen-
tiating various furnace flow patterns. The perfectly stirred and the
plug-flow furnace might be expected to represent the extremes of
furnace performance, but they do not. Use will be made of the cal-
culations of Takeuchi and of Sarofim on cylindrical furnaces.
Takeuc.hi [22, 14] calculated the expected performance o~ an
end-fed cylindrical chamber two (and four) diameters long, w1th gas
moving in plug flow from firing end to exit. Allowance was mad~
for the variation in gas temperature along the flow path, but radial
gas temperature gradients and flame luminosity were ignored. The
furnace ends were refractory in radiative equilibrium; the walls
'
were sinks held at 1000 and 2000º F (811 and 1367 o K). The fuel was
(CH 2 )n, burning with stoichiometric air and assumed to complete
its combustion in the first half-diameter of furnace length. The
combustion products were treated as real rather than gray gas (the
four-term formulation shown graph!s_ally in F~ 6-26, with results
found to fit the empirical relation (GSi)Tg = (GSi)Ti = constant);
and gas convection to ends and sidewalls was included. Firing rates
Reduced heat input, D'
Fig. 14-7. Comparíson of performance of plug-flow and recírculatory-flow
furnaces wíth that of the "well-stírred" chamber. Q',T as ín Fig. 14-6.
T = 0.26 to 0.35 as D' _, O, T _, 0.26
HF
D' =
Sarofim 's calculations [21, 16] were even more extensive, on
cylindrical end-fired furnaces of three diameters, with a length-
diameter ratio of 8/3. Table 14-2 summarizes the design and opera-
tional variables studied. The unique feature of these calculations
was the allowance, by methods described later (Sec. 14.13) for dif-
ferent flow patterns which produced quite different temperature
fields in the furnace. There were five patterns: plug flow (with al-
lowance for radial temperature gradients); a parabolic self-
perpetuating velocity profile; and three patterns approximating
 466 RADIATIVE TRANSFER APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 467

Table 14-2 is a full measure of Q' even though the components of D' -firing
Summary of Design and Operational Variables rate, absolute furnace size, length-diameter ratio of the furnace-
are separately varied.
Length to diameter ratio 8/3 Comparison of the six different flow patterns with the
1, 4, 16 ft (0.305, 1.22, 4.88 m) perfectly-stirred furnace permits the following conclusions:
Diameter
Sink area entire circumference of walls 1. The highest performance is achieved with plug flow together
0.8 with enough transverse stirring to wipe out radial temperature
Emissivity of sink gradients.
Refractory area both ends
2. Plug flow without transverse stirring is next highest, anda
Emissivity of refractory 0.5 parabolic profile next.
Sink temperature 1460º R (811 º K) 3. The perfectly-stirred furnace has a higher performance
19, 150 Btu/lb (10, 640 Kcal/Kg) than one with a ducted-jet flow pattern; but the latter approaches the
Heating value of fuel, (CH 2 )x former, as expected, as the recirculation ratio increases (Ct de-
Excess air 15% creases toward zero). The reason for the relatively poor perform-
1460º R (811 º K) ance of the axial jet furnace is that the high-temperature flame zone
Air preheat is of relatively small volume and is surrounded by much cooler
Firing rates 9,850, 39,400, 157,600 Btu/hr combustion products or, at high Ct, by air undergoing delayed induc -
ft2 of sink area.* (27, 700, tion into the flame. Since in the calculations the gas composition
107,000, 428,000 Kcal/hr m 2.) was assumed everywhere to be that of the stack gases, the cooler
Ct = 0.51, 0.18, 0.033; plug- envelope of the flame absorbed an abnormally high fraction of radia-
Flow and combustion patterns tion emitted from near the jet axis. This effect probably makes the
flow and parabolic velocity
profiles with rapid combustion. bottom curve of Fig. 14-7 somewhat too low.

The question as to which flow model is most probable is dif-

*These values are fuel-and-air enthalpy above a base of 520º R; they will
hereafter be referred to as 1, 4, and 16 x 10 4 Btu/hr ft 2 •
those formed by a turbulent jet axially fired into a uniform air
stream. The flow patterns of a ducted-jet system have been shown
[4] to depend on a dimensionless parameter known as the Craya-
Curtet number (Ct), in turn dependent on the mass and momen-
tum ratios of the jet flow to the induced flow (see Sec. 14.13, and
Appendix). Ct's near zero correspond to high-momentum jets and
high ratios of recirculation to total net flow; recirculation stops
when Ct exceeds O. 74. The three ducted-jet flow patterns studied
here correspond to Craya-Curtet numbers of 0.5'1, 0.18 and 0.033,
or to recirculatory flow rates 0.075, 1.44, and 10.91 times the flue-
gas flow rate (the last unrealistically high for industrial furnaces).
The gas temperature fields and the heat-flux distribution patterns
along the walls are discussed in. Sec. 14.13; of interest here i~
whether the furnace efficiency Q' is a unique function of T, D , and
flow pattern. The results for the five flow conditions are plotted in
Fig. 14-7 for comparison with those from Takeuchi's furnaces and
with those representing the perfectly-stirred chamber. Smooth
curves through the data indicate that for a fixed T and flow type, D
ficult to answer. Vertical furnaces with axial feed of fuel and air
probably follow closely the ducted-jet model, with recirculation in-
creased by up-firing and decreased by down-firing. Long horizontal
furnaces with central end-firing will operate with off-axis jets due
either to purposely inclined burners to produce hearth impingement
or to buoyancy forces which turn the flame upward; and whether this
will increase or decrease the radiative flux to the sink depends on
whether the sink is on the hearth or under the roof. Many furnaces
with vertical and horizontal dimensions comparable and with multi-
ple burners that guarantee good mixing will probably act more like
the plu~-flow no-radial-gradient model than any of the others, at
least w1th respect to total thermal efficiency.
Let the difference between the top plug-flow curve and the
perfectly-stirred furnace curve be used to find how Li', the normal-
ized excess of breeching temperature over radiation temperature of
the gases, varies with Q'. The simple empirical relation Li' = Q '/4
is found to m?-~e .Eq. (14-30) fit the top curve within one percent of
, the value of Q , mdependently of whether the furnace is long or short
or operating with a normalized sink temperature of 0.33 or 0.57
(only the fo~mer is shown in Fig. 14-7). This finding is consistent

1;'
1'
 APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 469
468 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

with a rule of thumb approximation that one of us has used for many
years on boiler furnaces and tube stills-the approximation of as-
suming the radiation gas temperature and the leaving-gas tempera-
ture to differ by 200 to 300° F (111 to 167~ C). When TAF = 3500º R
(1940º K) and Q' = 0.4, the relation D.'= Q'/4 calls for agastem-
perature difference D. of 3 50 º F (194 º C).
An early equation recommended for use in estimating the per-
formance of the radiant sections of oil-refinery tube-stills and
cracking coils was one equivalent to (14-27) except that it included
convection to sink area* A~ and to refractory area Ari and there-
fore had the form

14.10 Application of the Well-Stirred Chamber Model

As an example of how the simple model described by Eq.

(14-30) can be used to correlate furnace data, data were taken from
the literature [24, 13] on a tube-still radiant section of total envelope
area AT = 2870 ft 2 (360 m 2 ) operating with excess air varying from
33 to 119 percent, with a firing rate of 47 to 65x10 6 Btu/h (11.8 ~o
16.4 X 106 Kcal/h) and a mean tube surface temperature of 1360 R.
Although (GS 1 h undoubtedly varied considerably with gas tempera-
ture and excess air a mean value of 691 ft2 (64.2 m2) was calculated.
'
Further, although T varied from 0.34 to 0.47, Q' is insensitive to its
. (14-33)
variation in the present range, anda mean value of 0.4 was used.
The relation D.' = Q'/4 was appropriated from the above plug-flow
correlation and put into (14-30) written in the form
to give, after the other substitutions
HF = 0.23 [1 - (3/4)Q']4 - (0.4)4
D=
aT,& (TAF - T 0 ) AT
Figure 14-8 shows the ten performance points plotted as Q' vs the
partially reduced firing density D, together with the function given
above. The curve fits with an average error of 3.8 percent. The
correlation would possibly be improved by allowing for the variation
in (GSih· ln its crude form, however, it indicates how useful the
model represented by Eq. (14-30) can be for estimating the perform-
ance of furnace chambers.
Because the convection terms were generally unimportant compared
to radiation, it was suggested [9] that the bracket be assigned a con-
stant value of 10 Btu/ft 2 hr ºF (48.8 Kcal/m2 hrºC). The relation
then became
Lobo and Evans [18] used this relation (with furnace-setting loss
subtracted to convert enthalpy decrease of the gasto energy gain of
the oil in the tubes) together with an energy balance equivalent to
Eq. (14-28) (with D. assumed O) to correlate data on some 12 differ-
ent cracking-coil furnaces. They used the equivalent of a (GSi~
consistent with the above, except for the recommendation of a sim-
plified procedure for obtaining the view factor Fr i. Based on anal-
yses of the 12 geometrical furnace-wall arrangements studied, they
recommended that when Cs :s 1/3, F r1 = Cs /(1- Cs ); when
1/3 :s Cs :s 1/2, Fri = 1/2; when 1/2 :s C 8 , Fri = C 8 • (Clearly,
the sink and refractory surfaces bounding a chamber can be ar-
Q'
ranged to make this generalization inapplicable.) The average error
in correlating tests on 12 furnaces was stated to be 2%, the maxi-
mum error 5%. Evidence has since accumulated, however, indicat-
ing that the proposed relation is not always that reliable.
Equations (14-33) and (14-28) may be combined to establish a
relation among efficiency Q/HF, HF /(GS i)R, Ti, D. and HF /m CP the
latter equivalent to T AF - T 0. With D. assumed O and Ti assumed
constant at 900° F (754 º K), it may be shown that the relation among
the remaining variables is approximated empirically by

~~~:!~ílm1llilfil)·
o~
Fig. 14-8. Comparison of data on
the radiant section of a tube still
.g .~ 0.40 . with predictions based on Eq.
"'"iE 0.35
P:i (14-30). Reduced efficiency vs *The sink area A 1 for radiation exceeds the sink area A~ for convection by
partly reduced firing density. the area of the outlet flow cross section which the hot radiating gases see
"' 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 o.i5 0.2 and through which they pass as they leave the combustion chamber. (See
Partially reduced firing density, D Sec. 8.12.)
470 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
1 (14-34)
This relation best approximates the original pair of equations when
a and b are 2.26 and 1.43 [9]. However, when furnace data a_re used
to determine a and b by assuming (GS1 )R constant and plottmg .
[(HF/Q) _ 1]/[HF/(GSi)R]l/2 vs H/100 mCp on log paper, and puttmg
a straight line through the data, a smaller value of a and larger
value of b generally produce a better fit of the data. The Lobo and
Evans correlation or the one on which Fig. 14-8 is b_as~d s~ou.ld .
be more reliable. The chief interest in Eq. (14-34) is üs s1mllant~
in form to an old furnace equation based on a Pelt~n~wheel analogy.
The Orrok-Hudson equation [20] giving furnace eff1ciency was
Q 1
HF (Fraction of Theoretical Air) 0 Firing Density
1+ Constant
The firing density, pounds of equivalent_ coal per hour per ~q ft of
heat-transfer surface, is the crude eqmvalent of the term I? (1~-34),
H/(GSi)R; and the fraction of theo~etical air is a term varymg m the
sarne general way as 1/(H/m C p) .
14.11 More Nearly Rigorous Treatment of Furnace
Chamber Performance-Zoning [12,13,15,16]
If complete quantitative statements could be ~ade about the
mechanism and rate of combustion of the fuel entermg the furnac_e,
the rate of formation and subsequent burnout of_ soot, t.he mec~amsm
and rate of mixing, the balance of forces assocrnted wüh gas m mo-
tion and the radiating characteristics of all the components pr~sent,
then an analytical approach could lead in principle to a determma-
tion of the complete patterns of flow, temperature an~ surface ~eat
reception within the furnace chamber: The int~rmed1~te stage. m
the solution would consist of a set of mtegro-d1fferenhal equahons
with complicated boundary conditions. But justas the gross approx-
imation of assigning a uniform temperature to the gas has. le~ to an
often acceptably good estimate of total heat transfer, so w11l ü be
found possible to stop short of a completely rigorous treatment and
still succeed in predicting variations in gas temperature through the
volume and flux density over the surface of a furnace chamber. The
system is first divided into a number of gas and surface zones (Sec.
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 471
11.2b). ln principle there are five unknown quantities associated
with each gas zone: the temperature, the gas composition (fraction
burned), and three components of velocity. In principle, five equa-
tions may be written about the zone: an energy balance, in which
the interchange of energy between the zone and all others, by all
mechanísms, is equated to the rate of energy generation in the zone;
a continuity equation, in which the net rate of outflow of combustion
products is equated to the burning rate; and three force balances,
one for each direction. For each surface zone there is one unknown,
either the temperature or the energy flux; and an energy balance
may be written for the zone. The resulting formidable set of simul-
taneous equations, five for each gas zone and one for each surface
zone, have never been set up for a system.
If the following assumptíons are accepted, then only one equa-
tion (an energy balance) need be written for each zone:
1. The flow pattern is known. The general structure of flow
consequent on the discharge into a chamber of a jet of known mass
rate and known rate of momentum is rapidly becoming known for a
variety of chamber shapes. The success of cold modeling of jet flames
[ 7, 9a, 2 3, 3] is an indication that the assumption that the flow pattern
under burning conditions is similar to cold flow is a reasonably good
assumption. As more is learned about flow patterns in jet-driven
systems, the defects of this part of the input to the calculations can
be corrected.
2. The composition of the gas in the chamber is everywhere
the same--that of the completely burned leaving gases. This as-
sumption is not necessary, but it greatly simplifies the calculations.
For a method of approximate allowance for composition variation,
see Sec. 11.3a.
3. The combustion pattern is known. ln jet flames most of the
combustion is completed within a fairly small fraction of the total
chamber volume, generally located along the jet axis. It is true that
changes in burner design can change the combustion pattern, and it
is one of the objectives of the calculations being described to show
what influence the burning pattern will have on the distribution of
flux over the sink surfaces.
With these assumptions the sequence of steps described in
Sec. 11.4 is followed, leading finally to a set of simultaneous non-
linear equations the solution of which gives the zone temperatures.
lnsertion of these temperatures into Eq. (11-17) gives the flux at
each sink surface.
The method will first be illustrated by a simple example. The
results of its application to a more realistic example will then be
presented.
472 RADIATIVE TRANSFER APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 473

14.12 Example of Application of the Zone Method
To illustrate principles without bogging down in excessive
routine calculations, a naively simple furnace will be examined, a
10x10 x 20 ft (3.05 x 3.05 x 6.1 m) rectangular parallelepiped with
burners in one refractory end
(Fig. 14-9) a heat sink con-
sisting of 4-in. diameter tubes
on 8-in. centers lining the
first half of the four sidewalls,
refractory surface s forming
the second half, and combus-
tion gases leaving the end
through a nest of tubes on the
end opposite the burners.
(CH 2 )x [net heat of combus-
tion 271,000 Btu/lb mole
(150,500 cal/kg mole)] will be
Zone 2d burned as fuel, with 20% ex-
Vertical cross section cess air, at a firing rate of
25,000 Btu per ft2 of furnace
Fig. 14-9. Box furnace used envelope per hour (67 ,900 K-
to demonstrate zone method. cal/m2 hr) or a total hourly
firing rate of 25 x 106 Btu/hr
(6.30X 10 6 Kcal/hr). Fluid in
the tubes forming the 2 sink areas keeps the tube gas-side surfaces
at 1200º F (1660º R, 922º K). The gas convection coefficient h at
the refractory surfaces and at the sidewall tubes (and based on their
peripheral area) is 2 Btu/ft2 ºF hr (4.88 cal/m 2 ºC hr). The tube
metal and the refractory surfaces will be assumed gray, of emis-
sivity 0.8 and 0.5. From the above statements, the combustion
products containing 11.03% each of C0 2 and H20, 3.3% 02, 74.6% N2
flow at the rate of 836 lb moles/hr (379 Kg moles/hr). Their mean
molal heat capacity between T and 60º F (15º C) is adequately rep-
resented by 7.63 + 0.00041 Ta (ºR) over the range of interest in Ta
in this problem. The heat flux density at the sidewalls and at the
curtain tubes at the outlet and the leaving-gas temperature are to be
obtained. The coarsest zoning consistent with demonstrating the
zoning principle (and too coarse to give very realistic results) is to
divide the system into four wall zones-end zone 1, sink wall zone 2
(consisting of square faces a, b, c, d in circumferential sequence),
refractory zone 3 (a, b, c, d) and end zone 4-plus two cubical gas
zones 5 and 6.
The first step is to construct a mixed-gray-gas description of
gas radiation, from the combined C0 2 -H 20 chart, Fig. 6-12. The
mean beam length for the whole enclosure is O. 884 V/A = O. 88 x 4
x10Xl0x20/1000 = 6.9 feet (2.1 m). A gas temperature n in the
middle of the range of interest will be chosen, 2660º R (1480º K).
From Fig. 6-12, the L-Eg relation for Pco 2 + PH 2 o = 0.1103 x2 at
2660° R in the L range of interest is given in Table 14-3.
Table 14-3
L vs Eg at 266üºR, with Pc = Pw = 0.1103 atm
L, ft 1 2 4 8 16
Eg 0.097 0.13 0.172 0.24 0.325
If these results are fitted to the two-gray-plus-one-clear gas
model
Eg = ag,1 (1 - e-KiL) + ag,2 (1 - e-KzL) (14-35)
by the method described in Sec. 6.11, it is found that
ag,l = 0.0818 ªg,2 = 0.339 K 1 = 2.37 n- 1 K 2 = 0.0794 n- 1
Let the variation of Eg with T g be attributed exclusively to the
variation of the coefficients ag, and use L's of 6.9 ft and 2X6.9 ft
[(Pco 2 + PH2 o) L = 1.525 and 3.05 ft atm] for determining a's at
other temperatures than 2660º R. From Fig. 6-12 at 2500º R, for
example, Eg at 6.9 ft and 13.8 ft = 0.242 and 0.327. Then from
(14-35)
0.242 ,::i_, 1 (1 _ e-2.37x6.9) +a g,2 (1_e-0.079x6.9)
0.327 ag,l (1 - e-2.37xl3.8) + ag, 2 (1 _ e-0.079xl3.8)
Solution gives ag, 1 = 0.094, ag, 2 = 0.350. The results of similar
calculations appear as the two solid curves of Fig. 14-10 ' a g, 1 and
ag, 2 vs T g· Values of as are also needed, representing a in are-
lationship like (14-35) giving gas absorptivity O' gs dueto radiation
from a so~rce at Ts. At Ts = Tg, as= ªg· At Ts = 1460° R and
Tg = 2660 R, O'gs at L = 6.9 and 13.8 ft is 0.39 and 0.504; and the
fitting of (14-35) to these values yields as,l = 0.192, as, 2 = 0.47. The
dotted lines of Fig. 14-10 go through these values and those at
2660° R, and support the conclusion of Sec. 6.11 that ag and as may
with little error be represented by a single function. (The magni-
tude of as is numerically much less important than ag.) Figure
14-10 is, for the purpose of solving problems like the present one, a
complete description of the radiating and absorbing characteristics
of the gases from CH 2 + 20% excess air over a limited range of Ts
and L. Tbe more terms used in (14-35), the wider the range of
validity.
474 RADIATIVE TRANSFER APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 475

The next step is to obtain a set of

From these subzone exchange areas the following zone ex-
values of ss, gs, and gg, one for each change areas are synthesized:
of the two absorption coefficients K of
(14-35). Consider first K 2 (= 0.0794 12 4 (1 to 2a) = 53.6
n- 1 ) and let the characteristic dimen-
sion B for evaluating cartesian- 13 4(1to3a)= 3.9
coordinate interchange areas be 10 ft-- 22 4 [2(2a to 2b) + (2a to 2c)] = 139.2
Ki=2.37 ft-L the side of the squares and cubes form-
{7 .7 ~:~!
1

i
ing the furnace zones. Then K 2B = 23 4 [2(2a to 3b) + (2a to 3c)] = 27.2
O. 794. The buildup of zone interchange 25 4 (2a to 5) = 150.0
areas starts with the subzones. For
example, the direct-interchange area 35 4 (2a to 6) = 22.6
2500 3500
Temperature, ºR
between surface zones 1 and 2 is four
times that between the two squares rep- The above values, combined with symmetry considerations
Fig. 14-10. The variation resented by zone 1 and subzone 2a. lead to the following matrix of exchange areas (a symmetrical m~­
with temperature of gas- That quantity comes from Fig. 7-16, trix, half filled in):
radiation weighting factors x/B, y/B, z/B = 1,1,1 (top line), for
a 1 and a 2 [Eq. (14-35)]. which ss/B 2 = 0.134, ss = 13 .4. For Zone 1 2 3 4 5 6 Sum
interchange between parallel zones 1 1 o 53.6 3.9 1.3 37.5 2.5 98.8 VS 100
and 4, Fig. 7-15 is used: x/B, y/B,
z/B = 1,1,2, for which ss/B 2 = 0.0133, ss = 1.33. For gas zone 5 to 2 139.2 27.2 3.9 150.0 22.6 396.5 VS 400
surface subzone 2a (a cube and its bounding face), when x/B, y /B, 3 139.2 53.6 22.6 150.0
z/B = 1, 1, 1, gs/(gs)b = 1/6, and Fig. 7-13 gives (gs)b/4KB3 =O. 71;
then gs = 0.71x(l/6)x4x0.794x100 = 37.6. For gas zone 6 to sur- 4 o 2.5 37.5
face subzone 2a, Fig. 7-16 (1,2,1) gives gs/(gs)b = 0.025, Fig. 7-13 5 92.0 13.1 317.7 vs 317.6
gives (gs)b/4KB 3 = 0.71; then gs = 0.71X0.025X4X79.4 = 5.64.
6 92.0
For gas zone 5 to itself (g 5 g5 ), the normalized escape frac-
tion (gg)b/4KB 3 is from Fig. 7-13 equal to 0.71; the absorbed frac- The column beyond the ~nd of the matrix shows the check on inter-
tion is its complement 0.29, and gg = 0.29x 4x 79.4 = 92.0. na! consistency:._11 + 12 + ... + 16 should equal A 1 , 100 ft2;
51 + 52 + ... + 56 should equal 4KV5 = 4x0.0794x10 3 = 317 .6. The
For gas zone 5 to 6, Fig. 7-17 (1,1,2; sequence immaterial) sums of values read from Figs. 7-13 to 7 -17 are seen to be in rea-
gives gg/KB(gs)b = 0.073; then gg = 0.794x0.71x4x79.4x0.073 = sonable agreement with expectations; for consistency the values
13.1 could be adjusted until the last column checked.
A tabulation of the 11 unique direct-interchange areas so ob-
The next step is to obtain total-exchange areas, which depend
tained between sub-zone pairs, based on KB = O. 794, follows (units, on wall emis_sivities_as well as on ss, gs, gg. Ei = E 3 = 0.5; p =
ft 2 ): 1
P 3 = 0.5; E4 is prachcally 1 because ~ is the face of a tube nest.

surface
1 to 2a
1 to 3a
1 to 4
13.4
0.98
1.33
surface
togas
r•o5
2a _to 6
16
37.5
5.64
2.54
For z~ne 2 the replacement of the tubes plus refractory backing by
a~ eqmvalent gray plane (Sec. 3.13 or 14.1) involves reading, from
Fig. 3-9, F = 0.88, and then using Eq. (14-3)

=
1
to E'
1 2 0.2 = o. 77
surface 2a to 2c
2a to 3c
8.2
3.13
gasto
gas { 55
56
92.0
13.l
0.88
+-
1T 0.8

2a to 3b 1.84
476 RADIATIVE TRANSFER APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 477

From this, E2 = O. 77, p2 = 0.23. Evaluation of GsS2 will be pre- as indicated in Secs. 10.4b and 11.2b, when a gas zone is 23.7 mean
sented as an example. Equations (11-5) and the one following (11-4) free paths thick, better accuracy is achieved by treating radiative
are involved. The determinant D of Eq. (11-2) is: interchange as a diffusion process than as one of interchange be-
1.3 tween adjoining zones at least one of which is so opaque that its
-200 53.6 3.9
center temperature and surface temperature are markedly different.
400 3.9 For KB = 23. 7, then, there are onlY_seven total-interchange areas
53.6 (139.2 - ) 27.2
0.23 which are not zero-S 1Gsi S 2G5 , S 3 G 6, S4 G 6, G 5 G 5 , G5 G 6, and
G6G6. Consider GsG6 ;;; Q5 c= 6/(Es - E 6 ). From Eq. (9-4)
3.9 27.2 (139.2 -
4
ºº)
0.5
53.2
-Q = - -4 dE
1.3 3.9 53.6 -100/ p 4 A 3K dx

The zone-2 column is replaced by -15, -25, -35, -45 to form 5D 2. and if dE/dx is replaced by (E 6 - E 5 )/B,
From the equation following (11-4)
GsG6 = 4A = 4x100 5.6
sW2 = sD2/D 3KB 3X23.7
and from (11-5) Consider GsS1. Based on Eq. (9-9) with dE/dx replaced by
A2 E2 sD2 (E1 - Es)/(B/2), GsS1 = 5.6 X2 = 11.2. This ignores the tempera-
GsS2 = -- D ture jump at the boundary (Sec. 9.3); but any diffusional treatment of
P2 a single gas zone surrounded on three sides by surfaces will of ne-
cessity be approximate. Inclusion of the jump (a very doubtful pro-
When substitutions are made for 5 D 2 and D, the last term in each
cedure in a system only one zone wide: more should be used) would
determinant is = 100/p 4 ; and with p 4 = O the expression becomes
give the approximation
indeterminate. Multiplication of the last column in numerator and
denominator each by p4 reduces both determinants to third-order, 400
yielding 9.9
3 X 2.37 (5.67)
-200 -37.5 3.9
53.6 -150 27.2
3.9 -22.6 -661 If a value of 10 is used, then G5 S 2 = 40. The total flux from zone 5
GsS2 400 o. 77 139.6 per unit emissive power is G 5 G 6 + G5 S 1 + G5 S2 + G5 G 5 = 4KV5 =
0.23 -200 53.6 3.9 4x2.37x10 3 , from which the self-exchange factor G 5 G5 =
53.6 -1601 27.2 9480 - 5.6 - 10 - 40 = 9424. This indicates that, at the wavelengths
3.9 27.2 -661 responsible for K 1, very little of the emitted radiation reaches the
gas boundaries.
Analogous procedures, left to the reader, yield the various SS's,
GS's, and GG's. Equations (11-6) and (11-7) are used, and all deter- The gas-radiation model chosen was 2 gray + 1 clear gas.
minants reduce to third order. Whereas there were but 11 unique Although sg or SG and gg or GG have finite values only in the
direct-exchange areas because of geometrical symmetry, the ab- spectral regions represented by a 1 and a 2, ss or SS is finite in
sence of emissivity symmetry makes the number of total-exchange the region ~ as well (a 0 = 1 - a 1 - a 2; K 0 =O). Figures 7-15 and
areas 21. 7-1.§__are used again, values being read at KB = O; and the third set
of SS values is finally obtained.
Up to this point all exchange areas have been based on a gray
gas with K2 B = 0.794. Normally, the whole process would be re- With the three sets of values of total-ex~an~ areas_l!:vailable,
peated with K 1B. But K 1B = 23.7, so large a number of mean free all the ingredients of the directed-flux areas SS, SG and GG are
paths that only adjacent zones interchange radiation. Furthermore, present. A directed-flux area represents the a-weighted mean of
its values for K 1 , K 2 , K 0 , with a dependent on the source tempera-
ture of the zone pair. At this stage in the calculations an iterative
 APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 479
478 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

procedure starts. The system temperature pattern is guessed, and 5. Convective exchange 100 X2 (T1 - T5 )
those temperatures are used to determine first-trial a's. 8u2pose + 400x(n/2)x2(T 2 - T 5 )
the first-trial T5 is 2500º R; T 2 is fixed at 1660º R. Let 82Gs and
8 2G 5 be obtained. When zone 2 is the source, according to Fig. + 400 X2 (T3 - Ts )
14-10, a 1 = 0.17, a 2 = 0.45, a 0 = 0.38; when zone 5 is the sou.rce,
a 1 = 0.095, a 2 = 0.35, a 0 = 0.555. For Ki and K2, 82Gs from above 6. Eddy convective small but capable of evaluation if
exchange with an applicable turbulent transport
is 40 and 139.6. Then
zone 6 coefficient is available
8 2G 5 = 0.17x40+0.45x139.6=69.6
The sum of these is set equal to zero for steady-state operation.
and
8 2 Gs = 0.095x40 + 0.35x139.6 = 52.7 The only new feature in the energy balance on zone 6 is the
exclusion of convective flux to zone 4, since that does not affect the
The net radiative flux between zones 2 and 5 is then mean temperature of 6.
An energy balance on zone 3 will include the following terms:

1. Radiative exchange 4
52. 7 E 5 - 69.6 E2
with all zones L (8;83 Ei - s:s3 E3)
This formulation allows for multiple reflection at all surfaces of the i~l

enclosure and for gas nongrayness; and it is independent of other

mechanisms of energy transfer occurring in the chamber. It is sub- + 83Gs Es - 83Gs E3
ject only to revision of the factor 52. 7 if zone 5 is ultimately found + 83G6 E 6 - 8 3G6 E3
to differ significantly from 2500° R.
With all directed fluxes available, total energy balances can 2. Convective exchange with zone 6 = 400X2 (T6 - T 3 )
be written for each zone. At this point there must be a commitment
as to the amount of the total combustion which occurs in each zone 3. Externa! loss = 400XU (T 0 - T 3)
and the amount of gas flow across each zone interface. ln this sim-
ple example there is little choice. All the fuel and air flow into The sum of these is set equal to zero. Evaluation of the balance on
zone 5 and will be assumed to complete their combustion there; all zone 2 is ~imilar except that the balance is closed by inclusion of
the gases flow from zone 5 to zone 6. An energy balance Qn zone 5 the term Q2' net' the useful flux being sought.
will include the following input terms:
With all balances available there will be six equations in four
1. Enthalpy flux from burner wall o unknown E's (or T's; 1, 3, 5, 6) and two unknown Q's (2, 4). If the
solution indicates that the temperatures used in evaluating the
2. Energy liberation by combustion 25 xl06 Btu/hr weighting_ factors a 'Yere too far off, the process is repeated. The
desired Q 2,net and Q 4 ,net are then capable of evaluation
3. Radiative exchange
-- -
with burner wall = 81 Gs El - 81 Gs Es
with walls 2 82Gs E2 - 82Gs Es
with walls 3 ----
83Gs E3 - 83Gs Es
...__
with gas zone 6 GsG6 E6 - GsG6 Es
with end wall 4 ---- E4 - 84Gs Es
84G5
Q4, net is evaluated similarly, except that convective flux at the out-
let tubes i~ excluded if the gas enthalpy change from the burners to
the point where the gas leaves the combustion chamber at T 6 is to
4. Enthalpy flux from zone 5 to zone 6 = 836 MCP av (T5 - T0 )
480 RADIATIVE TRANSFER APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 481

b~ identified ~ith the sum of Ql,net' Q2,net' Q3,net and Q4,net for any point in the furnace,
(Q1,net and Q3,net equal external losses). Completion of the prob- from the time-mean value of
lem is left to the interested reader. Since it is not very realistic, the fuel concentration and the
the results of a more elaborate furnace study will now be presented. amplitude of its fluctuation
[7]. The patterns of mean
14.13 Gas Temperature Field and Surface Flux value and amplitude were ob-
Distribution in a Cylindrical Furnace [21, 16] tained from Becker's cold-
flow study of mixing in ducted
In Sec. 14.9 some results of calculations on an axially fired jets [1,2]. For Ct's of 0.51
cylindrical furnace (see Table 14-2, p. 466 for a summary of oper- and 0.18, 6 and 16 percent of
ating and design conditions) were presented to show the effect, on the total air was arbitrarily
overall performance, of different postulated flow patterns. That assumed to be premixed with
was, however, a secondary objective of the study in question; the the fuel in the primary jet. It
primary one was to establish a method of determining the gas tem- was found that for the three
perature field and wall flux distribution in furnaces. An axially values of the Craya-Curtet
symmetrical system was chosen because it permitted use of fewer number selected, all combus-
zones and because the cylindrical coordinate exchange-area study of tion occurs in the central ra-
Erkku [5] made the necessary exchange areas available. Gas zoning dial zone and is distributed
was into three concentric shells divided axially into eight, making along the axis in the patterns
24 gas zones; 8 sidewall zones, 6 end-ring zones. The exit end was given in Table 14-4.
treated as a refractory baffled wall presenting a uniform surface to
incident radiation but allowing free passage of the gas. This some- Convection and eddy dif-
what artificial completion of the enclosure eliminates the need for fusion coefficients. An esti-
considering radiative interaction of the enclosure with the flue-gas mate of the convective heat- Burner end ""'
system. As described in Sec. 14.9, the feed entered with various transfer coefficient h at the
momentum patterns including plug flow, a self-repeating parabolic circumferential walls was ob- Fig. 14-11. Mean flow patterns for
velocity profile, and three recirculation patterns characterized by a tained by assuming that axially fired cylindrical furnace (flow
Craya-Curtet number, Ct (see Appendix). The success of assuming between streamlines for Ct = 0.033 is
that temperature gradients, combustion, and energy transfer do not Nu = 0.023 Prº .4 Reº .s five times the value at Ct's of 0.18
and 0.51). Because of symmetry, the
modify a cold-flow pattern has been discussed (Sec. 14.11). Figure patterns to the left of the axis only
14-11 shows approximate positions of the mean-stream lines (lines The Reynolds and Nusselt are shown.
across which the time-average mass flux is zero) for the three jet- numbers were evaluated using
flow patterns. The recirculation ratio is identifiable with the ratio the velocity at the wall external
of the number of mean-stream tubes in reverse flow along line a b- to the jet plume, as calculated from Becker's results, anda charac-
extending from the eye of the recirculation eddy to the wall-to the teristic dimension of 4 in. such as might be found in a row of
number crossing the entrance boundary at the bottom. Although the refractory-backed tubes. The coefficients to the--e-nd walls were
flow pattern based on a duct of unlimíted length indicates the exist- estimated from values reported for flow normal to a plate [6].
ence of recirculation from beyond the end of the present furnace, Based on the further assumption that h had a minimum value of
this was ignored; flue gas was assumed to flow out through the cen- 1.5 Btu/h ft2 ºF, the values of Table 14-5 were obtained. These co-
tral end area occupying two-thirds of the furnace diameter. efficients are very approximate; fortunately, errors in the convec-
tion coefficient introduce little error in the calculated fluxes to the
Combustion patterns. For the uniform and parabolic velocity walls since the radiative flux is usually dominant. The eddy diffu-
profiles the combustion was assumed to be completed within the row sion coefficients at the boundaries of the gas zones were evaluated
of gas zones adjacent to the feed-end wall, with the energy release from Becker's values of the correlation coefficients of concentration
rate distributed radially in the sarne proportion as the gas flow rate. fluctuations, the velocity field, and the concentration field in a
For the axially fired jet the progress of combustion depends on the ducted turbulent jet [1,2].
rate and intimacy of mixing of fuel and air, and can be estimated,
482 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 483

Table 14-4
diameter furnace for a nominal firing density of 10 4 Btu/h ft 2 of sink
Percent of Fuel Burned in the Different Zones Along the Axis area. The profiles in Fig. 14-12 were obtained by interpolation be-
tween the 24 gas-zone temperatures; consequently, the regions with
Zone Number steep gradients are not well defined. As expected, the gas tempera-
Craya-Curtet ture falls off more rapidly near the wall than in the core for plug
Number flow, anda similar but more pronounced trend is observed for the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
case of a parabolic velocity profile. The effects of progress of com-
0.51 18.5 17 16 13 10.5 10 8 7 bustion and rate of recirculation on the gas temperature profiles are
0.18 45 17 11 10 10 7 o o very evident in the three diagrams for the ducted jet. A Craya-
0.033 100 o o o o o o o Curtet number of 0.51 corresponds to a slow-burning flame with
little recirculation. For the particular flow rate shown, the temper-
ature along the axis rises throughout the first 40 percent of travel,
Table 14-5
Convection Coefficients to the Circumferential and End Surfaces Parabolic
flow
Furnace (Btu/h
Firing Rate Flow Pattern
(104 Btu/h ft2 º F)
Diameter (numbers correspond
(ft) ft2 of sink) to Ct values)
he ~

1 1 Plug, parabolic, 0.51 3.1 1.5

1 4 Plug, parabolic, 0.51 6.6 1.5
1 16 Plug, parabolic 8.8 4.2
1 16 0.51 8.8 2.1
4 1 Plug, parabolic, 0.51, 0.18 3.1 1.5
4 1 0.033 3.1 3.1
4 4 Plug, parabolic, 0.51 6.6 1.5 o
o
N
4 4 0.18 6.6 1.9 N

4 4 0.033 6.6 9.0

4 16 Plug, parabolic 8.8 3.2
4 16 0.51 8.8 1.5
4. 16 0.18 8.8 5.8
4 16 0.033 8.8 27.0
16 1 Plug, parabolic, 0.51 3.1 1.5
16 4 Plug, parabolic 6.6 3.2
16 4 0.51 6.6 1.5

The method used to calculate the gas-temperature distribution

and the wall-heat flux distribution is that of the previous example
1 1
(Sec. 14.12). Furnace fired across entire
1

Furnace firing axially -- combustion

burner end - instantaneous limited by mixing of fuel and air
Results combustion

0
Gas temperature distributions. The effect of flow pattern on Fig. 14-12. Temperature profiles ( R) for a cylindrical furnace; diameter =
the gas temperature field is illustrated by the results on the 4-ft 4 ft, firing density = 10 4 Btu/hr ft 2 of sink. Because of symmetry, the dis-
tribution to the left of the axis only is shown. Temperature is 0 R.

484 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
where the increase in sensible enthalpy of the gas due to combustion
more than compensates for the convective and radiative lasses. The
temperature gradients in the radial direction are largest in the
transition region between the flame and the surrounding gases. The
smaller values of Ct correspond to high rates of entrainment of sur-
rounding fluid by the jet and hence higher combustion and recircula-
tion rates. As a consequence of the increase in the combustion rate
the maximum in the temperature along the axis is displaced towards
the burner; andas a consequence of the increase in recirculation
the temperature differences between the different zones in the fur-
nace are reduced. Both of these effects are evident from a compari-
son of the runs for Ct's of 0.51, 0.18 and 0.033. Circulation at Ct =
0.033 is unrealistically high for furnaces.
Wall heat-flux distribution. The effect of flow patterns on the
heat-flux distribution is illustrated by the results on the 4-ft diame-
ter furna e e for a firing density of 4 x 10 4 Btu/h ft 2 of sink are a ( see
Fig. 14-13). For the plug flow and parabolic velocity profile models
the flux is a maximum near the burner end where the effective radi-
ating temperature is a maximum; the wall flux falls off continuously
along the length of the furnace as the gas temperature decreases. It
is interesting to note that for the case shown the effective radiating
temperature at the end of the furnace is higher for plug flow than
for parabolic flow despite the fact that the higher efficiency of the
plug flow model indicates that the mixed-gas leaving temperature
for the plug flow model is smaller; the larger radial temperature
gradients in the parabolic flow model are responsible for this ap-
parent anomaly, which disappears at lower firing rates or for longer
furnaces. For the ducted jets, the flux is a minimum at the burner
end because the hot radiating gases occupy only a small volume in
the center of the furnace. As the flame spreads the flux increases,
but it must eventually pass through a maximum and fall off as the
combustion products fill the entire cross section andas their tem-
perature decreases. This expected decrease in wall flux is observed
Fig. 14-13. Wall-flux distribution
along cylindrical furnace calculated
for different flow models. Diame-
ter = 4 ft, firing rate= 4 x 10 4 Btu/
hr ft 2 of sink.
Fractional distance along furnace
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 485
Fig. 14-14. Effect of firing
density on heat-flux distri-
bution; furnace diameter =
4 ft, Ct = 0.18.
2345678
Zone number
for the las! surf~ce zon.e at the lowest firing density (see Fig. 14-14).
Increase~ m recirculahon for ducted jets-corresponding to de-
creases m Ct-cause !he heat flux distribution to even out (Fig.
1~-13). Results for d1fferent firing densities and for other furnace
diame.ter~ all. showed a pronounced effect of flow patterns on heat
flux dlstribuhons similar to that shown in Fig. 14-13.
Limitation of results. The largest uncertainties in the results
are due to the use of a finite number of zones in the calculations and
the assumption of a uniform concentration throughout the enclosure.
The corrections applied to the direct-exchange areas to allow
for te1?-perature gradients within a gas zone were based on the as-
sumphon that E varied linearly between the centers of the different
zone.s (s~e S~c. 11.2b) .. E~amination of the smoothed temperature
proflles m Fig. 14-14 md1cates that a finer zoning would be desir-
~ble about. the edges of the flame for the calculations of the ducted
1et, espec1ally for a Ct of 0.51.
. ~nov:an.ce is made for variation in gas emissive power due to
vanahons m its t~mperature but not its concentration. The results
for a c.t of ?·51 :v111 be the only ones significantly affected by this
a~prox1mahon smce the circulation ratio for the other runs is suffi-
c1ent to even out the concentration throughout most of the furnace
For a Ct o~ 0.51, as a consequence of the assumption of a unifor~
concentrahon, the calculated radiative flux from the flame is falsely
attenuated in passing through parts of the furnace which would nor-
~ally ?e occupied by air. Consequently, the calculated fluxes to the
hrst six wall sections are somewhat too small.
The above sources of error may be partially eliminated by
us~ of a larger numb.er. of ~ones and an evaluation of exchange areas
wh1ch allows f?r variahon m concentration. Such modifications
would greatlY, mcrease computation time, and need be considered
only when the recirculation ratio is small. Since the computation of
486 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
the results presented here took approximately 5 min of IBM 709 time
per run, the increased computation time that would be associated
with the inclusion of the above refinements would still be within the
capabilities of available computers. A program which could allow
for concentration gradients could be used also to evaluate the im -
portant effect of flame luminosity on the radiative transfer in
furnaces.
Comparison with furnace practice. Despite the above listed
shortcomings of the method described here, it is based on a model
which is clearly elo ser to reality than those used in the past for pre-
diction of furnace performance. No known prior models are capable
of predicting the changed distribution of heat flux that is associated
with burner design changes, i.e., with changing the entering fuel or
air momentum without changing their mass flow; nor has any prior
furnace model predicted the effect of changes in burner design on
the gas temperature field in the furnace.
The testing of the validity of the detailed knowledge of furnace
performance yielded by computations of the present type calls for a
degree of sophistication and completeness of full-scale furnace test-
ing almost never achieved in practice. Some experimental results
of Litterscheidt [17] do, however, show the sarne trends as found
here. He measured the local heat input along the walls of an end-
fired cylindrical water-cooled furnace burning gaseous fuel in burn-
ers of different design. When the fuel gas and air were premixed
and combustion was completed in a small volume near the burner
end, the rate of heat input to the wall showed a continuous decrease
from 12, 500 Btu/h ft2 near the burner to 3, 700 Btu/h ft2 at 8/3 di-
ameters downstream. The trend is very similar to those shown in
the present calculations by the plug-flow and parabolic-profile flow
models. When the fuel gas and air issued separately from a burner
consisting of two concentric pipes at flow rates corresponding to a
Craya-Curtet number of 0.26, the rate of heat input to the walls in-
creased from a value of 2,200 Btu/h ft 2 near the burner to a maxi-
mum of 5, 900 at 1. 7 diameters downstream and then decreased to
5,500 at an L/D of 8/3. (Relative values 1, 2. 7, 2.5.) The heat flux
for this case showed a distribution pattern similar to that found in
the present calculations for Ct = 0.18 and a firing rate of 104 Btu/h
ft 2 (Fig. 14-14; relative values 1, 2.7, 2.6).
Unfortunately a quantitative comparison of the profiles is not
possible since Litterscheidt's experimental conditions (firing den-
sity = 14,800 Btu/h ft 2 of sink; adiabatic flame temperature, TAF =
3940º R; Pw = 0.208 atm; Pc = 0.065 atm; reduced sink temperature,
T/TAF = 0.21 to 0.28) differed from those used in the present calcu-
lations. However, it is possible to compare the generalized correla-
tion of furnace efficiencies, Fig. 14-7, Sec. 14.9, with Litterscheidt's
APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 487
results. !~e exper~mental conditions in his tests corresponded to a
reduced flnng del}sity or heat input of 0.17; his measured heat fluxes
cor:r~sponded to Q' = 0.60 when the fuel and air were premixed and
to Q = 0.35 when a double concentric pipe burner was used. From
Fig. 14-7 it can be seen that Q' = 0.60 lies somewhat above the lines
calculated for plug- and parabolic-flow models and that Q' =O 35 is
slightly below. the .value ex~ected for a Craya-Curtet number e~ual
to 0.26. Cons1dermg the d1fferences in operating conditions the
predicted range of efficiencies produced by the variation in Ílow
pattern is in remarkably good agreement with the measured values·
past methods of calculation would not have distinguished among the'
various flow types.
It is hoped that the ability to predict a reasonable amount of
detail as to furnace performance will encourage the planning of full-
scale. furnace. expe.riments to test the validity of the method. Prog-
ress m that d_irect10n is certain to indicate how the model presented
here may be improved, and where simplifications are justified.
14.14 Particle Radiation in Furnace Flames
Methods of evaluating the contribution of suspended particles
to the_ ra~iation from flames have been presented in Chap. 6. The
contnbut10n, to total flame emissivity, of the coke particles in a
powdered coal or heavy-oil flame is shown to depend on the total
projected are.a of_ the particl.es per unit volume of flame [Eq. (6-62)];
and the contnbuhon of soot m a luminous flame is shown to depend
o.n the mass of particles per unit volume of flame [Eq. (6-65)]. Sec-
hon 6.8 pre~ent_s the principles involved in calculating the overlap
of the contnbuhons of carbon dioxide, water vapor, coke particles
and soot. Section 6 of this chapter has referred to the significance
of luminosity and the factors affecting it.
Despite this background of understanding of the mechanism of
radiation from particulate matter, the mechanism of formation of
soot .in_ f_lam~s is no_t quantitatively understood. There is no present
poss1b1llty, m the ngorous approach to flame radiation described in
the preceding two sections, of finding from first principles how
muc? ~oot will be ge~erated where. Reliance must instead be put on
emp1ncal extrapolahons of experimental data on existing furnaces
to provide an engineering guess as to how much luminosity may be'
expected, and how it is distributed in space in a furnace when a
given fuel is burned in a given way. From calculations of the kinct
described in Secs. 14.12 and 14.13, first with no allowance for soot
and then with the inclusion of a given pattern of soot distribution the
engineer may hope slowly to build up his knowledge of the practi~al
consequences of soot luminosity; but progress will be slow. The
other approach is to learn enough about the kinetics of soot formation
 APPLICATIONS TO FURNACES 489
488 RADIATIVE TRANSFER

to include, in an analytical approach to furnace performance, the in- 10. Hottel, H. C.: in W. H. McAdams, "Heat Transmission," 3rd
terrelation of the equations of flow and the kinetic equation of soot Ed., Chap. 4, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954.
formation. That is an objective of the International Flame Founda- 11. Hottel, H. C.: Notes on Furnaces and Furnace Measurements
M.I.T., Cambridge, Mass., 1957. '
tion. Hottel, H. C., and E. S. Cohen: J. Am. lnst. Chem E 4 3
12.
Fortunately, the performance of a furnace increases ata much (1958). · ngrs.' :
lower rate than the soot concentration in its flame, except when the 13. Hottel, H. C.: J. Inst. Fuel, 34: 220 (1961).
furnace is very small. On this account it is feasible to make semi- 14. Hottel, H. C., A. F. Sarofim, and C. S. Takeuchi: Chemical
quantitative allowance for soot by adding 0.05 to the nonluminous gas Engineering, Japan, 26: 962 (1962).
emissivity if the flame is bright but not intensely luminous, 0.10 if 15. Hottel, H. C., and A. F. Sarofim: Gaseous Radiation with Tem-
the flame is quite bright. These small additions reflect the fact that perature Gradients; Allowance for Isotropic Sca:tter, in J. A.
furnace calculations are generally based on the assumption of a Clark (ed.), "Theory and Fundamental Research in Heat Trans-
chamber full of flame, whereas the luminous part of the flame is fer," pp. 139-160, Pergamon Press, N. Y., 1963.
confined to a rather small fraction of the furnace volume. 16. Hottel, H. C., and A. F. Sarofim: lnt. J. Heat Mass Transjer
This unsatisfactory state of affairs is certain to improve 8: 1153-69 (1965). '
greatly in the next decade as a result of the large amount of re- 17. Litterscheidt, W.: Gaswarme, 3: 84 (1955).
search presently going into the study of flame luminosity. 18. Lobo, W. E., and J. E. Evans: Tr. Am. Inst. Ch em. E ngrs.,
35 : 743-78 (1939).
19. M.cAdams, W. H.: "Heat Transmission," 3rd Ed., McGraw-
CHAPTER 14. LITERATURE CITATIONS H1ll, New York, 1954.
20. Orro~, G. A.: Tr. Am. Soe. Mech. Eng., p. 1148 (1925).
21. Sarohm, A. F.: Se.D. Thesis in Chem. Eng., M.I.T., Cam-
1. Becker, H. A.: Se.D. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, M.I. T., bridge, Mass., 1962.
Cambridge, Mass., 1961. 22. Takeuchi, S.: S.M. Thesis in Chem. Eng., M.I.T., Cambridge
2. Becker, H. A., H. C. Hottel, and G. C. Williams: Ninth Sympo- Mass., 1961. '
sium (International) on Combustion, pp. 7-20, Academic Press, 23. 1:hring, M. W., and M. P. Newby: Fourth Symposium (Interna-
N. Y., 1963. honal) on Combustion, pp. 789-796 Williams and Wilkins
3. Beer, J. M., N. A. Chigier, and K. B. Lee: Ninth Symposium Baltimore, 1953. ' '
(International) on Combustion, pp. 892-906, Academic Press, 24. Wilson, D. W., W. E. Lobo, and H. C. Hottel: lnd. & Eng.
New York, 1963. Chem., 24: 486 (1932).
4. Craya, A., and R. Curtet: C. R. Acad. Sei., Paris, 241: 621
(1955).
5. Erkku, H.: Se.D. Thesis in Chem. Eng., M.I.T., Cambridge,
Mass., 1959.
6. Friedman, S. J., and A. C. Mueller: Proc. General Discussion
on Heat Transfer, pp. 138-142, Instn. Mech. Engrs., London,
and ASME, New York, 1951.
7. Hawthorne, W. R., H. C. Hottel, and D. S. Weddell: Third Sym-
posium on Combustion, Flame, and Explosion Phenomena, p.
256, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1949.
8. Hottel, H. C.: Trans. 2nd World Power Conf., Berlin, 18: 53-65
(1930).
9. Hottel, H. C.: Notes on Heat Transfer in the Combustion
Chamber of a Furnace, M.I.T., Cambridge, Mass., Dec., 1936.
9a. Hottel, H. C., and W. R. Hawthorne: Third Symposium on Com-
bustion, Flame, and Explosion Phenomena, pp. 254-266, Wil-
liams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1949.
 CHAPTER 14-APPENDI PROBlEMS

The Craya-Curtet Nurnber
Define the kinernatic-rnean velocity Uk as the average velocity
of the gases entering the furnace. ln terrns of the rnass_Huxes mN
and rilr of the nozzle and induced strearns, the gas density P and
the furnace cross sectional area A
(14-36)
1. (a) What error is introduced by use of the Wien rather than the
Planck equation for the spectral distribution of radiative flux frorn a
black body, when the objective is the calculation of the value of ÀT
at which rnonochrornatic ernissive power per unit wavelength is a
rnaxirnurn? (b) What error is introduced by use of the Wien equation
in optical pyrornetry, when the effective wavelength of the red screen
used is 0.65µ? (An optical pyrorneter reports the ternperature of a
black body having the sarne brightness over a narrow wavelength in-
tervalas the object sighted upon.) Ans: (a) O. 7%; (b) Tw - T z
ÀRTTw/C2

Let the rates of rnornenturn of the jet or nozzle strearn and the 2. A total-radiation pyrorneter gives a signal response which
induced strearn be iN and i 1 . Define the dynarnic-rnean velocity ud varies rnonotonically with the total intensity of ernission received
as that uniforrn entering velocity which produces a force equal to the from the target, but the response rnay not be linear in target inten-
excess of the true strearn thrust iN + ir over the stagnation sity because of wavelength selectivity of the pyrometer. This is in-
pressure-area force of the induced strearn iN/2. Then troduced by selectivity of absorptivity of the radiation-receiving
surface element or by selectivity of transrnittance of the optical
systern used to forrn the target image on the receiver. The apparent
temperature reported by the pyrorneter is that of a black body which
or would produce the sarne signal as the unknown target; i.e., a black
body or its equivalent is used in the calibration. Total radiation py-
(14-37) rorneters are to be cornpared with optical pyrorneters operating at
wavelength ÀR (see prob. 1). (a) If the deterrnination of received
intensity is possible with the sarne fractional error by the two
The Craya-Curtet nurnber is defined by classes of instrurnents and the target is a gray body of known enüs-
sivity but unknown ternperature, at what target ternperature are the
uk (14-38) two classes of instrurnents capable of the sarne accuracy? (b) What
Ct = error is introduced into ternperature rneasurernent with optical py-
(u d2 - uk2 /2) 112 rometers, if brightness match to within one percent is possible and
the red-screen effective wavelength is 0.65µ? Ans: (a) c 2/ÀRT =
Frorn the above definitions, it rnay be shown that for the case of a 3.92; (b) .6.T = 0.45 (T/1000)2 ºK
uniforrn strearn velocity and a nozzle area negligible cornpared to the
furnace cross section 3. How rnany ways of using optical or total-radiation pyrorneters
can you suggest for determining the ternperature of a gray body of
(14-39) unknown ernissivity?

4. The correction to an optical pyrorneter ternperature reading is

i.e., the flow is characterized by the ratios of the rnass and rnornen-
turn fluxes of the jet and induced strearns.
generally srnall if the object viewed is gray and in cooler surround-
ings, large if it is gray and in hotter surroundings. Why?
5. An oil refinery experiences trouble, in its tube-still and therrnal
cracking-coil furnaces, with overheating of parts of the heat sink,
either the tu5es or the high-ternperature alloy tube racks. Optical

490 491

492 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
pyrometer readings on the surface of interest are in error because
of reflection from the flame being added to the emission which char-
acterizes surface temperature (see prob. 4). The following proce-
dure is proposed: lnsert an MgO-covered ceramic block into the
furnace so that it anda tube surface of interest have the sarne view
of their surroundings, the furnace flame, and the hot refractory
walls. MgO is a diffuse reflector with a reflectance of 0.95. Take
a pyrometer reading on the block without waiting for it to attain
equilibrium, and use the reading as a measure of TF, the mean or
effective flame-and-refractory temperature as seen from the tube
surface. Then take a pyrometer reading on the tube surface of in-
terest. Assuming knowledge of the tube surface emissivity, calcu-
late the true tube surface temperature. ln an independent laboratory
study to determine tube emissivity for use in general temperature
surveys, take readings on a cold MgO block having the sarne view as
the tube surface itself, and a small deep hole drilled into the tube wall
to forma blaclr0ody cavity. (a) ln a study of the last kind the apparent
temperature readings on the MgO block, tube surface, and hole in
the tube were 1583, 1401, and 1172º K. What is the tube surface
emissi vity? What is a better way to make the measurement? (b) ln
typical readings from a furnace temperature survey the MgO block
and tube surface readings were 1533 and 1491 º K. What is the true
tube surface temperature? (e) What kind of a chart would you pre-
pare for fast use by a plant furnace operator to make his correction
to the apparent tube surface temperature? What limitations do you
see in the proposed method? Ans: (a) 0.156; (b) 1480º K; (e) with
T, Ta, Trna representing true tube temperature, apparent tube tem-
perature, and apparent cold MgO block temperature, construct a
family of curves of (1/T -1/T a) vs (1/Trna -1/T ª)' with tube reflec-
tivity p as a parameter. Error analysis: with T, T ª' Trna, and PT
about 14T80, 1500, 1520 and 0.2, and ill\: representing the error in x,
one finds that AT = 1.2ATa - 0.37ATrna + 318.ApT.
6. The apparent temperature of a luminous flame viewed with an
optical pyrometer with ÀR = 0.65µ is 1700° K. When a mirrar with
red reflectance of 0.9 is placed behind the flame to double its appar-
ent thickness, the pyrometer reads 1750° K. Assuming the flame
emissivity E or absorptivity a to be given by Beer 's law (E = a =
1 - e-KL , where L is flame thickness) and the reflection-and-scatter
by the flame to be negligible, what is the true flame temperature?
Ans: 1797º K
7. The color-temperature of a body is the temperature of a black
body which, at two specified wavelengths, has the sarne intensity
ratio as the object viewed by the pyrometer. Given a gray body of
emissivity 0.5 and temperature 1500° K, what are (a) its color tem-
perature based on Ài = 0.65µ, À2 = 0.55µ; (b) its red-brightness
PROBLEMS 493
temperature; (e) its total-radiation temperature? Ans: (b) 1433 º K·
(e) 1261ºK '
8. The absorption coefficient of soot in a luminous flame varies as
1/À ª in the visible. spectral range. A series of identical amyl ace-
tate luminous flames (Hefner lamps, standards of candlepower in
the preelectrical-standard days) are arranged in line so that an op-
tical pyrometer reading may be taken on any number of flame depths
from 1 to 6, first with a red screen in the pyrometer to obtain red'-
brightness temperature TR(ÀR = 0.6651µ) and then with a green
screen to obtain Ta(ÀG = 0.5553µ). The actual experimental data
[Ref: Hottel, H. C., and F. P. Broughton, I. & E. C. Anal. Ed., 4, p.
166 (1932)] are tabulated:
n, No. of Flames in Row 1 2 3 4 5 6
TR,n , ºK 1475 1536 1583 1600 1621 1635
TG,n , ºK 1528 1582 1619 1632 1649 1656
(a) Obtain the true flame temperature T by graphical use of all the
TR data. (b) Use the data on T G similar ly to obtain T. (e) Combine
the results of (a) and (b) to obtain the exponent "a". (d) Use the
value of a obtained in (e), in combination with any pair of values of
TR and TG, to obtain T. Ans: (a) ln [1 _ e-(c2/AR)(17TR,n-1/T~ =
knL/Àif. Guess T, and plot left side vs n. When line is straight,
assumed T is true value, and kL/À~ is obtained.
9. Assume that the value of "a" of 1.39 obtained in the previous
problem may be used to represent the proportionality of the emis-
sion or absorption coefficient of the soot in a flame to 1/˻ when
0.5µ < À< 1.0 , but that the coefficient is proportional to 1/À when
1.0 <À < oc. Show that the measurement of red and green bright-
ness temperatures TR and TG then suffices to determine the total
emissivity of the flame as well as its true temperature. Hint: Set
up and solve two equations in K 0 L and T; use the Wien rather than
the Planck equation for integration to obtain E; and use the inver se
À law of absorption throughout the spectrum because so little of the
energy lies below À= 1µ for flames found in industry. When TR
and TG equal 1800 and 1840º K, what are the true temperature and
total emissivity of the flame? Ans: 1920º K, E = 0.20.
10. The monochromatic emissivity of a certain refractory material
is 0.2, 0.8, and 0.5 over the wavelength ranges 0-1µ, 1-5µ, and ·
5µ-w, respectively; another material is gray, with emissivity O. 7.
When the two specimens are each at true temperatures of 922 and
1589º K, what readings are obtained by a total-radiation pyrometer
494 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
which has been calibrated against a black body, if it is constructed
(a) with a nonselective gold-surfaced mirror used to form the image
on a nonselective black thermopile surface; (b) with a sapphire lens
of transmittance 0.87, O. 70 and 0.15 over the wavelength intervals
0.2 to 4µ, 4-5.5µ, and 5.5µ-oo; (e) with a quartz lens assu~ed trans-
parent in the wavelength range 0.16-3. 7µ and opaque outs1de that
range.
11. The reading of a nonselective total radiation pyrometer sighted
onto a flame with cold black background is 1367º K. With background
changed to a carbon-resistance furnace the reading is 1922º K; and
when the flame is shut off suddenly the reading is 1978º K. What
can you say about the radiating properties of the flame? Ans: If
the flame is gray, nonreflecting, non-scattering an? homogeneous,
its emissivity and temperature are 0.331 and 1778 K.
12. -A long black tube is at the center of a tight bundle of six others
of the sarne diameter. (a) Of the radiation emitted by the center
tube what fraction is intercepted by one of the surrounding tubes?
(b) The six surrounding tubes are now moved out until they lie,
equally spaced, on a circle of such diameter that each tube _subtends
an angle of 30º at the center of the center tube. What frachon of the
center tube's radiation is now intercepted? Ans: (a) 1/6; (b) not
1/12
13. Assume that a forest fire can be represented, for the purpose
of calculating radiative transfer to its surroundings, as a two-
dimensional black surface of height H at a uniform temperature T.
(a) Using this simplified model, evaluate the intensity of radiation
ata distance x along the ground ahead of the fire. (b) How does the
intensity vary with distance at large distances from the base of the
flame? (e) If the bottom 10% of the flame height is a negligible
emitter, where is the peak intensity on the ground? Ans: (a)
(1/2){1 - 1/[(H/x)2 + 1]112}aT4; (b) As 1/x 2
14. Repeat problem 13 for reception on a vertical plane facing the
fire and at ground level. Ans: (a) (1/2){1/[1 + (x/H)2)112}aT 4 ;
(b) As 1/x
15. Measurement of the radiant intensity at points on the normal
0
passing through the comer of a 3 ft by 5 ft black, flat plate at 2000 F
are made with a flat disk thermopile. (a) What is the maximum
reading that can be obtained when the disk is four feet above the
corner of the plate? (b) At what orientation of the disk is this read-
ing obtained? Ans: (a) 9760 Btu/(hr) (ft2); (b) With the x, y, and
z axes taken along the 3 ft, 5 ft, and 4 ft lengths, respectively,
COS ®x = 0.55, COS ®y = 0.19.
PROBLEMS 495
16. Partial differentiation of expressions for exchange areas pro-
vides a useful method of obtaining areas for new configurations.
Derive as many exchange areas as possible starting with Eq. (2-30)
or (2-31) or (2-33) or (2-35). Ans: At least 29
17. A finned tube consists of a 2 in. O.D. tube onto which 4 in. O.D.
punched-disk fins are welded, 1/2 in. apart. (a) If the metal conduc-
tivity is high enough to maintain the temperature of the fins at tube
wall temperature and the metal is black, what improvement in radi-
ative transfer occurs, dueto finning? (b) How many unique view
factors are involved in evaluating the flux? Ignore fin thickness.
Ans: (a) 1.85; (b) one
18. Determine the fraction of the radiation leaving the sides of an
inverted cone of slope g (modelling for example a black flame origi-
nally at a point source) which is ground-directed. (b) How does the
answer compare with the value obtained for an infinitely long wedge
with the sarne slope (modelling for example a black flame above a
line source). Ans: (a) (1/2)(1+g/Vl+g2); (b) sarne
19. A 3 feet diameter circular cylinder runs through a long channel
whose cross section forms a 60º sector of a circle 12 ft in diameter.
The center of the circular cylinder is located midway between the
radii of the sector and is four feet from the sector apex. Determine
the exchange area between all combinations of sector are (1), sector
straig!:t sides (2) and (3), and circular cylinder (4). Ans:
44 = 22 = 33 =O; 11 = 0.24; 12 = 13 = 1.23; 23 = 1.85; 24 = 34 = 2.92;
14 = 3 .48 ft 2 /ft of cylinder length
20. Consider three rectangular black panels, five feet long and three
feet wide, oriented in three mutually perpendicular planes, and touch-
ing atone corner. Let panels 1, 2, 3 be in the xy, yz, and xz planes
and, with their common corner selected as the origin, let their short
edges extend to y = -3, y = 3, and z = -3, and their long edges to
x = 5, z = 5, x = -5. (a) Calculate the exchange factors between all
surface pairs. (b) Treating each panel as isothermal, calculate their
steady-state temperature when subjected to solar irradiation in
outer space, with the sun located in the x-z plane, equidistant from
both axes [solar constant = 443 Btu/(hr)(ft2); effective temperature
of outer space = 5º R]. Ans: (a) 12 = 0.75, 13 = 0.60, 23 = 0.73 ft2;
(b) Ti '== T2 = 555º R, T3 = 208º R
21. A cylindrical burner nozzle, 6 in. O.D., protrudes a third of the
way into a cylindrical wallport, 1 ft I.D. and 1. 5 ft long. The nozzle
and port have a common axis. The temperature distribution along
the inside face of the cylindrical port can be approximated by a step
function with the temperature at 1500º R for the 1/2 ft section
496 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
coextensive with the nozzle and 2500° R for the 1 ft se~tion extending
beyond the nozzle. If all the surfaces are black, what is (a) the av-
erage flux density on the outside surface of the burner nozzle due ~o
radiation originating at the inside surface of the port?; (b) the addi-
tional contribution to the flux due to 3000° R black body radiation
streaming through the open end of the port? Ans: (a) 14,500 Btu/
(hr) (ft2); (b} 5000 Btu/(hr) (ft2}
22 Use the method of contour integration to evaluate the exchange
ar~a between one face of an element dA 1 and a circular disk A 2
on whose axis dA1 lies (a) when dA 1 is ?arallel to Az (b) ".'7hen )/
dA 1 is perpendicular to A 2. Ans: (a) sm 2 8~ (b) (8 -0.5 sm 28 n,
where 8 is the half-angle subtended by the d1sk.
23 A narrow strip lies in the x-y plane on the y axis extending
fr~m y = -3 to y = +5. A small surface element pa_rallel to _it is
located at x = 2, z = 4, y = O. Of the radiation le~vmg one _s1de _of
the latter, what fraction is intercepted by the stnp, per umt of üs
width? Ans:
_!_
2n
[..!
45
+ ~
145
+ - 2 - (tan-1
5'15 2
3
0"5 + tan-1 - -)]
2'1°5
24. Given a grid of long parallel black resistor~ each of width Li
and thickness Lz (normal to grid) and spaced wit~ a clearance of
L . Calculate (a) the power requirement per res1stor_, expressed as
a fraction of that required to maintain an isolated res1stor at the
sarne temperature; (b) the fraction of the radiation from a plane on
one side which is intercepted by the resistors. Ans: (b)
1 - [(L:f + L32}112 - Lz]/(L1 + L3)
25. Evaluate the direct-exchange area between a disk anda sphe~e
whose center is on the normal passing through the center of ~he d1sk.
Designate the disk radius r, the sphere radius R, and the d1stance
of separation of the centers L. Suggestion: Use method of Sec. 2.3.
Ans: 2nR2[1- L/(r 2 + L 2) 112 ]
26. A spinning satellite moves in a circular orbit around_ the earth
at an altitude of 2000 miles. The satellite's axis of rotat10n ata
period of special interest is perpendicular to a line thr?ugh the
earth's center. How does the flux density on a spot on üs_ surfa~e,
due to earth radiation, vary with the rotation of the satelhte on i~s
own axis, if the normal to the spot is perpendicular to the s~telhte
axis? (Assume the earth and its cloud cover to have an e~mvalent
black-:body temperature, viewed from outer space, of 250 K.)
PROBLEMS 497
27. The two large opposed surfaces of a 1x2 gray-walled rectangu-
lar duct have temperatures of 1200° R and 1000º R and emissivities
of 0.8 and 0.6; the smaller surfaces are at 1100° R, emissivity 0.9.
What temperature will be recorded by a gray thermocouple of emis-
sivity 0.5 placed 1/4 unit distance from the hottest face and midway
between the 1100º faces, when the thermocouple is (a) spherical,
(b) flat, with faces parallel to the large duct surfaces. Case I, the
system is evacuated. Case II, air flows through the duct in turbulent
flow and in thermal equilibrium with the walls, all wall convection
coefficients being the sarne. The convection coefficient to the ther-
mocouple is 4 Btu/ft 2 hr ºR (19.5 Kcal/m2 hr ºK).
28. Sketch the radiative flux lines and lines of constant energy den-
sity about a circular disk at uniform temperature.
29. A large totally insulated cavity contains two small Lambert
gray bodies of area, emissivity and black emissive power A 1 , E1 , E1
and A 2 , Ez, Ez, respectively. The body dimensions are very small
compared to the distance separating them. What is the net radiative
flux between the bodies when the cavity walls are in radiative equi-
librium?
30. ln a study of the response of fine particles to high temperature
(vaporization, burning, etc.) it is desired to provide a constant radi-
ative environment of the particle during its free fall through a verti-
cal right-circular cylindrical furnace chamber closed at the top and
open at the bottom. To that end the radiative energy density along
the axis of the cylinder is to be kept constant. Set up the relations
for determining the electrical input variation along the furnace walls.
31. A spherical cusp subtending a half-angle of 8 at its center of
curvature has a temperature of 2000º K in room-temperature sur-
roundings. Find the ratio of the flux density onto the interior face
of a small hole drilled in the center of the cusp to that onto a surface
located on the other end of a sphere diameter from the hole and fac-
ing the cusp. Ans: 1.0
32. How black does a 50% black hemisphere look? Complete the
problem statement to make the answer correct. Ans: 2/3
33. How much error is made in calculating radiative flux between
the opposite black faces of a cube the other four walls of which are
in radiative equilibrium, by assuming that the four sidewalls consti-
tute a single zone?
34. A furnace is to be constructed for the continuous enamelling of
rectangular trays or plates. The sidewalls are to be covered with
vertical nichrome strip heaters which can be operated at temperatures
498 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
up to 2560º R (1422º K). The plates are suspended from a recessed
chain conveyor in the roof, hang midway between the walls and par-
allel to them, and occupy 60% of the furnace midplane. The capacity
of the furnace is to be calculated, mass of stock per hour, when the
plates are heated from room temperature to 1660º R (922º K). ln
vertical cross section normal to the chain conveyor line the furnace
is 6 feet high and 4 feet wide from heater-strip plane to heater-strip
plane; and the furnace length is enough greater than its other dimen-
sions to justify two-dimensional treatment. The resistors and stock
both reach from roof to floor. The resistors are gray, of emissivity
O. 74, 1 in. wide and 2.5 in. apart on centers, with flat sides parallel
to the walls. The stock emissivity is 0.8, and its specific heat 0.16.
Intermediate answers: Let the resistors and stock be represented
by (1) and (2). Then (S 1 S 2 h/L == 3.67 ft 2/ft furnace length L. Stock
mass rate
35. A right circular cylindrical pressure vessel 5 ft O.D. and 8 ft
long is to be built into an electric furnace enclosure. It is proposed
to set the cylinder, with axis vertical, into a right-circular cylindri-
cal furnace chamber eight feet high, embedding the ends of the
heated cylinder in the brickwork and surrounding it with a row of
vertical nichrome rod heaters one-half inch in diameter, in a circle
having a diameter of 7 feet. The refractory wall is spaced one inch
from the resistors. External insulation is good. The necessary
maximum flux to the vessel when it is at 1760º R (977º K) is 4X10 6
Btu/hr (1x106 Kcal/hr). Resistors, refractory walls and pressure
vessel are all gray, and have emissivities O. 74, 0.6, and 0.9. How
far apart should the resistors be if their permitted maximum tem-
perature is 2560º R (1422º K)? Suggestion: treat the problem, after
replacing resistors by an equivalent lighter-gray plane, as a three-
zone problem. (b) Recommend the next step in improving the accu-
racy of the simpler solution.
36. ln oil cracking furnaces close control of tube-wall temperature
must be maintained to prevent coking of the cracking stock, a prob-
lem aggravated by the uneven temperature distribution around the
tube circumference. As a step towards determining the variation in
tube-wall temperature, calculate or estimate the total-exchange
area between each element of the tube surface and all the surround-
ing tubes, when the tubes are arranged in two rows with centers on
corners of equilateral triangles and when center-to-center distance/
diameter equals 2. The tubes are gray, with emissivity 0.8. The
PROBLEMS 499
work is shortened somewhat by obtaining direct-exchange areas
from Fig. 2-11.
37. A single row of alloy tubes, 5 in. O.D. and 4 in. I.D. on 10 in.
centers, is mounted in a plane in a furnace parallel to and ata suf-
ficient distance from a refractory backwall to make the variation in
temperature of the latter negligible. The tube row faces into a fur-
nace equivalent to a black body at 2600º R (1444 º K). Oil inside the
tubes is at 1650º R (917º K) and the oil-to-metal heat transfer co-
efficient is 3'00 Btu/ft 2 hr ºF (1464 Kcal/m2 hr ºC), assumed con-
stant around the tube periphery. The thermal conductivity of the
tube metal is 10 Btu/ft hr ºF (14.9 Kcal/m hr ºC). Assuming ex-
ternal convection negligible compared to radiation, find the varia-
tion, with angular position, in outside surface temperature of the
tubes and flux density at the inside and outside metal surfaces. The
tubes are gray, of emissivity O. 7. It is suggested that the thin-tube
approximation be made, i.e., that the radial thermal resistance in
the tube metal be added to the oil-film resistance and that isotherms
in the tube metal be considered radial. (This problem takes several
hours without machine aid.)
38. The radiating characteristics of a V-grooved surface are to be
studied in some detail to find how the intensity of emission varies
with angle of emission, when the material of the groove is a light
gray Lambert emitter and reflector of emissivity E. (a) Find the
value of leaving-flux density W at the apex of the groove of half-
angle a. (b) It is suggested that the groove be divided into five
equal-area zones, each a pair of opposed strips, numbered 1 at the
apex and 5 at the groove mouth. Let the groove be 5 units deep, so
that A per zone is 2/cos a, where O' is the groove half-angle.
Calculate, by the crossed-string method, each si si, where i and j
each run from 1 to 5. Solve the matrix equations for each W i.
Evaluate the effective emissivity E' of the groove mouth viewed
from outside at an angle e to the normal to the mouth, from geo-
metric considerations including an averaging of the Wi -values of
the zones seen from outside. Ans: (a)
Wapex /E == 2E/[1 +E - (1- E) COS 20']
(b) Plots of W/E vs position, for different E' s and a' s; plot of E'/ E
vs e for different E's and a's. (Justifies machine computation.)
39. An electric furnace is to be designed with silicon carbide rod
resistors occupying a plane near to and parallel to the roof. The
stock below is sensitive to any contamination resulting from partic-
ulate material falling from the resistors, on which account it is
proposed to place a curved silicon-carbide catchplate below and
500 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
parallel to each resistor. What is the expected reduction in heat
flux due to the installation of the catchplates or, alternatively, how
much must the resistor temperature be raised to offset their instal-
lation? The radius of the resistor rods is O. 75 in. The catchplates
are quarter cylinders of inside and outside radius 1.25 in. and 1.75
in., centered directly below and concentric with the rods. The re-
sistors and shields both have emissivities of 0.85, and the center-
to-center rod distance is 6 in. The stock below is black at 2060º R
(1144 º K), and is to be heated at the rate of 20,000 Btu/hr per square
foot of the plane of the stock (54,200 Kcal/m2 hr). Ans: Necessary
temperature rise of rods is 80º F (44 º C).
40. A large very-low-pressure gas reactor (volume severa! hundred
cu ft) is to be designed for operation at a temperature so high that
molybdenum must be used as the material of construction in the hot
parts of the system-in multilayer foil over externally cooled walls.
A major problem is thermal isolation of the hot reaction zone from
the cold quenching zone into which the gas is led, without the intro-
duction of any appreciable pressure drop in the gas. The hot reactor
cross section at exit is 5 x 5 feet, and the exit flow cross section
must at no point be less than 6 square feet in area or have any linear
dimension less than 2 feet. Calculations are to be made on the radi-
ative flux along a 5 x 5 ft duct 12 ft long, when it is provided with
three oppositely rooted or staggered baffles mounted across the
stream at 2, 6, and 10 ft from the hot end, each baffle 3 x 5 ft and
leaving a 2 x 5 ft flow passage. Viewed from the duct, the 5 x 5 ft
planes of the reactor exit and quencher entrance are equivalent black
planes at 2500º K and 1000° K, respectively. The sidewalls of the
duct are covered with enough layers of molybdenum to permit ignor-
ing wall losses. Each baffle consists of four thin spaced parallel
foils. Neglecting convection, net radiative exchange at one side of
each baffle equals the net flux across the three gaps formed by the
four plates of the baffle equals the net flux at the other face. Sev-
eral levels of complexity (and validity) are possible in setting up the
problem, including use of the diffuse and specular model of a sur-
face (Chap. 5).
41. The problem of designing
a furnace may go through a
preliminary step of determin-
ing an order-of-magnitude
solution on the basis of a very
much simplified model. Con-
sider the problem of deter-
mining the rate at which stock
spread over the hearth of the
furnace sketched here can be
PROBLEMS 501
heated. Assume the furnace replaceable by a model in which the
combus~ion chamber action is replaceable by a black plane spanning
the vertical plane area extending above the bridgewall 4 ft to the
roof, and having an effective temperature of 2960º R. The stock
with surface temperature 1460ºR, presents a continuous gray pl~ne.
Ass~me that t_he. external losses are balanced on all walls by con-
vect10n to their mterior faces (except the hearth, which is insulated
belo:V); and a_ssume the refractory walls are in radiative equilibrium.
~a~mg t~e s1mplest treatment consistent with this picture--includ-
mg ignormg any effect of hot gases in the chamber--what is the es-
timated rate of energy transfer to the stock? Ans: 4.1x1Q6 Btu/hr
42. ~i~ refineries ar~ forced occasionally to dump and burn large
quanhhes of combushble gases over a short time interval as for
example when a changeover is made from one operation td another.
Assume that the gas so burned can be represented radiation-wise
as a black right circular cylinder 40 ft in diamete; and 40 ft high 'at
3160º R. Assume ~hat the system of burners will be mounted high
enou~h so that durmg the short combustion period the ground stays
at 60 F .. Aroun~ the flame and concentric with it is to be placed a
metal shield, a nght circular cylinder 80 ft diameter and 40 ft high
and coextensive in height with the flame. Assume that the shield is
bat~ed in risi_ng air ~t 60º F, with a convection coefficient 2 Btu/ft2
hr ~. Alummum :v1th an absorptivity and emissivity of 0.1 is to be
cons1dered as a sh1eld material. Calculate the shield temperature.
43. Show that for a beam incident at 45 º to the normal of a dielec-
tric medium, P 11 =Pi for all values of the refractive index n. How
do you reconcile this with the requirement that p 1 / p = o when the
refractive index is such that the Brewster angle i ~45 º?
44. A cubical enclosure has two opposite walls maintained at 300º K
and 1200º K while the other four are in radiative equilibrium. Inter-
na! convection may be ignored. The monochromatic emissivities of
the three kinds of surface are found not to depend on temperature;
they may be assumed adequately described by the following table:
À= O to 7µ À= 7µ to w
Hot face at 1200° K 0.6 0.3
Cold face at 300° K 0.4 0.7
Connecting walls 0.6 0.9
On the assump~ions tha~ the adiabatic connecting walls may be as-
sumed to conshtute a smgle zone at a uniform temperature and that
all surfaces are Lambert surfaces, (a) find the net radiative flux
density at source or sink. (b) Compare with the result obtained by

502 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
assuming the hot and cold surfaces to be gray. and to have emissivi-
ties obtained as wavelength-weighted means, i.e.
'"º' = (o. 6 1: E,"º' dÀ + 0.3 f E,-"º' dÀ) / aT,~,
Ans: (a) 32,300 Kcal/m 2 hr, (b) 61,830 Kc.al/m.2 h~. ~oral: when
different surfaces tend to emit or absorb pnmanly rn d1fferent
wavelength regions, gray-body treatment of radiative interchange
between them is unwarranted.
45. A v groove of 30º half-angle is machined in~o a metal block
massive enough for all its surfaces to be operatrng at the sarne
temperature. Micropyrometer sightings made on the plane surface
and on the apex of the V groove yield temperatures of 1940 K and
2120º K, respectively. Use these measur~m.e?ts to eval_uate ~he sur-
face temperature and emissivity for the hm1hng cases m wh1ch the
surface acts as (a) a diffuse Lambert reflector, (b) a specular re-
flector. The pyrometer has a red-screen filter of effective wave-
length 0.65µ. Assume that the surface emissivity ~s independent of
direction. Ans: (a) 2296° K; E = 0.173. (b) 2308 K; E = 0.163
46. Determine the average flux density leaving a V-groove cavity
with a 30º half-angle when the emittance is 0.5, independ.ent of.di-
rection, the groove is long enough to be tre.at.ed as two~du~en.s10nal,
and conduction along the cavity wall is sufflcient to mamtam ü
isothermal. (a) Treat the surfaces as specular reflectors. (b) Use
a one-zone analysis, with diffusely reflecting walls. (c) Repeat (b),
subdividing the walls of the groove into two zones of equal area.
Ans: (a) 314,000 Btu/(hr) (sq ft); (b) 292,400 Btu/(hr) (sq ft); (c)
288,000 Btu/(hr) (sq ft).
47 If container B in Ritchie's experiment (Fig. 1-3) is heated to a
sufficiently high temperature the indicator in the differential. g~s
thermometer AC would be observed to move. Prove the valldüy of
the statement. As a criterion for the differential flux to A and ~
that will provide motion, use the observation by Richtie that the rn-
dicator moved when B was so oriented that its black surface faced
e· and find the new temperature of B that will give the sarne move-
m'.ent when the central cell is reversed. The following may be as-
sumed: A B and e in Ritchie's experiment were at 25, 100 and
25º e, res~ectively; the emissivity and absorptivity of a silver sur-
face may be approximated by
E = 0.425X10- 4 T' 0.425 X 10-4 (T1 T2 ) 112
Ans: 540º C
PROBLEMS 503
48. In the storage of liquids at cryogenic temperatures in Dewar
flasks it is found that the heat flux across the gap between the double
walls decreases as the temperature of the inside wall decreases.
Explain the apparent paradox of a decrease in heat flux with an in-
crease in the temperature difference. What is the ratio of net fluxes
across the gap to liquid nitrogen (76º K) and to liquid hydrogen
(20º K)? Additional information: (i) the gap is evacuated; (ii) the
walls are front-silvered; (iii) the relations for the emissivity and
absorptivity of silver given in the preceding problem are valid; (iv)
the distance across the gap is small compared to the radius of the
vessel; (v) the outside wall is at ambient temperature. Ans: 1.6
49. Calculate the flux density in the x-y plane at the origin due to
emission from the contents of a rectangular parallelopiped of gas
0
defined by x = -3 to 1, y = -2 to 4 and Z = O to 2 (all in B units)
when K = 0.01 B- 1 and T = 2000º R. Ans: 0.0339 aT4 = 930 Btu/
(hr) (ft 2)
50. Calculate the direct-exchange area between the gas in a 1x2 x 6
parallelopiped and the 1x2 base, when KB based on the smallest di-
.mension is 0.2. The gas and black surface temperatures are TG
and T 8 • Use Figs. 7-13 and 7-16 and Table 7-1. Ans: gs/B2 =0.373
51. Fill in the mean beam lengths missing from Table 7-3 for the
gas in a right circular cylinder with height equal to diameter, radi-
ating to (a) the sidewalls and to (b) the end walls. What error, ex-
pressed as a function of KD, is introduced by use of an average
mean beam length in flux calculations? Which of the average mean
beam lengths would you use for predicting the flux between the end
and sidewalls. Ans: (a) L 0 /D = 0.688, L n/L 0 = 0.806; (b) L 0 /D =
0.623, Lrn/Lo = 0.936
52. Expand the listing in Table 7-3 of gas-to-surface mean beam
lengths for rectangular parallelepipeds and right-circular cylinders,
using the exchange areas presented in Figs. 7-13 to 7-17 and in the
Appendix to Chap. 7. Present intermediate results as Le vs KD,
and then as <P vs KD for the "best" Le, called Lrn.
53. Calculate the mean beam length for gas-surface exchange in a
system of two infinite parallel plates separated by an absorbing gas,
when the absorption-coefficient-distance of separation product is 1.
Using this value as the average mean length, determine the KL
range over which <jJ for surface-surface exchange is (a) within 5%
of unity, (b) within 6%; (e) what is the maximum error in using the
sarne value of Lrn to calculate gas-surface exchange over these KL
ranges: Ans: (a) 0.55:::; KL :::; 1.25; (b) O :::; KL :::; 1.3; (e) 24% for
KL =O; less than 3% for KL > 0.55.
504 RADIATIVE TRANSFER PROBLEMS 505

54. Considera 4x4x6 ft high box full of gray gas which has an Temperature 0-1µ 1-2. 75µ 2. 75-4.5µ 4.5-co
emissivity of 0.33 for a path length of 4 feet. The enclosure is
zoned into cubes and squares two feet on a side. What is the contri- O- 650°C o 0.35 4.5 co
bution of one of the upper corner 2 x 2 x 2 volume elements, the 2 x 2
square in the roof above it, and the 2 x 2 square on the outside side
650- 750°C o 0.25 3.5 co
of it to the net average flux density at a 2 x 2 floor element in the di- 750-1100 o 0.10 4.4 co
agonally opposite corner? The gas is at 2000º F, the roof and side-
wall at 1500° F, and the floor at 500º F. All surfaces are black.
1100-1400 o 0.20 4.4 co
Ans: 222 + 293 + 167 = 682 Btu/hr ft 2
Ans: 5.5 (600° K), 0.65 (1000º K), 0.20 (1200º K), and 0.30 (1500º K),
55. An isothermal gas is confined between two infinite parallel sur- all in cm-1 .
faces of which one is a heat sink and the other an adiabatic refrac-
tory. The gas-surface exchange is to be calculated for the following _59. Calculate the equilibrium temperature distribution and heat flux
conditions: a gray and a non-gray gas, of identical emissivity at the through a slab of window glass whose boundaries are maintained at
average mean beam length for the system; a white refractory which 650 and 1400º C, respectively. The bounding walls are black and the
reflects either specularly or diffusely, and a black refractory. Ar- contribution to the flux by conduction is negligible. Use the values
range the six possible combinations in the order of ascending ex- of the Rosseland mean absorption coefficient from the preceding
change between the gas and the sink-surface. Evaluate the exchange problem.
areas for each of the combinations, given that the sink emissivity is
0.5 and convection is negligible, and that the gas emissivity for dis- 60. A highly absorbing stagnant conducting material is to be used to
tances equal to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 times the clearance between surfaces reduce the heat flux between two parallel black infinite planes at
is 0.185, 0.301, 0.375, 0.421, 0.450, 0.468. Assume that gas emis- temperatures T 1 and T 2 and separated by a distance L. The mate-
sivity and absorptivity are equal (i.e., a picket-fence model for a !j.al is optically thick, has a Rosseland-mean absorption coefficient
non-gray gas). Ans: The total gas-surface exchange area per unit K, and a thermal conductivity À. Calculate (a) the heat flux between
surface area, for the different combinations, is: 0.214, real gas, the plates and (b) the temperature distribution in the insulating ma-
white specular refractory; 0.220, real gas, white diffuse refractory; terial. Neglect scatter. Ans: (a)
0.315, real gas, black refractory; 0.317, gray gas, white specular
refractory; 0.325, gray gas, white diffuse or black refractory. 4
q = -À (T1 -T 2 ) + a(T14 -T2 4 )
L 3KL
56. Use the diffusion formulation of radiative transfer through ab-
sorbing media to calculate the emissive power distribution in a or
stagnant gray gas confined between two infinite parallel gray plates
maintained at different temperatures. How good is the approximate
solution for the emissive power, when the plates are black and are
separated by one mean free path (KL = 1). It is suggested that the
difference between the rates of emission and absorption at different
points in the gas be used as a measure of the adequacy of the ap- where NRc (the radiation-conduction number)isdefinedas4aT13 /KÃ;
proximate solution. (b)

57. Use the diffusion approximation to evaluate the flux density 1 + (NRc/3)[1 + (T 2 /T 1 ) + (T 2 /T 1 )2 + (T2 /T1 )3] X
through a pore whose cross section is circular, square, or a 1 x 2
1 + (NRc/3)[1 + (T/T 1) + (T/T1 ) 2 + (T/T 1 )3 ] L
rectangle, for ratios of the length to minimum dimension of 1.0, 3.0,
and 5.0. Compare the results with the (S 1S2 )R/A factors in Fig. 3-6.
61. Assume that the steady-state emissive power distribution in
58. Calculate the Rosseland mean absorption coefficient of window stagnant gray gas of optical thickness KL confined between two
glass for temperatures up to 1400º C. The wavelength and tempera- black walls with emissive powers E 1 and E 2 is given by
ture dependence of the absorption coefficient, in reciprocal centime-
ters, can be idealized as follows:
506 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
E(x) - E 1 = 1 - aKL + aKx
E2 - Ei 2 each of C0 2 and H 20 lie between two infinite parallel surfaces 10
Find the value of "a" that will satisfy the equation of transfer at (a)
x =O, and (b) x = L/2. (c) Show that values of E(x) calculated by use
of the two values of "a" bound the true E(x). Ans: (a) a= [1 -&2 (KL)]/
{1- 2&3 (KL) + KL[l -&2 (KL)]}; (b) a= 1/[KL+ 2&2(KL/2)/&2 (KL/2)].
62. Calculate the temperature distribution in an optically thin stag-
nant gray gas (KL ___,O) confined betwee.n: two black plates maintained
at T 1 and T 2 , with IT1 - T 2 << T 1 . (K is the Planck-mean ab-
1
sorption coefficient, L is the spacing between plates, À the thermal
conductivity of the gas, and x the distance from plate 1.) Ans:
T(x) - T1 = _ [l + sinh 'ÍR ~ - sinh 'ÍR (1 - ~)]
21
sinh ".iR
where
R = 16aTA~ KL 2/Ã =4NRc(KL) 2
63 Formulate the effective bulk conductivity of a system of thin
pa~allel gray metal sheets of emissivity E in a unidimensional tem-
perature field with gradient normal to the parallel plates. The ma-
terial between plates has a thermal conductivity of À, and is a g_ray
absorber-emitter with absorption coefficient K. The plate spacmg
is B too small to permit natural convection between plates. The
over~ll temperature difference between outside plates is much less
than the absolute mean system temperature. Case I. KB >> 1.
Case II. KB << 1. See problems 60 and 62.
64. The gases leaving an open-hearth furnace regenerator flo~ in
large underground ducts to waste-heat boilers. A_ run of 4 ft drnme-
ter pipe above ground for some distance is the obJect of some con-
cern over possible heat lasses. The heat transfer rate and temper-
ature drop in the pipe per foot of length are ~o be es~imated f~r the
following conditions: gas temperature entermg sechon, 1200 F; gas
composition, 11.4% C0 2, 11.4% H 20, 5.1% 0_2, _83.5% N2 by volum~;
gas velocíty, 30 ft/sec; gas convection coefhcient, 2.1 Btu/(hr) (ft )
(ºF); specific heat of gas (assume constant),_ o._32 Btu/lb. HoV: mu?h
will the gas drop in temperature, due to radrnhon and convecho_n, m
a 100 ft run when the overall coefficient of heat transfer from mner
duct surfac~ to outside air at 70º F is 0.5 Btu/(ft2) (hr) (ºF).
Ans: 62° F
PROBLEMS 507
65. Products of hydrocarbon combustion containing 10% by volume
feet apart. One surface is a black sink at 1800° R. The other sur-
face is a radiatively adiabatic white refractory. The gas tempera-
ture varies linearly with distance from 2000º R at the sink to 3000º R
at the refractory. Find the net flux at the sink surface, given that
convection is negligible and that the gas emissivity and absorptivity
may be approximated by a gray-plus-clear mixture- Eg = O' gs =
0.484 (1 - e-o.o1E ). Assume that the reflection at the refractory is
(a) specular (b) diffuse. Ans: (a) 1.98x10 4 Btu/(hr) (ft 2); (b)
2.08x10 4 Btu/(hr) (ft 2).
66. An upright cylindrical furnace six feet in diameter and twelve
feet long has its ends and walls made of a refractory brick, three
inches thick and with a thermal conductivity of 1 Btu/(hr) (ft) (ºF).
The walls are lined with vertical 2 in. O.D. tubes at a center-to-
center distance of four inches. The furnace is fired at a rate of 10
million Btu/hr with (CH 2 )x (net heat of combustion 18,400 Btu/lb at
60º F) and 20% excess air, both entering at 60º F. The recirculation
within the furnace is such that the furnace can be treated as well
stirred. What is the net flux to the sinks if (a) the tube walls are at
1000° F and have an emissivity of 0.9, (b) the refractory emissivity
is 0.5, (c) the heat transfer coefficient to the tube and refractory
surfaces is 3.0 Btu/(hr) (ft 2) (º F), (d) the ambient temperature is
70º F, (e) the heat transfer coefficient at the outside surface is 2.0
Btu/(hr) (ft2) (ºF). One lb mole of CH 2, on combustion, produces
1.0 lb mole C0 2 , 1.0 H 20, 0.302, 6. 77N 2, and the mean molal heat
capacity of the combustion products above a base of 60º F may be
approximated by 7 .12 + O. 00046T where T is in ºR. Ans: Several
approximate solutions possible. Assuming gray gas, speckled fur-
nace, adiabatic refractory, 4.02x10 6 Btu/hr. Assuming real gas,
speckled furnace, white adiabatic refractory, 3.94xl0 6 Btu/hr.
These results bracket the correct answer (íf furnace well-stirred).
67. The performance of a furnace for thermal cracking to produce
ethylene and propylene, constructed as in the accompanying vertical
cross section, is to be predicted. The stock, after being preheated
in the convection bank, is passed through the double row of tubes
located in the middle of the furnace between refractory walls in
which four rows of gas burners are embedded. By adjusting the
amount of gas fired in the different burner rows the heat flux distri-
bution can be adjusted to maximize the olefin yields and minimize
coking. Develop a calculational scheme for determining heat-flux
distribution to the tube bank. Assume (a) that the furnace is very
long in its third dimension, (b) that the heat transfer at any level
can be formulated in terms of the local gas mean-enthalpy tempera-
ture and the local surface temperature, (c) that operation is steady
intime.
508 RADIATIVE TRANSFER PROBLEMS 509

Additional data: (1) The tubes Test Hx 10-6, Excess lb Moles Bridgewall
are 5 in. O.D., mounted on 10-in. No. Btu/hr Air (%) Flue-gas/hr Temp. (ºF)
equilateral triangular centers. Out-
side tube wall temperature is 1100º F 1 46.93 55 1954 1390
and tube emissivity is 0.9. (2) The 2 56.41 105 2926 1430
fuel is (CH2) x• fired in premix burn-
ers with 20% excess air, both air and 3 50.32 35 1872 1490
fuel entering at 60 º F. The net heat- 4 51.86 33 1990 1490
ing value of the fuel is 18,400 Btu/lb.
The heat liberation rate can be as- 5 56.90 66 2703 1430
sumed constant over the entire 6 64.96 39 2533 1455
burner wall ata value of 40,000
Btu/hr ft2. (3) Mean heat capacity 7 62.22 50 2680 1440
of combustion products over the in- 8 60.56 55 2702 1430
terval 520º R (60° F) to T ºR is
7.5 + 0.004T Btu/lb mole. (4) Dis- 11 49.03 119 2678 1400
tance from burner wall to furnace 12 52.50 92 2561 1450
midplane is 3 ft. Furnace height to
convection bank is 40 ft. (5) Refrac- H is measured a~ove a dead state at 60 º F. * Assume the outside tube
tory is gray and has an emissivity temperature 900 F, tube emissivity 0.9, and convection coefficient
of 0.65. 2.0 Btu/hr ft 2 º F. It is desirable but not necessary to use all the
~ests. Tests 2, 3, and 7 representa good spread in the data. To aid
68. A high-temperature furnace to m shortening calculations assume that the mean molal heat capacity
to to which Eq. (14-30) is applicable op- over the tem.perature interval T 0 = 520º R to any temperature be-
Burner Burner erates with T = 0.8, C8 E1 = 0.3, a twee~ the bndgewa~l temperature and the adiabatic flame tempera-
fuel firing rate of 800 gallons oil/hr tur~ i~ ~.4 - (fract10n~l excess air)/4. Also assume that the gas
of net heating value 150,000 Btu/gal, an air preheat, above the base em1ssivity, based on ngorous calculations using Figs. 6-9 to 5.,.12,
temperature of T 0 , which gives the air an enthalpy 40% of that of or 6-14, can be approximated by
the fuel, an adiabatic flame temperature, without preheat, of 4500º R
(high to compensate for the assumed constant specific heat), a total Eg = [132 (pc + Pw) L + 423]/Tg
furnace envelope area of 5000 ft2, and a gray-flame emissivity of
0.4. What is the efficiency of the furnace? The furnace-regenerator where p = atm, L = ft, T = ºR. (Valid over range of (p + p )L = 2
system? Ans: 0.21, 0.29 t? 3.ft atm, and Tg = 2100 to 3500° R.) Suggestion: UsecEq. w(14-30),
fmdmg that value of B which fits each test. If B varies little
69. It is desired to test methods of predicting furnace performance enoug~, a co.nst.ant value may be used in predictions of performance.
with actual furnace data. Some reliable measurements were made J!'.Xpenence md1cates that a relation, based on Eq. (14-30), which
some years ago on a furnace burning refinery gas of stoichiometric flts all the data on a single furnace can be obtained by assuming
composition (CH3 ) x· The radiant section of the furnace had a volume (GS 1 )R constant.
of 16,090 ft3 anda total surface area of 3870 ft2, over 1880 ft2 of
which a single row of 5 in. O.D. parallel tubes was placed, on 10-in.
centers; the remainder of the walls was refractory. The summa-
rized results of a number of tests at different firing rates and ex-
cess air follow:

*Water as vapor.
 INDEX 511

Conductors ( see metais) Direct-exchange area

Configuration factor, 25 definition, 25
Contour integration, 43, 47 between finite surfaces, 50
circular disks, 34, 42, 52
SUBJECT INDEX double, 55
Convection coefficient in cylindrical furnace, 481 concentric cylinders, 53
Cosine contour integration, 43-50
law, modification due to absorption in elliptical disks, 43
Black-band width, 211-218 finite and infinitesimal surfaces, 39
Absorptance depth, 23
constant-k model, 217
line ( see black-line width) cos e fire fronts, 33
band ( see black-band width) Elsasser model, 214 gas-containing systems, table, 274
definition, 380
Absorption bands, overlap of, 224 statistical model, 215 gas-to-gas, 258
absorbing sphere, 404
superimposed Elsasser bands, 217 . gas-to-surface, 258, 261, 285, 303
Absoprtion coefficient large transparent spheres, 389
triangular (Schack) model, 211 infinitesimal strips, 37
brnsh, 202 use in diffusion formulation, 427
definition, 22, 202-203 Blackbody, 5 Cows, view-factor to, 70 new factors from old, 59-65
Black-line width, 209-211 optically thin media, 262
Doppler-broadened line, 206 Cracking-coil furnaces, 313
collision-broadened, 209 parallel strips, 33
glasses, 334 Cramer's mie, 93, 302
Doppler-broadened, 209 partially shaded surfaces, 65
Lorentz-broadened line, 206 Crossed-string method, 31
top-hat profile, 209 Cross section (also, see efficiency factor) reciprocity, 25, 60
particle clouds, 243
triangular model, 210 rectangles, 34, 3942, 49-52, 57, 60-63
Planck-mean, 358 for absorption, extinction, scatter,
Rosseland-mean, 358 Black radiator, 5 definition, 378 relation to heat flux vector, 47
scattering media, 378, 40841 O Bouger-Lambert law, 21, 201
absorption c., large black particles, 202 satellites, 65
Broadening, line
top-hat profile, +o9 capture c., for a molecule, 203 single gas zone, recapitulation, 320
natural, collision, Doppler, 205-211
Absorption index, 128 Cube spheres, 30, 46, 54
Brnsh, radiation through, 202
Absorptivity ( also, see emmissivity) interchange among surfaces of, 182-185 surface-to-surface through gas, 25 8
of non-ideal surfaces, 171 Capture cross section of a molecule, 203 exchange areas in gas-containing, 268 symmetrical systems, 30
relation to emissivity Carbon dioxide radiation Cylinders, concentric, two-dirnensio'nal systems, 31
at equilibrium, 5 absorptivity-emissivity relation, 221, 228 application of Yamauti principie, 59 Directional emissivity of surfaces, 134, 140, 175
in gases, 221 band, 230 specular-diffuse walls, 180 Disk exchange area
surface, definition, 125 charts, 228, 229, 300 diffnsion through gray gas between, 335 between parallel disks, 52
Action-at-a-distance, 3 compilation of data, 227, 229 view factor between, 53, 68 use to generate new exchange areas, 64
Additivity of solutions, 76, 353 historical, 199 zoned, exchange areas, 268, 289-296 with small element, 42
Adiabatic zones ( see radiative-equilibrium) mixtures with water vapor, 231-234 Cylindrical furnace, 464, 480 Dispersion, anomalous, 140
Air, radiation from, 238 pressure dependence, 228 Displacement constants, summary table, 18
Albedo for single scatter, 380 Schack model calculations, 218 Delta function Distribution of flux density over surface, 39
Ammonia vapor, radiation from, 236 Carbon monoxide radiation, 234 Kronecker, 84 Divergence of radiation, 7
Angle factor (see direct-exchange area) Cavities Dirac, 419 Doggerel-The Plancks Law Ditty, 13
Angular dependence of emissivity of conical, 120 Determinants, 93 Doppler
insulators, 131 cylindrical, 120 Dielectrics black-line width, 209
rectangular, 120, 144 definition, 127 broadening, 206
Apertures, flux through, 106
spherical, 80, 120 properties, 129-132, 150 half-width, 207
temperature along walls, 108-109
symmetrical V-groove, 120, 144, 186 Diffraction, 386, 391
Attenuation, basic laws of, 201 Díffuse reflectance ( see reflectivity) Economic optirnum resistor spacing, 444
Attenuation coefficient (see extinction Chemical composition of glasses, 242
Chemilurninescence, 200 Diffusion Eddy diffusion coefficients in cylindrical
coefficient)
Average mean beam length, 257, 285 Clear-gas c~mponent, 248, 319 of photons, effect of pressure, 3 furnace, 482
Clouds of particles, radiation from, 243 radiation as a d. process, 326-341 Effective emissivity (see emissivity, effective)
Coa!, pulverized, flame radiation, 244 in scattering media, 426 Efficiency of furnace, 461
Band Co-factor of determinant, 93 through absorbing medium Efficiency factor
absorptance, 211 derivation of equations, 326-330 definition, 379
equivalent black-width of, 211, 239 Collision
broadening, 205 in non-gray media, 331 large particle
emission, 211 through pores, 339 diathermanous particles, 386
frequency,205
lirnits, 211 Dírected-flux area, 187, 281, 360 diffraction, 391
models half-width, 206
Combustion patterns in furnaces, 480 for Elsasser model, 284 opaque diffuse reflectors, 382
constant-k, 217 for triangular-band model, 283 opaque specular reflectors, 381
Elsasser, 214, 219 Combustion products, radiation from, 200
Compilation of gas emissivities, 225 from total-emissivity data, 282 specular total reflectors, 380
Mayer-Goody, or. statistical, 215, 219
Compilation of surface emissivities, 159 for weighted sum of gray gases, 283 small particle
Schack, 212, 218 asymptotic Mie solution, 399
Concentric cylinders (see cylinders, concentric) Direct exchange, 25
Batch furnace, 448 n approaching infinity, 400
Conduction between black surfaces, 25, 26
Beam length, mean, 257 Rayleigh scatter, 394
gaseous, contras! with radiation, 1 in systems containing gray gas, table, 274
Beer-Lambert law, 208, 224
Beer's law, 203, 217 unsteady, in furnace heat sink, 488

510
512 RADIATNE TRANSFER INDEX 513

Efficiency factor ( cont.) Energy balance, total Flux density vector (cont.) Index of refraction
Mie equations absorbing gas, !-dimensional, 354 contrast with conduction, 3 real, 10
absorbing spheres, 403 absorbing gas, 3-dirnensional, 375 field about strip, 69 complex, 128
large spheres, 401 absorbing-scattering media, 426 relation to view factor, 45 Infinite parallel planes (see parallel planes)
non-absorbing spheres, 402 non-absorbing gas, 102 F orm factor, 25 Integral equatiorts
refractive index near one, 400 Energy density Fractional coverage ofwalls with sinks, 314 formulation, non-absorbing media, Lambert
spheres of infinite refractive index, 406 definition, 1O Fraction of blackbody radiation lying below À, surfaces, 73-7 6
distribution about strip, 69 187, 188 non-absorbing media, non-Lambert
Electrical network analogy, 92
Electric vector, surface radiation, 173 monochromatic, 13 Fredholm integral equation, 76 surfaces, 172, 177
Electromagnetic waves, 122 · relation to radiation pressure, 11 Fresnels' equations, 197 gray gas, 349
relation to W, 118 Fuel-fired furnaces, 450 non-gray gas, 358
Elsasser model
Energy levels of molecules, 199 Fuel-oil flames, radiation from, 244 solutions
black band width, 214
relation to single line emission, 204 Furnace efficiency, reduced, 461 absorbing gas, 350-354
application, 219
Equation of transfer Furnaces, applications to, 438-488 flux through apertures, 108
Emissive power gray gas, 349-350 electric resistor, 439-450 non-absorbing gas, 83, 106-112
hemispherical flux density, 9 fuel-fired, 450-488 Integrated line intensity, 206, 210
non-gray gas, 358
relation to intensity, 9 scattering volume, 411 long, 453, 459 Intensity
Emissivity of absorbing-scattering medium, Equilibrium, radiative, in enclosures, 78 well-stirred, 459 definition, 7
147,418 among energy states, 6, 21, 204 angular distribution above slab, 24, 343-346
Emissivity of cavity, 80, 120, 144, 186 Equilibrium temperature of no-flux surfaces, 306 Gas change with refractive index, 8-10
Emissivity ( emittance) of surfaces, 140, 186 Equilibrium zones, 86 absorptivity and emissivity, 199-252 invariant character along a pencil, 7
definition, 124 in non-gray systems, 190 emissivity, definition, 203 maxirnum, relative to À, 15
compilation in table, 149-168 in enclosure of 1 gray gas zone, 306 emissivity charts, 200, 229, 232-240 relation to emissive power, 9
homogeneous materials, 150 Equivalent black band width, 211 emissivity, pressure dependence of, 223 relation to energy density, 1O
miscellaneous, 152, 159 Equivalent black line width, 209 Gas-gas exchange area, 262-273 Interference, 124
oxides, 151 Equivalent-plane emissivity, 118, 439-411 Gas-surface exchange are a ( see direct or total International Flame Foundation, 245, 247, 451
directional Exchange area (see direct or total exchange area) exchange are a) Isothermal gases, radiative exchange in systems
absorbing media, 13 2 Exchange areas in absorbing media, table, 274 Geometrical problems of gas-radiative exchange, containing, 298-325
dielectrics, 129 Exchange, radiative 256 Isotropic surface radiation, 172
metals, 139 among ideal surfaces, 25, 73 Geometrical projection to evaluate exchange Isotropic scatter (see Scatter)
graphical presentation, 126 among non-ideal surfaces, 172 area, 29 lterative methods, 105, 358
hemispherical, 124, 132, 134, 140 by diffusion, 326 Glasses, chemical composition of, 242
non-ideal, 171 in enclosures containing single gas zone, 298 Glass melts, radiation properties, 240 Kernel of integral equation, 77
spectral, 124, 136, 138 in non-isothermal gas systems, 343, 366, 472 Glass plates Kirchhoffs law
state of polarization in scattering media, 408, polarization effects, 195 and total-exchange area, 72
absorbing media, 133 Excitation vector, 84 spectral characteristics, 240 for gases, 20, 201
dielectrics, 130 Exponential integrals, definition and properties, Gray gas, definition, 22 for surfaces, 5
metals, 136 362 Gray surface in relation to monochromatic radiation, 6
Emissivity ( emittance) of gases Exponential series, 249 definition, 21 proof by Ritchie's experirnent, 6
air, 23 9-240 Extinction coefficient, 201, 378 the gray Lambert surface, 23 Kronecker delta, 84
ammonia, 236-237
carbon dioxide, 227-229 Fire fronts, radiation from, 33, 202 Harlech, Men of, 13 Lambert
carbon monoxide, 234 Firing density, reduced, 461 Heat-flux vector (see flux-density vector) Bouger-Lambert law, 21, 201
C0 2 -H 2 0 mixtures, 231-233 effect of, on heat flux distribution, 485 Heat transfer coefficient, equivalent, due to gas cosine law, 23
compilation, 225-247 Flow, gas, in furnaces, effects of different radiation, 301 gray L. surface, 23
glass, 240-243 patterns, 465 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 205 L. reflector, 23
historical development, 199 Flux density Helmholtz, law of reciprocity, 12 Leaving-flux density W, 73, 78, 172
hydrogen chloride, 237 from blackbody-emissíve power, 9 Hemispherical emittance, ratio to normal, 147 of a diffuse-specular surface, 178
methane, 239-240 normal to layers in !-dimensional system, 12 Hohlraum, 5 Legendre polynomials, 428
nitric oxide, 238 through apertures, 106 Hollow enclosure, radiative equilibrium in, 4 Linearization method, 104
nitrogen dioxide, 238-239 vectors, 118 Huygens-Fresnel principle, 391 Line
pressure dependence, 223 gas-to-surface, 256 Hydrogen chloride radiation, 237 absorptance, 209
relation to absorptivity, 221, 228 incident, leaving, and reflected, 74 broadening, 205
sulfur dioxide, 234-235 Flux density distribution, 39, 480 Ideal surfaces, 171 emission, 19..9, 204-211
water vapor, 228-232 Flux density vector Ijmuiden, 245 half-width, 205-208
Emissivity, effective, of resistor arrays, 439 formulation, 44 Image construction, specular reflection, 173 intensity, 206
Enclosure in equilibrium, 78 by contour integration, 47-50 Incident-flux density H, 74, 177 shape, 206
514 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
INDEX 515
Long furnace, 453 Optirnum resistor spacing, 444 Pores
Overlap of absorption bands, 224, 233 diffuse, among non-Lambert surfaces 176
Lorentz dispersion formula, spectral line shape, flux through, 106 177, 185 ' '
206,217 Oxides, radiative properties of, 151 diffusion through, 339 partia!, 125, 142-152
derivation of black-line width from, 209 Powdered-coal particles, radiation from, 243 Refraction
Luminosity of flames, 245 Pressure dependence
Parallel planes, infinite Snell's law for absorbing media, 135
gas emissivity for non-absorbing media, 7-1 O
diffusion through gas between, 337
Machine computation carbon dioxide, 228 Refractive índex, effect of change, on intensity
gray gas absorption in, 357
of surface systems, 100 theory, 223 along a penei! of radiation, 7
non-gray gas absorption in, 350-356
gas-containing systems, 477 water vapor, 231 Refractory emissivity, effect of on radiative
surface radiation, 76, 173
Maxwell velocity distribution, 206 line half-width, 207, 228 transfer, 315, 317
Partia! reflectance, 148
Mayer-Goody model ( see statistical model) Pressure, radiation 11 Refractory zones ( see equilibrium zones)
Particles
Mean beam length, 257, 273, 277 in layered syste~, 12 Res1stor array, effective emissivity of, 439
extinction efficiency of ( see efficiency
for a real gas, 285 relation to energy density, 11 refractory-backed gray, 112-118
factor)
for selected configurations, 280 Projection, area of large particles, 203 Resistor-plane efficiency, 442
radiation from clouds of, 201, 243
Mean free path Projection method Response vector, 84
radiation from in furnaces, 48 7
of photons, effect of pressure on, 3 derivation, 28 Ritchie's experiment, 5
comparison of, in conduction and in Peakedness, 434 application, 67
Performance, thermal, of well-stirred furnaces, Rosseland-mean absorption coefficient, 332, 358
radiation, 2 Pseudo conductivity for radiation, 334 Rotat10nal energy leveis, 204, 211
Metal 463 Pulverized-coal flame, radiation from, 243
Petroleum heaters, 313 Rough surfaces, radiative properties of, 141-144
reflectivity ( emissivity)
theory, 136-140 Phase function Radiant flux vector ( see flux vector)
experimental, 152-159 definition, 378 Radiating temperature, effective, 343, 462-468 Satellite, view factor, 64-67, 70
Mie equations, 397-402 Mie solution Radiation pressure, 12 Scatter, extinction coefficient ( also, see effi-
asymptotic form for small particles, 399 absorbing spheres, 406 Radiative equilibrium in enclosures 78 c1ency factor), 379, 408
large sphere, 401 non-absorbing spheres, 403 Radiative-equilibrium zones, 86 ' fraction back-scattered, 404, 430, 433
non-absorbing sphere, 402 large particles enclosing gray gas, 306 Scatter, multiple
refractive index near one, 400 diathermanous, 386 in non-gray systems, 190 anisotropic, 428
Methane, radiation from, 239, 240 diffraction pattern, 391 temperature, 306 ~nisotropic compared with isotropic, 434
Minor of determinant, 94 opaque diffuse reflectors, 382 Radiatively adiabatic zones (see radiative- 1sotropic, 413-426
Mirrors, Hall of, 193 opaque specular reflectors, 381 equilibrium zones) method of discrete ordinates, 428
Momentum of jet, effect of on flame radiation, specular total reflector, 380 Radiator, perfect, 5 single-scatter approximation, 413
245,452 small particles Radiosity (see flux-density, leaving) six-flux approximation, 433
Multiple reflection, effect of polarization, 173 Rayleigh scatter, 394 Rainbow, 388 two-flux method, 430
Multizoned enclosure with n approaching infinity, 400 Rayleigh-Gans scatter, 396 Scatter diagram (also, see phase function), 374
containing gray gas, 302 Photon diffusion ( see diffusion) Rayleigh-Jeans equation, 14 Schack model for band emission, 211-213, 218
specular and diffuse reflection in, 305 Planck's constants, 14, 15 Rayleigh scatter, 392 Second law of thermodynamics, and equilibrium
Planck's law, 13 efficiency factors, 394 radiation, 5
Natural gas flame, radiation from, 245 emissive power, 14 phase function, 393 Self-irradiation exchange area, 265
Natural line broadening, 205 energy density from, 14 ratio of scatter to absorption, 396 Shaded areas, view factors to, 66, 70
Nitric oxide radiation, 238 intensity, 14 Ray tracing, 78, 196 Shape correction factor, 257, 277, 285
Nitrogen dioxide radiation, 238 lirniting form (Rayleigh-Jeans), 14 Real gas, representation of radiation from 24 7 Shape modulus, 25
Non-gray gas radiation, allowance for with lirniting form (Wien), 14 allowance for, in gas-surface exchange, '279, Shape of spectral lines, 206
single gas zone, 309 Planck-mean absorption coefficient, 358 309,463 Six-flux method, 432
unidimensional non-isothermal system, 357 Plasma, 205 Reciprocity, applied to Size parameter for single-particle scatter, 380
Non-gray surfaces, interchange among, 186, 310 Plug-flow in furnaces, 465 direct-exchange area, 25 Slab, gas-surface and surface-surface exchange
Non-flux surfaces (see radiative equilibrium Point, round vs. flat, 27 total-exchange area, 72 area, 266
zones) Point source approxirnation, 30 Reciprocity, Helmholtz, law of, 12 Snell's law, 9
Non-homogeneous materiais, radiative Polarization, 124, 171 Recirculatory flow in furnaces, 465, 481 Soot radiation, 200
properties of, 145 effect on radiative exchange between Rectangle, exchange area with luminosity of flames, 245
Non-ideal surfaces, 171 et seq. surfaces, 173, 194 rectangle, 60-62 Source function, 412
Non-Lambert surfaces, exchange among, 175 of radiation reflected by small element, 40-42, 48-50 Speckled enclosure, single gas zone, 298
Non-luminous flames, radiation from 200 dielectrics, 131 strip, 50-52 gray gas, 312
Normal emissivity, 125 absorbing media, 132 Reflectance of glass-plate system, 196 real gas, 316
metais, 139 Reflected-flux density R, 74, 175 Specular-diffuse model of surface radiation
Oil droplet absorption, 389 states of, 124 Reflectivity (reflectance) 177, 180 ,
Oil (residual fuel) flame emission, 244 Polarized beam definition, 125 Specular and diffuse reflection, effect on ex-
Opacity of flames, 297 reflection of, 171 bidirectional, 125 change in enclosure of single gas zone, 305
Optical depth, 206 locus of electric vector, 123 diffuse, 125 Specular reflection, 173, 185
516 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
Sphere
gas-surface and surface-surface exchange
area, 266
with specular-diffuse walls, 180
view factor between parts of, 54
Spheres, concentric, 79
gray gas between, 336
Spherical cavities, 80
Square-of-the-distance law, 26
Squares, exchange areas (gas systems), 269
Statistical model, 215, 219
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 20
Stefan-Boltzmann law, 20
Stirred chamber, 298
Stokes
equations for reflectance and transmittance,
197
parameters, 173
theorem, 48, 5 7
String, crossed, method for two-dimensional
systems, 31
Strips, parallel, 118, 440
Strip-to-strip exchange area through gas, 271
Sulfur dioxide radiation, 234
Surfaces, ideal, 171, 122-168
Surface-surface exchange, 25, 72, 172
Temperature
effect on gray-surface E and a, 23, 24
effect on properties of non-ideal surfaces,
171
effective radiating, 348
gradient in, in gases, 343, 366
jump, at gas-solid interface, 331
meaning, in non-equilibrium gas, 204
radiation t., definition, 2
variation of weigh ting factors with, in gas
radiation, 251
Thermal conductivity, effective for radiation,
335
Three-zone enclosure, 81
Total absorptivity, emissivity, 204
Total energy balance (see energy balance,
total)
Total-exchange area
enclosure of non-absorbing medium
definition, 72
derivation, 85
allowance for radiative-equilibrium
(refractory) zones, 87
black-and-refractory zone system, 95
concentric spheres, cylinders, 79
parallel plates, 76
source, sink, and refractory, 81
spherical cavities, 80
two gray source-sinks, and refractory
zones, 96
INDEX 517
three gray source-sinks plus black and re-
Wall heat-flux distribution, in a furnace, 484 Wien equation, 19
fractory zones, 99 Water-vapor
enclosure of absorbing-scattering medium Window glass, hemispherical emissivity of, 243
band,219
definition, 297, 354
compilation of radiation data, 228 Yamauti principie, 60
derivations 368-371 emissivity, 220
allowance for scatter, 4 26 applied to absorbing systems, 259
pressure dependence of radiation, 231
allowance for specular and diffuse re- radiation, historical, 199 Zone
flection, 305 method of solving integral equation, 83
multi-zoned enclosure, single gray gas Wave description of radiation, 122
Weighted sum of gray gases allowance for radiative-equilibrium z., 87
zone,302 Zoning
fit of emissivity data, 247-252
non-gray gas, 309, 373 in absorbing gas, 354, 368
application, 358
numerical example, 472-480 in absorbing-scattering media, 425
single source-sink surrounding gray gas, 301 Well-stirred enclosure, 298, 323, 459 as effected by specular reflection, 175
Total extinction coefficient, 201 effect of departure from perfect stiring, 462 coarse vs fine, 115
tube-still application, 468 criteria for sizing, non-absorbing inedium, 88
Total interchange among surfaces
Wien's displacement law, 16 in furnaces, 4 70-480
Lambert surfaces, 72
non-Lambert surfaces, 72
Total-interchange area (see total-exchange area)
Total-radiation measurements on gases, 200
Total view factor, 442
Transfer matrix, 84
Transmittance
of glass-plate system, 197
through gas slab
from a plane, 265
from an infinitesimal gas layer, 265
Triangular
line model, 210
band (Schack) model, 211-213
Tube-row
distribution of flux density, 39
net exchange with plane, 113, 117
radiation problems, 33, 70, 112
two rows, 36, 114
Tube-to-strip-through-gas exchange area, 271
Tube-to-tube-through-gas exchange area, 271
Two-dimensional systems
containing gas, exchange areas, 270
involving specular reflection, 174
view factors and exchange areas, 31
Two-flux method, 432
Tyndalls' experiment, 19
Uncertainty principie, natural line broadening,
205
Unidimensional temperature field, 343-362
Vector
electric, 122
excitation, 84
flux v. and energy density, 69
representation of fluxes, 43
response v., 84
Vibrational energy leveis, 204, 210
View factor (see direct-exchange area)

Abeles, F ., 135
Adams, E.Q., 159, 160, 161,
163, 164, 165, 166, 167
Albers, L.U., 83, 120
Aschkinass, E., 137
Bacon, J.E., 162
Bailey, K., 238
Baker, R.L., 405
Barnes, B.T., 159, 160, 161,
163, 164, 165, 166, 167
Beattie, J. E., 135
Becker, H.A., 481
Beer, J.M., 245, 4 71
Bellman, R.E., 421
Benedict, W.S., 206, 207,
221
Bennett, H.E., 142
Bennett, J.E., 142
Berry, E.H., 143
Bevans,J.T.,58, 75, 171, 173,
225
Binkley, E.R., 159
Birbebak, R.C., 144, 149
Blevin, W.R., 409
Blumer, H., 401
Bobco, R.P., 171
Bock, R.0., 135
Boelter, L.M.K., 30
Bouguer, P., 143
Boyer, M.W., 245
Brandenberg, W.M., 143
Broeze, J .J ., 245
Brooks, F.A., 229
Brown, W.J., 409
Buckley, H., 83, 120
Bullrich, K., 410
Burch, D.L., 220, 231
Burgess, G.K., 160, 162, 163
Catton, I., 156
Cauchy, A., 133
Chandrasekhar, S., 145, 358,
408,421,430,434
Chang, T.Y., 243
Cherry, V.H., 30
Chigier, N.A., 471
Chin, J.S., 404, 410
Christie, A.W., 143
Chu, C.M., 420, 421, 427,
430,434
Churchill, S.W., 404, 409, 410,
420,421,427,430,434
AUTHOR INDEX
Clark, G.C., 409
Clasen, R., 399, 404, 405
Clausen, O.W., 143
Coblentz, W.H., 160, 234
Cohen, E.S., 268, 365, 470
Collins, J.R., 135
Calvin, C.B., 405
Conn, G.K.T., 135
Coovdale, T.C., 405
Coulson, K.L., 434
Craya, A., 466
Cunningham, F.G., 70
Curnutte, J., 206, 207
Curtet, R., 466
Czerny, M., 331, 333, 338
Dalzell, W.H., 410
Dastar, M.N., 162
Dave, J., 434
Davis, D.D., 30
Davison, B., 326
Davisson, C., 139, 163
Daws, L.F., 120
Debye, P., 389
Deirmendjian, D., 399, 404,
405,410
Deissler, R.G., 330, 335, 336
De Volo, N.B., 156
De Vos, J.C., 120
Ditchburn, R.W., 141
Donn, B., 410
Dorr, J., 351, 356, 372
Drake, R.M., 75
Drude, P., 135, 136
Dunkle, R.V., 134, 225
Eckert, E.R.G., 30, 75, 83,
120, 132, 144, 149, 171,
173, 185,200,218,227,
229,277
Edenholm, H., 244
Edwards,D.K., 156, 171, 173,
200,207,221,225,227,234
Egbert, R.B., 200, 220, 221,
227,229,231
Einstein, T.H., 372
E!dridge, R.G., 404
Eller, E., 351, 356, 372
Elsasser, W.M., 200, 212, 214,
219,284
Ergun, S., 245
Erickson, W.D., 243, 410
Erkku, H., 268, 289, 480
518
Evans, L.B., 421, 430, 434,
469
Fahimian, E.J., 129, 148, 405
Fahrenport, Jacob, 223, 227
Fery, C., 162
Feshback, H., 331
Fillipov, L.P., 326
Fock, V., 47
Foote, P.D., 43, 137, 162,
163
Forsythe, W.E., 159, 160,
161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167
Poster, P.J., 243, 245
Friedman, S.J., 481
Furthmann, E., 159, 160, 161,
162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167
Gardon, R., 240
Garner, W.E., 200
Gebhart, B., 75
Geffecken, W., 331
Geiss, W., 163
Genkin, V., 47
Genzel, L., 331, 333, 334, 338
Gerald, C., 243
Gershun, A., 47, 267
Gier, J.T., 225
Gilbert, L.A., 245
Giovanelli, R.B., 146, 147
Gokcen, N.A., 162
Goller, G.N., 162
Goody,R.M., 199,212,330
Gouffe, A., 120
Grafton, J.C., 70
Gray, L.D., 275
Grosch, R.J., 351, 430
Guerrieri, S.A., 200, 218, 234
Gumprecht, R.O., 379
Gurevic, M.M., 4 7
Guttman, A., 238, 239
Hadvig, S.A.P., 232
Hagen, E., 136, 140, 153
Hamaker, H.C., 430, 434
Hamilton, D.C., 30, 70
Happel, J., 236, 239
Haslam, R.T., 244, 245
Hawkins, M.B., 405
Hawthorne, W.R., 471, 481
Heilman, R.H., 159, 160, 162,
164, 165, 166, 167,331,
333,338
Herman, R.A., 29, 47
Herman, R.C., 206, 207
Hild,M., 148
Hildebrand, F.B., 83, 100, 105
Ho Leong, E., 227
Hoffmann, K., 160, 166
Hottel, H.C., 29, 73, 75, 83,
96, 107, 117, 129, 148, 171,
177,200,212,218,220,
221,225,227,228,229,
231,243,244,247,256,
267, 268,276,277,283,
284,286,327,365,405,
410,420,430,439,442,
459,460,464,465,468,
469,470,471,480,481
Howard, J.N., 220, 231
Howarth, C.R., 245
Howell, J.R., 336, 351
Hsia, H.M., 430
Huhmann-Kotz, I., 331
Hulbert, E.O., 160
Humphreys-Owen, S.P.F., 245
James, J.W., 162
Jeans, J.H., 326
Jensen, H.H., 171, 181
Johnson, C.H., 200
Johnson, J.C., 404
Jonsson, V.K., 70, 111, 120,
143, 185
Jotaki, M., 120
Kaplan, L.D., 214, 219
Keegan, H.J., 144
Keene, H.B., 53
Keller, J.D., 83, 107, 245
Kellet, B.S., 326
Kerker, M., 403
Kignell, L., 244
King, J.I., 219
Kissel, R.R., 244
Kivel, B., 238
Knowles, D., 162
Koh, J.C.Y., 275
Konakov, P.K., 327
Konig, W., 133, 150
Kourganoff, V., 326, 358
Kostkowski, H.J., 219
Kratohvil, J.P., 403
Kwentus, G.K., 202
Ladenberg, R., 209, 227
Lambert, J.H., 43, 53
Lanczos, C., 249
Lee, K.B., 471
Lee, R.H.C., 236, 239
Lent, H., 245
Leung, A., 156
Leuenberger, H., 53
Levensen, L.L., 225
Leveque, M., 243
Liebmann, G., 151
Lin, S.H., 120, 143, 144, 171,
186
Lindmark, T., 244
Lindseth, E.L., 244
Litterscheidt, W., 486
Lobo, W.E., 468, 469
Loison, R., 244
Lorentz, H.A., 206
Love, T.J., 430
Lowan, A.N., 403
Lummer, O., 166
Malkmus, W., 234, 237
Manglesdorf, H.G., 200, 218,
220,221,225,227,228
Mathis, H.H., 36
Matijevic, E., 403
Mayer, H., 212
Mayorcas, R., 245
McAdams, W.H., 449
McCartney, J.J., 245
McNicholas, H.J., 149
Meghreblian, R.V., 351
Mehmke, R., 29, 47
Michaud, M., 165, 166, 168
Middleton, W.E.K., 143
Millikan, R.C., 245
Moon, P., 48, 70, 83, 120
Moore, G.S., 206, 207
Morawe, F., 166
Morgan, W.R., 30, 70
Morrow, D.G., 244
Morse, P.M., 331
Mueller, A.C., 481
Munch, B., 143, 148, 149, 171
Mungall, A.G., 143
Naeser, G., 243
Napper, D.H., 410
Neuroth, N., 240, 242
Newby, M.P., 471
Nusselt, W., 29, 267
Oppenheim, A.K., 58, 92, 225
Orrok, G.A., 470
Overholtzer, J.J., 159, 160,
161, 162, 163, 165
Pang, S.C., 421
Parker, W.G., 243
Paschen, F., 200
INDEX 519
Penner, S.S., 199, 200, 211,
219,221,222,223, 234,
275,377
Penndorf, R.B., 400
Pepperhoff, W., 152, 243
Perry, R.L., 53, 70
Person, R.A., 53
Perlmutter, M., 336, 351
Pirani, M., 159, 162, 164, 166,
168
Plass, G.N., 200, 211, 212,
217, 221, 410
Polak, V., 161, 162, 165
Port, F.J., 236, 262, 268, 277,
283, 287
Porteus, J.O., 142
Powell, R.S., 410
Ramanathan, K.G., 154
Ramsey, J.W., 144, 149
Randolph, C.F., 159, 160,
161, 162, 163, 165
Reiche, F., 209
Rense, W.A., 143
Rhodes, M.S., 274
Ribaud, G., 245
Rice, H.S., 163, 164
Rockwell, T., 260
Rosseland, S., 326
Rossler, F., 410
Rubens, H., 136, 140, 153, 227
Sarjant, R.J., 162
Sarofim, A.F., 75, 129, 148,
351,365,405,420,430,
464,465,470,480
Saunders, O.A., 245
Schack, A., 55, 200, 212, 218,
256
Schleter, J.C., 144
Schmidt, E., 132, 159, 160,
161, 162, 163, 164, 165,
166, 167, 168, 200, 228
Schoenberg, E., 385
Schuster, A., 430
Schweppe, J.L., 36
Seban, R.A., 171
Seitz, F., 141
Sekera, Z., 434
Senftleben, H., 245
Sherman, R.A., 244, 245
Sieber, W., 152
Silverman, S., 206, 207
Simpson, H., 243
Simpson, A.C., 389
Skaupy, F., 151
Sliepcevich, C.M., 379, 409
520 RADIA TIVE TRANSFER
Smith, V.C., 200, 218, 225,
227
Snell, F.D., 161
Sparrow, E.M., 47, 70, 83, 89,
111, 120, 143, 144, 149,
171, 173, 185, 186, 337,
351,353
Speck, E.P., 70
Staackmann, M., 405
Stevenson, J.A., 70
Steward, F., 274, 275, 280
Stewart, I.M., 244
Stokes, G.G., 197
Strong, J., 221
Stull, V.R., 221, 410
Sumpner, W.E., 54
Suydam, V.A., 163
Sze, D.K., 420, 436
Takeuchi, C.S., 464
Taylor, J.H., 221
Terrel, J.R., 404
Thomson, A., 219, 221, 234,
237
Thring, M.W., 163, 164, 165,
166,245,471
Thwing, C.B., 162
Tien, L.C., 421
Trinks, W., 245
Tsao, C.T., 206, 207
Ullrich, W., 234
Usiskin, C.M., 337, 351, 353
Van der Hulst, H.C., 378, 386,
389,400,401,409
Van Diggelen, J., 120
Vasalos, I.A., 430
Viezee, W., 399, 404, 405
Viskanta, R., 351
Von Bahr, E., 238
Walsh, J.W.T., 132
Walther, V.A., 351, 356, 372
Wamsler, F., 160, 161, 162,
168
Weber, D., 234
Weddell, D.S., 471, 481
Weeks, J.R., Jr., 139, 163
Weidner, V. R., 144
Wenzl, M., 166
Westphal, W., 160, 167
Wiener, C., 47
Wilkes, G.B., 159, 160, 161,
163, 164, 167, 168
Williams, D., 220, 231
Williams, G.C., 243, 410, 481
Wilson, D.W., 468
Wimpress, R.N., 36
Wohlenberg, W.J., 244
Wolfuard, H.G., 243
Wood, R.W., 153
Worthing, A.G., 154, 163, 164
Yamauti, Z., 47, 59, 70, 83,
120
Zwikker, C., 164