What is Algebra?

Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with symbols and the arithmetic operations across these symbols. These
symbols do not have any fixed values and are called variables. In our real-life problems, we often see certain values
that keep on changing. But there is a constant need to represent these changing values. Here in algebra, these values
are often represented with symbols such as x, y, z, p, or q, and these symbols are called variables. Further, these
symbols are manipulated through various arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division,
with an objective to find the values.

The above algebraic expressions are made up of variables, operators, and constants. Here the numbers 4 and 28 are
constants, x is the variable, and the arithmetic operation of addition is performed.

What is trigonometry?

trigonometry, the branch of mathematics concerned with specific functions of angles and their application to
calculations. There are six functions of an angle commonly used in trigonometry. Their names and abbreviations
are sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), cotangent (cot), secant (sec), and cosecant (csc). These six trigonometric
functions in relation to a right triangle are displayed in the figure. For example, the triangle contains an angle A, and
the ratio of the side opposite to A and the side opposite to the right angle (the hypotenuse) is called the sine of A, or
sin A; the other trigonometry functions are defined similarly. These functions are properties of the
angle A independent of the size of the triangle, and calculated values were tabulated for many angles
before computers made trigonometry tables obsolete. Trigonometric functions are used in obtaining unknown angles
and distances from known or measured angles in geometric figures.

Trigonometry developed from a need to compute angles and distances in such fields
as astronomy, mapmaking, surveying, and artillery range finding. Problems involving angles and distances in one
plane are covered in plane trigonometry. Applications to similar problems in more than one plane of three-
dimensional space are considered in spherical trigonometry.
What is matrices?

matrix, a set of numbers arranged in rows and columns so as to form a rectangular array. The numbers are called the
elements, or entries, of the matrix. Matrices have wide applications in engineering, physics, economics,
and statistics as well as in various branches of mathematics. Matrices also have important applications in computer
graphics, where they have been used to represent rotations and other transformations of images.

Historically, it was not the matrix but a certain number associated with a square array of numbers called
the determinant that was first recognized. Only gradually did the idea of the matrix as an algebraic entity emerge. The
term matrix was introduced by the 19th-century English mathematician James Sylvester, but it was his friend the
mathematician Arthur Cayley who developed the algebraic aspect of matrices in two papers in the 1850s. Cayley first
applied them to the study of systems of linear equations, where they are still very useful. They are also important
because, as Cayley recognized, certain sets of matrices form algebraic systems in which many of the ordinary laws
of arithmetic (e.g., the associative and distributive laws) are valid but in which other laws (e.g., the commutative law)

If there are m rows and n columns, the matrix is said to be an “m by n” matrix, written “m × n.” For example,
is a 2 × 3 matrix. A matrix with n rows and n columns is called a square matrix of order n. An ordinary
number can be regarded as a 1 × 1 matrix; thus, 3 can be thought of as the matrix [3]. A matrix with only one
row and n columns is called a row vector, and a matrix with only one column and n rows is called a
column vector.
Strategies. Problem solving often requires students to select an appropriate strategy. Students learn to judge when an
exact answer is needed and when an estimate is all that is required, and they use this knowledge to guide their
selection. For example, computational strategies include mental computation and estimation to develop a sense of the
numbers and operations involved. The selection of a computational strategy is based on the flexibility students have
with applying operations to the numbers they are working with. Sometimes, their strategy may involve the use
of algorithms or the composition and decomposition of numbers using known facts. Students can also create
computational representations of mathematical situations using code .

Geometry, algebra, and trigonometry all play a crucial role in architectural design. Architects apply these math
forms to plan their blueprints or initial sketch designs. They also calculate the probability of issues the construction
team could run into as they bring the design vision to life in three dimensions.
 Analytical Methods
for Quantity
surveyor

• Aim
This unit will provide the analytical knowledge and techniques needed to carry out a range of
Engineering tasks and will provide a base for further study of engineering mathematics.

• Unit abstract
This unit enables learners to develop previous mathematical knowledge obtained at school or
college and use fundamental algebra, trigonometry, calculus, statistics and probability for the
analysis, modelling and solution of realistic engineering problems.
Learning outcome 1 looks at algebraic methods, including polynomial division, exponential,
trigonometric and hyperbolic functions, arithmetic and geometric progressions in an engineering
context and expressing variables as power series.
The second learning outcome will develop learners’ understanding of sinusoidal functions in an
engineering concept such as AC waveforms, together with the use of trigonometric identities.
The calculus is introduced in learning outcome 3, both differentiation and integration with rules
and various applications.
Finally, learning outcome 4 should extend learners’ knowledge of statistics and probability by
looking at tabular and graphical representation of data; measures of mean, median, mode and
standard deviation; the use of linear regression in engineering situations, probability and the
Normal distribution.

• Learning outcomes
On successful completion of this unit a learner will:
1 Be able to analyse and model engineering situations and solve problems using algebraic
methods
2 Be able to analyse and model engineering situations and solve problems using trigonometric
methods
3 Be able to analyse and model engineering situations and solve problems using calculus
4 Be able to analyse and model engineering situations and solve problems using statistics and
probability
Analysis and
design issues

What is design and analysis of

algorithms?

An algorithm is a sequence of steps to solve a problem. Design and analysis of algorithm is very important for
designing algorithm to solve different types of problems in the branch of computer science and information
technology.
Description
Mathematical work is important in the field of civil engineering. The natural variability of civil engineering design
including materials properties, combined with the common problem of data scarceness, makes a probabilistic
approach to structural/geotechnical design quite necessary and challenging. Risk assessments and reliability-based
design are increasingly needed in many large engineering construction projects. Advanced mathematical and risk
analysis is highly recognized in some design codes as a way of delivering reasonable load and resistance factors in
civil engineering design.

The aim of this Special Issue is to provide an opportunity for researchers to exchange and disseminate the recent
developments in the mathematical problems of civil engineering. All original research articles addressing significant
issues and contributing towards the development of new methodologies, concepts, applications, and knowledge to
science are encouraged to join this special issue. Review articles describing the current state of the art are also
welcome.

Potential topics include but are not limited to the following:

 Risk assessment and management in civil engineering

 Advances in mathematical modelling for civil engineering uncertainties
 Reliability method development and reliability-based design
 Mathematical problems in civil engineering: landslides, dams and levees, structural design and random
vibrations
 Application of theory of statistics and probability in civil engineering

In its simplest terms, design analysis is a powerful software technology for simulating physical behavior on the
computer. Will it break? Will it deform? Will it get too hot? These are the types of questions for which design analysis
provides accurate answers. Instead of building a prototype and developing elaborate testing regimens to analyze the
physical behavior of a product, engineers can elicit this information quickly and accurately on the computer. Because
design analysis can minimize or even eliminate the need for physical prototyping and testing, the technology has gone
mainstream in the manufacturing world over the past decade as a valuable product development tool and has become
omnipresent in almost all fields of engineering.

What are the issues in designing an algorithm?

Important Problems Such As Sorting, Searching, String Processing, Graph Problems, Combinational Problems,
Numerical Problems Are Basic Motivations For Designing Algorithm. The Basic Objective Of Solving Problem With
Multiple Constraints Such As Problem Size Performance And Cost In Terms Of Space And Time.
Learning outcomes On successful completion of
this unit a learner will:
LO1 Be able to apply analytical methods to construction
problems
Assessment criteria for pass The learner can:
1.1 determine resource requirements for construction
projects
1.2 perform calculations for project planning and cost
analysis

LO2 Be able to apply analytical methods to surveying and 2.1 solve surveying problems 2.2 perform calculations to
setting out procedures support setting out procedures

2.1 solve surveying problems 2.2 perform calculations to
support setting out procedures
LO4 Be able to apply analytical methods to engineering
problems
3.1 compile construction data for statistical purposes 3.2
present construction data in appropriate formats 3.3 use
statistical methods to solve problems involving
estimation, prediction and quality control
4.1 solve engineering problems using vector analysis 4.2
solve engineering problems using calculus

Strategy and classification of design problems

The strategy is an essential factor in resolving any kind of a problem. As same as that, ‘design method’ is the term that
uses in building design. Usually, it follows a logical procedure even there is no ideal method in designing a building.
For instance, we use objectivity to solve design problems. In other cases, the solution will be given by the subjectivity.
That means you will be able to solve one problem with a specific solution, but it won’t support to address another
issue. Moreover, there will be some cases that are very easy to identify the relevant activities that you can predict. On
the other hand, some design processes follow a hard way that the designer must put a significant effort into identifying
the information.
Advantages of design methods to resolve design problems

A design strategy offers a lot of benefits to the designer. It is the factor that the designer uses to ensure that the stages
have dealt with completely. Also, it has the ability to suit the problems that he has to deal with. Moreover, each

member has a good understanding of the duty that they must do when there is a team. It improves the effectiveness of
the procedure. On the other hand can check he work at each stage when thee is a design method.
Processes and operations
What is a construction process?

You get the bid, you follow the plans, you finish the job. What’s the big deal about a construction process?
It all boils down to having a plan vs. following the plan. You wouldn’t throw your blueprints in the trash with a shrug
and say, “Yeah, I think I got the gist.”

The definition of 'definition' cannot be taken for granted. The problem has been treated from various angles in different
journals. Among other questions raised on the subject we find: the notions of concept definition and concept image,
conceptions of mathematical definitions, redefinitions, and from a more axiomatic point of view, how to construct definitions
This paper will deal with 'definition construction processes' and aims more specifically at proposing a new approach to the
study of the formation of mathematical concepts. I shall demonstrate that the study of the defining and concept formation
processes demands the setting up of a general theoretical framework. I shall propose such a tool characterizing classical
points of view of mathematical definitions as well as analyzing the dialectic involving definition construction and concept
formation. In that perspective, a didactical exemplification will also be presented.

Following the plan makes for a faster and less costly build.

You can break it down into 6 main parts:

 Conception
 Design
 Pre-construction
 Procurement
 Construction
 Post-construction

The process makes sense if you take it one step at a time. But organizing (and seeing) it all in one place is essential to
not getting overwhelmed or losing the forest for the trees.

That’s where digital workflow platforms come in.

The four main categories of process problems are

 Equipment
 Material
 Methods
 Personnel

. There are also other areas that may cause an affect and the team members are to add those categories. The form is
well suited to present findings after a solution has been implemented.
What are construction operations?
Construction operations include:
 Constructing, altering, repairing, extending or demolishing:
o Buildings or structures
o Works that are part of the land
 Installing, altering or repairing:
o Security
o Electrical
o Heating
o Air conditioning
o Soundproofing
o Ventilation
o Drainage
o Sanitation
o Water supply systems
o Telecommunications systems

 Cleaning buildings internally and externally in the course of their construction, alteration or repair (not
including normal maintenance)
 Works which are an essential part of, are in preparation for or are completing other construction work.
This includes:
o Site-clearing
o Earth-moving
o Excavating
o Tunneling
o Boring
o Laying foundations
o Erecting scaffolding
o Site restoration
o Landscaping
o Providing roadways and other access works

 Works that form an essential part of, are in preparation for, or complete works such as drilling for
minerals, oil, natural gas or other natural resources
 Transporting someone else's materials or machinery for use in any of the activities listed above (known
as ‘haulage for hire’).
What are the issues and problems in the construction?
Some contributing factors can't be controlled, such as the weather, the nationwide labor shortage (caused by
recessions), and equipment failures. But there are definitely factors that can be prevented, including scheduling issues,
project conflicts, and incorrect data.
What are the 5 major processes of project?
 The five stages of the project life cycle are:
 Initiating.
 Planning.
 Executing.
 Monitoring/controlling.
 Closing.

We discuss representing and reasoning with knowledge about the time-dependent utility of an agent's actions. Time-
dependent utility plays a crucial role in the interaction between computation and action under bounded resources. We
present a semantics for time-dependent utility and describe the use of time-dependent information in decision
contexts. We illustrate our discussion with examples of time-pressured reasoning in Photos, a system constructed to
explore the ideal control of inference by reasons with limited abilities.

We are interested in the problem faced by an agent with limited computational capabilities, embedded in a complex
environment with other agents and processes not under its control. Careful management of computational resources is
important for complex problem-solving tasks in which the time spent in decision making affects the quality of the
responses generated by a system. This paper describes an approach to designing systems that are capable of taking
their own computational resources into consideration during planning and problem solving. In particular, we address
the design of systems that manage their computational resources by using expectations about the performance of
decision-making procedures and preferences over the outcomes resulting from applying those procedures. Our
approach is called deliberation scheduling. Deliberation scheduling involves the explicit allocation of computational
resources to decision-making procedures based on the expected effect of those allocations on the system's
performance.

Real-time systems are designed for environments in which the utility of actions is strongly time-dependent. Recent
work by Dean, Horvitz and others has shown that anytime algorithms are a useful tool for real-time system design,
since they allow computation time to be traded for decision quality. In order to construct complex systems, however,
we need to be a ble to compose larger systems from smaller, reusable anytime modules. This paper addresses two
basic problems associated with composition: how to ensure the interruptibility of the composed system; and how to
allocate computation time optimally among the components. The first problem is solved by a simple and general
construction that incurs only a small, constant penalty. The second is solved by an off-line compilation process. We
show that the general compilation problem is NP-complete. However, efficient local compilation techniques, working
on a single program structure at a time, yield globally optimal allocations for a large class of programs. We illustrate
these results with two simple applications.
Resourse issues
What Is Resource Management? 

Resource management is the process of enhancing efficiency and guiding the use of such project-critical resources as
employees, equipment, and tools. As a resource manager, you'll breakdown all the elements needed to complete a
project, paying particular attention to how their resources are allocated, prioritized, and used so it stays within budget and
on schedule.

In this article, learn about resource management, the different types, and what potential employers look for in a resource
manager, including education, experience, and relevant resource management skills. At the end, you'll explore cost-
effective, flexible courses that can help you gain the job-relevant skills you'll need to excel in the field.

Four HR Related Problems in the Construction Industry

Do you work in human resources for a construction company? Then you're likely already aware of these top four issues.
But do you know how to solve them? That's what we'll discuss in this section.

Issues
While many of the human resource challenges and issues facing the construction industry are the same, the degree
of impact varies by sector, trade, and region. Some of the key issues facing the construction industry are the need to:
• Replace the loss of skilled trades people due to an aging workforce
• Recruit sufficient numbers to meet demands for skilled labour
• Improve the image of the construction industry as a viable career option.
• Manage the labour supply in a volatile industry.
• Make construction management and supervisor training available.
• Expand the apprenticeship training system.
• Meet the increasing demand for strong basic skills.
• Manage the de-skilling and re-skilling of the labour force due to the introduction of new technology.
• Respond to increasing health and safety requirements.

Challenges
These human resource issues can be translated into four challenges facing the construction industry, both now and
in the future:
1. Matching the projected demand for qualified tradespeople with the future supply of skilled labour.
2. Creating and supporting a flexible, consistent, responsive apprenticeship system.
3. Creating an innovative, responsive training delivery system to maintain skill currency.
4. Facilitating worker mobility in response to skilled labour demands across the country.
  Finding Qualified Workers

organization an edge, make sure you're able to offer enticing salaries and benefits packages to each worker you
hope to hire. The search for top talent is a problem just about every company faces. But for organizations in the
construction industry, the issue seems to be amplified.
 
There are numerous reasons for this such as the common perception that construction jobs are low paying,
dangerous, and strenuous; and the fact that, for many construction jobs, a qualified candidate must be in possession
of a unique combination of skills and/or certifications.
 
In order to combat this, it's essential that HR professionals in the construction industry maintain a healthy pipeline
of potential employees at all times — even when their company isn't hiring.
 
By using a full-featured applicant tracking system  that integrates with your company website, favorite job boards,
and social media sites; you'll put your business in the best position to attract quality workers.
 
But finding top talent is only half the battle. You might also have to compete against a multitude of other
construction companies in your area to win their services. To give your

Aging Workforce

The average age of the workforce is between 40 and 46. A

significant proportion of the workforce is over 45 years of age

and the industry is projecting significant losses of workers

through retirement over the next 10 years.

Labour Shortages

Most describe the shortages as short-term, in specific skill

areas, and in select areas across the country. For the most part,

the aging workforce, increased skill demands, and insufficient

training capacity are identified as causal factors. Some segments of construction are experiencing unemployment and

low utilization, and in some instances the under-utilization of

workers is attributed to inadequate skill levels.

Attracting Young People

Those segments of construction that are forecasting skill

shortages must be able to attract sufficient young people to

replace those lost through attrition and to meet the increased

demand for skilled labour. What makes this difficult is the fact

that the construction industry has

finance issues
1 – Doing Work Without Documentation
2 – Invoicing Late & Missing Bank Draws
3 – Misunderstanding Costs
4 – Misallocating Costs
5 – Fixed Material Cost in Bid Contracts
6 – Insufficient Cash Reserves
7 – Front-Loading Costs

Quick solution of Man hour work problems using Work amount as

product of Work hours and Number of workers
In man hour work problems, if 8 men work for 3 hours, 24 man hours work amount is done. Then it is easy to
say 4 men are needed to do same work in 6 hours. Instead of hours, if time unit is days, work amount will be
in man days.

To solve time and work problems, it is usually assumed that a work-agent (say a man) takes certain
number of time units T (usually days or hours) to complete the work. So the work rate of the agent in one
time unit (a day or an hour) is expressed as  1/T portion of the total amount of work.

The reason why this work rate in terms of work portion per unit time is the most important concept in Time
and Work problems is - it makes possible summing up of efforts of more than one type of work agents
working together at different work rates over unit time. This is the core concept behind the deductions of
Time and Work problem of any type.
In conventional approaches, as in any conventional approach, this core concept is used in a
straightforward manner.

Analysis of Financial Problems Based on Mathematical

Models

Mathematical models can be used for quantitative analysis of most objective problems, especially in the field of
finance. At present, mathematical models have become a tool used by professionals in the financial field. Therefore,
with the continuous development of science and technology economy and the continuous innovation of mathematical
models, there are constantly new challenges in solving financial problems based on mathematical models.

Mathematical models play an important role in studying many specific financial problems. In the field of financial
research, it is a very effective method to analyze and solve financial problems by establishing the corresponding
mathematical model based on the functional relationship between variables. With the help of mathematical models,
we can analyze financial problems in a more scientific way, to seek effective solutions to financial problems. Through
the reasonable application of mathematical models, the analysis of financial problems can be more clear, theoretical
verification more specific, and calculation and solution more convenient.

The aim of this Special Issue is to bring together original research articles and review articles in the field of
mathematical model-based analysis of financial problems (e.g., financial credit, securities trading, internet financial
security, risk supervision, bond investment, insurance, accounting, etc.). We highly encourage submissions discussing
financial problems based on mathematical models. Research can include finance, economics, management,
accounting, applied mathematics, etc.

Potential topics include but are not limited to the following:

 Optimization of financial credit management based on mathematical models

 Analysis of stock trading data based on mathematical models
 Security analysis of Internet finance based on mathematical models
 Benefit and risk analysis of project investment based on mathematical models
 Analysis of supply and demand in market economy based on mathematical models
 Analysis of product demand, cost, and profit based on mathematical models
 Option pricing and default risk analysis based on mathematical models
 Commercial bank management optimization based on mathematical models
 Mathematical models and its application in enterprise management
 Analysis of mathematical models in financial management
What Is Construction Planning?
Construction planning is the process of identifying the steps required to build a structure. It involves defining what
actions need to be completed, creating an ordered timeline of events, staffing the project and determining the
necessary materials and equipment. A well-crafted construction plan is important to keep the project on schedule and
within budget. It can also help ensure the overall quality of the project meets your client's standards. Finally, having a
construction plan can increase your team's productivity and efficiency by streamlining communication.

Important construction project planning terms

Here are some of the key terms you may need to know to develop a successful
construction planning process:
 Construction bidding: This is the process of submitting a proposal for a project to a client. A construction bid
includes an accurate cost estimate for the project. The client must accept the bid before work can begin.
 Baselines: Also referred to as performance measures, baselines are the approved starting points of the
construction project. Establishing baselines is important because it can help you determine whether the
project is on track.
 Baseline project management: The baseline project management plan establishes what steps management
and the rest of the team may take if the project deviates from the course established by the baselines.
 Blueprint drawings and specifications: These refer to the drawings that show the layout of the finished
project. Blueprint drawings and specifications may also include a detailed list of the items needed to build
the structure.
 Submittals: A contractor submits these documents to the architect for approval before the project can
begin. Submittals may include requests for equipment and materials, drawings of the project and
instructions for the construction team.
 Scope documentation: The scope documentation contains feedback from key stakeholders and provides a
short financial timeline for the project. It typically includes deadlines, functions, deliverables, goals and
specific tasks for the project.

Types of construction project planning

There are several construction project planning methods that managers can use depending on the scale
of the project and the industry they are working with. Here are some of the most common types of
construction project planning processes:

 Strategic planning
When developing a strategic construction project plan, the project manager may meet with corporate
planners and the client to determine what needs to be done to satisfy both the user and the owner of the
project. After gathering this information, the project manager creates a master construction delivery plan
with specific guidelines to ensure the team completes the project on time.
  Operational planning
Operational planning may take place after the client approves a strategic plan. In this phase, the construction
teams come together to craft a detailed plan with strategic goals and action steps. They agree on baselines
and work together to complete documents and reports.

 Business planning
A manager usually develops the business plan at the beginning of a project. This plan describes the project
and includes a draft of what the project should look like, guidelines to execute the project and assignments
for specific team members. The business plan also includes a bid for the project and a contract for the client
to sign.

 Resource planning
Creating a resource plan ensures that each project a company is currently working on has the staff, materials
and resources necessary to be completed successfully and on time. To keep everything organized, project
managers often create a timeline of important dates and deadlines, as well as a list of where they plan to
allocate necessary resources. This can be beneficial if multiple projects are in progress at the same time.

Steps to develop a construction plan

Here are some steps you can follow to develop an effective construction plan:

1. Identify key resources

To develop your construction plan, identify what key resources you need to complete the project. Many project
managers use a project initiation document (PID) to help create an initial list of resources. A PID focuses on the
following areas:

People: Ask yourself how many people need to work on this project and identify if you need to hire any
subcontractors, such as electricians and plumbers .

Materials: Ask yourself what raw materials and equipment you need to complete this project. Then consider where
you can purchase or find these items.

Budget: Estimate what the total cost for this project should be. Include the cost of labor, materials, equipment, permits
and fees in your total budget.

The purpose of creating a PID is to outline the resources you need to complete a project. A PID can also be beneficial
to share with key stakeholders and your team to ensure everyone clearly understands what they need before the project
begins. You may decide to use construction scheduling software to help you quickly identify the cost, scope, deadlines
and materials needed for a project. This can simplify sharing these details with the rest of your team when
construction begins.
2. Draft an initial plan
The next step is to turn the PID into a concrete plan by setting clear and actionable goals. Begin by identifying SMART
goals to help you establish guidelines for the project. SMART goals are goals that are specific, measurable,
achievable, relevant and time-based. You can use SMART goals to identify the following:

 Specific: Make sure your goals are specific by asking yourself what key deadlines and milestones need to be
tracked for the project to be a success.
 Measurable: Determine how you can measure the success of your project. Consider what baselines need to be
established and how to communicate these baselines with the rest of your team.
 Achievable: Consider how achievable your deadlines and goals are and make adjustments as needed to set
your team up for success.
 Relevant: Consider how important achieving each goal is to the success of the overall project. This can help
you prioritize your goals and ensure your team focuses on completing the most important tasks first.
 Time-based: Identify a clear timeline for each goal. This can help you stay on track, monitor the project's
overall progress and provide clear guidelines for your team.


3. Meet with key stakeholders

Schedule a meeting with key stakeholders to discuss the project and share the details you developed in your PID.
You can communicate the key details with them, ask if they have any questions and ensure you have their approval
before starting the project.

4. Assign responsibilities
Once you have developed SMART goals for your project and you have stakeholder approval, you may begin assigning
responsibilities to different team members. Some of the key roles and responsibilities you may need to assign
include:

 Project sponsor
 Additional project managers
 End-users
 Defined business experts
 Project team members

You can schedule a meeting to discuss the plan with them, set expectations and allow them to ask questions. Try to
review ground rules, confirm each team member's role, share when the deadlines are and communicate any other key
information your team needs to be successful.

You may also want to establish how often you expect progress updates from your team. You can use a construction
scheduling program to help you communicate virtually throughout the project and share important documents. This
may increase the overall efficiency, productivity and organization of the project.
4. Track your performance
Accurately tracking your team's performance throughout the project can help you meet deadlines. Some of the key
performance indicators (KPIs) you may consider tracking include:

Project objectives: This includes monitoring your budget and schedule to make sure your team is operating within
the parameters you set in place.

Project performance: This includes monitoring the project for changes. If your team faces a challenge, you can use
your baseline project management to make adjustments.

Quality: This includes inspecting the project to ensure your team is following all the necessary legal and safety
protocols throughout the building process.

5. Evaluate the projec

Once the project is complete, take the time to revisit your SMART goals and baseline objectives. Note what goals
your team achieved and where this the potential to improve in the future. This can help you make adjustments that
may cause an even more successful construction planning process for your next project. Call a final team meeting to
discuss your findings and talk about overall performance. Consider asking your team questions and be open to
receive their feedback, as this can provide you with valuable insight.

Finally, create a final project budget that shows how much the project costs. Compare your final project budget with
the original budget you developed to determine its accuracy. Share your findings with key stakeholders by
developing a final project report.

Project Management Formulas: How to Get a

Grip on the Math of PM
The PM formulas we’ll look at will cover

 Fundamental Statistics
 Commercial and Procurement formulas
 Investment Appraisal
 Network Diagrams: CPM and PERT method
 Risk Management
 Earned Value Management (EVM)
 Some important financial concepts
Arithmetic Mean
The mean, m, is the measure most people infer when you use the term ‘average’. We take the sum of all the data
points and divide it by the number of data points.

Median
A problem with the mean is that a few extreme scores at either end of the range can produce a rather skewed measure
of the central tendency. The median is, therefore, a better measure in this case.
There is no formula – it is just the middle term if you arrange the data in ascending order. Strictly, if there are n terms,
count to the (n+1)/2 term.

Mode
Mode is the most frequently occurring value n the data. For continuous data, where every value is going to be slightly
different, you need to specify a level of precision.
The modal number of legs for a person is 2 (as will be the median, but not the mean).
Some data sets will have more than one mode – we refer to them as multi-modal.

The Spread of Data: Range, Variance and Standard Deviation

While averages represent where the center of a data set lies, variance and standard deviation measure how spread out
the data set is.

Range
The simplest measure of spread is the range – the difference between the greatest data point and the smallest.
Therefore, it is extremely sensitive to a single, extreme, measurement.

Variance
Variance measures how spread out the data is. For reasons you’ll see in a moment, it often gets the symbol s 2. You
calculate it by adding together the squares of the differences between each data point and the mean, and then dividing
by one less than the number of data points.

Standard Deviation
The problem with the variance is that it does not measure the spread of the data in the same units as the data. The
numbers look huge. Whilst statisticians use the variance, most of us don’t ever need it.
It’s far better to use the standard deviation, s, which is the square root of the variance. This gives an intuitive measure
of the spread of the data from the mean, in units that match the units of the data and of the mean.

Confidence Limits
Much of the data you will use will be distributed in a symmetrical bell curve, known as a ‘Normal Distribution’. We
can have more confidence that the ‘true’ value of an estimate lies within a broader range.
So, around 68 percent of the time, the true value will lie within one standard deviation in either direction from the
mean. But 95 percent of the time it will lie within two standard deviations.
 Levelling & Contouring
Definition, Principle, & Object of Levelling

 Definition
 Levelling is defined as “an art of determining the relative height of different points on, above or below the
surface”

 Principle of leveling:-

 The principle of leveling is to obtain horizontal line of sight with respect to which vertical distances of the
points above or below this line of sight are found

 Object of leveling
 The objective of leveling is to
 Find the elevation of given point with respect to some assumed reference line called datum
 To establish point at required elevation with respect to datum.

Errors in Levelling
The following are the different sources of Error

 Personal Error
 The Instruments may not be leveled
 The focusing of eye piece and objective glass may not be perfect
 The parallax may not be eliminated
 The position of staff may have changed
 Entry and recording in the field book may not be correct
 The staff may not be fully extended, may not be held vertical.

Instrumental Error

 The Permanent adjustment of the instrument may not be perfect. That is the line of collimation may not be
horizontal line
 The internal arrangement of focusing tube may not be correct
 The graduation of the staff may not be perfect

Errors due to Natural Causes

 The Curvature of the Earth may affect the staff readings when the distance of sight is long.
 The effect of refraction may cause a wrong staff reading
 There are some errors in staff readings due to high velocity wind.
 Finding Contours Algebraically

Algebraic equations for the contours of a function f are easy to find if we have a formula for f(x, y). Suppose
the surface has equation

z = f(x, y).

A contour is obtained by slicing the surface with a horizontal plane with equation z = c. Thus, the equation
for the contour at height c is given by:

f(x, y) = c.

MULTI-VARIABLE FUNCTIONS, SURFACES, AND CONTOURS

The graphs of surfaces in 3-space can get very intricate and complex! In this tutorial, we investigate some
tools that can be used to help visualize the graph of a function f(x,y)defined as the graph of the
equation z=f(x,y)

Triangulations, Traversing, Cut And Fill And

Setting Out Of Works

 Triangulation
In the past it was difficult to accurately measure very long distances, but it was possible to accurately measure the
angles between points many kilometres apart, limited only by being able to see the distant beacon. This could be
anywhere from a few kilometres, to 50 kilometres or more. Triangulation is a surveying method that measures the
angles in a triangle formed by three survey control points. Using trigonometry and the measured length of just one
side, the other distances in the triangle are calculated. The shape of the triangles is important as there is a lot of
inaccuracy in a long skinny triangle, but one with base angles of about 45 degrees is ideal. Each of the calculated
distances is then used as one side in another triangle to calculate the distances to another point, which in turn can start
another triangle. This is done as often as necessary to form a chain of triangles connecting the origin point to the
Survey Control in the place needed. The angles and distances are then used with the initial known position, and
complex formulae, to calculate the position (Latitude and Longitude) of all other points in the triangulation network.
Although the calculations used are similar to the trigonometry taught in high school, because the distance between the
survey points is generally long (typically about 30 kilometres) the calculations also allow for the curvature of the
Earth. The measured distance in the first triangle is known as the ‘Baseline’ and is the only distance measured; all the
rest are calculated from it and the measured angles. Prior to the 1950s, this initial baseline distance would have to be
very carefully measured with successive lengths of rods whose length were accurately known. This meant that the
distance would be relatively short (maybe a kilometre or so) and it would be in a reasonably flat area, such as a valley
or plain. The triangles measured from it gradually increased in size, and up onto the hilltops where distant points could
be seen easily
  Traversing
Triangulation and Trilateration are difficult and sometimes impossible in flat country where there are not
many hills. This is often the situation in outback areas of Australia. With EDM this problem can be minimised
by measuring the distances and angle between successive survey control points. With a known starting
position and orientation (or two known starting Positions) repeating this process through a chain of points
allows the position of each point to be calculated. However, in a traverse, if a mistake is made, it may not be
obvious, so these traverses generally close back onto their starting point to form a loop, or finish on another
known position. The difference between the known finishing position and the calculated position for this point
is the misclose and indicates the accuracy of the traverse measurements and calculations. For small projects
traversing is often used with ‘Total Station’ equipment. Variations on triangulation and trilateration are also
often used on small surveys, particularly to measure to inaccessible points.

Uses of Triangulation:
 To establish accurate control points for plane and geodetic surveys of large areas
 To determine size and shape of the earth by making observations for latitude and longitude, gravity
 To establish accurate horizontal control for various engineering projects

Classification of Triangulation
The basis of the classification of triangulation figures is the accuracy with which the length and azimuth of a
line of the triangulation are determined. Triangulation systems of different accuracies depend on the extent
and the purpose of the survey. The accepted grades of triangulation are:

1.First order or Primary Triangulation

2. Second order or Secondary Triangulation
3. Third order or Tertiary Triangulation

 Setting out of works

Introduction: The method of setting out is the reverse of surveying process. The process involves the positions and
levels of building lines and road alignments shown on the construction plans to be established on the ground by
various techniques and instruments.

Horizontal controls & its methods

The horizontal control consists of reference marks of known plan position, from which salient points of designed
structures may be set out. For large structures primary and secondary control points are used. The primary control
points are triangulation stations. The secondary control points are reference to the primary control stations.

Reference Grid
Reference grids are used for accurate setting out of works of large magnitude. The following types of reference grids
are used
 Survey Grid
 Site Grid
 Structural Grid
 Secondary Grid

Survey grid is one which is drawn on a survey plan, from the original traverse. Original traverse stations form the
control points of the grid. The site grid used by the designer is the one with the help of which actual setting out is
done. As far as possible the site grid should be actually the survey grid. All the design points are related in terms of
site grid coordinates. The structural grid is used when the structural components of the building are large in numbers
and are so positioned that these components cannot be set out from the site grid with sufficient accuracy. The
structural grid is set out from the site grid points. The secondary grid is established inside the structure, to establish
internal details of the building, which are otherwise not visible directly from the structural grid

Thank you.
MS SAFACH SASEEN
REG NO.QS221717
HNDQS BATCH-17
BCAS CAMPUS

MATHS ASSIGNMENT-01
DILSATH (SIR)

Evaluate Analytical From Construction

Problems And Justify The Techniques
Adopted To Solve Such Issues Related To
Algebra, Trigonometry &Matrices