13 Abpd1203 T9

Topic  Intelligence and
9 Achievement
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Discuss intelligence, infant and achievement tests;
2. Explain GardnerÊs Multiple and SternbergÊs Triarchi theory; and
3. Describe two extremes of intelligence.
 INTRODUCTION
Before we begin, let us look back at several Malaysian children who were
considered prodigies in the past.
In 1976, a toddler named Mohd Sohkeri Hadafi from Baling, Kedah, made
headlines because by the tender age of four, he could read passages from
newspapers and magazines. Today, the former „boy wonder‰ is a chicken seller
in Baling, Kedah. For two years from 1989 to 1991, he had worked as a labourer
while selling roti canai.
On 8 January 2007, newspaper headlines reported the death of Chiang Ti Ming,

the boy genius who was the youngest student ever to be admitted into the
prestigious California Institute of Technology (CalTech) almost two decades ago.
It was reported in 2002 that he had been admitted into a hospital in Kuala
Lumpur with depression and withdrawal symptoms.
And do not forget Sufiah Yusuf, the maths genius who won a place at Oxford
University when she was just 13. She later chose an unhealthy path in life though
she has regretted it all now.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

162  TOPIC 9 INTELLIGENCE AND ACHIEVEMENT
Upon reading news like these, one cannot help but feel sad for these brilliant
children who could have been useful contributing citizens of our nation. What
went wrong? Is there a place for children like them?
Here are a few questions that we will try to answer in this topic:
(a) What exactly is intelligence?
(b) How do we determine whether or not a child is intelligent?
(c) How do we assess intelligence?
(d) Can intelligence be identified at an early stage?
(e) Do children have one intelligence or multiple intelligences?
(f) What are intelligence theories?
(g) Is intelligence hereditary or environmental?
(h) Can intelligence be learned?
(i) How should intelligent children be taught and how do they learn?
(j) What is achievement?
(k) What are achievement tests?
(l) Do intelligence and achievement mean the same thing?
In this topic, we will discuss intelligence and achievement of young children. It

also discusses theories of intelligence.
9.1 INTELLIGENCE
We sometimes hear people describe a child in one of these ways: „He is a gifted
child‰, „He is so talented‰ or „He is a genius‰. From these, we understand that
the child must be smart or intelligent. But do they mean the same thing? People
always get confused over the terms „intelligence‰, „giftedness‰, „talent‰ and
„genius‰. According to Piirto (1999), historically, these terms have different
origins but have come to be used somewhat interchangeably. Gardner (1993)
believed that human cognitive competence is better described in terms of a set of
abilities, talents or mental skills, which we call intelligences. Armstrong (1998)
stated that every student is a genius, but explained that he did not mean an
individual must score above the 99th percentile on a standardised measure of
intelligence to qualify.

TOPIC 9 INTELLIGENCE AND ACHIEVEMENT  163
Intelligence is often equated with a score on an IQ test, with the score of the test
determining how gifted a child is. It also stated that „the study of giftedness has
closely paralleled the study of intelligence. Many scholars who were concerned
with matters of intelligence also focused on manifestations of talent and genius.
The inter-relationship between intelligence and gifted education continues today.
Intelligence theory influences the way we identify and assess students, our
attitudes towards giftedness and gifted students, the models upon which we base
our programmes and interventions, and many other aspects of gifted education.‰
However, what is an IQ test? What does it measure? Recent thinkers have started
to question whether a single test could predict the future of a child. What about
children with other talents, such as physical or communicative ability? Can these
talents be measured by the same test? Would a child who scores high in
mathematics do so in literature as well? Before we investigate these questions, let
us find out what is intelligence.
9.1.1 What is Intelligence?

Before we discuss the subtopic of intelligence further, let us first look at the
definition:
(a) The American Heritage Dictionary defines intelligence as „the capacity to

acquire and apply knowledge.‰
(b) Acton (2006) defines intelligence broadly as a facility for solving problems.
(c) Santrock (2001) defines intelligence as „verbal ability, problem-solving

skills, and the ability to adapt to and learn from lifeÊs everyday experiences‰.
Other definitions of intelligence include the behaviour that arises from a personÊs
intellectual abilities such as to reason or understand; or mental quickness and
mental flexibility.
Recent researchers try to define intelligence with the information processing

approach. As we can see from the definitions, components of intelligence are
very similar to the information processing approach, which deals mostly with
memories, thinking and problem-solving that we have discussed in Topic 8.
People who score high on IQ tests seem to have cognitive characteristics such as
good memory and the ability to think and solve unfamiliar problems. They are
said to learn more rapidly (Berk, 2005). Berk argued that unless we can identify
the cognitive processes responsible for those factors, intelligence tests have
limited usefulness (Berk, 2004).

When Zi Yi entered preschool at four years of age, he was able to read storybooks
and loved to draw and write. He could draw in detail what he experienced,
compared to other children who could only scribble. Ms Jacky, the principal,
considered him a gifted child and changed him from class to class to meet his
advanced stage of development and he eventually landed in a group for six-year-
olds, who were doing more formal learning in preparing to enter primary school.
When this happened, Zi Yi was not happy anymore and his mother had to drag
him to school every morning. Eventually, his mother took him to another
preschool, where the principal, Ms Loh, put him in a group for four-year-olds.
She provided him opportunities to read, write and draw as he liked, and he also
joined the four-year-olds in other activities such as singing, dancing, painting
and dramatic play. Zi Yi was happy again and looking forward to go to school
every day.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Based on the definitions given earlier, construct your own

understanding of intelligence.
2. If you were Mohd Sohkeri HadafiÊs parents, what would you have
done?
3. Study this scenario:
Is Zi Yi considered as an intelligent or gifted child? How could we

find out? If he is a gifted child as identified by Ms Jacky, why
didnÊt he like the tasks or learning that he could do with the older
children? If you were Zi YiÊs parents, what would you have done?
Discuss and share your answers with your coursemates in the

myINSPIRE forum.

9.1.2 Intelligence, Infant and Achievement Tests

Now, let us discuss intelligence and achievement tests. What do you think are the
differences between the two?
(a) Intelligence Test

It is a test that measures abilities that have been designated as a sign of
intelligence. It can be administered to children or adults on an individual
basis or in a group. According to Berk (2005), the two most widely used
tests of intelligence are:
(i) Binet Tests

In 1904, psychologist, Alfred Binet, was asked by the French Ministry
of Education to devise a method that would determine which
students did not benefit from typical school instruction. Binet and his
student, Theophile Simon, developed an intelligence test to meet this
request. Binet developed the concept of mental age (MA) which is an
individualÊs level of mental development relative to others. Average
MA scores correspond to chronological age (CA), which is age from
birth. A bright child has an MA considerably above his CA while a
dull child has an MA considerably below his CA (Santrock, 2001).
A German psychologist, William Stern, made a better suggestion. He

theorised that a mathematical formula, dividing the childÊs mental age
by the childÊs chronological age and multiplying that by a standard
of 100, would yield a quotient of intelligence. Thus, the term
„intelligence quotient (IQ)‰ was born (Piirto, 1999).
MA × 100
IQ =
CA

The equation works this way:
• If MA is the same as CA, then the individualÊs IQ is 100;
• If MA is above CA, the IQ is more than 100; and
• If MA is below CA, the IQ is less than 100.
Scores noticeably above 100 are considered above average while those
considerably below are considered below average. Over the years,
thousands of children and adults have taken the tests and it was
found that intelligence measured by the Binet approximates a normal
distribution. A normal distribution is symmetrical, with a majority of
cases falling in the middle of the possible range of scores, and a few
scores appearing towards the extremes of the range (Santrock, 2001).
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is the modern descendant of

BinetÊs successful intelligence test (Berk, 2001). It is designed for
children aged two up to adulthood. It measures both general
intelligence and four intellectual factors (Thorndike, Hagen & Sattler,
1986):
• Verbal reasoning;
• Quantitative reasoning;
• Abstract/visual (spatial) reasoning; and
• Short-term memory.
(ii) Wechsler Scales

The other most widely used intelligence tests is Wechsler scales,
developed by David Wechsler (Santrock, 2005). The Wechsler scales
have been edited, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–IV
(WISC-IV) is the latest edition for children aged six to sixteen (Berk,
2005). The WISC-IV has four broad intellectual factors: verbal
reasoning, perceptual reasoning, working memory and processing
speed. Each factor is made up of two or three subtests, yielding ten
separate scores in all. According to the test designers, the result is the
most theoretically current and „culture-fair‰ intelligence test available
as its samples include ethnic minorities (Williams, Weis & Rolfhus,
2003).

(b) Infant Tests

Stanford-Binet or Wechsler tests are not suitable for testing children
younger than three because these tests rely heavily on language. So, how do
we measure intelligence in infants and toddlers who are still unable to talk
very well and may have difficulty following directions? Most infant tests
emphasise perceptual and motor responses which require the researcher to
present the infants or toddlers with stimuli, coax them to respond, and
observe their behaviour (Berk, 2008).
The Bayley Scales of Infant Development (Bayley, 1969, 1993) is a widely

used test for infants. The most recent edition, Bayley-III, has three main
subtests (Bayley, 2005):
(i) Cognitive scale: Includes such items as attention to familiar and

unfamiliar objects, looking for a fallen object and pretend play;
(ii) Language scale: Taps understanding and expressions of language

e.g. recognition of objects and people, following simple directions and
naming objects and pictures; and
(iii) Motor scale: Includes gross and fine motor skills such as grasping,
sitting, stacking blocks and climbing stairs.
These tests help in identifying infants and toddlers with serious

developmental delays and serving as a general predictive tool to forecast
later IQ scores or school performance (Bee & Boyd, 2007).
(c) Achievement Test

We are all probably familiar with the achievement test we took during
primary and secondary school. This test measures what children have
learned in school. The achievement test does not give you an IQ score, but
the result is compared to those of other children in the same grade across
the nation. Examples of these tests are UPSR, PT3, SPM and STPM in
Malaysia.
The difference between an IQ test and an achievement test is that an IQ test

is intended to reveal something about how well a child can think and learn.
It includes items that are designed to tap fairly fundamental intellectual
processes such as comparison and analysis. On the other hand, an
achievement test tells something about what a child has already learned in
school such as spelling, comprehension, arithmetic computation or science
concepts.

Figure 9.1 sums up all the tests discussed.
Figure 9.1: Types of test to measure intelligence
Can an IQ score predict school performance? According to Palaniappan (2005),

„Although many external factors such as gender, socio-economic status (SES) and
types of school, to name a few, have been shown to affect academic achievement,
an innate quality necessary for higher educational achievement is intelligence.
The ability to exercise the cognitive and rational capabilities of the mind,
understand complex patterns of information, the ability to use and transform
number concepts and vocabulary recognition seem to determine the ability to
perform well in examinations‰.
Research findings do indicate a positive correlation between a childÊs IQ test

score and her grades or performance in school achievement tests; meaning IQ
scores predict future grades as well as current grades (Bee, 2007). Bee stated
that, „Preschool children with high IQ scores tend to do better when they enter
school than those with lower scores; elementary school children with higher IQ
scores do better later in high school‰. However, IQ tests do not tell us everything.
They cannot tell us if a child has other specific talents such as in sports, arts or
music. It cannot tell us if the child will grow up to be successful adults who
can get along with others in the world, or whether they will understand their
own emotions and that of others. In other words, „these tests do not predict
how well a particular person may perform other cognitive tasks requiring
skills such as creativity, insight, 'street smarts' or ability to read social cues‰
(Bee & Boyd, 2007).

In the following subtopic, we will explore these other intelligences that IQ tests
do not measure.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. What is an IQ test? How is IQ measured?
2. Explain how we should test the intelligence of an infant or

toddler.
3. How is an IQ test different from an achievement test?
4. Is it appropriate to judge a childÊs intelligence based on one single

test score? How else could we understand the child better?
9.2 SINGLE OR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES?

There are basically two camps on the theory of intelligence: those who believe in
one unilinear construct of general intelligence and those who believe in many
different intelligences. The early view of mental age and IQ fits in with the view
of a general intelligence which Spearman (1927) proposed. Spearman theorised
that intelligence was a sort of faculty, a general capacity, present in all special
abilities. This came to be called spearmanÊs „g‰, or „general intelligence‰ (Piirto,
1999).
However, some researchers disagreed with the idea of a general intelligence

and believed that intelligence consists of multiple abilities (Santrock, 2001). One
of them is ThurstoneÊs (1938) multiple-factor theory. Thurstone believed that
intelligence consists of seven primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension,
number ability, word fluency, spatial visualisation, associative memory,
reasoning and perceptual speed (Santrock, 2001). The more recent ones are
GardnerÊs Multiple Intelligences (1983, 1993) and SternbergÊs Triarchic Theory
(1986, 1999).

9.2.1 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner (1993) diverges from the traditional view that „intelligence is
defined operationally as the ability to answer items on tests of intelligence .... and
that intelligence does not change much with age or with training or experience. It
is an inborn attribute or faculty of the individual‰.
Gardner (1993) believes that there are eight types of intelligence (see Figure 9.2).
This number has grown to nine since then.
Figure 9.2: GardnerÊs multiple intelligences

Source: https://sites.google.com/site/dsmktylenda/content/gardner-s-theory-of-
multiple-intelligences

Here is a brief explanation on each of GardnerÊs multiple intelligences:
(a) Linguistic intelligence – The ability to think in words and use language to
express meaning;
(b) Logical-mathematical intelligence – The ability to carry out mathematical

operations;
(c) Naturalistic intelligence – Has to do with nature, nurturing and relating

information to oneÊs natural surroundings.
(d) Spatial intelligence – The ability to form a mental model of a spatial world
and to be able to manoeuvre and operate using that model;
(e) Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence – The ability to solve problems or to fashion

products using oneÊs whole or parts of body;
(f) Musical intelligence – Sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm and tone;
(g) Interpersonal intelligence – The ability to understand other people; what

motivates them, how they work and how to work cooperatively with them;
and
(h) Intrapersonal intelligence – A correlative ability, turned inward; a capacity

to form an accurate, veridical model of oneself and to use that model to
operate effectively in life.
According to Gardner (1993), the first two abilities are what intelligence tests
normally test. If one does not score well in these two areas, „their abilities in
other areas may be obscured‰. He wrote that „once we begin to try to assess
other kinds of intelligences directly, I am confident that particular students will
reveal strengths in quite different areas and the notion of general brightness will
disappear or become greatly attenuated‰. GardnerÊs theory has much to offer to
the fields of psychology and education. However, there are critics claiming that
GardnerÊs view has little empirical support or confirmation by experiments;
hence, some questioned whether multiple intelligence is really a theory. Some
questioned the use of the term „intelligence‰ by Gardner as the intelligences
stated are actually skills (Gardner, 1993). All the same, Gardner provided us with
a multidimensional view of intelligence and enabled us to have a better
understanding of individual differences (Bee & Boyd, 2007).

9.2.2 Sternberg’s Triarchi Theory

Sternberg (1986, 1999) believed that there are three intelligences compared to
GardnerÊs eight. SternbergÊs Triarchi Theory believes that intelligence consists of
the following:
(a) Analytical (originally labelled componential) Intelligence

This intelligence is similar to the intelligence that is measured by
standardised intelligence tests. It is the basic unit in intelligence and a basic
unit of information processing such as the ability to (Santrock, 2001):
(i) Acquire or store information;
(ii) Retain or retrieve information;
(iii) Transfer information;
(iv) Plan, make decisions and solve problems; and
(v) Translate our thoughts into performance.
These are students who are considered good and smart who will score high
in achievement tests, obtain good grades and proceed to college or tertiary
education.
(b) Creative (originally labelled experiential) Intelligence

According to Sternberg, intellectual people have the ability to solve new
problems quickly and also learn how to solve familiar problems in an
automatic, rote way so that their minds are free to handle other problems
that require insight and display „creativity‰ intelligence (Gardner, 1999).
These students do not normally relate well to the demands of school but
frequently do well outside the classroom. As adults, they sometimes
become successful managers, entrepreneurs or politicians, yet have
undistinguished school records (Santrock, 2001).
(c) Practical (originally labelled contextual) Intelligence

Practical intelligence is the ability to get out of trouble, do tasks like
replacing a fuse, and get along with people. According to Sternberg, these
abilities are important as they allow us to get along and survive in the real
world. This intelligence is not taught in school and is what we call
streetwise or street smarts.

Based on all these, analytical intelligence is similar to the type of skills measured
in an IQ test. Although these skills are important when we consider oneÊs
intelligence, Sternberg reminded us that we have to look beyond the demands of
achievement in schools. We have to consider the variations in creative or
practical intelligence (Bee & Boyd, 2007).
SELF-CHECK 9.2
1. Explain the „g‰ factor in your own words.
2. Describe Howard GardnerÊs multiple intelligences.
3. What are the three intelligences stated by Sternberg? From your

experience as a teacher, give examples of students showing these
intelligences.
ACTIVITY 9.2
1. Sharon, a four-year-old girl, is able to read, write and solve

mathematical problems. Her mother is anxious to know whether
she is a gifted child and wants to send her for an IQ test. What
would you, as the preschool teacher, advise her?
2. Does it make sense to decide on a childÊs intelligence based on a

single IQ test? How else could you determine whether a child is
gifted?
Discuss and share your answers with your coursemates in the

myINSPIRE forum.

9.3 HERIDITY OR ENVIRONMENTAL

Is intelligence nurtured or inherited? This is another question that psychologists
and educators are still pondering. Which parts of a personÊs abilities are inherited
and which ones are produced by their environment?
Researchers have been studying identical twins in search for the answer to these
questions. If identical twins who are raised apart show more differences than any
other two human beings, then the environmental viewpoint that environment or
experience shapes intelligence and behaviour would prevail. If they had more
similarities, the hereditarian viewpoint would prevail.
The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart Project at the University of

Minnesota (Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Segal & Tellegen, 1990) revealed great
similarities between twins raised apart, though the greatest similarities were
between identical twins raised together. They found that about 70 per cent of the
difference in IQ was attributed to genetics (Piirto, 1999).
Binet saw intelligence as something that resulted from an active transaction

between the individual and external stimuli (Sarason & Doris, 1979). He viewed
intelligence as educable and wrote in 1911 that the educability of intelligence was
the basis for pioneering early intervention work (Ysseldyke, Algozzine &
Thurlow, 2000). Similarly, todayÊs researchers believe that both genes and
environment are necessary for a person to even exist (Santrock, 2001). Heredity
and environment operate together to produce a personÊs intelligence,
temperament, ability to read and so on (Santrock, 2001).
Today, researchers are more interested in manipulating the early environment of

children who are at risk of impoverished intelligence (Blair & Ramey, 1996).
Head Start programmes found that early interventions by working to improve
the quality of life and skills of parents as well as providing children with an
enriched environment (McLoyd, 1998) are especially powerful in reducing the IQ
differences between African-American and Caucasian American children
(Santrock, 2001).

It is also found that scores of IQ tests have increased so fast that a high
percentage of people regarded as having average intelligence at the turn of the
century would be considered below average in intelligence today (Hall, 1998).
Researchers believe that the increase cannot be due to heredity because it has
taken place in a relatively short period, but rather may be due to environmental
factors such as the explosion of information that people are exposed to (Santrock,
2001).
Recent brain researches showed that environmental influences can affect whether
or not and how genes are expressed (National Scientific Council on the
Developing Child, 2010). Scientists have stressed the importance of early
experiences, because the way a brain develops hinges on a complex interplay
between the genes we are born with and the experiences we have (Shore, 2003).
Shore also stated that even identical twins, born with the same genetic
endowment, will develop differently based on how and when various
environmental factors affect the development of their brains.
From 1972 to 1985, Craig Ramey and his colleagues carried out the Carolina
Abecedarian Project, which provided sustained services to young children and
their low-income and poorly educated families (Ramey & Campbell, 1984; Ramey
& Ramey, 1998). The children started as young as the first months of life and
received services through elementary school. Services included high-quality, full-
day child care for preschools and regular support and education for the parents.
The day-care programme included game-like learning activities aimed at
enhancing cognitive, language, perceptual-motor and social development
(Santrock, 2001). Follow-up assessments were conducted at ages 8, 12 and 15.
The study found that (Shore, 2003):
(a) Young childrenÊs involvement in high quality programmes had positive

effects on intellectual development and academic achievement;
(b) At age 12, participating children had IQ scores that averaged 5.3 points
higher than a comparison group of non-participants; and
(c) At age 15, compared to the comparison group, participants showed higher
achievement test scores and had 50 per cent fewer special education
placements.

In PiirtoÊs Pyramid of Talent Development (Piirto, 1999), Piirto identified

five „suns‰ which he likened to certain factors in the environment (refer to
Figure 9.3):
Figure 9.3: PiirtoÊs five „suns‰ regarding environmental factors that can affect intelligence
We have come across people who had outstanding talent but did not develop
that talent because of circumstances represented by these „suns‰. For example,
Janerine was identified as bright and intelligent when she was a preschooler.
However, her home life was disturbed when her parents went through a divorce.
From then onwards, she went through a series of traumatising events such as
changing schools, moving from place to place, running away and hiding from
one parent and living under the care of a single parent. Later, her school
achievement tests showed her to be a below average child.
An example given by Piirto (1999) explained that in a racist society, the genes
that produce oneÊs race are acted upon environmentally; a person of a certain
race may be treated differently in different environments. Piirto stated that
„oneÊs resilience is crucial and oneÊs ability to create an image or metaphor out of
pain is as well.... One grows through pain, not in avoiding pain‰. Piirto stated
that schools should find and help these children who are born with intelligence
and yet are not so „lucky‰ to help them nurture their potential.

ACTIVITY 9.3
Conduct a debate in the myINSPIRE forum entitled: „Is intelligence

hereditary or environmental?‰. What facts does each side need to know
when you prepare for the debate?
9.4 EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE: MENTAL

RETARDATION AND GIFTEDNESS
Intelligence tests have been used to identify children with special abilities and
special needs. However, Santrock (2001) reminds us that an intelligence test
should not be used as the sole indicator of mental retardation and giftedness.
Mental retardation is defined as a „condition of limited mental ability in which

the individual has low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, has
difficulty adapting to everyday life, and has an onset of these characteristics
during the so-called developmental period – by age 18‰ (Santrock, 2001). Two
types of mental retardation commonly found are:
(a) Organic Retardation – Is caused by a genetic disorder or by brain damage.

People who have organic retardation normally have IQs that range between
0 and 50 (Santrock, 2001). One common form of organic retardation is
Down Syndrome, which is caused by an extra chromosome present in the
genetic makeup.
(b) Cultural-familial Retardation – Is a mental deficit for which no evidence of

organic brain damage can be found; individualsÊ IQ ranges from 55 to 70.
Children with cultural-familial retardation can be detected in schools where
they often fail, need tangible rewards and are highly sensitive towards
others.
Now, what about giftedness? In 1971, The Marland Report stated „Gifted and
talented children are those identified by professionally qualified persons who by
virtue of outstanding abilities are capable of high performance. These are
children who require differentiated educational programmes and services
beyond those normally provided by regular school programmes in order to
realise their potential‰ (Piirto, 1999).

Schools usually use IQ tests to determine whether a child is gifted. They

normally have an IQ of 120 or above and with superior talent for something
(Santrock, 2001). As these tests focus mostly on the intellectual and mathematical
knowledge of students, this may overlook those children who have other talents
such as in visual and performing arts or sports.
In 1991, the US Office of Educational Research and Improvement proposed a

revised definition of gifted and talented children. The new definition was as
follows:
Neuro-science and cognitive psychology have given us new insights into what
it means for children and youth to be exceptionally talented and require us to
develop a new definition of this population. The term „gifted‰ connotes a
mature power rather than a developing ability and, therefore, is antithetic to
recent research findings about children. The following definition, based on
the definition used in the federal Javits Gifted and Talented Education Act,
reflects the knowledge and thinking of today.
Children and youths with outstanding talent perform or show the potential
for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment compared to
others of their age, experience or environment.
These children and youths exhibit high performance capabilities in intellectual,

creative and/or artistic areas, possess an unusual leadership capacity, or excel
in specific academic fields. They require services or activities not ordinarily
provided by schools.
Outstanding talents are present in children and youths from all cultural
groups, across all economic strata, and in all areas of human endeavour.
To put this definition into practice, schools must develop a system to identify
gifted and talented students that accomplishes the following:
(a) Seeks variety: It must look throughout a range of disciplines for students
with diverse talents.
(b) Uses many assessment measures: It must use a variety of appraisals so

that schools can find students in different talent areas and of different
ages.
(c) Is free of bias: It must use assessment procedures that can accommodate
students who develop at different rates and whose interests may change
as they mature

(d) Is fluid: It must discover talents that are not readily apparent in students
as well as those that are obvious.
(e) Assesses motivation: It must take into account the drive and passion that
play a key role in accomplishment.
(Piirto, 1999)
This definition proposes that giftedness occurs in all groups across all cultures;
and is not necessarily seen in test scores, but in a personÊs high-performance
capability in the intellectual, creative and artistic domains. The word „gifted‰
was eliminated and the terms „outstanding talent‰ and „exceptional talent‰ were
embraced.
There are always some whiz kids in class who are reading novels at a young age,
or doing high school mathematics while still in primary school. How do schools
cater to this type of students? Unfortunately, Malaysia has no programme for the
gifted in its school system. In fact, some prodigies, such as Mohd Sohkeri Hadafi,
Chiang Ti Min and Sufiah Yusof, faced tough times.
The good news is gifted children in the country can now look forward to having
their learning needs addressed in the country as the Government will channel
more effort to meet their educational requirements.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
1. What are the two extremes of intelligence?
2. Explain how you could identify children who are in the two
extremes in your classroom.
ACTIVITY 9.4
1. What do you think a programme for gifted children should look

like? How would you help them to achieve their potential?
2. If you are asked to design a curriculum for gifted children, which

theory or theories would you base it on? Explain your choice.

• Intelligence is defined as having the cognitive characteristics of good memory

and the ability to think and solve unfamiliar problems effectively, which is
very similar to the information processing approach.
• There are hundreds of intelligence tests. The most widely used is the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC-IV).
• The Bayley III tests for infants helps in identifying infants and toddlers with
serious developmental delays and serves as a general predictive tool to
forecast later IQ scores or school performance.
• An achievement test tells us something about what a child has already

learned in school.
• The two main theories of intelligences are single intelligence and multiple
intelligences.
• The two main issues in intelligence are: Is intelligence inherited or

environmental? And can intelligence be learned?
• Mental retardation and giftedness are the two extremes of intelligence.
Achievement test Intelligence Quotient

Binet tests Mental Age
Chronological Age Mental retardation
General intelligence Multiple intelligences
Gifted education Multiple-factor theory
Giftedness Normal distribution
Infant tests Triarchi theory
Intelligence Wechsler scales

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Topic  Intelligence and

On 8 January 2007, newspaper headlines reported the death of Chiang Ti Ming,

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(a) What exactly is intelligence?

(b) How do we determine whether or not a child is intelligent?

(c) How do we assess intelligence?

(d) Can intelligence be identified at an early stage?

(e) Do children have one intelligence or multiple intelligences?

(f) What are intelligence theories?

(g) Is intelligence hereditary or environmental?

(h) Can intelligence be learned?

(j) What is achievement?

(k) What are achievement tests?

(l) Do intelligence and achievement mean the same thing?

In this topic, we will discuss intelligence and achievement of young children. It

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

9.1.1 What is Intelligence?

(a) The American Heritage Dictionary defines intelligence as „the capacity to

(c) Santrock (2001) defines intelligence as „verbal ability, problem-solving

Recent researchers try to define intelligence with the information processing

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1. Based on the definitions given earlier, construct your own

3. Study this scenario:

Is Zi Yi considered as an intelligent or gifted child? How could we

Discuss and share your answers with your coursemates in the

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

9.1.2 Intelligence, Infant and Achievement Tests

(a) Intelligence Test

(i) Binet Tests

A German psychologist, William Stern, made a better suggestion. He

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

The equation works this way:

• If MA is the same as CA, then the individualÊs IQ is 100;

• If MA is above CA, the IQ is more than 100; and

• If MA is below CA, the IQ is less than 100.

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is the modern descendant of

• Abstract/visual (spatial) reasoning; and

(ii) Wechsler Scales

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(b) Infant Tests

The Bayley Scales of Infant Development (Bayley, 1969, 1993) is a widely

(i) Cognitive scale: Includes such items as attention to familiar and

(ii) Language scale: Taps understanding and expressions of language

These tests help in identifying infants and toddlers with serious

(c) Achievement Test

The difference between an IQ test and an achievement test is that an IQ test

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 9.1 sums up all the tests discussed.

Figure 9.1: Types of test to measure intelligence

Can an IQ score predict school performance? According to Palaniappan (2005),

Research findings do indicate a positive correlation between a childÊs IQ test

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1. What is an IQ test? How is IQ measured?

2. Explain how we should test the intelligence of an infant or

3. How is an IQ test different from an achievement test?

4. Is it appropriate to judge a childÊs intelligence based on one single

9.2 SINGLE OR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES?

However, some researchers disagreed with the idea of a general intelligence

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

9.2.1 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Figure 9.2: GardnerÊs multiple intelligences

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Here is a brief explanation on each of GardnerÊs multiple intelligences: