Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Arup C40 The Future of Urban Consumption in A 1 5C World
Arup C40 The Future of Urban Consumption in A 1 5C World
OF URBAN
CONSUMPTION
IN A 1.5°C
WORLD
C40 CITIES
HEADLINE
REPORT
Table of contents
1. Executive Summary 12 6. What can cities do? Consumption 66
interventions by category
2. Introduction 24 6.1 Targets for consumption climate action 68
2.1 Broadening cities’ climate action by considering consumption-based emissions 25 6.2 Summary of emissions reduction potential across focus consumption 69
2.2 What can cities and mayors do to support action on consumption as part 26 categories
2.3 Continuing the collective journey to leverage cities’ role in global 28 6.4 Food 76
mitigation efforts
6.5 Clothing and textiles 80
—
4. Why is it important to measure 36
—
2 consumption-based emissions? 3
— 7. Delivering consumption interventions 98 —
4.1 City emissions from production-based and consumption-based inventories 37
will provide wider benefits in cities
4.2 What happens to consumption-based emissions in C40 cities if no further 50
7.1 Wider benefits of consumption interventions 99
climate action is taken?
7.2 A just transition to a low-carbon economy 104
4.3 C40 cities’ greenhouse gas (GHG) budgets 51
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
Acronyms Key terms
Abbreviation Full term Term Description
BECC Bio-energy Carbon Capture and Storage Ambitious target Target level of ambition for consumption interventions that is more ‘ambitious’,
based on a future vision of resource-efficient production and extensive changes
in consumer choices. This level was typically informed by expert judgement
CBE Consumption-Based Emissions
rather than existing research.
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage Aviation Consumption category covering full supply chain emissions associated with
the operation of planes due to city residents’ personal flights. This category
D2020 Deadline 2020 excludes the embodied emissions of planes and associated equipment.
Bio-energy carbon Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a set of technologies that can keep CO2
EEIO Environmentally Extended Input-Output Model
capture and storage from entering into the atmosphere, typically from sources with concentrated
and high CO2 emissions such as power plants or industrial processes. Bio-
ETS Emissions Trading Scheme energy with CCS (BECCS) is a potential greenhouse gas mitigation technology
which removes CO2 from the atmosphere by combining bio-energy (energy from
EU European Union biomass) use with geological capture and storage.
— Buildings and Consumption category encompassing full supply chain emissions from the —
EV Electric Vehicle
4 infrastructure construction of new buildings and infrastructure as well other works associated 5
— with refurbishment, retrofit etc. It excludes operational emissions during a —
GDP Gross Domestic Product building’s lifetime. The methodology for determining a city’s buildings and
infrastructure emissions is based on downscaling expenditure at a national level
GHG Greenhouse Gas to the associated urban population on a pro-rata basis. This is based on the
assumption that new construction benefits the national population irrespective
GPC Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Inventories of where people live.
City residents Refers to residents living within a city, i.e. excluding visitors.
GTAP Global Trade Analysis Project
Clean production The sequence of processes involved in the production of a commodity are
Clothing and textiles Consumption category encompassing full supply chain emissions from all
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change apparel, footwear and other textile products (e.g. rugs, curtains, bedding, fabric)
purchased by city residents.
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Consumption-based Consumption-based GHG accounting is an alternative to the production-based
emissions approach to measuring city GHG emissions. It focuses on the consumption of
NDCs Nationally Determined Contribution
goods and services (such as food, clothing, electronic equipment) by residents
of a city, and GHG emissions are reported by consumption category rather than
UN United Nations GHG emission source category. For the purposes of this report, the PAS 2070
methodology was adopted.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
Consumption Category of products and services covered by consumption-based emissions. Planetary boundary A boundary that provides a safe operating space for humanity within which it is
category These are aggregated categories based on EEIO model categories. possible to continue to thrive in a long-term perspective.
Consumption A change in production or consumption that in most cases leads to a direct Production-based An approach to producing emissions inventories that focuses on activities
intervention reduction in consumption-based emissions. One example would be a reduction emissions occurring within a boundary as opposed to a population’s consumption within
in vehicle ownership. that boundary. This methodology was developed by the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change for national emissions reporting. Note the terms production-
Deadline 2020 Deadline 2020 is a routemap for achieving the Paris Agreement, which outlines based emissions and production emissions are used interchangeably within this
the pace, scale and prioritisation of actions needed by C40 member cities to report.
reduce their production-based emissions over the next five years and beyond.
The report was delivered through a collaboration between Arup and C40. Private transport Consumption category referring to full supply chain emissions associated
with privately owned transport modes primarily private vehicles. In this case,
Electronics Consumption category encompassing full supply chain emissions from it covers embodied emissions of vehicles as well as operational emissions in
and household electronics (e.g. smart phones and laptops) and household appliances (e.g. running vehicles.
appliances refrigerator, toaster, microwave) purchased by city residents.
Progressive target Target level of ambition for consumption interventions determined through
Environmentally This model provides environmental indices associated with financial flows. For research on currently available technologies and evidence of feasibility for
Extended Input- the purposes of this report, the Environmentally Extended Input-Output Model progressive changes in consumer choices (e.g. historic evidence of consumer
Output Model (EEIO) was used to analyse spending from households and government, and business habit change or alignment with other consumer priorities such as health).
capital expenditure, based on financial flow data from national and regional
economic accounts. It estimates GHG emissions using average GHG emission Rest of Nation Term used to refer to source emissions of a city’s consumption-based emissions
factors for each consumption category depending on where the goods and that occur within that city’s host nation.
services consumed in a city are produced.
— Rest of World Term used to refer to source emissions of a city’s consumption-based emissions —
6 Food Consumption category referring to full supply chain emissions from all products that occur outside that city and its host nation’s borders. Note this does not 7
— for human consumption, including beverages and tobacco. preclude the emissions occurring within one of the C40 cities where these relate —
to a different city.
Global Trade Analysis The Global Trade Analysis Project is one of several multi-regional input-output
Project models available and was chosen for producing the C40 cities consumption- Supply chain The sequence of processes involved in the production and distribution of a
based emissions inventories due to its global reach. commodity.
Greenhouse Protocol The World Resources Institute, C40 and Local Governments for Sustainability Urban stakeholders The broader group of stakeholders, such as city governments, businesses and
for Community-scale (ICLEI) have partnered to create a GHG protocol standard for cities known as residents, whose decisions contribute to the emissions intensity of an economy.
Greenhouse Gas the Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories. For example, building contractors’ use of cement is arguably a consumer choice
Inventories This establishes a methodology for city GHG emissions reporting based on the that ultimately leads to emissions associated with construction.
production-based emissions accounting framework.
GHG budget The quantity of GHG emissions that can be emitted in total over a defined
period of time defined by the probability of avoiding a specific global average
temperature increase.
Nationally A commitment made by each signatory country to the Paris Agreement outlining
Determined the climate action it will take to contribute towards the agreement’s aims.
Contribution
On-site (emissions) Emissions occurring on the site of a specific industry e.g. emissions from on-site
agricultural facilities.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
Forewords As always, C40 has adopted a science-based
approach and that science is clear: average
consumption-based emissions in C40 cities
The good news is that these actions have the
potential to realise wider economic and social
benefits, including health and lifestyle benefits.
must halve within the next 10 years. In our
This report considers actions that can be taken
C40 wealthiest and highest consuming cities that
across six priority areas of the global economy:
means a reduction of two thirds or more by
food; clothing and textiles; electronics
C40 is delighted to publish this pioneering Cities drive the global 2030. There is no time to lose and the C40 team
and household appliances; buildings and
piece of thought leadership, The Future of
Urban Consumption in a 1.5°C World. The report
economy, and urban looks forward to working with mayors and our
infrastructure; private transport, and; aviation.
partners to find solutions and take action to
demonstrates that mayors have an even bigger decisions have an address this crucial issue, so that C40 cities can
The actions set out in the report are challenging
and they will be confronting for many, but we
role and opportunity to help avert climate
impact well beyond city help put the world on track to climate safety and
think they are necessary. We want to work with
emergency than previously thought. But to
grasp that opportunity, city leaders need to boundaries. a prosperous future.
our partners to bring about the change that is
be even more entrepreneurial, creating and needed – Arup is engaged on projects across
Mark Watts, Executive Director of C40
shaping markets and engaging in sectors that that the current rules of the global economy most of the sectors covered by this report and
may not previously have been considered within encourage ever-increasing consumption? as individuals we all make choices about what
the domain of city government, and working out we eat, what we wear and how we travel.
This report helps unpack some of those
how to support their citizens and businesses questions. Leadership and collaboration are essential to
in achieving a radical, and rapid, shift in Arup effect the kinds of changes that will be required
While the analysis addresses big global
consumption patterns. We are proud of our partnership with C40 Cities in international supply chains. City Mayors
— questions, its purpose is to inspire practical —
8 Cities drive the global economy, and urban and the work we have done together to help can set a vision and convene actors to bring 9
action. The Future of Urban Consumption in a
— about the changes we describe. Leadership —
decisions have an impact well beyond city 1.5°C World carefully outlines what changes cities take action on climate change. As time
boundaries. In this case, the impact we are passes and the evidence continues to mount, will also be needed from national governments,
that are needed to reduce the impact of urban
considering is the greenhouse gas (GHG) however, it becomes clearer that we must do businesses and from individual people.
consumption in line with limiting global heating
emissions resulting from urban consumption to 1.5°C. The work also shows that there are more, and with greater urgency. The work reported here forces a focus on what
of building materials, food, clothing & textiles, huge health and cost benefits in doing so. A Our Deadline 2020 report, which was published a sustainable urban future might look like and
private transport, electronics & household world with low-impact consumption will be in 2016, established the pace and scale required helps us to consider what policies, regulations,
appliances, as well as private aviation travel. more prosperous and happy than the over- for climate action in the C40 cities. The scope incentives and behavioural changes will be
This report is the product of a detailed analysis consuming, polluted alternative that we are of that report was defined by a ‘production- necessary to transition to a zero-carbon world.
by a team of leading experts and presents the currently heading for. based’ approach to emissions accounting. While
Gregory Hodkinson, Former Chairman of Arup
scientific evidence on the climate impact of C40 recognises that the full environmental the actions being taken by cities under their
urban consumption. The work charts entirely new consequences of twenty-first century Deadline 2020 commitments are necessary,
territory for C40, but also for the world at large. consumption are only beginning to be we have turned our attention in this report
to consider emissions from a consumption
What is the true scope and scale of urban impacts understood and that the findings of this
perspective. It is now clear that action
on the environment? What is the role of mayors report will make uncomfortable reading for
and other urban stakeholders in addressing many mayors, businesses and citizens. As a Urban residents, myself included, drive to reduce consumption
them? How can we fairly and equitably address result, C40 cities will need time to develop the greenhouse gas emissions through consuming will be necessary as part
partnerships, strategies and actions that can
consumption-based emissions if many citizens
deliver the necessary changes. C40 is committed
goods and services. It is now clear that action to
reduce consumption will be necessary as part
of the global effort to
in C40 cities still do not meet their basic needs?
Is it possible to avert climate breakdown given to supporting that process. of the global effort to mitigate climate change. mitigate climate change.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
University of Leeds
There is a growing consensus, based on projects urban emissions into the future and
Acknowledgements
compelling evidence, that the world is facing analyses a range of strategies and policies that
a climate crisis and rapid action to reduce can be implemented at the city level to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions is a necessity. consumption-based emissions.
Historically, decision-makers and academics Projecting future emissions is never easy PROJECT TEAM SPECIALIST INPUT
have discussed a range of options that can as no one has perfect foresight. However, • C40 • C40
reduce our carbon footprint over the long-term. the methodology in this report provides a Tom Bailey Mark Watts, Kevin Austin, Shannon Lawrence,
However, recent evidence demonstrates that transparent approach that we hope will be Markus Berensson Andrea Fernández, Michael Doust, Josh Alpert,
choosing between one option and another is more widely adopted by cities beyond the C40 Rachel Huxley Josh Harris, Emily Morris, Sophie Bedcecarré
no longer compatible with rapid and significant network. It clearly highlights that options are Ernst, Donna Hume, Zachary Tofias, Stefania
• Arup
emission reductions. Increasingly, all options available to cities and that more sustainable Amato, Ricardo Cepeda-Márquez, Kathrin Zeller,
are required, and this involves multiple actors Ben Smith Zoe Sprigings, Paul Cartwright, Caroline Watson,
consumption patterns can achieve rapid
Kristian Steele Anna Beech, Milag San Jose-Ballesteros, David
exploring how they can respond to the current reductions in global emissions.
Christina Lumsden Miller, Laura Jay, Stelios Diakoulakis, Hastings
climate crisis; including national government,
Christopher Pountney Chikoko, Pengfei Xie, Divyaprakash Vyas,
cities, business and civil society. Professor John Barrett, Chair in Energy and Stephanie Robson Daniel Robinson, Caterina Sarfatti, Julia Lipton,
Cities have a unique opportunity to deliver Climate Policy at the University of Leeds Ewan Frost-Pennington Charlotte Breen
mitigation options in addition to national Ethan Monaghan-Pisano
Francesca Poli • Arup
action. Cities can clearly reduce their direct
— emissions from heat, electricity, mobility and
Cities have a unique Anna Lawson Will Cavendish, Carol Lemmens, Alexander Jan, —
10
—
waste, that occurs inside the city, as well as opportunity to deliver Maria Sunyer Pinya
Jaspreet Singh
Stephen Cook, Richard Boyd, Orlando Gibbons,
Michael Muller, Christine McHugh, Tim Armitage,
11
—
have a role in reducing the emissions that occur
mitigation options in Ben Ashby Joe Wheelwright, Emily Woodason, Giacomo
outside the city boundary, as a consequence
of urban consumption patterns. Providing city addition to national • University of Leeds
Magnani, Erato Panayiotou, Allen Hogben, Jack
Clarke, Simon Hart, Andrew Lawrence
authorities with the evidence needed to reduce action. John Barrett
Andrew Gouldson • Other organisations
the impact of consumption has led to major
advances in methodologies that can measure Joel Millward-Hopkins Miranda Schnitger (Ellen MacArthur Foundation),
Anne Owen Maja Johannsen (Ellen MacArthur Foundation),
the embodied emissions of supply chains. This
Richard Waites (World Resources Institute),
report documents one of the most advanced
Graham Earl (Ecolyse), Arianna Nicoletti (Future
applications to date, since it both documents THIRD PARTY REVIEWERS Fashion Forward e.V), John Dulac (International
the carbon footprint of key global cities, Energy Agency), Thibaut Abergel (International
Klaus Hubacek, University of Maryland
Emma Stewart, World Resources Institute Energy Agency), Tiffany Vaas (International
Energy Agency), Mikael Linnander (EAT Forum),
Dabo Guan (University of East Anglia), Julian
Hill-Landolt (World Business Council For
Sustainable Development)
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PART — 1
Executive
University of Leeds assesses the impact
of urban consumption on climate
breakdown and explores the type and
summary scale of changes needed to ensure that
C40 cities reduce their GHG emissions
in line with internationally agreed,
climate-safe limits.
Main takeaways
1 • New ways of measuring the climate footprint reduce local emissions from buildings, energy,
of C40 cities show that urban consumption is a transport and waste. However, it is crucial that
key driver of global GHG emissions. C40 cities emissions from consumption are measured when
can have a significant impact on GHG emissions considering how to reduce a city’s full impact on
— climate change.
—
beyond their geographic borders by influencing
12 13
— global supply chains. 6 • Urban action on consumption can —
2 • C40 cities alone represent 10% of global GHG significantly reduce emissions from key
emissions when accounting for consumption- consumption categories such as buildings and
based emissions. infrastructure (26% by 2030; 44% by 2050), food
(36% by 2030; 60% by 2050), private transport
3 • While C40 cities have strong action plans
(28% by 2030; 39% by 2050), clothing and textiles
in place to significantly cut emissions produced
(39% by 2030; 66% by 2050), electronics and
directly within their geographic boundaries,
household appliances (18% by 2030; 33% by 2050)
emissions measured by what is consumed
as well as aviation (26% by 2030; 55% by 2050).
within C40 cities are rising and, left unchecked,
will nearly double by 2050 (+87%). 7 • Cutting consumption-based emissions will
deliver wider benefits for a city and its residents.
4 • To avoid climate breakdown, emissions from
Individuals, businesses and city governments all
global urban consumption must halve by 2030. For
stand to gain if changes are delivered in the right
this to be achieved, emissions from consumption
way. This analysis shows that a city that consumes
in high-income cities must decrease by two thirds
sustainably can also be a city where residents’
within the next decade. At the same time, rapidly
health is improved and mortality rates are lowered,
developing economies need to adopt sustainable
where it is safer to walk and cycle, where there
consumption patterns when growing.
is more public space, where there is cleaner air,
5 • Cities are already leading on addressing where water and land are used effectively, and
climate breakdown by setting science-based where housing is more affordable.
targets and taking meaningful action to
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PART — 1
27
produced and consumed within the city, plus
Cities are leading on tackling climate production.
emissions from goods and services imported
breakdown by setting ambitious
from the rest of the nation or the world, minus
targets and taking impactful action to
emissions from goods and services produced
reduce their local emissions. C40 cities have within the city but exported elsewhere. This
An assessment of
This work has mostly focused on transport, already peaked in differs from a production-based approach – cities’ consumption-
buildings, energy and waste, which reduces terms of production-
GHG emissions that are emitted within the city, based emissions
the standard methodology used by national
based emissions takes
governments – which accounts for emissions
or production-based emissions. Production- from activities within a geographic boundary, into account the total
based emissions have already peaked in 27 C40 such as heating up a building or driving a emissions associated
cities.1 vehicle. A production-based methodology is
It is crucial that emissions from
less suitable for cities than countries, because
with goods and services
consumption are measured when
considering how to reduce a city’s full many cities consume a far greater quantity of produced and consumed
— Cities are at the centre of the world impact on climate change. CO2e-emitting products than they produce. within the city, plus —
14 15
economy and decisions made in
— Consumption-based emissions account for emissions from goods —
them have a significant impact on
emissions beyond their boundaries.
the total climate impact accumulated around
the world of a good or service, allocated to By compiling consumption-based and services imported
New information shows that fast-growing the place where an end-product is used or inventories for all C40 cities, from the rest of the
C40 has been able to develop an
urban consumption is a key driver of climate consumed. Take a pair of jeans, for example.
understanding of what sustainable
nation or the world, minus
change. When a product or service is bought Its climate impact includes the GHG emissions
by an urban consumer in a C40 city, resource that resulted from growing and harvesting the urban consumption looks like. emissions from goods and
extraction, manufacturing and transportation cotton used for the fabric, the CO2e emitted In 2016, C40 launched Deadline 2020, the first services produced within
have already generated emissions along every by the factory where it was stitched together, routemap that showed how cities could deliver the city but exported
link of a global supply chain. Together these and the emissions from ships, trucks or planes on the Paris Agreement from the point of view
consumption-based emissions add up to a that transported it to the store. Its impact also of production-based emissions.2 Since then,
elsewhere.
total climate impact that is approximately 60% includes the emissions from heating, cooling or Deadline 2020 has established the pace and
higher than production-based emissions. lighting the store the jeans were bought in and scale of climate action in C40 cities. However, the
the CO2e emitted by the end-consumer washing scope of this work was defined by a production-
and drying it over its lifetime. based approach to emissions accounting. In
2018, C40 published a consumption-based GHG
emissions inventory for a cohort of cities, which
highlighted the global climate impact that cities
2
The Paris Agreement commits signatories to “holding the increase in the
have as centres of consumption.3 In this new global average temperature to well below 2 degrees above pre-indus-
trial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5
report, we take this analysis one step further degrees above pre-industrial levels”
1
C40 Cities (2018) Available at: https://www.c40.org/press_releases/27-cities-have-reached-peak-greenhouse-gas-emissions-whilst-populations-increase-
3
C40 Cities: Consumption-based GHG Emissions of C40 cities
and-economies-grow
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PART — 1
50%
previously thought. Cities and urban consumers Therefore, C40 cities’ consumption-based emissions need to
have a huge impact on emissions beyond peak by 2020, then decrease by half by 2030, before halving once
their own borders since 85% of the emissions again by 2036, and finally stabilising at 0.7tCO2e per capita by
associated with goods and services consumed 2050. This transition to a low-carbon economy will require a rapid
— in C40 cities are generated outside the city; alignment of climate policies on global, national and local levels —
16 17
60% in their own country and 25% from abroad. in order to deliver this unprecedented level of climate action by
— —
individuals, business and government.
4
IPCC: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5ºC
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PART — 1
there
consumption patterns as they grow. cities allow consumers to buy more
For C40 cities in Latin America, South and West
goods and services, which result in
Asia, South-East Asia and Africa, the challenge
higher levels of consumption-based
is to prevent further increases in per capita
emissions.
consumption-based emissions after 2020, Consumption patterns and consumption-based
before steadily reducing emissions in line with emissions are not uniform across all cities.
Cutting consumption-based emissions Eating less red meat
will deliver wider benefits for a city
a 1.5°C trajectory. Within the C40 network, consumption-based
and its residents. and more vegetables
GHG emissions vary from 1.2 to 39.7 tCO2e per
Individuals, businesses and city governments
and fruits could prevent
capita per year, a difference that is equivalent
City governments and urban to 20 return flights between London and New
all stand to gain if the changes are delivered in annually 160,000
stakeholders can deliver 35% of the York City.5
the right way. Some benefits include:
deaths associated
necessary emission reductions on
their own, by committing to Deadline This report outlines six consumption categories
• Using existing buildings more efficiently and
avoiding new construction would save London,
with diseases such as
2020 (an emissions trajectory (food; buildings and infrastructure; private
transport; aviation; clothing and textiles; and
for example, more than $11 billion over the next cancer, heart disease,
consistent with a 1.5°C scenario for
production-based emission) and by electronics and household appliances) that
five years. diabetes and stroke in
working with local and global partners cities can focus on, as well as the emission- • Eating less red meat and more vegetables and C40 cities.
reduction impact of selected consumption fruits could prevent annually 160,000 deaths
to meet the consumption targets set
— interventions. associated with diseases such as cancer, heart —
18 out in this report. 19
— disease, diabetes and stroke in C40 cities. —
C40 cities that are already delivering on their
• By reducing vehicle ownership, 170 million m2
Deadline 2020 commitments will simultaneously
of on-street parking could be released back to
be addressing 25% of their consumption-
the public realm in C40 cities, providing enough
based emissions, due to an overlap between
space for 2.5 million trees and 25,000 km of
production-based and consumption-based
cycle lanes.
6
emissions. However, urban stakeholders can go a
step further and address their full consumption- • By buying fewer new clothes and textiles,
based emissions by taking additional climate residents in all C40 cities could collectively save
actions on food; buildings and infrastructure; $93 billion in one year.
private transport; aviation; clothing and textiles; consumption
• Reducing flights and adopting sustainable
and electronics and household appliances. categories: food;
aviation fuels could collectively avoid $70
buildings and million in damages from air pollution that would
infrastructure; impact human health, buildings, infrastructure
private transport; and agricultural production.
aviation; clothing
and textiles;
and electronics
and household
5
Flight Emission Map
appliances
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PART — 1
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PART — 1
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 2 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION PART — 2
2 2.1
2.Introduction
In 2016, C40 launched Deadline 2020, the first
significant routemap for cities to deliver on the Paris
Agreement.
Deadline 2020 commits signatories to “holding This project combines the action focus of
the increase in the global average temperature Deadline 2020 with the broader scope of tackling
— —
24 to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels consumption-based emissions in cities. 25
— and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature —
increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels”.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 2 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION PART — 2
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 2 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION PART — 2
2.3
Continuing the collective
journey to leverage
cities’ role in global
mitigation efforts
This report attempts to map the extent of C40 cities’
consumption-based emissions as well as what cities
can do to reduce their climate impact.
However, this research is evolving. This report is their consumption-based emissions in line
— based on the best currently available evidence, with a 1.5°C scenario. We have published the —
28 but more and better data will become available evidence, methods and assumptions within an 29
— —
over time, allowing the goals and approaches accompanying method report, and welcome
to be refined. The findings presented in this suggestions for improvements. An overview of
report constitute the first step of an ongoing the research approach is shown on the next
process of measurement and prioritisation page.
that C40 will lead over the next few years to
better understand what cities can do to reduce
Call for Evidence: A work in progress seeking your review and input
Homepage: www.C40.org/research
The method report, evidence base and limitations We invite all partners to read and review these,
of the research are published in a technical paper. and provide comments and recommendations for
Additionally six focus reports for each priority improvement, as well as providing links to other
consumption category will be provided, which relevant work and data.
will include the rationale and evidence for the
interventions and their target levels, further details
of the benefits these could deliver to cities, and
the description of key stakeholders and actions to
deliver on the most impactful interventions.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
Study methodology and analysis approach
Research and develop tools
to inform city planning on
consumption
Understanding the
scale of change needed Modelling
Emissions under
in urban consumption possible futures
various future
emissions scenarios
I N D I CATO R S
E M I S S I ON S
monitor progress on action
I N V E N TO RY TI M E PAT H WAYS T IM E
C40’s share of C O -B E N E F I TS
global emissions
is 10% in 2017 Quantify co-benefits of climate
action as evidence for cities
and urban stakeholders
G HG B U D G E T TR AJECTORY FO C U S A REAS
*Note that the indicators are not presented within this report.
Instead these can be found in the method report (C40.org)
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 3 WHY DO WE NEED TO ACT? WHY DO WE NEED TO ACT? PART — 3
3
Why In October 2018, the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) published its Special Report
3.Why do we
being exposed to exceptional heatwaves.”9 for their citizens, physical infrastructure and
economies.
The unequivocal conclusion from this finding
is that the Paris Agreement should take on
— —
the lower limit of 1.5ºC warming above pre-
need to act?
32 33
— industrial levels. C40 Cities is adopting this level 8-9
IPCC (2018) Global warming of 1.5°C Summary for Policy- —
of ambition. makers. Available at: https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 3 WHY DO WE NEED TO ACT? WHY DO WE NEED TO ACT? PART — 3
1.6
billion people
x8
as compared to
800
present day
EXTREME HEAT EXTREME HEAT POVERTY WATER AVAILABILITY FOOD INSECURITY SEA LEVEL RISE SEA LEVEL RISE POWER PLANT
230
cities
490 x2 500 570
cities as compared to cities
cities
x3 present day
970 as compared to
present day
cities
1,600
cities
Estimated cities at risk
by 2050
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 4 W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? PART — 4
4 4.1
important
-based
for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gases (GPC) to
measure their climate impact.9
emissions?
to measure
— This framework, often described as production- In 2017, the total production- —
36 based or territorial accounting, captures GHG 37
— based emissions of C40 cities —
emissions associated with major urban activities
were approximately
2.9 GtCO e
within physical city boundaries, i.e. transport;
consumption
buildings and industries; agriculture; forestry
and other land uses (where applicable); as well
as waste disposal and wastewater treatment. 2
The total emissions of C40 cities measured
emissions?
using this methodology were estimated to be
2.9 GtCO2e in 2017.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 4 W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? PART — 4
85% A city’s
However, this accounting When using a production- of material goods and services has largely has
framework does not fully based methodology, been outsourced, either to other regions of the
reflect the impact that cities emissions produced through nation, or to other countries. consumption-
have on global emissions, since the extraction of raw materials, of emissions To better understand the climate impact of based based GHG
85% of emissions associated industrial processes,
associated goods and services consumed in cities, it is inventory can
with goods and services transportation and the energy
with goods possible to examine their emissions using a
be defined as:
consumed in C40 cities are that all of these activities
and services consumption-based accounting framework.
imported from elsewhere. Nor require are predominantly
consumed in This framework allocates all GHG emissions production-based
does the production-based accounted for at the place
accounting approach direct of production. A production C40 cities are
associated with the production and distribution emissions15, minus
of goods and services to the end-consumer,
focus on the influence that perspective can therefore imported from allowing for the full GHG emissions associated
the GHG emissions
city governments can have significantly underplay the elsewhere with city residents and, by association, the of exported goods
if they enable citizens and impact that urban residents,
businesses to shift to more businesses and governments
businesses and government activities serving
and services
them, to be determined.
sustainable consumption. This have on global emissions, (i.e. those that
A city’s consumption-based based GHG
shift can affect emissions well
beyond cities’ geographical
especially in cities
carbon-intensive production
where
inventory can be defined as: production- are produced in
and political boundaries. based emissions15, minus the GHG emissions the city but are
of exported goods and services (i.e. those that
are produced in the city but consumed in other
consumed in other
— fig.2 locations), plus the emissions of imported goods locations), plus —
15%
38 39
—
Breakdown of C40 cities’
total consumption-based
and services. the emissions of —
emissions according to
where these occur.
0.7 GtCO2e
In 2017, consumption-based emissions in
imported goods
C40 cities were estimated to account for
City
4.5 GtCO2e emissions, or roughly 10% of and services.
global GHG emissions. This means that C40
cities’ consumption-based emissions are
approximately 58% larger than the network’s
production-based emissions (Figure 3).
25%
1.1 GtCO2e
4.5 GtCO2e
10
The term ‘Goods and Services’ is used in this context to mean consumption of public transport, utilities, food,
stationary fuel/energy, personal transport and purchased goods and services
Rest 11
The GPC accounting framework sets two levels of reporting - BASIC and BASIC + - which incorporate a level of
of world City total out-of-city boundary emissions such as emissions from electricity consumed in the city but produced elsewhere
emissions and waste generated in the city but disposed elsewhere
in 2017
60% The exception to this is emissions associated with waste disposal and treatment which are captured within the
12
GPC framework
2.7 GtCO2e 13
UNEP (2019) Global Resources Outlook 2019. Available at: https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/27519
Rest 14
Within this document, the term ‘city residents’ refers specifically to residents living within the city, i.e. excluding
of nation visitors. By contrast, the term ‘urban consumers’ refers to the broader group of stakeholders e.g. city governments,
businesses and residents whose consumption decisions contribute to the emissions intensity of the economy. For
example, building contractors’ use of cement is arguably a consumer choice which ultimately leads to the emissions
associated with construction
15
GPC inventory according to BASIC level
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 4 W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? PART — 4
fig.3 4.1.1
Comparison of C40
consumption-based and
Consumption-based
production-based GHG PRODUCTION-BASED
emissions by category
inventories in 2017. GHG EMISSIONS
As Figure 3 shows, there is an overlap between
2.9 cities’ production-based and consumption-
GtCO2e based emissions. About a quarter of
GHG emissions from consumption-based emissions relate to goods
HOUSEHOLD USE of
fuel and electricity and services that are both produced and
and CONSUMPTION consumed within the city boundary (such as
of goods and services
public transportation, municipal government Consumption-based
services and certain consumer goods) as well
as the burning of fossil fuels for transport and
emissions represent a
1.9 energy used in buildings. Moreover, emissions broad range of categories,
GtCO2e common to the two accounting frameworks are
with many different goods
not exclusively limited to those occurring within
the city boundary (see Figure 2) but also include and services that contain
1.0 emissions from grid electricity consumption varied source emissions
GtCO2e
that are covered within basic GPC reporting.
and require different
—
interventions. —
40 41
— By focusing on consumption-based emissions, —
4.5 GtCO2e
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 4 W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? PART — 4
Private
16
C40 Cities (2018) Consumption-based GHG emissions of C40 cities. 17 For
Transport
further information on how they relate to GPC categories, see accom-
panying method report. (embodied)
18
‘Buildings and infrastructure’ refers to embodied emissions in new
construction, as opposed to ‘Private buildings’ which refers to emissions
220
from in-use energy consumption in private buildings only
19
Within Figure 3, the consumption category ‘Private transport’ is split 132 582
according to embodied and in-use emissions. However, the category
is treated as one in the context of city consumption interventions, see
Section 7
214
— 436 118 —
42 43
— 495 —
GHG
280
emissions
from 138 500 92
EXPORTED
goods and
services 154
89
160
Household chemical
products and medecine GHG
emissions
Services from
IMPORTED
Public Transport goods and
outside cities
Focus on six key consumption services
categorie (MtCO2e in 2017) Utilities (excl. private
electricity use)
Common emissions to production
and consumption-based Government
emissions (MtC02e in 2017) Miscellaneous activities Ports and
Shipping
Other consumption
categories (MtCO2e in 2017)
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 4 W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? PART — 4
4.1.2 fig.5
Consumption-based Breakdown of 2017 direct
sources of C40 consumption-
emissions by source based emissions.
On-site petrochemicals
7% production
3% Other on-site
AGRICULTURE 11% manufacturing
6% Livestock rearing
ON-SITE BUILDING
(ENERGY) 8% 5% On-site crop agriculture
8% On-site building
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 4 W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? PART — 4
85% 6
(tCO2e/capita) per capita ($)
20 60000
additional aviation.
opportunities
for reducing 0
Africa Southeast South & Latin Middle Europe North
0
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 4 W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? PART — 4
4
CHINA
Combustion of fossil
fuels and process
— emissions in —
manufacture of
48 49
synthetic materials
— —
5
Combustion of fossil fuels I L L U S T R AT I O N O F
transporting (truck, rail, ship
or plane) materials
SOURCE EMISSIONS FOR
AVIATION A PA I R O F T R O U S E R S
HOUSEHOLD CHEMICAL PUBLIC
FOOD PRODUCTS TRANSPORT
6
BUILDINGS
9
BANGLADESH
AND INFRASTRUCTURE Combustion of fossil
fuels within factories
PORTS & SHIPPING UTILITIES
CLOTHING
& TEXTILES
involved in preparation 8 LO N D O N
Electricity consumed
of fabric and production
in retail stores
of trousers UNITED KINGDOM
SERVICES
7 Electricity consumed
when warehousing
PRIVATE
TRANSPORT Combustion of fossil trousers
fuels transporting (truck,
ELECTRONICS GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES rail, ship or plane) final
AND APPLIANCES products to retail stores
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 4 W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? PART — 4
consumption-based emissions GHG this total budget was estimated, it analysed what
regional emission reduction trajectories are needed
6
x2
GHG 8
Emissions
6
4 Range of uncertainty
2017: 4 if GDP growth is
4,5 GtCO2e higher or lower than
GHG Emissions IMF projections
2 2 by 1% per year
0
2017 2020 2030 2040 2050
0
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 4 W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? PART — 4
4
Europe 12.7 5.2 0.7
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 4 W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? W H Y I S I T I M P O R TA N T T O M E A S U R E C O N S U M P T I O N - B A S E D E M I S S I O N S ? PART — 4
fig.10
1.5°C compliant per capita consumption-based emissions
trajectories by C40 city typology. Cities included in the study
This research drew on data for 96 cities, the C40 cities network membership at the start of the research
project in June 2018. The cities were grouped into typologies on the basis of common characteristics in their
GHG emissions
per capita consumption-based emissions.
(tCO2e/capita)
North America,
Oceania + HI Asia Map
15 C40 cities included within study by typology
— —
54 55
— —
Latin America
Africa
AFRICA SOUTH & WEST ASIA SOUTHEAST ASIA NORTH AMERICA, OCEANIA
Abidjan Amman, Dubai Bangkok & HIGH-INCOME ASIA
Accra Bengaluru Jaipur Hanoi Austin Philadelphia
Addis Ababa Chennai Karachi Ho Chi Minh Auckland Portland
Cairo Delhi Kolkata Jakarta Boston San Francisco
Cape Town Dhaka Mumbai Kuala Lumpur Chicago Seattle
Dakar Tel Aviv Quezon City Hong Kong Seoul
Dar es Salaam Houston Sydney
Durban Los Angeles Tokyo
Johannesburg Melbourne Toronto
Lagos Montreal Vancouver
Nairobi New Orleans Washington
Tshwane New York
0
2017 2020 2030 2040 2050
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
R E D U C I N G T H E C L I M AT E I M PA C T O F U R B A N C O N S U M P T I O N PART — 5
5
Reducing
the climate Consumer goods are still largely made of
5.1 fig.11
Emissions reduction potential of
The impact of
delivering the NDCs against a ‘no
further climate action’ scenario.
national government
commitments (NDCs)
GHG Emissions
(GtC02e)
10
Figure 2).
— Overall, 85% of emissions associated with improvements in fuel efficiency will set the NDCs delivered —
58 6
56 GtCO2e saved 59
— goods and services consumed in C40 cities are baseline for what level of additional consumption —
produced beyond their borders; 60% occur within emission reductions is necessary in C40 cities
the same country (see Figure 2). This means a to align with a 1.5ºC trajectory. If there is rapid
city’s level of consumption emissions is strongly and significant climate action in the wider world,
affected by national and global clean production the carbon footprint of C40 consumption-based
developments such as grid decarbonisation and emissions will decrease. 4
Cumulative emissions gap 105 GtCO2e
the deployment of new energy and process-
If we consider a future scenario where climate
efficient technologies. These national and
action occurs in line with current NDCs23, a
global clean production developments are, in
transition to clean energy and low-carbon
turn, influenced by national climate policies,
production processes will reduce C40 cities’
such as the NDCs that countries committed
consumption-based emissions by approximately
2
to under the Paris Agreement. The ambition
56 GtCO2e between 2017-50 (Figure 11). That
of national climate targets will therefore, to a
reduces the consumption-emissions gap in C40 C40 cities
large extent, affect the level of consumption- 1.5°C trajectory
cities by 35%, compared to a future scenario
based emission-reductions that C40 cities can
with no further climate action.
achieve.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 5 R E D U C I N G T H E C L I M AT E I M PA C T O F U R B A N C O N S U M P T I O N R E D U C I N G T H E C L I M AT E I M PA C T O F U R B A N C O N S U M P T I O N PART — 5
5.2 fig.12
Emissions reduction potential of
Both accounting frameworks include electricity 25 GtCO2e between 2017 and 2050.25 8
24
Complementary efforts will be highlighted within 0
Chapter 7
2017 2020 2030 2040 2050
25
Assuming these go beyond NDC commitments
to achieve carbon neutrality on production-based
emissions
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 5 R E D U C I N G T H E C L I M AT E I M PA C T O F U R B A N C O N S U M P T I O N R E D U C I N G T H E C L I M AT E I M PA C T O F U R B A N C O N S U M P T I O N PART — 5
5.3 fig.13
Emissions reduction potential of NDCs, Deadline 2020
The impact of
commitments and consumption interventions against a
‘no further climate action’ scenario.
consumption
interventions
GHG Emissions
(GtC02e)
10
70%
NDCs delivered
62 6
56 GtCO2e saved 63
— —
This report focuses on six consumption categories: food; buildings
and infrastructure; clothing and textiles; private transport;
Deadline 2020
aviation; and electronics and appliances. For these categories, pledges
18 interventions were developed and tested for their emissions 25 GtCO2e saved
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 5 R E D U C I N G T H E C L I M AT E I M PA C T O F U R B A N C O N S U M P T I O N R E D U C I N G T H E C L I M AT E I M PA C T O F U R B A N C O N S U M P T I O N PART — 5
Change in
expenditure
footprint. This is
known as “the
Reduce Reduce car
expenditure ownership rebound effect.”
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
6
What can
cities do?
6. What
Consumption can
cities do?
This section examines the six categories
that represent new opportunities for
Consumption
by category Across these categories,
interventions were developed, focusing on
18 consumption
interventions
demand-led changes that can be facilitated by
— cities. Two of these, relating to packaging, were —
66 67
found to have a negligible impact on emissions
— —
and are therefore omitted from this report. The
interventions are targeted at making goods
by category
and services less carbon-intensive without
compromising their function and the adoption
of low-carbon consumer choices without
compromising quality of life.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
6.1 6.2
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
fig.15
Cumulative emissions reduction potential by 2050 across six consumption categories.
Cumulative
GHG Emissions
(GtC02e)
25
NDC & Deadline 2020 scenarios
Application of ambitious
interventions
21 Cumulative emissions
reduction potential by 2050
20
44%
17.7
60%
15
— —
70 71
— —
11.9
9.9
10
39%
7.2
6.8
6.1 66%
5 33%
5
1.6
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
6.3 fig.16
Source emissions of buildings and
Buildings and
infrastructure from 2017-2050
under an NDC scenario.
infrastructure
SOURCE EMISSIONS FROM
EMISSIONS KEY MATERIALS
On-site miscellaneous
manufacturing emissions
4% 60% of emissions are Chemicals and rubber
associated with the
In 2017, C40 cities’ emissions associated with Other
6% production and delivery of
building materials, namely
minerals (dominated by
construction and refurbishment of buildings and Land transportation 8%
cement), metals such as
emissions steel as well as a range of
infrastructure accounted for 0.45 GtCO2e, representing petrochemical-based and
rubber materials that make
Metals
Other
11%
of total emissions
Electricity generation
emissions
30%
A significant
contribution to
buildings and
infrastructure
emissions comes from
of C40 cities energy used
throughout the supply
in 2017 chain, including
electricity generation
and fossil fuel
26
This consumption category becomes the largest of the consumption extraction.
categories when cumulative emissions between 2017 and 2050 are
considered
27
The methodology for determining a city’s buildings and infrastructure
emissions is based on down-scaling expenditure at a national level to the
associated urban population on a pro-rata basis. This is based on the as-
sumption that new construction benefits, and is likely used by, the national
population irrespective of where they live. For example, Parisians might
use bridges across the whole of France
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
6.3.1
6.3.2 enhancing building utilisation, material
Buildings and infrastructure: 28
CCS is not included here. However, if infrastructure for CO2 transport Buildings and infrastructure: switching and low-carbon cement. While
consumption interventions and storage is available and CCS were used to capture the cement
process emissions in cement and steel production, these could be effect of consumption the potential saving associated with reuse
further reduced by 2050. The same goes for steel as well as for many
This study models five interventions that could chemical products interventions of building components is smaller than the
reduce consumption-based emissions from rest, it still represents an important reduction
If all C40 cities make the changes set out in table
new buildings and infrastructure in C40 cities opportunity.
2, emissions from buildings and infrastructure
(table 2). Construction site emissions is also a key area
could be cut by 29% between 2017 and 2050.
The adoption of ambitious targets would enable of climate action. Emissions can for example be
table 2
a 44% reduction. reduced by shifting from petroleum-fuelled to
Consumption interventions for
buildings and infrastructure and electric machinery. However, the impact of such
associated targets.28 Material efficiency has the highest emissions
a shift is categorised as local energy emissions
reduction impact (Figure 17), followed by
in this report.
n
tio
tio
Material efficiency
sa
sa
20% and 32% 35% and 56%
ili
ili
ut
ut
t
t
en
en
y
y
g
g
ng
ng
nc
nc
in
in
respectively respectively
s g
s g
m
m
hi
hi
ild
nt in
ild
nt din
ie
ie
ce
ce
itc
itc
d
ic
ic
bu
bu
ne uil
ne uil
ff
ff
on
on
w
w
le
le
— —
po b
po b
ls
ls
d
d
rb
rb
ce
ce
m se
m se
ria
ria
ria
ria
ca
ca
an
an
co eu
co eu
74 75
e
w
w
at
at
at
at
h
h
R
R
10% 20%
En
En
Lo
Lo
M
M
— —
Enhance building use
reduction in demand reduction in demand
for new buildings for new buildings
75% 90%
of residential and of residential and
29%
Material switching
50% 70% saving
of commercial of commercial
are timber buildings are timber buildings 15%
saving
50% 61%
Low-carbon cement
of cement replaced with of cement replaced with
low-carbon alternatives low-carbon alternatives
11% 22%
Reuse of building components reduction in virgin metal reduction in virgin metal
and petrochemical-based and petrochemical-based
materials materials CUMULATIVE SAVED SAVED
GHG Progressive consumption interventions EMISSIONS Ambitious consumption interventions EMISSIONS
EMISSIONS
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
6.4 fig.18
Source emissions of food products from
Food
2017-2050 under an NDC scenario.
SOURCE
EMISSIONS
In 2017, emissions
Other 4%
associated with food
Land transportation 5%
were estimated to emissions
7%
account for 13% of
On-site chemicals
production emissions
total consumption-
Electricity generation
9%
based emissions across Fossil fuel extraction
emissions and fossil fuels are
critical energy sources
13%
— —
76 consumption of animal- 77
— In food production, the —
based foods, with the Livestock rearing 25% most significant source
30
Note that emissions are excluding impacts from land-use change, which are not included within the consumption-based emissions inventories
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
fig.19
Food emission reductions broken down by consumption
16 kg 0 kg
intervention and target ambition.
d
ol
ol
eh
eh
ge
ge
te y
te y
as pl
as pl
us
us
an
an
w p
w p
te ho
te ho
n su
n su
ch
ch
ai id
as id
ai id
as id
ry
ry
90 kg 0 kg
ch vo
w vo
ch vo
w vo
Dietary change (this
a
et
et
A
A
A
A
— —
Di
Di
intervention is characterised
78 by three major changes dairy consumption (milk or dairy consumption (milk or 79
— which are described in more derivative equivalent) per derivative equivalent) per —
detail) person per year32 person per year
51%
saving
50% 0% 9%
Reduce household waste saving
reduction in household
household food waste
food waste
31
Current average meat consumption in C40 cities is 58 kg per person, three times the target
32
Current average dairy consumption in C40 cities is 155 kg per person, 1.7 times the target. This target includes dairy derivatives, such as cheese in terms of
raw-milk equivalent: for example it takes roughly ten times the amount of milk to make a specified quantity of cheese so this target could also be expressed
as 90 kg of milk or 10 kg of cheese
33
See accompanying method report for further details on developing dietary changes
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
6.5 fig.20
Source emissions of clothing and
Clothing
textiles during the period 2017-
2050 under an NDC scenario.
and textiles
SOURCE EMISSIONS FROM
EMISSIONS KEY PROCESSES
4%
— —
developing nations.
Emissions from clothing Livestock rearing 24%
The production
of primary natural
of total emissions
and textiles made materials contributes
significantly
of C40 cities to emissions,
up 4% of C40 cities’ in 2017 split between
livestock rearing for
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
fig.21
Clothing and textile emissions reductions broken down by
consumption intervention and target ambition.
Table 4
Consumption interventions for
s
m
m
clothing and textiles and associated
ile f
ile f
ite
ite
xt r o
xt r o
te be
te be
y
y
targets.
te pl
te pl
& um
& um
as p
as p
w su
w su
ng n
ng n
n e
n e
hi e
hi e
ai uc
ai uc
ot uc
ot uc
ch d
ch d
cl ed
cl ed
Re
Re
R
R
CONSUMPTION PROGRESSIVE TARGET AMBITIOUS TARGET
INTERVENTION IN 2030 IN 2030
— —
82 83
— —
Reduce number of clothing 8 3
and textile items new clothing items per new clothing items per
person per year person per year
47%
Reduce waste in the supply 50% 75% saving
19%
saving
Reduction in emissions
savings due to fewer
clothing and textile
items manufactured
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
6.6 fig.22
Source emissions from private
Private transport
vehicle manufacturing from 2017-
2050 under an NDC scenario.
In 2017, the total A third of the emissions from private transport manufacturing emissions manufacturing
emissions relate
are related to the materials and processes used Other predominantly to
consumption-based to make vehicles and motorbikes, as shown fossil fuel combustion
in vehicle assembly
emissions
with the use and commitments given that reductions in the use Metals
Electricity generation
emissions
8%
fuel extraction for
energy used across the
vehicle manufacture
supply chain.
of total emissions
of C40 cities
in 2017
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
ip
s
ip
s
y
EV
EV
y
h
h
nc
nc
e
fr g
fr g
rs
rs
im
im
s rin
s rin
om
om
ie
ie
ne
ne
et
190
ic
et
ic
on tu
on tu
ow
ow
ff
lif
ff
lif
0
si c
si c
le
le
is fa
is fa
um
um
ed
ed
ria
u
u
ria
em an
em n
uc
uc
tim
Reduce ownership
tim
a
e
e
vehicles per 1,000
M
M
at
— —
at
d
Op
Op
Re
Re
M
private vehicles
M
86 people34 87
— —
14%
saving
20-year 50-year
Optimum lifetime lifetime for body lifetime for body
of vehicle of vehicle
(shell & interior)35 (shell & interior) 25%
saving
Reduction in
emission saving
as fewer vehicles
are manufactured
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
6.7 fig.24
Source emissions from flights
Aviation
from 2017-2050 under an NDC
scenario.
2%
undertake and the aviation industry is Aviation emissions 66%
— —
88 experiencing rapid growth. 89
The dominant source
— of emissions is fuel —
consumed in flights
of total emissions (referred to as aviation
emissions).
of C40 cities
in 2017
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
Table 6 be achieved (Figure 25). Given the current global more effective at cutting emissions than further
Consumption interventions for disparity in flying, it is important to note that increasing the use of sustainable aviation fuels;
aviation and associated targets. the former reduces emissions by 11% and the
C40 cities can, on average, actually increase
flight trips by 43% compared to 2017 levels, latter by just 1%. The impact of fuel switching
if the target is one short-haul flight every two is dampened because the improvement in fuel
years per person. However, 46% of C40 cities’ efficiency40 remains constant between the two
CONSUMPTION PROGRESSIVE TARGET AMBITIOUS TARGET
INTERVENTION IN 2030 IN 2030 residents would need to reduce the number of scenarios and there is a knock-on impact of
trips, compared to their 2017 levels. reduced flights under the ambitious target.
r
be
be
ts um
ts um
fu e
fu e
n bl
n bl
el
el
gh e n
gh e n
tio na
tio na
53% 100%
fli uc
fli uc
ia tai
ia tai
of ed
of ed
av us
av us
R
S
S
sustainable aviation sustainable aviation
Sustainable aviation fuel
fuel adopted (or other fuel adopted (or other
equivalent low carbon equivalent low carbon
technology or fuel)37 technology or fuel)
36
A short-haul flight is given as an illustrative example and is not meant 43%
to promote short-haul flights over long-haul flights. On the contrary, saving
alternatives are more readily available and feasible for short-haul flights
and need to be promoted 12%
37
For the purposes of this study, sustainable aviation fuel was used to saving
represent the move towards low and zero carbon fuels. This does not
preclude alternatives such as hydrogen or electric planes which are being
developed by the aviation industry
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
6.8 fig. 26
Source emissions from electronics
Electronics
and household applicances from
2017-2050 under an NDC scenario.
On-site minerals 4%
production emissions
decades. Emissions
On-site chemicals 12%
from electronics and production emissions
household appliances in
— C40 cities made up 3% of On-site miscellaneous 14%
—
92 manufacturing emissions 93
— total consumption-based —
emissions in 2017.
3%
of total emissions
Fossil fuel extraction 14%
The most significant
sources of emissions
come from electricity
generation and fossil
of C40 cities fuel extraction
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
6.8.1 6.8.2
Electronics and household Electronics and household
appliances: consumption appliances: effect of
intervention consumption intervention
This study modelled one intervention aimed at By keeping electronic goods and household
reducing consumption-based emissions from appliances for longer and optimising their
electronics and household appliances across lifespan, a total emissions reduction of 33% can
C40 cities, as seen in Table 7. be achieved by 2050 (Figure 27).
Table 7
fig.27
Consumption intervention for
Electronics and household appliances intervention
electronics and household
result broken down by intervention and target
applicances and associated
ambition.
target.
es
INTERVENTION TARGET TARGET
e nc
im lia
et p
e
lif ap
im
et
s
d
um nic
umhol
lif
tim tro
tim se
op lec
op ou
H
E
—
94
7-year 7-year —
95
— Optimum lifetime optimum lifetime of optimum lifetime of —
laptops and similar laptops and similar
electronic devices41 electronic devices
41
The lifetime of laptops in C40 cities is on average five years and it 33%
should aim to be 50% higher. Note that the optimum lifetime has not been saving
established for all household appliances, therefore the same ratio of
change in lifetime for electronic devices was assumed
CUMULATIVE SAVED
GHG Consumption intervention EMISSIONS
EMISSIONS
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 6 W H AT C A N C I T I E S D O ? C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y E M I S S I O N S R E D U C T I O N P OT E N T I A L O F C O N S U M P T I O N I N T E R V E N T I O N S BY C AT E G O R Y PART — 6
Main takeaways
→ Urban climate action can have a significant → The delivery of NDC and Deadline 2020
impact on consumption-based emissions. commitments, as well as the implementation of
If cities act on Deadline 2020 commitments consumption interventions, will require hugely
and implement the consumption interventions ambitious action on a scale the world has not
outlined by this report, alongside a global low- yet seen. But to fully reduce consumption-based
carbon transition of production in line with NDC emissions in line with a 1.5°C trajectory, further
commitments, consumption-based emissions technical, social and economic interventions
would be cut by 113 GtCO2e. If achieved, this will be needed. These additional measures are
will reduce the emissions gap by 70% between outlined in chapter 9 of this report.
a scenario of no further climate action and the
1.5° target trajectory.
— —
96 97
— —
Consumption- Implementation Additional
based of consumption measures will
emissions interventions be needed
could be cut and delivery to fully reduce
by 113 GtCO2e, of NDC and consumption-based
reducing Deadline 2020 emissions
the emissions commitments in line with
gap by 70%. need to happen a 1.5°C
simultaneously. trajectory.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 7 DELIVERING CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS WILL PROVIDE WIDER BENEFITS IN CITIES DELIVERING CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS WILL PROVIDE WIDER BENEFITS IN CITIES PART — 7
7 7.1
wider benefits
—
98
—
in cities Climate change is often seen as competing with
a range of other pressing issues, such as lack of
C40 cities delivered consumption interventions
in line with ambitious targets, the benefits would
—
99
—
taking action. The fact that these changes about wider benefits beyond city boundaries.
will benefit many people within cities also For example, changing diets has a significant
strengthens the case for collaboration between impact on land-use, forests and freshwater use
civil society and national governments. The wider benefits of the most impactful
Some of the benefits associated with the delivery interventions are described in more detail within
of the progressive consumption intervention the six focus reports. The methodology and
targets in C40 cities are presented in the next data sources used to estimate these benefits
section, both qualitatively and quantitively. If are detailed within the method report.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 7 DELIVERING CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS WILL PROVIDE WIDER BENEFITS IN CITIES DELIVERING CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS WILL PROVIDE WIDER BENEFITS IN CITIES PART — 7
Buildings and
Food
infrastructure
Re-investing in other city priorities such as Making city residents healthier and live
Making housing more affordable Personal financial savings
energy efficiency retrofits of existing buildings longer
$5,500
$13,000 savings on
purchase of
a new flat
$10,000
+$11 billion
$10,500
Eating less red meat and more vegetables and
— savings on fruit could reduce the risk of death associated with —
100 avoided diseases such as cancer, heart disease, diabetes and 101
— food waste stroke. In C40 cities this could save —
170,000
$3,000 $7,000
could be saved in a city such
as London over the next 5 years
$4,000
by using materials efficiently
London Hong Kong New York Buenos Aires deaths per year
and avoiding new construction
Reducing dairy intake could save
750,000
supply chain would save
60%
reduction in deliveries to London homes could be
$25 billion 19 460
billion m3 billion m2 of
building construction sites retrofitted by using those globally per year of freshwater land per year
savings per year (equivalent to the size of
Spain or 32 billion trees)
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 7 DELIVERING CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS WILL PROVIDE WIDER BENEFITS IN CITIES DELIVERING CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS WILL PROVIDE WIDER BENEFITS IN CITIES PART — 7
Private Clothing
vehicles and textiles
By buying fewer clothes,
KE Y B E N E FITS KEY BENEF ITS
residents in C40 cities could
Releasing land for urban greening save an average of
$15,500
Reducing congestion Personal financial savings
and public space
$93 billion
carbon transport
in Venice
$51,000
1/3
Space from on-street parking that could be released
back to the public realm by reducing private vehicle in London
ownership on clothing and textiles $42,000
in New York
$31,000
of this land could be used
for planting
170 2.5
— —
102
—
million Aviation 103
—
million m2
trees
1/3
of this land Improving health and extending sustainable aviation fuels
could be used lives
could avoid
22
for 25,000 km Trees reduce energy demand
of cycle lanes in sunny cities by an average Aviation interventions could million kg
3 million kg
in São Paulo
2,300 km2
for each household they in damages to human health, of SO2 per year
in New York
provide shade and reduce buildings and infrastructure The SO2 pollution is equivalent to 9 million cars
1,700 km2 demand for cooling as well as agricultural driving continuously for a year
The NOx pollution is equivalent to 120,000 cars
(air conditioning) production driving continuously for a year
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 7 DELIVERING CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS WILL PROVIDE WIDER BENEFITS IN CITIES DELIVERING CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS WILL PROVIDE WIDER BENEFITS IN CITIES PART — 7
to a low-carbon
socially and geographically – to global emissions, as seen in cities and countries. In this
address increasing inequality, Chapter 4. On the other hand, context, it is clearly impossible
economic stagnation and the people who are most to tackle climate change and
The previous sections of this report outline some of the reduce consumption-based world that have contributed 42
World Bank: Green Growth, Green Jobs and
Labor Markets
emissions, the possible the least to climate change. 46-47
Grantham Research Institute on Climate
transformative changes needed across the economy
43
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 8 DELIVERY OF CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS DELIVERY OF CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS PART — 8
consumption interdependent.
8. Delivering
interventions
For example, individuals will only be able to buy
more sustainable products if they are available
how climate actions are distributed across the
different supply chain actors, and to identify
consumption
at affordable prices, and businesses may rely on the key opportunities for combined action. This
government policy to make changes. framework can be used by city governments
to devise a strategy for collaboration. The
Cities can play an important role in influencing
framework is structured around five stakeholder
consumption across the six consumption
groups:
interventions will
categories that are the focus of this report. As
well as leading by example, city governments • City government
are experienced in convening stakeholder
• Urban residents
groups to tackle difficult policy issues and are
therefore well-placed to enable participatory • Business
provide wider
— —
106 action on climate change. City governments • Civil society groups 107
— manage dense, complex, built-up areas on —
• National government
a daily basis, where multiple actors have an
economic and social stake in common urban A more detailed perspective on consumption
changes is presented in two ‘change stories’ on
benefits in cities
spaces and resources such as infrastructure
and public services. Any change in urban policy, the following pages. These provide a narrative
and especially any significant change, such describing the stakeholder relationships,
as large-scale urban development efforts, responsibilities and interdependencies in two
will affect a great number of actors; some example categories: food, and buildings and
positively, some negatively. It is therefore infrastructure. Both of these categories have
part of any city government’s core function to markedly different sets of stakeholders who
consult, coordinate and attempt to create a are best-placed to influence the delivery of
consensus between multiple actors through consumption interventions. A more detailed
day-to-day interactions with urban residents, presentation of change stories is provided for
businesses, civil society groups and other levels all five sectors in the supporting In Focus report.
of government. Hence, city governments are
well-positioned positioned to bring together a
broad range of stakeholders to initiate action on
consumption emissions.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 8 DELIVERY OF CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS DELIVERY OF CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS PART — 8
of mate
role of early adopters of low animal-based diets
Produce
and direct powers to drive dietary change for
of p
so that a virtuous circle can be created.
dia
De ducts
residents. For example, they can convene key
rials
and ure
ro
me
sig
t
r
Pr rod rvic
Cul
ner
actors through food boards or other taskforces
oc u es
p e
ur cts
for healthy eating, where relevant stakeholders
er /
s
Cities can work
of
can agree on and trial mutually-supporting
Re
actions. Use of their powers, although arguably together with su tail
pp er/ CI
VI
making a small direct impact, can be an effective lie L
SS
individuals, r S
nity
NE
OC
influencing tool. For instance, city governments mu
SI
business and
Fin o
IE
C ,
a ups
BU
TY
can change the menus in school and public est Gro s,
Pro ervic r
ps
ing y
ors O
NG grou
Aw nsp
ild cit
other levels of
duc e
buildings, encouraging large city employers to h
s ide
pro
fa i t
Tra
er/
v
follow suit in their canteens. Other potential
direct actions include using their powers to
government to Corporate
Pro enin
g,
lobbying
of pro curer Conv ring
remove or reduce the stimuli that make poor achieve dietary ducts
servic / CITY
tn
& tar
e
par et settin
g
g
— es —
108
choices too easy, such as fast food near schools
change. GOVERNMENT 109
— or junk food advertising on public transport, Vi —
ia
l & sio Legisla
as well as creating city certification schemes nc ent se tr n
S tio
n a tti ate and reg n
Fi stm ng gy ulation
that give public recognition to sustainable ve
Legislation
and regulation
In
NT
food businesses which help support consumer e
com
ME
choices while benefiting the local economy. h in
Hig
N
IN
ER
DI
ID Fin
OV
The role of business is multi-faceted. Pioneering Inv anc
V
UA G
manufacturers can lead a shift in demand by
L S N AL es ial
tm
en
TIO t
providing consumers with new options. Retailers NA
are also key in supporting consumers to make
Pr odu es
pr rvic
oc ct
se
ur s/
better decisions by stocking more healthy,
er
e
of
com
Produc
plant-based options and fewer meat and
service
provid
n
dairy products. Aisle design and advertising in
er i
er/
er
Low
supermarkets is another effective strategy. The
same principles apply to restaurants and food
outlets by making the healthy option the default
option and ensuring plant-based options are
displayed more prominently. Consumers are
Stakeholder with high impact potential50 50
Stakeholder scoring is from 0 to 3. High impact is defined by ability to
directly impact change or show high influence (typically scores 2 or above
however other stakeholder are included where they are recognised as
Stakeholder with lower impact potential important to the change story).
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 8 DELIVERY OF CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS DELIVERY OF CONSUMPTION INTERVENTIONS PART — 8
of mate
and switching to lower embodied emissions,
Produce
Third sector organisations can play an important
of p
dia
establishing a framework for the industry
De ducts
role in catalysing change, raising awareness
rials
and ure
ro
me
sig
players to step up and implement change.
t
r
Pr rod rvic
Cul
ner
within business and consumer groups and
oc u es
p se
ur cts
Taxes, building codes, planning and specification supporting transformation by providing research,
er /
of
requirements should be reviewed to ensure tools and guidance for decision-makers.
Re
that important opportunities to proactively su tail CI
pp er/ VI
drive this shift are taken and that the existing lie L
r SS S
Both city nity
NE
OC
regulatory environment does not act as an mu
Com ps,
IE
a
and national inv ncial u
BU
TY
unnecessary barrier to new low- or zero-carbon Gro s,
Pro
ups
ing ty
ors G O
N gro
duc e
buildings. Public procurement can set maximum h
Awans
ser ider
pro
i t
governments fa
Tr
vic
er/
v
requirements for carbon intensity and put a
higher emphasis on material carbon footprints have an important Corporate
lobbying Pro
of pro curer
enin
Conv ring
g,
role to play in
in the weighting of procurement criteria when ducts ne g
part et settin
servic / CITY r g
— es & ta —
awarding contracts. Most importantly, city and GOVERNMENT
110
— national governments should clearly define facilitating the Vi
111
—
long-term regulatory outcomes, enabling the adoption of building n a
ia
l
nc ent
& sio
se tr n
S
tti ate
Legisla
tio
and reg n
market and supply chain to adapt, build capacity Fi stm ng gy ulation
techniques for ve
Legislation
and regulation
In
NT
and develop new ways of delivering buildings e
material efficiency om
ME
and infrastructure to meet these outcomes. h inc
Hig
N
IN
and switching to
ER
DI
ID Fin
Architecture, engineering and construction
OV
Inv anc
V
UA G
L es ial
firms can highlight opportunities for low-
lower embodied L S
TIO
NA tm
en
t
carbon design. Solutions currently available NA
in the market are capable of delivering low or emissions,
Pr odu es
establishing a
pr rvic
oc ct
se
zero-carbon buildings across many typologies.
ur s/
er
me
Architects and engineers need to propose them,
framework for the
of
Produc
service
provid
nco
surveyors need to price them and clients need
er i
industry players
er/
er
Low
to procure them.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 9 CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP PART — 9
9 9.1
9. Closing the
NDCs, C40’s Deadline 2020 programme and a range
of consumption interventions. If these actions are
implemented, consumption emissions in C40 cities
emissions gap
— —
112 113
—
could be reduced by 70% by 2050, compared to a —
A combination of climate action on city, national This final section of this report outlines a number
and global levels would mean a dramatic of additional developments that can reduce C40
reduction in consumption-based emissions. cities’ consumption-based emissions in line
with a 1.5°C trajectory.
However, it would still leave an emissions
gap of 48 GtCO2e in C40 cities, beyond what
is compatible with a 1.5°C warming scenario.
This means that even if national governments
follow through on their commitments and C40
cities undertake highly challenging climate
action to minimise emissions within and beyond
their jurisdictions it would still not limit global
warming to 1.5°C. Something else needs to
happen as well.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 9 CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP PART — 9
The current NDCs are not sufficient to meet the In a future scenario where an accelerated global
Paris Agreement’s ambition to limit the global transition takes place, through a maximum
average temperature increase to 1.5°C. More deployment of current low-carbon technologies
climate action is needed to initiate a global (i.e. technologies that are in use or innovations
transition to low-carbon production that goes that are at an advanced stage), the carbon
beyond NDCs in terms of decarbonising electricity footprint of goods and services in C40 cities would
generation and adopting wider energy efficiency shrink and consumption-based emissions would
measures as well as shifting to zero-carbon fall.52 While a low-carbon transition of production
fuels within buildings, transport and industrial in line with current NDC commitments would
processes. reduce C40 cities’ consumption-based emissions
by 56 GtCO2e, an accelerated transition to clean
fig.28 production, as defined by the International
Emissions reduction potential of a low-carbon Energy Agency (IEA), would reduce C40 cities’
production transition in line with NDCs compared
consumption-based emissions by an additional
with an accelerated transition.
50 GtCO2e (Figure 29).
52
This accelerated transition scenario correspond to a global average tem-
perature increase of 1.75ºC.
GHG Emissions
(GtC02e)
— —
10
114 115
— No further climate —
action trajectory
8
Delivering NDCs
Accelerated transition
4
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 9 CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP PART — 9
The NDC and accelerated transition scenarios The IEA is a globally recognised source of
were developed using third party analysis by energy analysis however integration of different Current NDC commitments Accelerated transition
the International Energy Agency (IEA). In 2017, modelling analysis is not without limitations. (2.9-3.4°C) (1.75°C)
they published a report, Energy Technology These are described fully within the method
Perspectives, which included projections of report.
the scale and speed of energy decarbonisation Carbon intensity of rail is Carbon intensity of rail is
Note that the adoption of CCS and BECCS
according to a number of scenarios of which two Rail
were considered for this analysis; an NDC scenario
proposed within the IEA analysis was excluded 11gCO2/km 0gCO2/km
from the accelerated transition scenario for the
and an accelerated transition that is commensurate
purposes of this study.
with a 1.75°C climate scenario. Table 8 highlights
the International Energy Agency’s key indicators Carbon intensity Carbon intensity
of the low carbon production developments that of shipping is of shipping is
Shipping
underpin these scenarios.
90gCO2/kJ 61gCO2/kJ
Table 8
Summary of global indicators for an NDC scenario versus a 16% 28%
scenario with an accelerated transition to clean production. Cement of energy used in cement of energy used in cement
— —
production production from biomass and production from biomass and
116 117
waste and 14% from natural waste and 22% from natural
— —
gas gas
SOURCE OF SELECTION OF GLOBAL INDICATORS
EMISSIONS OF LOW-CARBON TRANSITION BY 2050
Energy intensity of crude Energy intensity of crude
Steel steel production steel production
Current NDC commitments Accelerated transition
production
(2.9-3.4°C) (1.75°C) 22 GJ/t 12 GJ/t
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 9 CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP PART — 9
This accelerated transition to low-carbon This global-local interplay is complex, but also
GHG Emissions
production would affect C40 cities’ shows why it is useful to look at urban emissions (GtC02e)
consumption interventions are fully deployed. phase out all fossil fuel vehicles, for example,
If C40 cities implement ambitious consumption while urban stakeholders continue to encourage
interventions under this accelerated transition carbon-intensive production of goods and
— scenario, they would cut carbon emissions by services elsewhere through their consumption. —
118 22 GtCO2e (Figure 29). In practice, urban stakeholders need to 119
— continuously evaluate both their local and
6 —
Secondly, if an accelerated transition to cleaner
global climate impact and use all of the levers
production takes place, alongside a delivery
at their disposal – as producers and consumers
of Deadline 2020 commitments and the
– to speed up an accelerated transition to low-
implementation of consumption interventions,
carbon production everywhere.
C40 cities’ consumption emissions would
be reduced by 153 GtCO2e. Altogether, this 4 Accelerated
transition –
reduces the emissions gap in C40 cities by 95%, 106 GtCO2e saved
compared to a scenario with no further climate The remaining
action. The remaining emissions gap in this case
emissions gap in
would be 8 GtCO2e.
an ideal scenario Deadline 2020
pledges
An accelerated transition to low-carbon would be 2 25 GtCO2e saved
8 GtCO e
production is therefore a necessity for C40 cities Cumulative Ambitious
to reduce their consumption-based emissions in C40 cities emissions gap consumption
1.5°C trajectory 8 GtCO2e interventions
line with a 1.5°C trajectory. Without the additional
2
22 GtCO2e saved
level of climate action in the surrounding world
that an accelerated transition entails, goods and
services consumed by city residents would still 0
have a level of carbon intensity that makes it 2017 2020 2030 2040 2050
near impossible for C40 cities to fully close their
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 9 CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP PART — 9
However, given that ground-breaking the likelihood that C40 cities stay within their
9.2 technological developments are uncertain, cities consumption-related 1.5°C GHG budgets.
may want to consider a range of supporting
Reducing C40 cities’ consumption-based emissions through a wider and medicine consumption emissions,
range of city • Ports and shipping including across all C40 cities, of
in line with a 1.5°C trajectory requires a wide range of consumption activities related to trade that 0.4 tCO2e per capita.
interventions
climate action at city, national and global levels, from is not imported into a city55 Assuming that consumption
This study concentrates on • Miscellaneous (this covers interventions with a similar
both public and private actors. six categories where cities a broad range of remaining emissions reduction impact as
could have a significant categories such as DIY those analysed in this report
impact on consumption- equipment etc.) could be applied across these
Although an accelerated intensity of electricity and evidenced research.
based emissions. However, to Figure 30 presents the additional categories, it would
— transition of production, decreased by less than 1% This factual basis makes —
align with a 1.5°C trajectory, remaining consumption-based be possible to fully close the
120 alongside Deadline 2020 annually in 2008-201753 the emission reduction 121
— additional bespoke and emissions by consumption cumulative emissions gap and —
commitments and the full that rate of change has to targets realistic, in the
tailored interventions may category, between 2017 and reduce total emissions to just
deployment of consumption increase to 5% per year between sense that no technological
be needed across other 2050, following the delivery 0.4 GtCO2e in 2050.
intervention, nearly bridges the 2017-2050, under a scenario constraints prevent suggested
consumption-based emissions with an accelerated transition consumption interventions consumption categories. of an accelerated transition
These other categories of of production, Deadline
gap in C40 cities, this outcome
is far from certain.
to cleaner production. A 5%
annual drop in carbon intensity
from being implemented. But it
may also contribute to an overly consumption, which were 2020 commitments and the
The consumption
In fact, the delivery of Deadline
will be very challenging, but pessimistic outlook, because not analysed in detail in this consumption interventions. interventions
2020 commitments and
not impossible. The United the targets are limited by what report, as outlined in 4.1.1,
are listed below:
The consumption interventions for the six
Kingdom, for example, is currently deemed possible.
consumption interventions,
reduced its carbon intensity of It does take time to deploy and • Utilities e.g. electricity
for food, buildings and
categories have
alongside the pace of change infrastructure, private
set out within the accelerated
electricity by 17% per year in scale up new technology and consumption transportation, aviation, clothing the potential to
transition scenario, needs an
2012-2016, mainly by swiftly its associated infrastructure, • Services e.g. financial and and textiles, and electronics and reduce emissions
and drastically decreasing but unforeseen technical household appliances have the
unprecedented deployment
coal-fired power generation by developments could increase
hospitality services
potential to reduce emissions
from these
of technology as well as • Government activities
ambitious shifts in social
80% during that period.54 the likelihood of reducing C40
• Public transport outside city
from these categories by 85% categories by
norms to take place within the On the other hand, the
cities’ consumption-based
emissions in line with a 1.5°C
e.g. by rail and coach
between 2017 and 2050. Out of 85% between
1.3 GtCO2e total consumption-
next decade. quantitative
undertaken in this report is
analysis
trajectory. Similarly, social • Fixed assets e.g. industrial
based emissions, just over
2017 and 2050.
Take the electricity sector, norms and consumer choices equipment
based on current technologies, 0.3 GtCO2e remain out of
for example. While the may also shift more rapidly • Household chemical For instance, Singapore has a very active
the six focus consumption
55
informed by expert opinion port even though only part of the shipping
global average carbon than expected. contents are imported into the city
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 9 CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP PART — 9
fig.30 9.2.2 this report shows, these are some of the most
Reduction in consumption-based emissions across
consumption categories between 2017-2050. The
Behavioural change: driving a impactful consumption interventions that can be
largest consumption-based emission categories, social and economic transition taken to reduce consumption-based emissions
which have not been fully decarbonised by 2050, are in C40 cities. Furthermore, businesses and
services (23%), government activities (18%) and public
Reducing consumption-based emissions
elected leaders respond to consumer demands
transportation outside of city boundaries (11%). will require significant behavioural changes.
and voter priorities. Signs of broad behavioural
Individual consumers cannot change the way
GHG Emissions change will therefore support low-carbon
(GtC02e) the global economy operates on their own,
corporate and political action. If C40 cities
5 but many of the consumption interventions
are to cut their consumption-based emissions
1.5°C Target proposed in this report rely on individual action.
in half by 2030 and reduce them by 80% over
It is ultimately up to individuals to decide what
the period up to 2050, it is critical that large-
Aviation
type of food to eat and how to manage their
scale behavioural changes occur as soon as
Electronics and appliances shopping to avoid household food waste. It
Clothing and textiles possible, and that governments and businesses
is also largely up to individuals to decide how
support a swift transition to more sustainable
Plant-based foods many new items of clothing to buy, whether
4 consumption through policy incentives and new
Animal-based foods they should own and drive a private car, or how
business models.
many personal flights to catch every year. As
Private transport
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 9 CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP PART — 9
Moreover, while industrial CCS can scale to 9.2.5 does not address environmental degradation or
the level of several gigatons of CO2 being Policy example: managed climate change.
abated every year, concerns remain as to the
9.2.4 growth Alternative socio-economic frameworks do
scalability of CCS applied to biomass (BECCS),
Policy example: carbon pricing If existing technologies cannot be scaled- exist. Doughnut Economics, for example, which
which ultimately competes for limited land area
up quickly enough, or if no unforeseen is shown in Figure 31 below, estimates that
for food production and the goal of preserving Carbon pricing has long been proposed as an
technological and social shifts occur, it may be the world has already exceeded at least four
biodiversity.59 The primary alternative, to avoid effective mechanism to reduce the carbon
necessary to address another macro driver of planetary boundaries without meeting any
an overreliance on BECCS, is to reduce the intensities of products and services in a flexible
consumption emissions: increased expenditure indicators of social wellbeing.
generation of emissions altogether. and cost-effective manner. Carbon pricing
due to economic growth. As outlined in Chapter These concepts attempt to encapsulate an
sends a price signal to consumers by making
4, annual GDP growth rates have a significant economy that allows societies to operate
high-carbon goods more expensive, thereby
impact on emission levels in C40 cities over time. within planetary boundaries while ensuring that
triggering a positive behaviour change towards
For example, by assuming an annual growth rate human needs are met. In such a scenario, policy
a lower-carbon alternative. This price signal has
Peter et al (2017) Key indicators to track current progress and future of 1.3% instead of 2.3% over 2017-2050, C40 makers would be agnostic about economic
the dual benefit of spurring innovation on low-
57
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 9 CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP PART — 9
fig.31 9.2.6
Doughnut economics diagram Summary: closing the
showing global ‘performance’ emissions gap
across indicators of social and
planetary wellbeing.64 If an accelerated transition to clean production
is initiated across the world that drastically
beyond the boundary reduces the carbon intensity of electricity
boundary not quantified generation, shipping, land freight and rail,
limiting global warming to 1.5°C will be within
reach.
R
reduced by approximately two-thirds over the
period up to 2050. Under such a scenario, C40
complementary climate
YE AC O
E
LA ION
N LET ECO
LOGICAL CEILING
ID CE
IF AN
IC cities are within reach of closing their emissions action takes place within
ZO EP AT
cities.
O D IO
ER FOOD N gap, given that complementary climate action
WAT
takes place within cities.
Y IAL FOUNDATIO HE ad
RG SOC N
er
lo
ov On top of the primarily global and national action
E
AL
EN
TH
— described above, C40 cities need to meet their further impact how goods and services are —
126 127
POLLUTION
RKS
POLLUT
Deadline 2020 commitments so that production-
CHEMIC
produced and consumed. On construction,
EDU
— ll —
AIR
NETWO
r tfa
CATION
Deadline 2020 commitments, C40 cities will ownership needs to end and the shared vehicles
E
have closed 80% of their consumption-based that replace it have to use less materials and be
BI
AD OR &
LO PH EN
ND
DI
CE
G
OS OG
GE
that cities also rethink their approach to heating
VE S
LO
POL
and cooling, building efficiency, mobility, urban flying with less energy-intensive forms of long-
N
ITY
L ITICAL
SOCIA
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 9 CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP CLOSING THE EMISSIONS GAP PART — 9
Since the wide range of action that enables a Most of the above-
1.5°C scenario leaves little room for delay or mentioned climate
failure over the coming decade, other broad
supporting policies can provide a safety net
actions – on global,
by bringing about complementary emission national and local
reductions.
levels – have to
— —
128
Examples of such complementary policies are
CCS, particularly in industries that emit direct
take place within 129
—
emissions, and carbon pricing mechanisms the next ten years. —
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
PART — 10 CONCLUSION CONCLUSION PART — 10
Conclusion
2020 and the measures they have already taken 1.5°C trajectory, an accelerated global transition
to reduce their GHG emissions. However, until to clean production is necessary.
now, the typical focus has been on production-
The changes to current consumption patterns
based emissions and traditional city roles
that need to be delivered in cities are in some
and responsibilities such as urban planning,
cases dramatic, but individuals, businesses
energy, transport and waste. This study shows
and city governments all stand to gain if the
that cities can have a much greater impact
changes are delivered in a just way. Some
on global climate action by considering the
of the wider urban benefits of making these
emissions associated with the full breadth of
changes are quantified in this report, proving
their consumption.
that consumption interventions can reduce
The potential influence of city climate action emissions and make cities healthier and more
extends far beyond municipal limits. Focusing equitable places to live in.
on consumption-based emissions enables a
city to consider the positive impact it can have
on emission reductions within and beyond its
Focusing on consumption-
borders to help bring about a global transition based emissions enables
to clean production. Individuals, businesses
a city to consider the
11. Conclusion
— and governments in C40 cities have significant —
130 spending power, which means they can affect positive impact it 131
— what and how goods and services are bought, can have on emission —
sold, used, shared and re-used.
reductions within and
This study re-imagines the role of cities in
influencing consumption within the city as
beyond its borders.
well as production processes beyond their
jurisdiction. This does not supplant ongoing Reducing consumption-based emissions across
efforts, it simply complements the approach the economy involves multiple actors. Urban
of Deadline 2020. If all cities deliver on their decision-making is enabled and constrained
Deadline 2020 commitments, it will also help C40 by behavioural practices, societal priorities,
cities to reduce their consumption emissions. institutions, laws and regulations at regional,
Alongside their Deadline 2020 commitments, national and international levels, as well as
this report recommends that C40 cities focus by actions taken by non-governmental actors
on reducing emissions within six consumption such as corporations, media, NGOs, academia,
categories: buildings and infrastructure; food; community groups and individual residents. The
private transport; clothing and textiles; aviation; consumption interventions analysed for this
and electronics and household appliances. project can be collectively delivered by different
In total, the delivery of NDCs, city action on actors and coalitions of actors, but forward-
Deadline 2020 and consumption interventions thinking and proactive city governments can
can reduce the emissions gap in C40 cities by facilitate this wider collaboration by providing a
70%, compared to a scenario with no further platform for action.
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
References
The following are external sources referenced within this report. For a more complete • Peter et al (2017) Key indicators to track current progress and future ambition of the Paris
bibliography of sources for the analysis see the accompanying method report at C40.org Agreement. Nature Climate Change, 118-122.
Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate3202
• Andreas J. (2018) An Industry’s Guide to Climate Action. The Bellona Foundation.
Available at: https://bellona.org/publication/an-industrys-guide-to-climate-change • Popp et al (2014) The effect of bioenergy expansion: Food, energy, and environment.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/
• BBC (2019) ULEZ: New pollution charge begins in London. BBC.
article/pii/S1364032114000677
Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-47815117
• Raworth K. (2018) Doughnut Economics. Random House Business.
• Bowen A. (2012) Green Growth, Green Jobs and Labor Markets. World Bank.
• Robins N. (2018) Investing in a just transition: Why investors need to integrate a social dimension
• C40 Cities (2018) Available at: https://www.c40.org/press_releases/27-cities-have-reached-peak-
into their climate strategies and how they could take action.
greenhouse-gas-emissions-whilst-populations-increase-and-economies-grow
• Sydow B. (2019, May 15) Available at: http://www.flightemissionsmap.org
• C40 Cities (2018) Consumption-based GHG emissions of C40 cities.
• Tokyo Metropolitan Government (2019) Tokyo Cap-and-Trade Program.
• C40 Cities (2019) Available at: https://www.c40.org/other/the-future-we-don-t-want-homepage
Available at: http://www.metro.tokyo.jp/english/topics/2016/161116_01.html
• Carbon Brief (2015) Available at: https://www.carbonbrief.org/interactive-map-historical-emis-
• UNEP (2019) Global Resources Outlook 2019.
sions-around-the-world
Available at: https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/27519
— • Drax (2018) Energy Revolution: A Global Outlook. Available at: https://www.drax.com/wp-content/ —
132 • UNFCCC (2019, May 15) Available at: https://unfccc.int/topics/climate-finance/the-big-picture/ 133
uploads/2018/12/Energy-Revolution-Global-Outlook-Report-Final-Dec-2018-COP24.pdf
— climate-finance-in-the-negotiations —
• Fankhauser S. (2008) Climate change, innovation and jobs. Climate Policy, 421-429.
• World Bank (2019) Pricing Carbon. Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/pri-
• Fayardi et al, M. (2019) BECCS deployment: a reality check. Briefing paper n°28. cing-carbon
Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment.
• GHG Protocol (2014) Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories.
Available at: https://ghgprotocol.org/sites/default/files/standards/GHGP_GPC_0.pdf
• Guardian (2019) Empty North Sea gas fields to be used to bury 10m tonnes of CO2. Guardian. Avai-
lable at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/09/empty-north-sea-gas-fields-bu-
ry-10m-tonnes-c02-eu-ports
THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD THE FUTURE OF URBAN CONSUMPTION IN A 1.5°C WORLD
—
134
—
Design by Datcha
Images
©getty/123ducu, ©getty/ake1150sb,
©getty/ansonmiao, ©getty/nezarettin
azmanoğlu, ©getty/Casper1774Studio,
©getty/georgeclerk, ©getty/fotofermer,
©getty/haydenbird, ©getty/kadmy,
©getty/Michael Kulmar, ©getty/
leungchopan, ©getty/littleny, ©getty/
PPAMPicture, ©getty/pranodhm, ©getty/
serts, ©getty/Mikhail Strogalev, ©getty/
Suradech14, ©getty/BahadirTanriover,
©getty/Vladimiroquai