Handout 2 Psychological Assessment

Psychological Assessment
Handout # 2
Prepared by Asst. Prof. Paula Ferrer Cheng
IX. Intelligence
A. Various Definitions
o The ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or trying situations : the skilled use of reason
o The cognitive abilities of an individual to learn from experience, to reason well, and to cope effectively with the
demands of daily living.
o Weschler: "Intelligence, as a hypothetical construct, is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act
purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment”
o The term "intelligence quotient," or IQ, was first coined in the early 20th century by a German psychologist named
William Stern. Psychologist Alfred Binet developed the very first intelligence tests to help the French government
identify schoolchildren who needed extra academic assistance. Binet was the first to introduce the concept of mental
age, or a set of abilities that children of a certain age possess.
o IQ: Intelligence Quotient:
o Predicts school grades relatively well
o Does not predict success in life
o Predicts 6% of job success
o Peaks in late teens
o Culture-bound, Gender Bias, SES
o Racial controversies
o Gets you in the door
o Professional schools (medicine, dentistry, law)
o Can help you get hired (MBA)
o Static
o Theories of Intelligence
o Charles Spearman: General Intelligence
▪ British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to as general
intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine some
mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar.
People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those
who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is a
general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically expressed.
o Louis L. Thurstone: Primary Mental Abilities
▪ Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of
viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different
primary mental abilities. The abilities that he described include:
● Verbal comprehension
● Reasoning
● Perceptual speed
● Numerical ability
● Word fluency
● Associative memory
● Spatial visualization
o Howard Gardner: Multiple Intelligences
▪ One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.
Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of
human intelligence, such as in the IQ test, are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities.
His theory describes eight distinct types of intelligence based on skills and abilities that are valued
in different cultures.
▪ The eight kinds of intelligence Gardner described are:
● Visual-spatial intelligence
● Verbal-linguistic intelligence
● Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
● Logical-mathematical intelligence
● Interpersonal intelligence
● Musical intelligence
● Intrapersonal intelligence
● Naturalistic intelligence
o Robert Sternberg: Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
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o Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation
to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one's life." While he agreed with Gardner
that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested that some of Gardner's
types of intelligence are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he referred to as
"successful intelligence," which involves three different factors:
▪ Analytical intelligence: Your problem-solving abilities.
▪ Creative intelligence: Your capacity to deal with new situations using past experiences and current
skills.
▪ Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment.
B. Issues
a. Nature vs. Nurture
Does every individual start from material that is unformed, and the form emerges only gradually, over time? Or does the
individual start in some already preformed, or predelineated, or predetermined way?
Nature vs Nurture:
● The nature side or the genetic side argues that intelligence is inherited in the way that a person is born with their
maximum mental ability. To say that a person’s genetics solely established their mentality is to say that the
environment has no influence at all.
● On the other hand the nurture side or environmental side argues that the environment plays a significant role in a
person’s mental ability. This means that environmental factors may include education, socioeconomic status, nutrition,
parents behaviour, alcohol, criminal behaviour, emotional adaptation, down to the amount of time spent reading or even
watching television amongst many others (Flynn, 1992)
i. Preformationism
● preformationism is a theory that all organisms originated from miniature forms of themselves
● evolved structure is not shaped by chance and trial and error but is already inherent in the structure of matter
● Instead of assembly from parts, preformationists believed that the form of living things exist, in real terms, prior to their
development. It suggests that all organisms were created at the same time, and that succeeding generations grow from
homunculi, or animalcules, that have existed since the beginning of creation.
ii. Predeterminism
● Predeterminism is the idea that all events are determined in advance. Predeterminism is the philosophy that all events
of history, past, present and future, have been already decided or are already known (by God, fate, or some other force),
including human actions
● The concept of predeterminism is often argued by invoking causal determinism, implying that there is an unbroken
chain of prior occurrences stretching back to the origin of the universe
b. Flynn Effect
● The Flynn Effect is defined as the substantial and long-sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test
scores measured in many parts of the world from roughly 1930 to the present day
● Environmental factors may include education, socioeconomic status, nutrition, parents behaviour, alcohol, criminal
behaviour, emotional adaptation affect Intelligence.
● Research has focused much on infants and children, nutrition, twin and adoption just like supporters of the nature
theory. It has also been noticed that IQ has been rising about 3 IQ points per decade across all industrialised countries,
this means that since WWII the average IQ has risen over 1 standard deviation (Flynn, 1992)
c. Culture Loading
● Cultural loading is the degree to which a test or item is specific to a particular culture. A test with greater cultural
loading has greater potential bias when administered to people of diverse cultures.
● Cultural loading is often associated with the concept of culture fairness
● Cultural loading, by itself, does not render tests biased or offensive. Rather, it creates a potential for either problem,
which must then be assessed through research. Ramsay (2000; Ramsay & Reynolds, 2000b) suggested that some
characteristics might be viewed as desirable or undesirable in themselves but others as desirable or undesirable only to
the degree that they influence other characteristics.
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● An example of a culture-loaded item might be “Who was Eleanor Roosevelt?” This question may be appropriate for
students who have attended U.S. schools since first grade with curriculum highlighting her importance as a historical
figure in America but not in the Philippines
C. Samples of Tests
a. Stanford-Binet
▪ Stanford–Binet is a modified version of the Binet-Simon Intelligence scale 1905
▪ The Binet-Simon scale was created by the French psychologist Alfred Binet and his student Theodore Simon.
▪ Due to changing education laws of the time, Binet had been requested by a government commission to come up with a way
to detect children with significantly below-average intelligence and mental retardation.
▪ Binet and Simon instead compared children in each category by age. The children’s highest levels of achievement were
sorted by age and common levels of achievement considered the normal level for that age
▪ One of the first intelligence tests
▪ Lewis M. Terman, a psychologist at Stanford University, was one of the first to create a version of the test for people in the
United States, naming the localized version the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale
▪ Terman used the test not only to help identify children with learning difficulties but also to find children and adults who had
above average levels of intelligence.
▪ German psychologist William Stern created Intelligence Quotient (IQ). By comparing the age a child scored at to their
biological age, a ratio is created to show the rate of their mental progress as IQ.
▪ Terman quickly grasped the idea for his Stanford revision with the adjustment of multiplying the ratios by 100 to make them
easier to read.
▪ Versions:
o April 1905: Development of Binet-Simon Test announced at a conference in Rome
o June 1905: Binet-Simon Intelligence Test introduced
o 1908 and 1911: New Versions of Binet-Simon Intelligence Test
o 1916: Stanford–Binet First Edition by Terman
o 1937: Second Edition by Terman and Merrill - Maud Merrill and Terman started the revisions of the second
edition together with 3,200 examinees, aged one and a half to eighteen years, ranging in different geographic
regions as well as socioeconomic levels to widen the normative sample
o 1973: Third Edition by Merrill - Merrill was able to publish the final revision in 1960 with the use of the
deviation IQ made its first appearance in this third edition by replacing the ratio IQ
o 1986: Fourth Edition by Thorndike, Hagen, and Sattler
o 2003: Fifth Edition by Roid
▪ The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale: Fifth Edition (SB5)
o SB5 measures intelligence and cognitive abilities of individuals ages 2.0 to 89.11 years old
o Use for clinical and neuropsychological assessment, education placement, compensation evaluations, career
assessment, adult neuropsychological treatment.
o Several reliability tests have been performed on the SB5 including split-half reliability, standard error of
measurement, plotting of test information curves, test-retest stability, and inter-scorer agreement. On average, the
IQ scores for this scale have been found to be quite stable across time (Janzen, Obrzut, & Marusiak, 2003).
Internal consistency was tested by split-half reliability and was reported to be substantial and comparable to other
cognitive batteries (Bain & Allin, 2005). The median interscorer correlation was found to be .90 on average
(Janzen, Obrzut, & Marusiak, 2003)
o There are ten subsets included in this revision including both verbal and nonverbal domains.
o Five factors are also incorporated in this scale, which are directly related to Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC)
hierarchical model of cognitive abilities.
o Provides Full Scale IQ (FSIQ), Nonverbal (NV), and Verbal (V) domain scores as well as 5 factor scores:
▪ Fluid Reasoning (FR)
– Early reasoning
– Verbal absurdities
– Verbal analogies
– Object series matrices (non-verbal)
▪ Knowledge (KN)
– Vocabulary
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– Procedural knowledge (non-verbal)

– Picture absurdities (non-verbal)
▪ Quantitative Reasoning (QR)
– Non-verbal quantitative reasoning (non-verbal)
– Verbal quantitative reasoning
▪ Visual-Spatial Reasoning (VS)
– Form board and form patterns (non-verbal)
– Position and direction
▪ Working Memory (WM)
– Delayed response (non-verbal)
– Block span (non-verbal)
– Memory for sentences
– Last word
b. Wechsler Tests
o Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales
▪ Developed by David Wechsler, WAIS measures the cognitive ability of individuals ages 16.11 to 90 years old.
▪ The original WAIS (Form I) was published in February 1955 by David Wechsler, as a revision of the Wechsler–
Bellevue Intelligence Scale, released in 1939
▪ released in 2008 by Pearson PLC, and is the most widely used IQ test, for both adults and older adolescents, in the
world
▪ Wechsler's definition of intelligence is the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to
deal effectively with his environment
▪ Intelligence was made up of specific elements that could be isolated, defined, and subsequently measured.
▪ Individual elements that were not entirely independent, but were all interrelated. General intelligence is composed of
various specific and interrelated functions or elements that can be individually measured.
▪ Versions:
a. Wechsler- Bellevue 1939
– gathered tasks created for nonclinical purposes for administration as a "clinical test battery"
– used the point scale concept instead of the age scale
• Point scale - Done by assigning credits or points to each item. It allowed items to be
grouped according to content. And participants were able to receive a set number of
points or credits for each item passed. The result was a test that could be made up of
different content areas (or subtests) with both an overall score and a score for each
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content area. In turn, this allowed for an analysis to be made of an individual's ability in a
variety of content areas (as opposed to one general score). In comparison with the Binet
scales (prior to the 1986 version), items were grouped according to age level. Each of
these age levels was composed of a group of tasks that could be passed by two-thirds to
three-quarters of the individuals in that level. This meant that items were not arranged
according to content
– Included a Non-Verbal Performance Scale
• Non-Verbal Performance Scale - Wechsler made an entire scale that allowed the
measurement of nonverbal intelligence. This scale required a subject to do something
such as copying symbols or point to a missing detail. It attempted to overcome biases that
were caused by language, culture, and education
b. Wechsler- Bellevue II 1946
c. WAIS 1955
– composed of subtests that could be found in various other intelligence tests of the time, such as
Robert Yerkes' army testing program and the Binet-Simon scale
– Form I of the WAIS surpassed the Stanford–Binet tests in popularity by the 1960s
d. WAIS-R 1981
– Consisted of six verbal and five performance subtests. The verbal tests were: Information,
Comprehension, Arithmetic, Digit Span, Similarities, and Vocabulary. The Performance subtests
were: Picture Arrangement, Picture Completion, Block Design, Object Assembly, and Digit
Symbol. A verbal IQ, performance IQ and full scale IQ were obtained.
e. WAIS-III 1997
– It provided scores for Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, and Full Scale IQ, along with four secondary
indices (Verbal Comprehension, Working Memory, Perceptual Organization, and Processing
Speed)
f. WAIS-IV 2008
– The current version of the test composed of 10 core subtests and five supplemental subtests, with
the 10 core subtests comprising the Full Scale IQ
– The verbal/performance subscales from previous versions were removed and replaced by the index
scores.
– The General Ability Index (GAI) was included, which consists of the Similarities, Vocabulary and
Information subtests from the Verbal Comprehension Index and the Block Design, Matrix
Reasoning and Visual Puzzles subtests from the Perceptual Reasoning Index. The GAI is clinically
useful because it can be used as a measure of cognitive abilities that are less vulnerable to
impairments of processing and working memory.
– The WAIS-IV was standardized on a sample of 2,200 people in the United States ranging in age
from 16 to 90. An extension of the standardization has been conducted with 688 Canadians in the
same age range.
g. WASI
– Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) is a very short form of estimating intellectual
functioning
▪ Comparison with Stanford Binet Scale
o Wechsler was a very influential advocate for the concept of non-intellective factors, and he felt that the 1937
Binet scale did not do a good job of incorporating these factors into the scale (non-intellective factors are
variables that contribute to the overall score in intelligence, but are not made up of intelligence-related items.
These include things such as lack of confidence, fear of failure, attitudes, etc.).
o Wechsler did not agree with the idea of a single score of Binet test
o Wechsler argued that the Binet scale items were not valid for adult test-takers because the items were chosen
specifically for use with children
o The Binet scale's emphasis on speed, with timed tasks scattered throughout the scale, tended to unduly
handicap older adults
o Wechsler believed that mental age norms clearly did not apply to adults
o Wechsler criticized the then existing Binet scale because it did not consider that intellectual performance
could deteriorate as a person grew older
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o Full Scale Intellectual Quotient is derived from 10 subtest scores and is the most representative estimate of global
intellectual functioning. Under FSIQ are:
▪ Verbal Comprehension measures the ability to understand, use and think with spoken language, as well as retrieval
from long-term memory of such information.
▪ Visual Spatial measures ability to accurately interpret, organize and think with visual information, as well as nonverbal
reasoning skills and taps into fluid reasoning.
▪ Working Memory measures the ability to sustain attention, concentrate, and exert mental control.
▪ Processing Speed measures ability to process simple or routine visual information quickly and efficiently, as well as
visual and motor speed.
o Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – IV (WISC-IV)

▪ measures general intelligence and specific indices including verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working
memory, and processing speed.
▪ For individuals under 16 years, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC, 6–16 years)
▪ Helps identify potential learning disabilities in children.
o FSIQ is derived from combining the scores of the four indices.

o Verbal Comprehension measures child’s ability to interpret information, incorporate knowledge, and express
their thoughts verbally.
o Perceptual Reasoning assesses the child’s ability to examine a problem and, non-ally and fluidly create a
solution.
o Working Memory measures a child’s ability to memorize, store, and alter information to produce a result.
o Processing Speed involves the ability to effectively and efficiently focus on,process, and order visual information.
o Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) 1967

o 2½–7 years, 7 months
o As an assessment of general intellectual functioning, part of an assessment to identify intellectual giftedness, and
to identify cognitive delay and learning difficulties.
o revised three times in 1989, 2002, (followed by the UK version in 2003) and 2012. The current version, WPPSI–
IV, published by Pearson Education, is a revision of the WPPSI-R (Wechsler, 1989) and the WPPSI-III (Wechsler,
2002)
o The reliability coefficients for the WPPSI-III US composite scales range from .89 to .95.
o The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence consist of 14 subtests. They are designated as one of
three types: core, supplemental, or optional.
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– The core subtests are required for the computation of the Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ.
– The supplemental subtests provide additional information about cognitive abilities or can be used as
replacement for inappropriate subtests.
– The optional subtests provide additional information about cognitive functioning but cannot be used as
replacements for core subtests.
o 14 subtests
– Block Design - while viewing a constructed model or a picture in a stimulus book, the child uses one- or
two-color blocks to re-create the design within a specified time limit.
– Information - for Picture Items, the child responds to a question by choosing a picture from four
response options. For Verbal Items, the child answers questions that address a broad range of general
knowledge topics.
– Matrix Reasoning - the child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 4 or 5
response options.
– Bug Search - the child uses an ink dauber to mark the image of a bug in the search group that matches
the target bug.
– Picture Memory - the child is presented with a stimulus page of one or more pictures for a specific time
and then selects the picture from options on a response page.
– Similarities - the child is read an incomplete sentence containing two concepts that share a common
characteristic. The child is asked to complete the sentence by providing a response that reflects the
shared characteristic.
– Picture Concepts - the child is presented with two or three rows of pictures and chooses one picture from
each row to form a group with a common characteristic.
– Cancellation - the child scans two arrangements of objects and marks target objects.
– Zoo Locations - the child views one or more animal cards placed on a zoo layout and then places each
card in the previously displayed locations.
– Object Assembly - the child is presented with the pieces of a puzzle in a standard arrangement and fits
the pieces together to form a meaningful whole within 90 seconds.
– Vocabulary - for Picture Items, the child names pictures that are displayed in a stimulus book. For
Verbal Items, the child gives definitions for words that the examiner reads aloud.
– Animal Coding - the child marks shapes that correspond to pictured animals.
– Comprehension[disambiguation needed] - the child answers questions based on his or her understanding
of general principles and social situations.
– Receptive Vocabulary - the child looks at a group of four pictures and points to the one the examiner
names aloud.
– Picture Naming - the child names pictures that are displayed in a stimulus book.
o Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised as a Neuropsychological Instrument (WAIS-R NI)

o Intelligence tests may be utilized in populations with psychiatric illness or brain injury, in order to assess level of
cognitive functioning
o Rehabilitation psychologists and neuropsychologists use the WAIS-IV and other neuropsychological tests to
assess how the brain is functioning after injury while others employ the WAIS-R NI
o It is another measure published by Harcourt with each subtest score is tallied and calculated with respect to
neurotypical or brain-injury norms
c. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children

o KABC or The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
o (KABC) is a clinical instrument (psychological diagnostic test) for assessing cognitive development. Its
construction incorporates several recent developments in both psychological theory and statistical
methodology.
o The test was developed by Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman in 1983
o Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC-II)
o Measure of cognitive ability and processing skills with norms based on scores from 3025 children
o Author(s): Alan S Kaufman, Nadeen L Kaufman
o Publication Year: 2004
o Age Range: 3 years to 18 years (the original Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children ceiling was 12)
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o Administration: Individual - 25 to 55 minutes (core battery, Luria model), 35 to 70 minutes (core battery,
CHC model)
o Qualification Code: CL1
o contains 18 core and supplementary subtests (the number of core and supplementary tests administered
varies, depending on age).
o It is similar to the original battery in that there is a simultaneous and sequential processing approach, the
Luria neuropsychological model. However, the test also uses the Cattell-Horn-Carroll abilities model that
includes fluid crystallized intelligence.
o As a result, interpretation is based on the model that is selected; the number of scales produced is also model-
dependent.
o The five areas assessed include:
▪ (1) simultaneous processing (eight subtests; e.g., triangles, face recognition, pattern reasoning,
block counting, gestalt closure)
▪ (2) sequential processing (word order, number recall, hand movements)
▪ (3) planning (a new scale applicable for ages 7 to 18; includes pattern reasoning, story completion)
▪ (4) learning (four subtests, e.g., Atlantis, Rebus)
▪ and (5) knowledge (optional and only for the Cattell-Horn-Carroll model; includes riddles, verbal
knowledge, and expressive vocabulary, some of which were previously achievement tests).
o The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition Normative Update (KABC-II NU) is now
available. The KABC-II NU updates the normative data for the existing KABC-II product. It maintains the
strengths of the KABC-II while providing updated normative information that reflects the changing
population of children in the United States. The KABC_II NU Manual Supplement provides detailed
information on the new standardization sample and includes the new normative tables.
o Psychometric Properties:
▪ The KABC-II was standardised between 2001 and 2003 on 3,025 3- to 18-year-olds in 39 states
and the District of Columbia. The KABC-II is co normed with the KTEA-II (Kaufman & Kaufman,
2004b). Correlation studies have been completed with: KABC, WISC, WISC-III, WPPSI-III,
KAIT, WJ-III COG, PIAT-R, WJ-III ACH and WIAT-II. Special group studies (clinical validity
studies) included: those with Emotional Disturbances, ADHD, Autistic Disorder, Intellectual
disability, Learning Disability (Written expression, Mathematics and Reading) and those classed as
Gifted.
▪ The internal consistency reliability coefficient for core and supplementary subtests demonstrate the
KABC-II has good reliability. The median reliability for the 3-6 age band is .85 (range .69-.92) and
.87 (range .74-.93) for 7-18. Retest reliabilities of the global scales ranged from 0.72 to 0.94 where
retest stability increasing with age.
d. Woodcock-Johnson III
o The Woodcock–Johnson III (Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001, 2007a) includes cognitive tests that are published
in two components. The Standard Battery (Tests 1–10) and the Extended Battery (Tests 11–20) are published in the
Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities
o Examiners must establish a basal and a ceiling for several tests.
o An additional tests are published separately:
o the Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Supplement to the Tests of Cognitive Abilities (DS; Woodcock,
McGrew,Mather, & Schrank, 2003, 2007).
o The WJ III COG and DS are conormed with the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement (WJ III ACH;
Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather,2001, 2007b).
o The Woodcock-Johnson III Normative Update (WJ III NU; Woodcock, McGrew, Schrank, & Mather, 2001,
2007) was published in 2007.
o It is a recalculation of the WJ III normative data on the basis of 2005 U.S. Census statistics (U.S. Census
Bureau).
o A parallel, Spanish-language version of the WJ III COG is published as the Batería III
o Woodcock-Muñoz: Pruebas de habilidades cognitivas (Batería III COG; Muñoz-Sandoval, Woodcock,
McGrew, & Mather,2005, 2007a);
o the Spanish version of the WJ III COG DS is called the Batería III Woodcock-Muñoz: Suplemento
diagnóstico par alas pruebas de habilidades cognitivas (Batería III COG DS; Muñoz-Sandoval, Woodcock,
McGrew, Mather,& Schrank, 2005, 2007).
o Woodcock–Johnson PsychoEducational Battery (WJPEB; Woodcock & Johnson, 1977). The WJPEB began
as one battery that consisted of three parts:
▪ Part 1—Tests of Cognitive Ability
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▪ Part 2—Tests of Achievement

▪ Part 3—Tests of Interest Level.
▪ The WJPEB differed from other cognitive and achievement measures of the era by the application
of Rasch measurement technology for both test development and interpretive procedures.
Woodcock had been introduced to the Rasch (Rasch, 1960) measurement technology in 1969
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e. Army Alpha vs. Army Beta

o As the United States entered into World War I, they were faced with trying to develop a competent and efficient army out of
draftees who were often uneducated.
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o Army Alpha and Army Beta testing emerged in an effort to gauge the abilities of individual soldiers by measuring their
intelligence.
o This testing was developed by psychologist Robert Mearns Yerkes (1876–1956), including Lewis Madison Terman (1877–
1956)
o The American Psychological Association volunteered to aid in the war effort, and Yerkes was appointed as part of a
committee tasked with developing a mental test that could be given to a large number of military personnel.
o The test was necessary to determine in what capacity each person would most benefit the army and the war effort. The
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test proved impractical as a gauge for large numbers of soldiers in determining particular
occupations.
o With the new method of intelligence testing, the military could determine whether or not a person was fit for military service
and classify people according to their abilities.
o With a staff of 40 psychologists, Yerkes was able to develop two different tests for intelligence.
o The first test, the Alpha, was a written test made up of true/false and multiple-choice questions that assessed
things like the ability to follow directions, arithmetic, and analogies. The Army Alpha test was distributed to
determine whether draftees could read English, but also to evaluate soldiers so that they could be assigned to tasks
or training in alignment with their abilities.
o The Army Beta test was developed for those men with limited literacy who were unable to respond to the written
test. The instructions for the test were provided using pictures and other symbols, and it tested using things like
mazes, identification of patterns, and picture completion.
o Psychologists aimed to make the tests fairly comparable. Soldiers were given a letter grade and those who received the
lowest grade were deemed unfit for service. The men who received a letter grade higher were given simple duties. The men
who received scores in the middle of the distribution performed regular soldier duties. Those with higher scores were trained
as officers.
o The classification system provided by the test was considered very useful at the time because of its ability to make selection
decisions for large numbers of men. By the end of World War I, 1.75 million men had been tested using the Army Alpha or
Army Beta test. As a result of the testing, 8,000 men were discharged as unfit for service, and nearly two-thirds of the
200,000 commissioned officers were selected for their positions.
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OTHER INTELLIGENCE TESTS

▶ Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)
▪ Raven's Progressive Matrices (often referred to simply as Raven's Matrices) are multiple choice
intelligence tests of abstract and logical reasoning (made to measure test taker’s reasoning ability),
originally developed by Dr. John C. Raven in 1936.
▪ They are nonverbal group tests typically used in educational settings.
▪ According to Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2009), it is the most common and popular test administered to
groups ranging from 5-year-olds to the elderly.
▪ The 60 multiple choice questions are listed in order of difficulty. In each test item, the subject is asked
to identify the missing item that completes a pattern. Many patterns are presented in the form of a 4x4,
3x3, or 2x2 matrix.
▪ The Raven Progressive Matrices (RPM) tests are made up of a series of diagrams or designs with a part
missing. Those taking the tests are expected to select the correct part to complete the designs from a
number of options printed beneath.
▪ The tests can be administered through paper-and-pencil forms or computerized forms. It is available in
US, UK, Australian, and Indian English, as well as French and Dutch.
▪ Background
o It was developed in 1936, and first published in the United Kingdom in 1938. The Standard
Progressive Matrices (SPM) was first fully standardized by J. C. Raven on 1,407 children in
Ipswich, England, in 1938 (J. C. Raven, 1941).
o The RPM was originally developed for research into the genetic and environmental origins of
cognitive ability.
o Raven thought that the tests commonly in use at that time were cumbersome to administer and
the results difficult to interpret.
o Accordingly, he set about developing simple measures of the two main components of
Spearman's g. These two components are the ability to think clearly and make sense of
complexity (eductive ability) and the ability to store and reproduce information (reproductive
ability). His test was developed with the aid of Item Response Theory.
o Because of their independence of language and reading and writing skills, and the simplicity
of their use and interpretation, they quickly found widespread practical application.
o For example, all entrants to the British armed forces from 1942 onwards took a twenty minute
version of the SPM. The routine administration of what became the Standard Progressive
Matrices to all entrants (conscripts) to many military services throughout the world (including
the Soviet Union) continued at least until the present century.
▪ Versions (The matrices are posed in three different forms for participants of different ability)
o Standard Progressive Matrices: These were the original form of the matrices, first published
in 1938. The booklet comprises five sets (A to E) of 12 items each (e.g., A1 through A12),
with items within a set becoming increasingly difficult, requiring ever greater cognitive
capacity to encode and analyze information. All items are presented in black ink on a white
background. (Average completion time: 47 minutes)
o Colored Progressive Matrices: Designed for younger children, the elderly, and people with
moderate or severe learning difficulties, this test contains sets A and B from the standard
matrices, with a further set of 12 items inserted between the two, as set Ab. Most items are
presented on a colored background to make the test visually stimulating for participants.
However the very last few items in set B are presented as black-on-white; in this way, if a
subject exceeds the tester's expectations, transition to sets C, D, and E of the standard matrices
is eased.
o Advanced Progressive Matrices: The advanced form of the matrices contains 48 items,
presented as one set of 12 (set I), and another of 36 (set II). Items are again presented in black
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ink on a white background, and become increasingly difficult as progress is made through
each set. These items are appropriate for adults and adolescents of above-average intelligence.
(Average completion time: 42 minutes
o > "Parallel" forms of the standard and colored progressive matrices were published in 1998
because the Raven's Matrices was too well known in the general population.
– > Items in the parallel tests have been constructed so that average solution rates to
each question are identical for the classic and parallel versions.
– > A revised version of the SPM - the Standard Progressive Matrices Plus - was
published at the same time. This was based on the "parallel" version but, although
the test was the same length, it had more difficult items in order to restore the
discrimination that the original SPM had among more able adolescents and young
adults when it was first published.
– > This new test, developed with the aid of better sampling arrangements and
developments in the procedures available to implement Item Response Theory, has
turned out to have exemplary test properties.
▪ Reliability
o The split-half-reliabilities were r * .90 in over 40 studies with people of differing age and
from diverse cultural backgrounds. The test authors indicate retest-reliabilities varying
between rtt=.83 and rtt=.93 in a summarizing overview.
▪ Validity
o Raven Matrices Tests assess general intelligence, that is, the various fundamental abilities
necessary in everyday life. This is why the correlations with other tests or external criteria are
most of the time rather low. Intercorrelations are the highest with arithmetic, technological
and scientific abilities. Correlations between the SPM and school performances result in
values up to r=.70. Correlations with other intelligence and ability tests vary between r=.20
and r=.80. According to Keir (1949), for children, the correlation with the Standford-Binet is
about .60. For an adult sample, Weschler Performance correlates .70 and Weschler Verbal .58
with Matrices.
▶ Panukat ng Katalinuhang Pilipino (PKP) by Palacio

▪ Creatd by Aurora Palacio to validate the mental ability of Filipinos ages 16 and above
▪ Also knowns as PKF or Panukat ng Katalinuhang Filipino
▪ Intended for use in school setting – educational, guidance and counseling- , business , and industry
▪ Limited to the assessment of Verbal Proficiency manifested in ability to comprehend meanings
(vocabulary), ability to perceive relationships (analogy), apply simple mathematical concepts and
problem-solving (numerical ability), and to think and reason out with abstract concepts and ideas.
▪ Subtests:
o Talasalitaan (vocabulary / VS)– 30 items
o Ugnayan (analogy /AS)– 30 items
o Kakayahan sa bilang (numerical ability / NAS)– 25 items
o Isinasalarawang problema (Non-verbal ability problems / NVS)– 50 items
▪ Test yields separate scores for each scale. Raw scores are obtained from each subtest and converted
into standard scores (M=50; SD=10)
▪ THREE TYPES OF Intelligence derived from PKP:
o Crystallized Intelligence Score (CIS) = VS + AS + NAS * standard scores
o Fluid Intelligence Score (FIS) = NVS *standard score
o General Intelligence Score (GIS) = CIS + FIS
▪ Percentile Ranks are computed
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▪ Scoring = based on the number of correct answer

▪ Total time = 70 minutes (V=10min; A=10mins; NA=25mins;NVA=25mins)
X. Personality
o Various Definitions
Personality Definition: Depends on the theory that defines it

Each theorist sees personality from an individual reference point influenced as well by their life experiences and history. For
instance, Carl Rogers described personality in terms of self, an organized, permanent, subjectively perceived entity which is at
the very heart of all our experiences. Gordon Allport defined personality as that which an individual really is, an internal
something that determines the nature of the person’s interactions with the world. George Kelly regarded personality as the
person’s unique way of making sense out of life experiences. While Raymond Cattell described personality in terms of traits as
core structure which may not be necessarily unique to the person.
Why different theories? A sub-discipline of psychology called Psychology of Science has begun to look as the personality traits
of scientists. It investigates the impact of an individual scientist’s psychological processes and personal characteristics on the
development of his/her theories and research (Feist & Feist, 2003). The cognitive processes, developmental histories, and social
experiences affect the kind of science they conduct and the theories they create. Therefore a full understanding of personality
theories rests on information regarding the historical, social, and psychological worlds of each theorist at the time of his/her
theory conception.
Personality Definition: Depends on the approach taken by the theorist

Approaches to defining and theorizing personality include positions about the nature of human personality.
(1) Some approaches emphasize the role of brain functioning, genes, and hormones in explaining personality (Genetic) while
others emphasize the role of the experiences, social learning, and situations (Environmental) in the development of one’s
personality. (2) Some argue that much of what we do is under the control of forces outside our awareness (Unconscious) while
others put forward that people understand why they act the way they do (Conscious). (3) Some theories suggest that we decide
our own fate and behavior is a matter of personal choice and responsibility (Free Will) while others contend that our behaviors
are determined by our past/accumulated history and by the forces outside our control which gives us no or little freedom of
choice (Determinism).
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Personality Definition: What’s common among most definitions?

Books on Theories of Personality offer various definitions as well. For example, in the book of Lauren & Buss (2014),
Personality is defined as the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that are organized and relatively
enduring and that influences his/her interactions and adjustments to the environment. While Burger (2011) defines personality as
consistent behavior patterns and intrapersonal processes originating from the individual which points to the idea that behavior is
not solely a function of the situation but include processes that occur inside of us (emotional, motivational, cognitive processes).
Another definition from the book of Schultz and Schultz (2009) states that personality is the unique, relatively enduring internal
and external aspects of a person’s character that influence behavior in different situations. Still other books, such as that of Feist
and Feist (2009), define personality as a pattern of relatively permanent traits, dispositions, or characteristics that give some
measure of consistency to person’s behavior.
There are common components of personality’s definition:

● Uniqueness of the Individual - Most definitions emphasize the importance of individuality or distinctiveness.
Personality reflects those unique qualities that make one person stand out. It is through studying individual differences
that special qualities that distinguish one person from another can be understood. Most definitions focus on personality
in terms of an evolving process subject to various internal and external influences. Definitions give importance to the
life history or the development of the person.
● Consistency of Behavior - Most definitions construe personality as consistent patterns of behavior. Personality is
depicted as something relatively enduring and stable over time and across situations and as assuming some degree of
continuity. But emphasizing consistency does not mean personality never changes. The degree of behavioral
consistency is influenced by the extent to which situational factors plus the person’s personality determin thoughts,
feelings, and behavior.
● Content and Process of Personality – As Gordon Allport said “personality is something that does something”.
Personality is something refers to the content where each theory offers explanations of the basic content or structure of
personality. Personality does something refers to the process, the dynamic nature by which the contents of the
personality influence the individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
Personality Definition: Three Levels of Personality Analysis

In most definitions, it can noticed that there are also Levels of Personality Analysis.
● Level 1: Human Nature Level (like all others)
o This level of analysis describes human nature in general including all of the traits and mechanisms of
personality that are typical of our species and are possessed by nearly everyone. For instance, language skills,
or mechanisms such as desire to belong to social groups
● Level 2: Level of Individual Differences or Group Differences (like some others)
o The second level of analysis pertains to studying individual differences, or characteristics or ways in which
each person is like some other people (eg. Introverts). Another way personality maybe studied in this level is
through identification of group differences, such as men vs women
● Level 3: The Individual Uniqueness Level (like no others)
o One goal of personality psychology is to allow for individual uniqueness and to develop ways to capture the
richness of individual lives. In this level, personality may be studied either nomothetically (ie., through
individual instances of general characteristics that are distributed among the population) or ideographically
(ie., through single unique cases)
o Traits vs. State

o States : temporary conditions within an individual as results of immediate environment
o State is a momentary emotional reaction to internal and/or external trigger(s) which also involves physical,
behavioural, cognitive and psychological reactions. The duration and intensity of the emotion felt can vary
due to various factors such as the level of arousal, frustration level, subjective perception, the context and etc.
Once the emotional reaction passes, ‘normal’ equilibrium resumes (Spielberger & Sydeman, 1994)
o States, hence, create a temporary emotional change. An individual may become temporarily angry or anxious
under certain circumstances but generally speaking one cannot say that being angry or anxious is who that
individual normally and characteristically is. Emotional states presumably fluctuate over time.
o Traits: Relatively permanent dispositions of an individual;
o Defined by Cattell “that which defines what a person will do when faced with a defined situation”
o Traits refer to the stable, consistent and enduring disposition of the individual (Allport & Odbert, 1936),
which includes emotional reactions and temperament, rather than situational, variable and temporary factors
(Hamaker, Nesselroade,& Molen, 2007).
o Traits present the tendency of an individual to constantly feel, think and behave in a certain way (Spielberger
& Sydeman, 1994).
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o One can speak of a trait when the same emotional states chronically appear in a stable frequent manner and it
is generalized in many different situations and contexes( Forgays, Forgays, & Spielberger, 1997).
o The traits interact with different factors to create many emotional states. This is done by the manner in which the
factors such as situations, stimuli, interactions are being perceived, processed and the psychological, behavioral and
emotional outcome of these processes
o Response Style vs. Response Set

o Response Set
o Is described as the tendency for a person to respond to questions or statements in such a way that it produces
a certain image of the respondent, rather than answering based on the respondent's true feelings or behaviors.
Response sets may occur because a person is purposefully trying to be deceitful, or they may be
unintentional. Response sets depend upon the situation and are usually temporary.
o Kinds of Response Sets:
▪ Acquiescence: Tendency to agree with items, regardless of content; psychologists counteract by
reverse-keying some items
▪ Tendency to gamble or guess: Reliable individual differences have been noted in the tendency to
guess when in doubt (see Cronbach 1946).
▪ Speed vs. accuracy: When speed is an important aspect of test performance, as when the time limit
is insufficient for the completion of the test, individuals tend to differ reliably in their preferences
for responding rapidly as opposed to carefully and accurately (Cronbach 1950). This set to work
rapidly may be related to the gambling tendency, whereas the opposing preference for carefulness
appears to represent a more cautious test-taking strategy
▪ Evasiveness, indecision, and indifference: Substantial reliability has been repeatedly demonstrated
for the tendency to use the noncommittal middle category on several response options, such as the
neutral category on attitude scales, the “?” on the “yes-?-no” format, the “indifferent” choice on the
“like-indifferent-dislike” option, or the “uncertain” response on “agree-uncertain-dis-agree” (Broen
& Wirt 1958; Cronbach 1946; Lorge 1937). As a cautious unwillingness to commit oneself, they
might be inversely related to the gambling tendency discussed above.
▪ Interpretation of judgment categories: Reliable preferences for particular response options have
been observed that appear to be partly due to stable differences in viewpoint about the meaning and
scope of the judgment categories provided (Cronbach 1946; 1950)
▪ Extreme responding: Tendency to give endpoint responses. It is the tendency to mark extreme
categories as opposed to more moderate ones on rating scales and Likert-type formats (which
permit degrees of agreement and disagreement)
▪ Confidence: The tendency to select the option “correct answer not given” in multiple-choice ability
tests has been suggested as a response-set measure of self-confidence (Mullins 1963)
▪ Inclusiveness: When no specific limit is placed on the number of responses required (as in
instructions to “list the activities that interest you” or “mark those statements that reflect your
attitudes”), some individuals consistently tend to give many responses while others tend to give few
▪ Criticalness: response characterized by the strictness of evaluating the equivalence of objects or
their acceptability in terms of some standard
▪ Social desirability: Tendency to answer items in such a way so that one comes across as socially
attractive or likable
● Two views on social desirability:
o Represents distortion and should be eliminated or reduced; Resolved by (1)
measuring and statistically removing, (2) designing surveys that are less
susceptible to this response set, or (3) using forced-choice format
o Valid pa rt of other desirable personality traits, such as agreeableness, and
should be studied • Self-deceptive optimism versus impression management
▪ Tendency to fake: The tendency to fake and distort responses in an attempt to bias the impression
given to the examiner represents another reliable type of desirability responding.
▪ Tendency to deviate: tendency to deviate from a modal response or from the typical response of
some criterion group. Since pathological groups, which are deviant from normals in critical ways,
also display deviant response styles on certain tests
o Response Style
o are a respondent’s tendency to respond to survey questions in certain ways regardless of the content, and they
contribute to systematic error (Yves Van Vaerenbergh Troy D. Thomas, 2012). It is a consistent and stable
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tendency in response behavior which are not explainable by question content or presentation. These are
considered to be a source of biased reporting.
o Examples include:
▪ Extreme response style:
● the tendency to select the two extreme endpoints of a scale
▪ Midpoint response style:
● refers the consistent selection of middle or neutral category of the scale;
▪ Acquiescent response style:
● the tendency to agree with or to select the positive responses regardless of content
o Nomothetic approach vs. Idiographic approach

o The term “nomothetic” comes from the Greek word “nomos” meaning “law”. Psychologists who adopt this approach
are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others. That is to say in establishing laws or generalizations.
o For example: The psychometric approach to the study of personality compares individuals in terms of traits
or dimensions common to everyone. This is a nomothetic approach and two examples are Hans Eysenck’s
type and Raymond Cattell’s 16PF trait theories.
o Experiments. correlation, psychometric testing and other quantitative methods are favoured from a
nomothetic point of view.
o The term “idiographic” comes from the Greek word “idios” meaning “own” or “private”. Psychologists interested in
this aspect of experience want to discover what makes each of us unique.
o For example: At the other extreme Gordon Allport found over 18,000 separate terms describing personal
characteristics. Whilst some of these are common traits (that could be investigated nomothetically) the
majority, in Allport’s view, referred to more or less unique dispositions based on life experiences peculiar to
ourselves. He argues that they cannot be effectively studied using standardised tests.
o Case studies, informal interviews, unstructured observation and other qualitative methods are idiographic.
o Samples of Tests
PERSONALITY TESTS
▶ Edwards Personal Preference Schedule of Allen L. Edwards
▪ structured personality test derived from the theory of Henry Murray, that measures the rating of
individuals in 20 normal needs and motives
▪ The inventory consists of 225 pairs of statements in which items from each of the 15 scales are paired
with items from the other 14 plus the other fifteen pairs of items for the optional consistency check.
This leaves the total number of items (14x15) at 210
▪ Theories of personality based upon needs and motives suggest that our personalities are a reflection of
behaviors controlled by needs. While some needs are temporary and changing, other needs are more
deeply seated in our nature. According to Murray, these psychogenic needs function mostly on the
unconscious level, but play a major role in our personality.
▪ EPPS used 15 needs. On the EPPS there are nine statements used for each scale.
▪ Social Desirability ratings have been done for each item, and the pairing of items attempts to match
items of approximately equal social desirability. Fifteen pairs of items are repeated twice for the
consistency scale.
o Achievement - the need to accomplish a certain task well.
o Deference - need to conform to customs and defer to others
o Order - a need for planning and organizing things ahead.
o Exhibition - need to be the center of attention.
o Autonomy - need to be free of responsibilities.
o Affiliation - need to part of a group or attachments.
o Intraception - need to analyze behavior and feelings of other people.
o Succorance - need to receive attention and support from other people.
o Dominance - a need to be the leader of the group and influence them.
o Abasement - need to accept blame for problems and confess errors to others.
o Nurturance - need to be of assistance to others.
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o Change - need for new experiences and avoid the usual.

o Endurance - need to follow through on tasks and complete it.
o Heterosexuality - need to be associated with and attractive to members of the opposite sex.
o Aggression - need to express one’s opinion and be critical of others.
▪ for college and adults ages 16-85 years old.
▪ for guidance and counseling.
▶ Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory (MMPI) by Storke C. Hathaway, McKinley

▪ MMPI
o The original authors of the MMPI were Starke R. Hathaway, PhD, and J. C. McKinley, MD
copyrighted by the University of Minnesota.
o They used an empirical [criterion] keying approach, with clinical scales derived by selecting
items that were endorsed by patients known to have been diagnosed with certain pathologies
o It originally consists of 567 true or false items that can be answered for 60 to 90 minutes.
o designed as an adult measure of psychopathology and personality structure in 1939
▪ MMPI-2
o In 1989, the MMPI became the MMPI-2 as a result of a restandardization project to develop a
new set of normative data representing current population characteristics
o MMPI-2 has 567 items, and usually takes between one and two hours to complete depending on
reading level. It is designed to require a sixth-grade reading level. There is an infrequently used
abbreviated form of the test that consists of the MMPI-2's first 370 items.
o In 2003, the Restructured Clinical Scales were added to the published MMPI-2,
representing a reconstruction of the original Clinical Scales designed to address known
psychometric flaws in the original Clinical Scales that unnecessarily complicated their
interpretability and validity, but could not be addressed at the same time as the restandardization
process.
o Specifically, Demoralization – a non-specific distress component thought to impair the
discriminant validity of many self-report measures of psychopathology – was identified and
removed from the original Clinical Scales.
o Restructuring the Clinical Scales was the initial step toward addressing the remaining
psychometric and theoretical problems of the MMPI-2.
▪ MMPI-A
o A version of the test designed for adolescents ages 14 to 18, the MMPI-A, was released in 1992
o The youth version was developed to improve measurement of personality, behavior difficulties,
and psychopathology among adolescents. It addressed limitations of using the original MMPI
among adolescent populations.
o Twelve to 13 year old children were assessed and could not adequately understand the question
content so the MMPI-A is not meant for children younger than 14. Children who are 18 and no
longer in high school may appropriately be tested with the MMPI-2
o The MMPI-A has 478 items. It includes the original 10 clinical scales (Hs, D, Hy, Pd, Mf, Pa,
Pt, Sc, Ma, Si), six validity scales (?, L, F, F1, F2, K, VRIN, TRIN), 31 Harris Lingoes
subscales, 15 content component scales, the Personality Psychopathology Five (PSY-5) scales
(AGGR, PSYC, DISC, NEGE, INTR), three social introversion subscales (Shyness/Self-
Consciousness, Social Avoidance, Alienation), and six supplementary scales (A, R, MAC-R,
ACK, PRO, IMM). There is also a short form of 350 items, which covers the basic scales
(validity and clinical scales)
o A four factor model (similar to all of the MPI instruments) was chosen for the MMPI-A and
included 1. General Maladjustment, 2. Over-control (repression) (L, K, Ma), 3. Si (Social
Introversion), 4. MF (Masculine/Feminine).
▪ MMPI-2-RF (Restructured Form)
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o In 2008, the MMPI-2-RF (Restructured Form) was published to psychometrically and

theoretically fine tune the measure. A restructured form of the MMPI-A, the MMPI-A-RF was
released in 2016.
o The MMPI-2-RF contains 338 items, contains 9 validity and 42 homogeneous substantive
scales, and allows for a straightforward interpretation strategy.
o The MMPI-2-RF was constructed using a similar rationale used to create the Restructured
Clinical (RC) Scales.
o The rest of the measure was developed utilizing statistical analysis techniques that produced the
RC Scales as well as a hierarchical set of scales similar to contemporary models of
psychopathology to inform the overall measure reorganization.
o The entire measure reconstruction was accomplished using the original 567 items contained in
the MMPI-2 item pool. The MMPI-2 Restandardization norms were used to validate the MMPI-
2-RF; over 53,000 correlations based on more than 600 reference criteria are available in the
MMPI-2-RF Technical Manual for the purpose of comparing the validity and reliability of
MMPI-2-RF scales with those of the MMPI-2 .
o Original Clinical Scales:
o Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales:
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o Validity scales:
o Content Scales:
o Supplemental scales:
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▶ Bell Adjustment Inventory by Hugh M. Bell

▪ The Bell Adjustment Inventory was a questionnaire approach to measuring personality, consisting of 140
items ; a self-report of individual’s life adjustments.
▪ The items were split into four categories, home, health, social, and emotional.
▪ Purpose of this questionnaire was to differentiate between well-adjusted individuals and maladjusted
individuals
▪ The internal reliability coefficients for each subscale (home, health, social, emotional), when corrected by
the Spearman-brown prophecy, ranged from .80 to .93 (1).
▪ revised in 1962
▪ provides 6 measures of personal and social adjustment.
o Home adjustment - atmosphere of the family
o Health adjustment - health difficulties or pre-occupation with one’s body or both.
o Submissiveness-Self Assertion- confidence in social situations on roles.
o Hostility - attitude towards relationship with others.
o Masculinity/Feminity - attitude towards own sex.
▪ separates individuals who are well-adjusted and maladjusted.
▶ Mooney Problem Checklists R. L. Mooney; . V. Gordon.

▪ developed in 1950 to help individuals express their personal problems.
▪ useful for increasing teacher understanding of students and for preparing students for counselling
interviews
▪ for adult, college, high school and junior high school (12 years to adult)
▪ self-administered.
▪ help identify individuals who need counseling.
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▪ major areas of concern such as:

o Health and Physical development
o Home and Family
o Boy and Girl Relationship
o Morals and religion
o Courtship and Marriage
o Economic Security
o School or Occupation
o Social and recreational pursuits
▪ Inventory includes:
o 10 Manuals: College, High School, Jr. High
o 4 Manuals: Adult
o 82 Jr. High Question Booklets
o 53 High School Question Booklets
o 144 College Question Booklets
o 194 Adult Question Booklets
▪ Qualification Level: B or 2
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▶ Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

▪ History:
o Based on Carl Gustav Jung’s concept of Attitudes and Functions a Psychiatrist
o 1920 – Published Psychological types which presents classifications by attitudes and
functions base on clinical observations with extensive study of their counterparts in literature,
myth, and religion.
o Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers - Mother and daughter - Created the MBTI, a self
report, self-questionaire based on Jung’s work. Both are not psychologists only seekers with
the desire to help people find suitable jobs for one’s personality.
o They assigned the well-known letters (E-I, S-N, T-F, J-P) to Jung’s Attitude and functions,
adding the judging and perceiving label to identify the dominant function.
▪ Description:
o System for understanding different personalities
o A tool that explains differences in behavior and perspective
o Most widely used reliable personality assessment tool in world.
o PURPOSE: To make the psychology types by Carl Gustav Jung understandable and useful
variations in a orderly fashion and consistent in the lives of people.
▪ Guidelines:
o Type no trait – not indicate the strength of ability
o An individual is his Own best judge so there are No right, no wrong answers
o Voluntary answering the items and Confidentiality guaranteed
o Not for selection – not used to label and evaluate respondents
o Importance of proper feedback
▪ Reliability : MBTI reliability coefficients for the four scales on a general population samples ranges
from 0.61 to 0.87 in comparison with reliability coefficients for short personality tests that ranges from
0.70 to 0.81
▪ Administration:
o Age – 14 and above
o Time – 15 -25 minutes
o Group or individual settings
o Online or pencil and paper
o Forms (M & Q)
1. Step I (Form M) - Comprise of 93 items; Self scorable; Paper or Pencil/Online;
Provides common language for appreciating interpersonal differences
2. Step II (Form Q)- Includes 93 step I items plus 51 additional items (144 items);
Paper and pencil/online; Provides result on 20 components of the four letter type;
Drills down to a finer level of details and explores individual variations within type
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o
o
▪ Attitudes:
EXTRAVERSION INTROVERSION
Direct energy outward toward people and things Direct energy inward toward ideas and concepts
Orientation – after thinkers Orientation – fore thinkers
Work Environment Work Environment
Action-oriented Quiet and concentrated
Prefer to be around others Prefer to be alone
Many interests Interests have depth
▪ Functions:
JUDGING PERCEPTIO SENSING INTUITION THINKING FEELING

N
Attitude – Attitude – Focus on five Focus on the Focus – Focus –
decisive, curious, senses(experienc possibilities(sixt logic of a human
planful, spontaneous, e) h sense) situation, values and
self- flexible, Details, Patterns and truth and needs,
regimented, adaptable, practicality, expectations principles people and
purposeful tolerant reality Work Work harmony
Work Work Work Environment Environmen Work
Environme Environment Environment Prefer adding t – brief and Environmen
nt – focus – focus on Prefer learned new skills businesslike t – friendly
on starting tasks, skills Looks at the big Contribution and personal
completing postpones Pay attention to picture s– Contribution
tasks, decisions details Patient with intellectual s – loyal
makes Make few factual complexity criticism, support, care
decisions errors solutions to and concern
quickly problems for others
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▶ Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales

▪ Adaptive behavior is the collection of conceptual, social, and practical skills that all people learn in
order to function in their daily lives.
▪ (VABS) was developed by three social research scientists, Sara S. Sparrow, Domenic V. Cicchetti, and
David A. Ballain 1984. It was a revision of the original Vineland Social Maturity Scale by Doll in
1965.
▪ useful in assessing an individual’s daily functioning. It can be used as an evaluation and diagnostic tool
▪ Two versions:
o INTERVIEW EDITION (EXPANDED FORM)
– Has 577 items.
– More comprehensive assessment of adaptive behavior and gives a systematic basis
for preparing the individual’s educational, rehabilitative, or treatment programs.
– Items are in clusters. Organized in developmental order under sub-domains that
make up the domains.
o SURVEY FORM
– 297 Items. Survey Interview Form & parent/caregiver rating form
– It can be used by itself or as a follow-up to obtain more information about deficits
suggested by the form.
– Items are organized in domains in development order.
o Both versions are organized around four Behavior Domains: Communication, Daily Living
Skills, Socialization, and Motor Skills.
▪ VINELAND ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR SCALES-SECOND EDITION
o Sara S. Sparrow, Domenic V. Cicchetti and Dacid A. Ballain 2005
o Expanded age rages and additional items.
o a standardized norm referenced assessment to be used for measuring an individual’s daily
functioning; for measuring deficits in adaptive behavior; for clinical diagnosis of autism
spectrum disorders, development delays, emotional and behavioral disturbances as well as
other mental, physical, or injury related conditions; for developmental evaluations, progress
monitoring, program planning, and for research.
o Assessment until progress (progress of adaptive skills)
o Progress monitoring (Adult, Children)
o Contains 5 domains each with 2-3 sub-domains designed
o Birth – 90 years of age.
o The main domains:
1. Communincation
2. Daily living skills
3. Socialization
4. Motor skills
– The four domain composite scores then combine to form the Adaptive Behavior
Composite who aged 6 years 11 months.
– Three domain composite scores (Communication, Daily Skills and Socialization)
combine to form the Adaptive Behavior Composite who aged 7 through 90.
– Subdomains
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–
o Has an additional form: Teacher Rating Form
– 3 to 21 years and 11 months
– Measures the four domain areas as the teacher sees the behavior occurring
specifically within the educational setting
o Administration:
– Vineland II administered individually.
– Using the Interview format, 20-60 minutes for the Survey format & Parent/Caregiver
rating form.
– Using the Expanded Interview form, 25-90 minutes.
– Using the Teacher Rating form, 20 minutes.
▶ Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)

▪ 16PF contains 185 items that comprise the 16 primary personality factor scales.
▪ Each scale contains 10 to 15 items.
▪ It can administered individually or in a group setting to ages 16 and above.
▪ Takes 35 to 50 minutes by hand or 25 to 35 minutes to complete by computer.
▪ RAYMOND CATTELL
o Founded the 16 Personality Factors (23 Normal actually)
o Born in Staffordshire, England in 1905.
o He believed that a person’s traits vary from situation to situation. Such a specification is
called trait loading.
o Situation modulators – temporary conditions.
o METHODS USED BY CATTELL
– L-DATA (“Life-record data”)- objective information about the life history of an
individual
– Q-DATA (“Questionnaire data”)- data or information collected from Questionnaires
or Self-Report test.
– T-DATA (“objective Test data”)- data or information collected from objective test
▪ PRIMARY FACTORS of 16PF
1. (A)WARMTH - Cool and Reserved vs. Warm and Easy Going
2. (B) REASONING - Concrete vs. Abstract
3. (C) EMOTIONAL STABILITY - Reactive vs. Emotionally stable
4. (E) DOMINANCE - Deferential vs. Dominant
5. (F) LIVELINESS - Seriousness vs. Liveliness or impulsivity
6. (G) RULE-CONSCIOUSENESS - Rule Conscious vs. Expedient
7. (H) SOCIAL BOLDNESS - Socially Bold vs. Shy
8. (I) SENSITIVITY - Sensitive vs. Utilitarian
9. (L) VIGILANCE - Vigilant vs. Trusting
10. (M) ABSTRACTEDNESS - Abstract vs. Grounded
11. (N) PRIVATENESS - Private vs. Forthright
12. (O) APPREHENSION - Apprehensive vs. Self-assured
26
Handout # 2
13. (Q1) OPENNESS TO CHANGE - Open to change vs. Traditional

14. (Q2) SELF-RELIANCE - Self-reliant vs. Group-Oriented
15. (Q3) PERFECTIONISM - Perfectionistic vs. Tolerates disorder
16. (Q4) TENSION - Tense vs. Relaxed
▪ GLOBAL FACTORS
o In addition to the primary scales, the 16PF contains a set of five scales that combine related
primary scales into global factors of personality
FACTOR LEFT MEANING RIGHT

MEANING
(EX) Intoverted,Socially Extraverted,
EXTRAVERSION inhibited Socially
Participating
(AX) ANXIETY Low anxiety, High Anxiety,
Unperturbed Perturbed
(TM) TOUGH Receptive, Open-minded, Tough-minded,
MINDEDNESS Intuitive resolute,
Unempathtic
(IN) INDEPENDENCE Accomodating,Agreeable, Independent,
Selfless Persuasive,
Willfull
(SC) SELF-CONTROL Unrestrained, Follows Self-Controlled,
urges Inhibits Urges
▪ STANDARDIZED TEN (STEN) SCALES
o The 16PF uses “standardized ten” sten score scales. Sten scores range from 1-10, with a mean
of 5.5 and a standard deviation of 2. Scores that fall farther from the mean (either in the high
or the low direction) are considered more extreme. The more extreme a score is toward a
given factor pole, the more likely that the descriptors for the scale’s pole will apply for that
trait will be apparent to the examinee’s behaviour.
▪ ADMINISTRATION
o The administrator may either read aloud the instruction or request examinee to read the
instructions silently
o Advise examinee not to make any marks in the test booklet
o Examinees also are cautioned to avoid skipping any questions and to choose the first response
that comes to mind rather than spending too much time on any single questions
o Before the test, examinees are asked to complete the grids for name and gender on the left
hand side of the answer sheet.
o During the test, the administrator should check that examinees are marking responses
appropriately. Response circles must be darkened completely with a No.2 or softer lead
pencil.
o At the conclusion of testing, the administration should review each answer sheet to ensure that
the name and gender grids have been completed
▪ SCORING
o Before being handscored or computer-scored, each answer sheet should be verified for
completeness.
o That the identification grid information has been provided name (or I.D number) and gender.
o That all 185 items have been answered. Answer sheets having 12 or fewer incomplete items
is still scorable by hand. Answer sheet having 13 or more incomplete items must be
completed before it can be handscored.
o 3. That the norm grid has been completed. The grid includes two choices, combined sex
norms and sex-specific norm
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Handout # 2
▪ INTERPRETATION
o Impression Management (IM)
– This bipolar scale consists of 12 items. The items are scored only on the IM scale
and do not contribute to any of the primary personality scales
– a socially desirability scale, with high scores reflecting socially desirable responses
and low scores reflecting willingness to admit undesirable attributes or behaviours.
o Acquiescence (ACQ) Scale
– The Acquiescence (ACQ) scale measures the tendency to answer “true” to an item,
no matter what its content. This scale, which consists of 103 true or false items is
unique to the 16PF Fifth Edition.
– An acquiescence response set reflects an examinee’s tendency to answer “true” to
incongruous items such as “I tend to like to be in charge” and “I tend to be more
comfortable taking orders than being in charge”
o Infrequency (INF) Scale
– INF consist of 32 items taken from the full set of personality items in the fifth edition
– High scores on the INF scale indicate that an examinee answered a relatively large
number of items in a way different from most people.
– Possible explanations for high INF scale score include random responding, inability
to decide, reactions to specific item content, reading or comprehension difficulty, or
trying to avoid making the “wrong impression”
▶ Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao (PUP) by Enriquez

▪ Description:
o The Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao (PUP) is a psychological measure that may be used
for research, recruitment and/or admission in an institution.
o It is composed of 24 subscales that indicate dimensions of Filipino characteristics.
o The 24 subscales are composed of 119 items in total.There are also 2 validity subscales that
are composed of 14 items. Aside from this, there are also an additional 19 items about self-
determined traits and another 8 additional items. Overall, PUP is composed of 160 items.
Trait subscales consists of an average of six (6) items each.
o There are two types of PUP Filipino version that can be used, the Form A and Form B.
o Paper - Pencil or Computer-based Test
▪ Administration
o PUP is self-administering . There is no time limit for administering. Typically the entire set is
answered in 30 minutes.
o Can be administered individually or to groups
o For every item, the examinee is asked to indicate with the use of a 5-point scale his/her degree
of agreement about the applicability of the item to him/her
o Scale labels: Hinding hindi, Hindi, Walang Masabi, Totoo and Totoong Totoo
o No item should be skipped by the examinee, each item has only one answer
▪ Scoring:
o The PUP is scored either manually, using 15 scoring acetates, or using its computerized
scoring system
o Items are scored in the positive direction and some items in the negative direction i.e. a low
score on an item means that the respondent has more of the trait being measured by the item.
o The total score for each personality dimension is obtained by summating the scores for that
particular dimension.
o The percentiles and standardized scores corresponding to the raw score totals are obtained
from norms tables (male and female).
▪ Origin and Development:
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Handout # 2
o Dr. Virgilio G. Enriquez sought to construct a test in Filipino that measured Filipino-oriented
traits, behaviors, and attitudes, primarily to identify inventive talent.
o The PUP consists of 160 items which is in Filipino and with English translation. 141 items of
which are organized into 24 traits scales.
o Respondents indicate their level of agreement with each item using a 5-point bipolar scale.
▪ 24 Trait Scales with DOMAINS UNDER PUP:
EXTRAVERSIO AGREEABLENES CONSCIENTIOUSNE EMOTIONAL Intellect/Openne

N S SS STABILITY ss to Experience
Pagsunud- Pagkamapunahin Pagkasalawahan Pagkamapagtimp Pagkamausisa

sunuran (criticalness) (ficklemindedness) i (restraint) (inquisitiveness)
(conformity) Pagkapalaaway Katiyagaan Pagkapikon (low Pagkamaalalahan
Ambisyon (belligerence) (perseverance) tolerance for in
(ambition) Hirap kausapin Tigas ng ulo teasing) (thoughtfulness)
Pagkamahiyain (difficulty to deal (stubborness) Pagkamaramdam Pagkamalikhain
(shyness) with) Pagkaresponsable in (sensitiveness) (creativity
Lakas ng loob Pagkamapagkumba (responsibleness) Sumpong
(Guts/Daring) ba (humility) Pagkasigurista (mood)
Pagkamatulungin (prudence)
(helpfulness) Katipiran (thriftiness)
Pagkamapagbigay
(generosity)
Pagkamagalang
(respectfulness
▪ Validity Scales : The PUP’s validity scales indicate a respondent’s tendency to deny basic truths
(Pagkakaila) and to reject cultural typically held by Filipinos (Kaugalian)
o 2 Internal validity checks
– Pagkakaila (Denial): 7 items which respondents are expected not to agree with. e.g.
Palagi akong masaya.” (I am always happy) ; (If there are 4 or more “TT” or “T”
responses, his/her responses on the test are considered invalid.)
– Kaugalian (Cultural Norms): 7 items with which the respondents are expected to
agree, because of the influence on the Filipino culture on their personality. e.g.
Handa kong alagaan ang aking mga magulang sa kanilang katandaan bilang ganti sa
kanilang pag-aaruga sa akin sa aking kabitaan. ‘I am prepared to take care of my
parents in their old age in return for their caring for me in my childhood.’ (If there
are 4 or more “HH” or “H” responses invalidate the whole test’s scores.)
▪ Reliability and Validity
o A test-retest reliability study was done by Alfonso et al. (1989). Test-retest reliability
coefficient was .94, which was significant at p<.01 reliability coefficient per subscale.25 to
.70
o Bernardo, Lazo and Llamas (1987) reported testretest reliabilities of.42, .69 and .60 for
malikhain, pagkamaramdamin and pagkamatiyaga subscales.
▶ Panukat ng Pagkataong Pilipino (PPP) by Carlota

▪ Description:
o Is a personality inventory, a contribution to the growing lists of indigenous test in the area of
Philippine psychological measurement
o Intended for age range of 13 years and above
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Handout # 2
o It was originally constructed in Filipino. It has English, Cebuano, Ilocano, and Ilonggo
translations
o Is a three-form personality test measure which is designed to assess a total of 19 dimensions
of personality. Each personality dimension has a corresponding subscale comprising a
homogenous subset of items
o These 19 dimesions have been clustered into 3 groups in follows:
– Porma K/Form K – includes those traits that are salient for interpersonal relations
– Porma S/Form S – consists of personal traits
– Porma KS/Form KS – an intelligence-creativity cluster
Form K/Porma K Form KS/Porma KS Form S/Porma S

Pagkamaalalahanin pagkamalikhain pagkamaayos
pagkamadaldal pagkamapasapalaran pagpamakumbaba
pagkamagalang pagkamasikap pagkamasayahin
pagkamaramdamin pagkamatalino pagkamatapat
pagkamasunurin pagmatiyaga
pagkamatulungin pagkaresponsable
pagkamaunawain pagkamahinahon
pagkapalakaibigan
▪ Description of the Forms or Dimensions

o • Pagkamaalalahanin (thoughtfulness) – the tendency to be considerate of the welfare of
others
o • Pagkamadaldal (social curiosity) – the inclination to be inquisitive about other people’s lives
o • Pagkamagalang (respectfulness) – a recognition of other people’s privacy and belief
o • Pagkamaramdamin (sensitiveness) – easily arouse to emotion; esp. og the negative type
o • Pagkamasunurin (obedience) – agreeable to other people’s demands
o • Pagkamatulungin (helpfulness) – to offer assistance
o • Pagkamaunawain (capacity to understand) – the tendency to be tolerant of other’s
shortcomings
o • Pagkapalakaibigan (sociability) – make friends easily, to enjoy the company of others
o • Pagkamalikhain (creativity) – capacity to innovate
o • Pagkamapasapalaran (risk-taking) – take new challenges; to take risk
o • Pagkamasikap (achievement orientation)
o • Pagkamaayos – to be neat and orderly in one’s appearance as well as one’s work
o • Pagkamahinahon (emotional stability) – control emotional experiences
o • Pagkamakumbaba (humility) – to remain modest; to accpet one’s mistakes
o • Pagkamasayahin (cheerfulness) – to be cheerful; to see humorous aspects of situations
▪ Administration
o 45 to 1 hour to complete, but there is no time limit for the administration of the test
o The PPP is self-administering
o No item has been skipped by the examinee
o Each item has only one answer
o PPP may be administered individually or to groups
o For each dimension, approximately half of the items is positively stated and the other half is
negatively stated.
▪ Scoring
o For every item, the examinee is asked top indicate with the use of a 5-point scale his/her
degree of agreement concerning the applicability of the item to her
– 5-point scales
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Handout # 2
– lubos na sumasang-ayon LS or strongly agree SA

– sumasang-ayon S or agree A
– hindi makapagdesisyon/walang masabi/Undecided/No Comment ?
– di sumasang-ayon DS or disagree D
– lubos na disumasang-ayon LD or strongly disagree SD
o Scoring is reversed for negative items. Thus, the higher is the total score a dimension, the
greater is the examinee’s level of that personality dimension
▪ Reliability: Internal consistency coefficients for the PPP range from .94 for Pagkamatalino
(intelligence) to .44 for Pagkamadaldal (social curiosity) with an average of 72. Standard error of
measurement, on the other hand range from 1.58 for Pagkamatalino (intelligence) to 4.67 for
Pagkamadaldal (social curiosity)
▪ Validity: The construct validity of the PPP was determined by establishing subscale intercorrelations.
Average intercorrelations for the different subscales range from .10 to .33
▶ NEO-PI-R
▪ The Big Five Model as postulated by McCrae and Costa has been widely, though by no means
universally, accepted as a useful framework for the exploration of personality traits. The two
investigators most closely associated with the big five model have developed a test that fits their
version of model.
▪ The scales of the NEO PI-R were developed over 15 years of research that started with longitudinal
studies of aging in normal adult samples and was later extended to clinical, employment, and college
samples.
▪ The five major domains
o Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), Openness to Experience (O), Agreeableness (A), and
Conscientiousness (C)-and their respective facts.
o Based on a five-dimension (or factor) model of personality, the NEO PI-R is a measure of five
major dimensions (or “domains”) of personality and a total of 30 elements or facets that
define each domain.
▪ NEO PI-R
o The original version of the test was called the NEO Personality Inventory, where NEO was an
acronym for the first three domains measured: Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness.
o The NEO PI-R provides for the measurement of two additional domains: Agreeableness and
Conscientiousness.
o In its current edition, the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) provides scores on
five major dimensions, or domains, of personality and on 30 additional traits, or facets, that
identify each domain.
o Each of this major dimensions or domains of personality may be subdivided into individual
traits or facets measured by the NEO PI-R.
o The NEO PI-R is designed for use with the persons 17 years of age and older and is
essentially self-administered.
o Although it was designed as a measure of “normal personality traits,” Costa and McCrae
intend for the instrument to be useful in clinical and other applied settings, as well as in
research.
o Forms
– Among the methodological innovations introduced in the NEO PI-R is the
availability of a self-report form (FORM S) and two versions of an observer report
form (FORM R-Men and FORM R-Women) that contain the same 240 items as
Form S stated in the third person
– Form R allows the possibility of obtaining independent ratings from peers, spouses,
and others on the same domains as the self-ratings. This is especially important in the
31
Handout # 2
case of the NEO PI-R because the inventory assumes an honest and cooperative test
taker and contains no scales designed to check the veracity of responses.
o Norms for adult men and women are available for both forms, and norms for college-age men
and women are provided for Form S.
o Computerized scoring and interpretation are available.
▪ Domains and Facets of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R)
Neuroticism Extraversion Openness to Agreeableness Conscientiousness

Experience
Anxiety (N1) Warmth (E1) Fantasy (O1) Trust (A1) Competence (C1)
Angry Hostility Gregariousness Aesthetics (O2) Straightforwardness Order (C2)
(N2) (E2) Feelings (O3) (A2) Dutifulness (C3)
Depression (N3) Assertiveness (E3) Actions (O4) Altruism (A3) Achievement (C4)
Self – Activity(E4) Ideas (O5) Compliance (A4) Self-Discipline (C5)
Consciousness Excitement- Values (O6) Modesty (A5) Deliberation (C6)
(N4) Seeking (E5) Tender-Mindedness
Impulsiveness Positive Emotions (A6)
(N5) (E6)
Vulnerability (N6)
▶ Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee Model of Personality

▪ Authors:
o MICHAEL C. ASHTON Psychology professor at Brock University (Ontario)
o Author of numerous articles in scientific journals, and co-authored with Kibeom Lee the H
Factor of Personality
o Together, Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee did some cross- cultural research to find out
whether the “Big Five” personality dimensions found in North America could be recovered in
other cultures
▪ “BIG 5” Personality Traits
EXTRAVERSIO AGREEABLENE CONSCIENTIOUSNE NEUROTICIS OPENNESS

N SS SS M
Excitability Trust High level of Sadness Imaginati
Sociability Altruism thoughtfulness Moodines on
Talkativenes Kindness Good impulse s Insight
s Affection control Emotional
Assertivenes Prosocial Goal- directed instability
s behaviors behaviors
High
amounts of
emotional
expressiven
ess
▪ Using their own work and that of other researchers, they found that there were actually six personality
dimensions. The “new” one was the H factor, or the Honesty-Humility Factor, was discovered and
is now considered one of the six dimensions of human personality.
▪ HEXACO Model of Personality Structure
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Handout # 2
o A six-dimensional model of human personality that was created based on findings from a
series of lexical studies involving several European and Asian languages
o Each factor is composed of traits with characteristics indicating high and low levels of the
factor
o It was developed through similar methods as other trait taxonomies and builds on the work of
Costa and McCrae and Goldberg
o The model shares several common elements with other trait models
o The HEXACO model of personality structure consists of six dimensions and is
operationalized in a self- and observer report instrument called the HEXACO Personality
Inventory (Revised)– HEXACO-PI-R
▪ HEXACO Personality Inventory- Revised
o Language based taxonomies for personality traits have been widely used as a method for
developing personality models
o Early HEXACO-PI (2000)
o Assesses four facet-level scales within each of the six factors
o Altruism vs. Antagonism: 25th facet scale
o Full length version: 200 items
o Half-length version: 100 items
o Shorter version: 60 items (HEXACO-60, 2009)
– In constructing the HEXACO–60, we decided that each of the six scales
should contain 10 items that collectively cover a wide range of content, with
at least 2 items representing each of the four narrow traits (i.e., facets) of
each scale in the longer HEXACO–PI–R
o The six factors are measured through a series of questions designed to rate an individual on
levels of each factor. The HEXACO-PI-R assesses the six broad HEXACO personality
factors, each of which contains four “facets”, or narrower personality characteristics.
o Six Factors, Four Facets:
FACTORS 4 FACETS
Honesty- Humility Sincerity
Fairness
Greed Avoidance
Modesty
Agreeableness (versus Anger) Forgivingness
Gentleness
Flexibility
Patience
eXtraversion Social Self-Esteem
Social Boldness
Sociability
Liveliness
Conscientiousness: Organization
Diligence
Perfectionism
Prudence
Emotionality Fearfulness
Anxiety
Dependence
Sentimentality
Openness to experience Aesthetic Appreciation
Inquisitiveness
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Handout # 2
Creativity
Unconventionality
o Domain-Level Scales
o Honesty-Humility: Persons with very high scores on the Honesty-Humility scale avoid
manipulating others for personal gain, feel little temptation to break rules, are uninterested
in lavish wealth and luxuries, and feel no special entitlement to elevated social status.
Conversely, persons with very low scores on this scale will flatter others to get what they
want, are inclined to break rules for personal profit, are motivated by material gain, and feel
a strong sense of self-importance.
● The Sincerity scale assesses a tendency to be genuine in interpersonal relations.
Low scorers will flatter others or pretend to like them in order to obtain favors,
whereas high scorers are unwilling to manipulate others.
● The Fairness scale assesses a tendency to avoid fraud and corruption. Low scorers
are willing to gain by cheating or stealing, whereas high scorers are unwilling to
take advantage of other individuals or of society at large.
● The Greed Avoidance scale assesses a tendency to be uninterested in possessing
lavish wealth, luxury goods, and signs of high social status. Low scorers want to
enjoy and to display wealth and privilege, whereas high scorers are not especially
motivated by monetary or social-status considerations.
● The Modesty scale assesses a tendency to be modest and unassuming. Low scorers
consider themselves as superior and as entitled to privileges that others do not
have, whereas high scorers view themselves as ordinary people without any claim
to special treatment.
o Emotionality: Persons with very high scores on the Emotionality scale experience fear of
physical dangers, experience anxiety in response to life's stresses, feel a need for emotional
support from others, and feel empathy and sentimental attachments with others. Conversely,
persons with very low scores on this scale are not deterred by the prospect of physical
harm, feel little worry even in stressful situations, have little need to share their concerns
with others, and feel emotionally detached from others.
● The Fearfulness scale assesses a tendency to experience fear. Low scorers feel
little fear of injury and are relatively tough, brave, and insensitive to physical pain,
whereas high scorers are strongly inclined to avoid physical harm.
● The Anxiety scale assesses a tendency to worry in a variety of contexts. Low
scorers feel little stress in response to difficulties, whereas high scorers tend to
become preoccupied even by relatively minor problems.
● The Dependence scale assesses one's need for emotional support from others. Low
scorers feel self-assured and able to deal with problems without any help or
advice, whereas high scorers want to share their difficulties with those who will
provide encouragement and comfort.
● The Sentimentality scale assesses a tendency to feel strong emotional bonds with
others. Low scorers feel little emotion when saying good-bye or in reaction to the
concerns of others, whereas high scorers feel strong emotional attachments and an
empathic sensitivity to the feelings of others.
o eXtraversion: Persons with very high scores on the Extraversion scale feel positively about
themselves, feel confident when leading or addressing groups of people, enjoy social
gatherings and interactions, and experience positive feelings of enthusiasm and energy.
Conversely, persons with very low scores on this scale consider themselves unpopular, feel
awkward when they are the center of social attention, are indifferent to social activities, and
feel less lively and optimistic than others do.
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Handout # 2
● The Social Self-Esteem scale assesses a tendency to have positive self-regard,

particularly in social contexts. High scorers are generally satisfied with themselves
and consider themselves to have likable qualities, whereas low scorers tend to have
a sense of personal worthlessness and to see themselves as unpopular.
● The Social Boldness scale assesses one's comfort or confidence within a variety of
social situations. Low scorers feel shy or awkward in positions of leadership or
when speaking in public, whereas high scorers are willing to approach strangers
and are willing to speak up within group settings.
● The Sociability scale assesses a tendency to enjoy conversation, social interaction,
and parties. Low scorers generally prefer solitary activities and do not seek out
conversation, whereas high scorers enjoy talking, visiting, and celebrating with
others.
● The Liveliness scale assesses one's typical enthusiasm and energy. Low scorers
tend not to feel especially cheerful or dynamic, whereas high scorers usually
experience a sense of optimism and high spirits.
o Agreeableness (versus Anger): Persons with very high scores on the Agreeableness scale
forgive the wrongs that they suffered, are lenient in judging others, are willing to
compromise and cooperate with others, and can easily control their temper. Conversely,
persons with very low scores on this scale hold grudges against those who have harmed
them, are rather critical of others' shortcomings, are stubborn in defending their point of
view, and feel anger readily in response to mistreatment.
● The Forgivingness scale assesses one's willingness to feel trust and liking toward
those who may have caused one harm. Low scorers tend "hold a grudge" against
those who have offended them, whereas high scorers are usually ready to trust
others again and to re-establish friendly relations after having been treated badly.
● The Gentleness scale assesses a tendency to be mild and lenient in dealings with
other people. Low scorers tend to be critical in their evaluations of others, whereas
high scorers are reluctant to judge others harshly.
● The Flexibility scale assesses one's willingness to compromise and cooperate with
others. Low scorers are seen as stubborn and are willing to argue, whereas high
scorers avoid arguments and accommodate others' suggestions, even when these
may be unreasonable.
● The Patience scale assesses a tendency to remain calm rather than to become
angry. Low scorers tend to lose their tempers quickly, whereas high scorers have a
high threshold for feeling or expressing anger.
o Conscientiousness: Persons with very high scores on the Conscientiousness scale organize
their time and their physical surroundings, work in a disciplined way toward their goals,
strive for accuracy and perfection in their tasks, and deliberate carefully when making
decisions. Conversely, persons with very low scores on this scale tend to be unconcerned
with orderly surroundings or schedules, avoid difficult tasks or challenging goals, are
satisfied with work that contains some errors, and make decisions on impulse or with little
reflection.
● The Organization scale assesses a tendency to seek order, particularly in one's
physical surroundings. Low scorers tend to be sloppy and haphazard, whereas high
scorers keep things tidy and prefer a structured approach to tasks.
● The Diligence scale assesses a tendency to work hard. Low scorers have little self-
discipline and are not strongly motivated to achieve, whereas high scorers have a
strong "'work ethic" and are willing to exert themselves.
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Handout # 2
● The Perfectionism scale assesses a tendency to be thorough and concerned with

details. Low scorers tolerate some errors in their work and tend to neglect details,
whereas high scorers check carefully for mistakes and potential improvements.
● The Prudence scale assesses a tendency to deliberate carefully and to inhibit
impulses. Low scorers act on impulse and tend not to consider consequences,
whereas high scorers consider their options carefully and tend to be cautious and
self-controlled.
o Openness to Experience: Persons with very high scores on the Openness to Experience
scale become absorbed in the beauty of art and nature, are inquisitive about various
domains of knowledge, use their imagination freely in everyday life, and take an interest in
unusual ideas or people. Conversely, persons with very low scores on this scale are rather
unimpressed by most works of art, feel little intellectual curiosity, avoid creative pursuits,
and feel little attraction toward ideas that may seem radical or unconventional.
● The Aesthetic Appreciation scale assesses one's enjoyment of beauty in art and in
nature. Low scorers tend not to become absorbed in works of art or in natural
wonders, whereas high scorers have a strong appreciation of various art forms and
of natural wonders.
● The Inquisitiveness scale assesses a tendency to seek information about, and
experience with, the natural and human world. Low scorers have little curiosity
about the natural or social sciences, whereas high scorers read widely and are
interested in travel.
● The Creativity scale assesses one's preference for innovation and experiment. Low
scorers have little inclination for original thought, whereas high scorers actively
seek new solutions to problems and express themselves in art.
● The Unconventionality scale assesses a tendency to accept the unusual. Low
scorers avoid eccentric or nonconforming persons, whereas high scorers are
receptive to ideas that might seem strange or radical.
o Interstitial Scale - The Altruism (versus Antagonism) scale assesses a tendency to be
sympathetic and soft-hearted toward others. High scorers avoid causing harm and react with
generosity toward those who are weak or in need of help, whereas low scorers are not upset
by the prospect of hurting others and may be seen as hard-hearted.
o ADMINISTRATION:
– Self Report Form/ Observer Report Form
– How much you disagree or agree with that statement
– Strongly agree (5); Agree (4); Neutral (3); Disagree (2); Strongly disagree (1)
– All statements should be answered
▶ John Holland RIASEC Vocational Model (Holland Codes)

▪ Author: JOHN LEWIS HOLLAND
o he was an American psychologist and professor-emeritus of sociology at John Hopkins
University
o Authored both the Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) and Self-Directed Search (SDS)
o His interest in the classification of individuals into set psychological types began when he
served in the army for more than 3 years, as he watched army recruits sorted according to
results obtained from a short interview form
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Handout # 2
▪ HOLLAND’S THEORY:
o “…that individuals tend to move toward environments that are congruent with their
personality types; real- world match between work environments and personality types of
employees should be substantial. “
▪ VOCATIONAL PREFERENCE INVENTORY by J. Holland:
o Description:
o Original version created in 1953
o Its significance lay in its inclusion of occupational lists and its organization of items into
scales– the predecessor to the hexagonal model
o The Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI), 1985 revision, is a self-administered, brief paper–
pencil, personality-interest inventory developed to “yield a broad range of information about
interests, interpersonal relationships, values, self-conceptions, coping behaviors, and
identifications” (Holland, 1985, p. 1).
o The VPI is designed for use with individuals with normal intelligence ages 14 through adult.
o The test consists of a list of 160 occupations which people indicate they are interested in by
marking “Yes” and are disinterested in by marking “No.”
o The test takes approximately 15 to 30 min to complete and score, according to the manual.
o Theoretical Basis:
o The test is based on Holland’s six dimension model of vocational personalities: Realistic,
Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional (RIASEC; Holland, 1966). The
typology codes are compatible with use of Holland’s The Occupations Finder (1996) and the
Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996).
o The test taker’s responses are used to generate scores on 11 scales, 6 of which are described
as interest scales.
1. The Realistic (R) Scale measures the extent to which the test taker has traits related to
“realism, practicality, masculinity, and conventionality” (Holland, 1985)
2. High scorers on the Investigative (I) Scale are described as “bright, scholarly, and
persistent”
3. The Artistic Scale (A) measures traits thought to characterize “artistic” persons, such as
originality, a good imagination, unconventionality, and introversion.
4. The Social (S) Scale reflects traits such as “sociability, femininity, passivity, problem
solving by means of feelings rather than thinking” and high scorers typically have “the
ability to relate to others, or the ability to form ‘close’ as opposed to ‘superficial’
relationships”
5. The Enterprising (E) Scale measures traits associated with “dominance, risk taking,
sociability, and enthusiasm”
6. The Conventional (C) Scale measures a person’s tendency for “conformity, a whole-
hearted uncritical acceptance of cultural values and attitudes, and living in the eyes of
others with its emphasis on self-control” High scorers tend to be “generally productive
and effective in well-structured tasks”
● The remaining five scales gather information outside the RIASEC model.
7. The Self-Control (Sc) Scale measures a person’s ability to control impulses.
8. The Masculinity– Femininity (Mf) Scale measures how closely a person identifies with
traditional masculine and feminine career interests. This scale can also be used as an
indicator of faking, because this scale should correlate closely with similar interest scales,
such as S and A.
9. The Status (St) Scale reflects the test taker’s “self-esteem and concern for prestige and
power” and is a general measure of self-esteem and self-confidence
10. The Infrequency Scale is described as both a social desirability scale and as a
measure of traits and attitudes such as “self-deprecation, incompetency, socially
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Handout # 2
undesirable traits, and a history of personal and vocational failure”. The lower the score
on this scale, the more personally effective the person is thought to be.
11. Finally, the Acquiescence (Ac) Scale’s primary purpose is to “detect
dissimulation and extreme response biases which may go undetected in forced-choice and
true-false formats”
o Psychometric Properties
– Test-retest reliability coefficients for the six major scales range from .89 to .97. At a
3-month interval, retest reliabilities for the interest scales ranged from .54 to .80 for
samples of junior college students
– It has an average internal consistency of .88
INTEREST TESTS
▶ Occupational Interest Test (OII)
▪ provides an in-depth analysis of candidates’ and employees’ professional aptitude and motivations.
▪ consists of 83 questions based on real-life scenarios that can be finished in 12 minutes.
▪ use for employee placement, career management, career guidance.
▪ monitors social desirability and matches the candidate’s profile with 80 different job categories.
▪ has 6 dimensions outlined by RIASEC model:
o Realistic: physical and outdoor activities, manual and technical interests.
o Investigative: Intellectual curiosity and learning, science and technology.
o Artistic: Aesthetic sense and expression, creativity and design.
o Social: dedication to others, personal relationships.
o Enterprising: enterprising, leadership.
o Conventional: Methodical, data and numbers.
o
▪ OII-PRO
o OII-Pro is a career guidance tool measuring 12 dimensions of occupational interest.
o It is based on John Holland`s theory of vocational choices and provides assessment on RIASEC
model as well.
o The test is developed after years of research and working closely with career counsellors.
o This test provides much detailed and deeper information about career interest of the candidate as it
measures 12 dimensions (in comparison to 6 dimensions measured by most career guidance tools).
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Handout # 2
o After assessment, the candidate`s profile is compared with 400+ job clusters and 30+ industries to
arrive at the list of most suitable industries and occupations for the candidate. Multiple reports
are available on this test which can be customized as needed.
o The test is available in different versions with a variety of report options – each designed to meet a
particular career guidance objective.
o OII is an innovative assessment which builds on RIASEC theory by assessing more differentiated
occupational interests than most of RIASEC theory based tests. The test is used by individuals,
educational institutes and corporates alike –
▪ Career Counselors and Coaches use this test to guide their clients towards greater
happiness and success.
▪ Large organizations use this test to do staffing and career planning for their employees.
▪ Educational institutes and business schools use this test to guide their students on
choosing a course / specialization.
o OII-Pro measures 12 core dimensions of occupational interest grouped into 6 general categories
named as RIASEC
▪ Realistic (R)
– Naturalistic
– Manual
▪ Investigative (I)
– Intellectual
– Technical
▪ Artistic (A)
– Aesthetic
– Eloquent
▪ Social (S)
– Developing
– Helping
▪ Enterprising (E)
– Persuading
– Leading
▪ Conventional (C)
– Organizing
– Following
▶ Kuder Occupatioal Internventory of G. Frederic Kuder

▪ The Kuder Occupational Interest Survey ("The Kuder") is a self-report vocational interest test used for
vocational guidance and counseling.
▪ It originated in the work of G. Frederic Kuder who first began publishing on the instrument in 1939.
▪ The Kuder is often compared to other vocational interest tests, such as The Strong Interest Inventory.
Whereas the Strong compares the interests of the person to those of certain groups of people holding certain
occupations, the Kuder focuses on measuring the person's broad areas of interest.
▪ Thus, the Kuder will yield the person's scores along ten vocational interest scales:
o outdoor
o mechanical
o clerical
o computation
o scientific
o literary
o social service
o persuasive
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Handout # 2
o artistic
o musical
▪ The test results are presented as percentile scores, and the report lists them separately for men and women.
▪ It then compares the person's scores on these scales to scores obtained by people holding certain
professions and lists the top matches.
▪ It will also report the match between the examinee's interests and the interests reported by representative
samples of students majoring in certain academic fields.
▪ The survey itself is a paper-and-pencil test that consists of 100 forced-choice triads of activities.
▪ For each triad, the person marks the activity preferred most and preferred least, leaving his or her
intermediate choice blank.
▪ The test usually takes about 30 minutes to complete
▪ Psychometric Properties: Internal consistency of the vocational interest scales range from .47-.85 with a
median of .66. Median stability estimate over 2 weeks was .80 for the vocational interest scales and .90 for
the specific occupation scales.
▪ has separate percentile scores for men and women
▪ consists of 100 forced-choice triad of activities.
▶ Strong Vocational Interest Blank or Strong Interest Inventory

● BACKGROUND
o Most researched interest scale
o High validity and reliability
o First developed by E.K. Strong
o Decided similar interests bring people together in work settings
o Holland expanded on the theory
o “People tend to surround themselves with others who share interests, competencies, and outlook
on world. Thus, where people congregate… reflects the type they are.”
o Gave every person and every job a Holland Code - RIASEC
● STRONG Theory
o What people do is a reflection of their interests
o People of similar interests will be satisfied in those occupations given their values, knowledge and
abilities are also the same
o Measures interests, not abilities
o Not used to tell you what you should be, but to be used as a spring board for ideas
o Purpose is to identify themes and patterns
● NORMATIVE SAMPLE
o Compared against 67,000 people who took the assessment
o All at least 21 years old, satisfied with their work, been in occupation for 3 years, do typical work
tasks
o Random sample with race and ethnicity
o Measures how similar you are to them – how well you would fit in with them
o Profiled with women only
● GENERAL OCCUPATIONAL THEMES (GOT)
o Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional
o Usually identify with three codes strongly
o Represented with first letter of code name
o Can see self in all
o After age 25, the letters should stay the same, but the order of them might change
o Will rate yourself first and then see how you scored
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Handout # 2
Description Work Environments
Realistic ● Love to work with their hands, tools, ● Places where they can produce
“The Doers” machinery, computer networks tangible results
● Rugged, practical, athletic, ● Things that that they can see and
mechanical, adventurous, self-reliant touch
● Enjoy fixing, repairing, building, ● Situations calling for minimal
working outdoors interaction with others
● Like physical risks ● Where casual dress is allowed
● Prefer concrete rather than abstract ● Organizations structured with
problems clearly drawn lines of authority
● Present oriented, thing oriented
Investigative: The ● Like to gather information, uncover ● Unstructured work

Thinkers new facts, interpret data environments that allow
● Curious, abstract thinkers, rational, freedom in work styles
critical, intellectual, introverted, ● Where they can work alone
insightful, persistent most of the time
● Love to explore learning ● Research labs, universities,
● Strong scientific or mathematic computer-related industries,
orientation scientific foundations, medical
● Competent in analysis, writing, facilities
problem solving, research ● Where they can continue to
● Very task-oriented learn and uncover new data
● Express themselves by using their
minds
● Enjoy mental challenges
● Solve problems by thinking
Artistic: The Creators ● Enjoy music, art, drama, anything ● Unstructured, flexible settings
cultural that allow self-expression
● Enjoy self-expression ● Where they can work on their
● Independent and highly creative own
● Creativity is expressed in many ● Where they can teach skills
ways… ideas, writing, appreciating ● Where they can incorporate
or creating arts, performing, creativity in their work
counseling, developing programs, ● Theaters, concert halls,
etc… advertising, PR, museums,
● Impulsive, non-conforming, libraries, education, etc.
sensitive, emotional, visionary,
introspective, imaginative
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Handout # 2
● Enjoy beauty, variety, and what is

unusual
● Solve problems by doing something
new
Social: The Helpers ● Like to work with people, often in ● Unstructured settings where
groups, to help inform, train, teach, they can get to know others
nurture, help, develop, cure ● Where they can feel like they
● Like to arrange positive relationships make a difference
– create harmony ● Where they can work with
● Deep concern for people and others
excellent interpersonal skills ● Social services, non-profit,
● Humanistic, cooperative, supportive, schools, human resources,
tactful, friendly, outgoing mental health fields, medical
● Solve problems by discussing services
feelings with others
Enterprising: The ● Enjoy working with others to ● Like careers in businesses and
Leaders persuade, sell, lead, manage large organizations
● Lead others towards some ● Where they can work with
organizational goal or economic gain others
● Self-confident, sociable, ambitious, ● Where they can live thoroughly
energetic, verbal, assertive, in their environments and have
optimistic, competitive variety
● Prefer social tasks – can’t stay at a ● Positions of leadership, power,
task for too long status
● Like to lead groups, give speeches, ● Own a business
manage people and projects
Conventional: ● Like activities requiring attention to ● Prefer support service roles

The detail, organization, accuracy, data ● Like to know the structure of the
Organizers systems, filing systems organization
● Enjoy mathematics and data ● Well organized chain of
management command
● Practical, organized, systematic, ● Where they can be around
accurate, dependable, conscientious, others and by self
efficient, quite ● Where they can be given exact
● Like to organized others instructions on a project
● Don’t mind being managed ● Large corporations, business
● Live in orderliness offices, accounting firms
● Solve problems by organizing it ● Where they can organize things
and people
o Usually two to three letters show up most

o Bars represent the strength of theme in you compared to your same sex groups
▪ Very high = top 10% of people with this interest, more interest than almost all
▪ High = 15% above moderate interest group, more interest than most
▪ Moderate = 50% of population are here, about as much interest as most
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Handout # 2
▪ Little = less interest than most

▪ Very Little = less interest than almost all
XI. Tests in Action: Clinical, Counseling, and Neuropsychological Assessment

A. Clinical Psychology vs Counseling Psychology
o Clinical Psychology
o Clinical comes from the Greek word "kline", meaning bed. Indeed, historically, clinical psychology would be
delivered at the bedside of a patient.
o Looks into mental health disturbances
o Work: A clinical psychologist has a stronger focus on those with a psychosis or other serious mental illness;
Will look at projective assessment training
o Orientation: Within clinical psychology, typically students focus mostly on psychoanalytic persuasions and
behavioral issues and prefer psychodynamic researches
o Place of Employment: Often in clinics (own clinical practice), hospitals, academe as professors
o Research areas: Clinical psychologists favor psychopathological conditions
o Counseling Psychology
o Counseling comes from the Latin word "consulere", meaning advising.
o It is about providing advice and guidance.
o Work: A counseling psychologist has a stronger focus on healthy individuals, who have fewer pathological
mental problems; Will be involved mainly with vocational and career assessment
o Orientation: counseling psychologists will favor humanistic and client-centered traditions and veer toward
cognitive behavior
o Place of Employment: Often within a university, delivering counseling services.
o Research areas: Counseling psychologists prefer vocational assessment and minority/cross-cultural
psychology.
B. Test Battery
What is a test battery?
It is a set or series of tests delivered at one time or over a period of time, with scores documented separately or mixed to produce
a single score. In contrast to an inventory - which is typically used to refer to a single comprehensive questionnaire which has the
connotation of incorporating all aspects of a certain concept - a battery could include both questionnaires, behavioral tests, and
maybe other tests (eg. anthropometrics).
o Test Battery in Clinical Psychology

o Psychological tests are rarely given in isolation but as a part of a battery because any one test cannot
sufficiently answer the complex questions usually asked in the clinical situation.
o Most diagnostic questions require the assessment of personality, intelligence, and perhaps even the presence
of organic involvement.
o A typical battery of tests includes projective tests to assess personality such as the Rorschach and the
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), an objective personality test such as the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI), a semistructured test like the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Test, and an
intelligence test, usually the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Revised (WAIS-R).
o Test Battery in Counseling Psychology
o Counseling psychology is a developmentally oriented specialty that emphasizes the integration and informed
application of principles derived from basic psycholog-ical sciences such as differential, vocational,
developmental, and social psychology.
o Counseling psychologists use the SIl, Kuder Occupational Interest Inventory (KOIS), and Self-Directed
Search (SDS) to assess vocational interests. They also have some familiarity with the Armed Services
Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), and the General Aptitude Test
Battery (GATB) which assess a broad sample of school and work-related aptitudes.
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Handout # 2
o Other tests include the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary
Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) to assess cognitive functioning, the Chil-dren’s Apperception Test (CAT), a
projective test of personality, and the Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire (16PF), California
Psychological Inventory (CPI), and Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS), which are objective
personality tests. Brief scales most commonly used for assessing specific symptomology are the Beck
Depression Inventory (BDI), and Symptom Check List-90 (SCL-90)
o Test Battery in Neuropsychological Assessment
o The tests most frequently used to assess neuropsychological functioning are the Halstead-Reitan
Neuropsychological Battery, the Wechsler Memory Test, Benton Visual Relation Test, and Luria Nebraska
Neuropsychological Battery.
C. Barnum Effect (Forer Effect)

o The Barnum effect is a type of bias that causes a person to believe that certain things are real or accurate despite the
evidence being vague or ambiguous. It refers to the tendency people have to consider descriptions of their personality
accurate even if these descriptions are so vague that they apply to many people.
o The concept is named for American showman and circus magnate, P.T. Barnum (“The Greatest Showman”), who
claimed that his sideshows and attractions had something that would appeal to everyone. Barnum's claims drew large
crowds, who believed that they would experience something unique, even though they actually had a limited number of
attractions.
o The Barnum effect takes advantage of subjective validation which is our brain’s tendency to make connections
between unrelated things because we already believe that a connection exists.
o It is this simple observation that explains why many pseudoscientific practices such as astrology, palm readings, and
fortune-telling are so popular. The predictions offered by such practices are typically stated in such general terms that
they can pretty much offer something for anyone.
o Also known as the Forer Effect. The effect was first described and named by psychologist Bertram R. Forer. In 1948,
Forer gave a personality test to a group of students and then presented them with what was supposedly a detailed
analysis of their personality based on their results. The students were then asked to rate the accuracy of the description
on a scale of 0 (very poor) to 5 (excellent). The average accuracy rating was 4.26, but in reality, every single student
had received the exact same personality description
D. Insanity
Insanity is legally defined as mental illness of such a severe nature that a person cannot distinguish fantasy from reality, cannot
conduct her/his affairs due to psychosis, or is subject to uncontrollable impulsive behavior. Insanity is distinguished from low
intelligence or mental deficiency due to age or injury.
The four main types of Insanity Defense legal tests are the M'Naghten Rule; the Irresistible Impulse test; the Model Penal Code
test; and the Durham Rule.
a. M’Naghten Standard
The M'Naghten rule is any variant of the 1840s jury instruction in a criminal case when there is a defense of insanity:
o that every man is to be presumed to be sane, and ... that to establish a defence on the ground of insanity, it must be clearly
proved that, at the time of the committing of the act, the party accused was labouring under such a defect of reason, from
disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing; or if he did know it, that he did not know
he was doing what was wrong.
o M’Naghten Rules:
o Presumption of sanity and burden of proof - raise the issue of mental incapacity to negate or minimise criminal
liability. Sanity is a rebuttable presumption and the burden of proof is on the party denying it; the standard of
proof is on a balance of probabilities, that is to say that mental incapacity is more likely than not. If this burden is
successfully discharged, the party relying upon it is entitled to succeed
o Disease of the mind - Actions committed while sleepwalking would normally be considered as "non-insane
automatism", but often alcohol and stress trigger bouts of sleepwalking and make them more likely to be violent.
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Handout # 2
o Nature and quality of the act - refers to the physical nature and quality of the act, rather than the moral quality. It
covers the situation where the defendant does not know what he is physically doing.
o Knowledge that the act was wrong – it is considered when a person lacks substantial capacity to know or
appreciate that conduct is wrong if that person, as a result of mental disease or defect, lacked substantial capacity
to know or appreciate either that the conduct was against the law or that it was against commonly held moral
principles, or both
o Offenses of strict liability – For instance, the accused is sufficiently aware of the nature of the activity to commit
the actus reus of driving and presumably knows that driving while drunk is legally wrong.
b. Durham Standard
o According to the Durham Rule, a criminal defendant cannot be convicted of a crime if the act was the result of a mental
disease or defect at the time of the incident.
o It has often been referred to as the "product defect" rule, but does not require a medical diagnosis of mental illness or
disorder.
o For example, drug addicts were able to use the defense to successfully avoid conviction for crimes related to their addiction.
o New Hampshire is the only state to still use this rule, but courts have narrowed its interpretation in an effort to limit the
defense to only the most serious cases. According to the code section, defendants must prove legal insanity "by clear and
convincing evidence."
c. Irresistable Impulse Test

o The Irresistible Impulse Test gained acceptance in various states as an appendage to the M'Naghten Rule, under which
knowledge of right versus wrong was still considered a vital part of any definition of insanity.
o In some cases, the Irresistible Impulse Test was considered to be a variation on M'Naghten; in others, it was considered to be
a separate test.
o Though the Irresistible Impulse Test was considered to be an important corrective on M'Naghten's cognitive bias, it still
came under some criticism of its own.
d. American Law Institute Model Penal Code Test (ALI-MPC Test)

o Using the MPC test, a criminal defendant must be found not guilty by reason of insanity if he is diagnosed with a relevant
mental defect (for example, severe mental retardation or schizophrenia disorder) and at the time of the incident was unable
to either:
o Appreciate the criminality of his conduct; or Conform his conduct to the requirements of the law
o Therefore, using the MPC test, a legally insane individual must have been diagnosed with a mental defect (typically by a
court-appointed mental health professional) and either did not know right from wrong or lacked the ability to control an
impulse that led to the incident.
o The MPC test was widely adopted in the 1970s since it allowed more flexibility than other tests at the time. However, it fell
out of favor when John Hinckley, Jr. was found not guilty by reason of insanity (based on the MPC test) for his attempted
assasination of President Ronald Reagan in 1981. Soon after the trial, the federal government and many states reverted back
to the stricter N'Naghten rule.
E. Neuropsychology
Brain Hypothesis - The idea that the brain is the source of behavior
Neuron hypothesis - The idea that the unit of the brain structure and function is the neuron or
nerve cell.
The position that mind and body are separate but can interact is called dualism, to indicate that
behavior is caused by two things.
Mind-body problem for Descartes and person is capable of being conscious and rational only
because of having a mind but how can a nonmaterial mind produce movements in a material
body.
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Handout # 2
Neuropsychology is the study of brain–behaviour relationships, and has traditionally utilized the classical lesion-based approach
– relating focal brain damage to patterns of preserved and impaired cognitive functioning.
In the majority of psychiatric disorders, however, focal brain lesions are rare, and the real challenge of neuropsychology in
relation to psychiatry is to understand abnormal behaviour in terms of dysfunctional processing of information. This is more
likely to be related to abnormally functioning brain systems than to localised brain damage.
Neuropsychology is the subspecialty of psychology that studies brain–behavior relationships. Neuropsychology is a diverse field
that includes:
o Experimental neuropsychology, the study of brain–behavior relationships in nonhumans;
o Cognitive neuropsychology, the study of normal cognition in humans;
o Behavioral neuropsychology, the blending of behavioral theory and neuropsychological principles;
o Clinical neuropsychology, the study of brain–behavior relationships in humans.
a. Hard Sign VS Soft Sign

o Hard signs refer to impairments in basic motor, sensory, and reflex behaviors. (Bombin, Arango, Buchanan, 2005)
o A soft sign is a clinical, neurological or behavioural sign that indicate impairment. These signs are subtle and non-
specific. It is also known as equivocal sign. An example of a soft sign is a slight abnormality in speech, posture, gait or
behavior
o “soft” neurological signs (SNS) are described as nonlocalizing neurological abnormalities that cannot be related to
impairment of a specific brain region or are not believed to be part of a well-defined neurological syndrome. (Bombin,
Arango, Buchanan, 2005)
o For example:
B. Samples of Tests
o When a physician requests neuropsychological testing for a patient, a clinical neuropsychologist will likely provide the
assessment.
o The major role of clinical neuropsychologists is the assessment of cognitive function in individuals with known or
suspected brain damage.
o Clinical neuropsychologists are licensed as clinical psychologists and have specialized training (both pre‐ and
postdoctoral) in neuropsychology.
o Cognitive functions may be conceptualized as those processes by which an individual:
o perceives both external and internal stimuli;
o selects pertinent stimuli and inhibits nonpertinent stimuli;
o records, retains, and recalls information;
o forms associations between stimuli and manipulates information in the pursuit of a goal;
o outputs information through the expression of overt behavior.
o Clinical neuropsychology is based on the premise that assessments of these overt behaviors provide information about
the functional integrity of the central nervous system.
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Handout # 2
o History of Neuropsychological Assessment:

o The development of the science of neuropsychology is found in the works of Gall, Broca, James, Watson,
Lashley, Goldstein, Halstead, and Luria.
o Early theories of the relationship between neurological functioning and cognition proposed independent
modules of function, demonstrated most clearly by the phrenologist Gall. According to this theory, specific
brain regions, reflected by bumps on the skull, were associated with specific behavior.
o Broca refined our understanding of language processing, specifically within the realm of expressive language
functions.
o James’ and Watson's contributions to the principles of psychology in general, and neuropsychology
specifically, led to an increased sensitivity to the need for empirical data to support theories of cognitive
function, and the application of the scientific method to psychological studies.
o The work of Lashley and Goldstein led to a better understanding of the relationship between brain
localization and behavior in neurologically healthy and neurologically damaged individuals.
o Halstead and Luria, through differing methods, clearly demonstrated that the assessment of overt behaviors
could be used to identify brain damage with accuracy.
o Fields involved:
o In order to understand such a complex system, neuropsychology is a composite field of study integrating
various disciplines including psychology, neurology, clinical neurosciences, psychiatry, statistics, and
physiology.
o The role of clinical neuropsychology
o to elucidate the effects of brain damage on behavior, and to be able to account for the influences of other
factors such as genetic, developmental, emotional, and experiential contributions on cognitive functioning.
o Two main approaches to neuropsychological assessment
o the quantitative approach, typified by standardized assessment techniques and comparison of individual
performance measures against normative expectations,
o the qualitative approach typified by in‐depth analysis of individual performance characteristics using
relatively standardized measures to elicit pathognomonic signs.
o Although these two approaches developed semi‐independently, current practices in clinical neuropsychology
incorporate aspects of both.
o Not only do neuropsychologists use both quantitative and qualitative approaches to testing, they also test
cognitive function in a multidimensional manner. For example, the assessment of verbal memory, a form of
cognition, may be assessed by simply asking patients to remember a list of words. This approach to testing is
inadequate by itself, however, because verbal memory is more complex than simply remembering lists of
words. Therefore, assessment of verbal memory entails testing memory for lists of words, pairs of words,
sentences, and short stories, using both immediate recall, delayed recall, and recognition paradigms. Such an
assessment strategy provides enough data to analyze fully specific deficits in cognitive abilities that may be
shared by multiple processes and allows for a finer discrimination of abilities and impairments.
o Psychological vs. Neuropsychological Tests
o Purpose
▪ Psychological = Affective, Intelligence, & Personality
▪ Neuropsychological = Brain Dysfunction
o Approach/Process
▪ Psychological = Outcome (retarded or not)
▪ Neuropsychological = Strengths vs. Deficits- Process
o Time
▪ Psychological = Approximately 4-5 hrs.
▪ Neuropsychological = Approximately 8-10 hrs.
▪ Most of “time” is face-to-face
o Types of Test
▪ Psychological & Neuropsychological Tests Vs. Achievement and Aptitude Tests
● Psy & NP Are Individual & Clinically/Health Focused vs. Group and Educationally
Focused
▪ Individual vs. Group
● Individual = All Neuropsychological Tests (HRNB)
● Group = Very Few Psychological Tests (e.g., Quick Test)
▪ Self-report Inventories vs. Interactive
● Self-report = Beck, MMPI
● Interactive = Weschler Scales
▪ Computerized vs. Non-Computerized
● Computerized Tests Represent less than 5% of all tests
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Handout # 2
● Computerized Tests Still Have to be Interpreted Individually

o Practical Aspects of Testing
▪ Selection – Matching Test to Symptoms
▪ Administration – Close Observation to Standardized Instructions
▪ Scoring – Matching Observed Responses to Possible Ones
▪ Interpretation – Integration of Prior Findings, Interview, Observations and Test Results; Most
Demanding Aspect of Evaluation
▪ Report Writing – Written Report of Procedures & Findings
▪ Follow-up – With Referral Source, Patient, Significant Others
▪ Disposition – Appropriate Referral for Further Diagnostics/Treatment
▪ Time
▪ Defined as “What the professional does” (vs. patient)
▪ Overall time varies with tests but a rule of thumb is One hour of contact time results in 1.5 hours of
professional work
o Steps in assessment
1. Introduce yourself
2. Explain what they will be doing today/the next few days
3. Often times, confused as to why they are getting tested
4. Explain what type of tasks they will be doing, the process, your role, importance, bathroom breaks,
effort
5. Begin with effort testing (Establish effort)
6. Establish rapport (Do not start with difficult, discouraging tasks! )
7. Be aware of any interference between measures
8. Be aware of the patient’s needs (Are you going too fast/slow?, Does the patient exhibit pain?Time
for food/bathroom? )
o Structure of Administration
▪ Fixed
● Same set of tests administered to each patient
● Cons: time consuming, expensive, irrelevant
▪ Flexible
● Selecting tests based on patient’s manifestation
● Cons: bias procedures, not ideal for large studies
o Understanding Results
▪ Normative data
● Age, level of education, gender, ethnicity, SES
● Comparing to similar individuals
▪ Repeated testing
● Establish baseline
● Determining rate of deterioration
o Typical Domain of Neuropsychological Test
▪ Achievement
▪ Adaptive Function
▪ Attention
▪ Auditory Perception
▪ Calculation
▪ Executive functions
▪ Language
▪ Memory
▪ Motor
▪ Orientation
▪ Perception
▪ Reading
▪ Response Bias
▪ Sensation
▪ Social Cognition
▪ Visuospatial
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Handout # 2
▪ Writing
o Computerized Assessment
▪ Computerized Testing
● Standard paper pencil have been converted into computerized versions
● Development on novel computerized tests
▪ Administration and delivery options
● Different mode of delivery
● Additional hardware
▪ Considerations
● Preferred system and program
● Input devices
● Exclude or use simple key/button press responses
● “Heads up” approach
● Ideal: touch screen, light pens, voice recognition
Advantages Disadvantages
Normative data Validity

Large and constantly updating Process can be long and arduous
Utility Limitations in hardware
Immediate results Variance in reaction time/error
Reduce expenses rate may occur
Elimination of human error Lack of qualitative information
Accuracy and control Not for all individuals
Instilling basal and ceiling items Limited exposure to technology
Certain environmental settings
▪
a. The Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (BVMGT)

o The Bender Gestalt Test, or the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test, is a psychological assessment instrument used to
evaluate visual-motor functioning and visual perception skills in both children and adults.
o Scores on the test are used to identify possible organic brain damage and the degree maturation of the nervous system.
o The Bender Gestalt was developed by psychiatrist Lauretta Bender in the late nineteenth century.
o Purpose:
o To evaluate visual maturity, visual motor integration skills, style of responding, reaction to frustration, ability
to correct mistakes, planning and organizational skills, and motivation.
o Copying figures requires fine motor skills, the ability to discriminate between visual stimuli, the capacity to
integrate visual skills with motor skills, and the ability to shift attention from the original design to what is
being drawn.
o Description and Administration:
o The Bender Gestalt Test is an individually administered pencil and paper test used to make a diagnosis of
brain injury.
o There are nine geometric figures drawn in black.
▪ These figures are presented to the examinee one at a time;
▪ then, the examinee is asked to copy the figure on a blank sheet of paper.
▪ Examinees are allowed to erase, but cannot use any mechanical aids (such as rulers).
o The popularity of this test among clinicians is most likely the short amount of time it takes to administer and
score.
o The average amount of time to complete the test is five to ten minutes.
o Variations in administration:
▪ One method requires that the examinee view each card for five seconds, after which the card is
removed. The examinee draws the figure from memory.
▪ Another variation involves having the examinee draw the figures by following the standard
procedure. The examinee is then given a clean sheet of paper and asked to draw as many figures as
he or she can recall.
▪ Last, the test is given to a group, rather than to an individual (i.e., standard administration).
▪ It should be noted that these variations were not part of the original test.
o Scoring and Interpretation:
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Handout # 2
o A scoring system does not have to be used to interpret performance on the Bender Gestalt Test; however,
there are several reliable and valid scoring systems available.
o Many of the available scoring systems focus on specific difficulties experienced by the test taker. These
difficulties may indicate poor visual-motor abilities that include:
1. Angular difficulty: This includes increasing, decreasing, distorting, or omitting an angle in a figure.
2. Bizarre doodling: This involves adding peculiar components to the drawing that have no
relationship to the original Bender Gestalt figure.
3. Closure difficulty: This occurs when the examinee has difficulty closing open spaces on a figure, or
connecting various parts of the figure. This results in a gap in the copied figure.
4. Cohesion: This involves drawing a part of a figure larger or smaller than shown on the original
figure and out of proportion with the rest of the figure. This error may also include drawing a figure
or part of a figure significantly out of proportion with other figures that have been drawn.
5. Collision: This involves crowding the designs or allowing the end of one design to overlap or touch
a part of another design.
6. Contamination: This occurs when a previous figure, or part of a figure, influences the examinee in
adequate completion of the current figure. For example, an examinee may combine two different
Bender Gestalt figures.
7. Fragmentation: This involves destroying part of the figure by not completing or breaking up the
figures in ways that entirely lose the original design.
8. Impotence: This occurs when the examinee draws a figure inaccurately and seems to recognize the
error, then, he or she makes several unsuccessful attempts to improve the drawing.
9. Irregular line quality or lack of motor coordination: This involves drawing rough lines, particularly
when the examinee shows a tremor motion, during the drawing of the figure.
10. Line extension: This involves adding or extending a part of the copied figure that was not on the
original figure.
11. Omission: This involves failing to adequately connect the parts of a figure or reproducing only
parts of a figure.
12. Overlapping difficulty: This includes problems in drawing portions of the figures that overlap,
simplifying the drawing at the point that it overlaps, sketching or redrawing the overlapping
portions, or otherwise distorting the figure at the point at which it overlaps.
13. Perseveration: This includes increasing, prolonging, or continuing the number of units in a figure.
For example, an examinee may draw significantly more dots or circles than shown on the original
figure.
14. Retrogression: This involves substituting more primitive figures for the original design—for
example, substituting solid lines or loops for circles, dashes for dots, dots for circles, circles for
dots, or filling in circles. There must be evidence that the examinee is capable of drawing more
mature figures.
15. Rotation: This involves rotating a figure or part of a figure by 45° or more. This error is also scored
when the examinee rotates the stimulus card that is being copied.
16. Scribbling: This involves drawing primitive lines that have no relationship to the original Bender
Gestalt figure.
17. Simplification: This involves replacing a part of the figure with a more simplified figure. This error
is not due to maturation. Drawings that are primitive in terms of maturation would be categorized
under "Retrogression."
18. Superimposition of design: This involves drawing one or more of the figures on top of each other.
19. Workover: This involves reinforcing, increased pressure, or overworking a line or lines in a whole
or part of a figure.
o Additionally, observing the examinee's behavior while drawing the figures can provide the examiner
with an informal evaluation and data that can supplement the formal evaluation of the examinee's visual
and perceptual functioning. For example, if an examinee takes a large amount of time to complete the
geometric figures, it may suggest a slow, methodical approach to tasks, compulsive tendencies, or
depressive symptoms. If an examinee rapidly completes the test, this could indicate an impulsive style.
o Precautions:
o BVGMT Should not be administered to an individual with severe visual impairment unless his or her vision
has been adequately corrected with eyeglasses.
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Handout # 2
o It should not be given to an examinee with a severe motor impairment, as the impairment would affect his or
her ability to draw the geometric figures correctly. The test scores might thereby be distorted.
o The Bender Gestalt Test has been criticized for being used to assess problems with organic factors in the
brain. This criticism stems from the lack of specific signs on the Bender Gestalt Test that are definitively
associated with brain injury, mental retardation , and other physiological disorders.
o Therefore, when making a diagnosis of brain injury, the Bender Gestalt Test should never be used in
isolation. When making a diagnosis, results from the Bender Gestalt Test should be used in conjunction with
other medical, developmental, educational, psychological, and neuropsychological information.
o Psychometric testing requires administration and evaluation by a clinically trained examiner. If a scoring
system is used, the examiner should carefully evaluate its reliability and validity, as well as the normative
sample being used. A normative sample is a group within a population who takes a test and represents the
larger population. This group's scores on a test are then be used to create "norms" with which the scores of
test takers are compared.
b. Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery

o The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery is a fixed set of eight tests used to evaluate brain and nervous
system functioning in individuals aged 15 years and older.
o Children's versions are the Halstead Neuropsychological Test Battery for Older Children (ages nine to 14) and the
Reitan Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery (ages five to eight)
o Purpose:
o Neuropsychological functioning refers to the ability of the nervous system and brain to process and interpret
information received through the senses. The Halstead-Reitan evaluates a wide range of nervous system and
brain functions, including: visual, auditory, and tactual input; verbal communication; spatial and sequential
perception; the ability to analyze information, form mental concepts, and make judgments; motor output; and
attention, concentration, and memory.
o The Halstead-Reitan is typically used to evaluate individuals with suspected brain damage. The battery also
provides useful information regarding the cause of damage (for example, closed head injury, alcohol abuse,
Alzheimer's disorder, stroke ), which part of the brain was damaged, whether the damage occurred during
childhood development, and whether the damage is getting worse, staying the same, or getting better.
Information regarding the severity of impairment and areas of personal strengths can be used to develop plans
for rehabilitation or care.
o Description, Administration, and Scoring:
o Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan are the developers of the Halstead-Reitan battery. Based on studies of
patients with neurologic impairments at the University of Chicago, Halstead recognized the need for an
evaluation of brain functioning that was more extensive than intelligence testing. He began experimenting
with psychological tests that might help identify types and severity of brain damage through observation of a
person's behavior in various tasks involving neuropsychological abilities. Initially he chose a set of ten tests;
all but three are in the current Halstead-Reitan battery.
o Ralph Reitan, one of Halstead's students, contributed to the battery by researching the tests' ability to identify
neurological problems. In a remarkable study, Reitan diagnosed 8,000 patients using only their test results—
without meeting the patients or knowing anything about their background. This provided strong support for
the battery's effectiveness. Reitan adapted the original battery by including additional tests.
o The Halstead-Reitan has been researched more than any other neuropsychological test battery. Research
continues to support its ability to detect impairment accurately in a large range of neuropsychological
functions. The eight core tests are described below, followed by a list of tests commonly used in combination
with the basic battery.
o Tests:
1. Category Test
● A total of 208 pictures consisting of geometric figures are presented. For each picture,
individuals are asked to decide whether they are reminded of the number 1, 2, 3, or 4.
They press a key that corresponds to their number of choice. If they chose correctly, a
chime sounds. If they chose incorrectly, a buzzer sounds. The pictures are presented in
seven subtests.
● The key to this test is that one principle, or common characteristic, underlies each subtest.
The numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 represent the possible principles. If individuals are able to
recognize the correct principle in one picture, they will respond correctly for the
remaining pictures in that subtest. The next subtest may have the same or a different
underlying principle, and individuals must again try to determine that principle using the
feedback of the chime and buzzer. The last subtest contains two underlying principles.
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Handout # 2
The test takes approximately one hour to complete, but individuals with severe brain
damage may take as long as two hours.
● The Category Test is considered the battery's most effective test for detecting brain
damage, but does not help determine where the problem is occurring in the brain. The test
evaluates abstraction ability, or the ability to draw specific conclusions from general
information. Related abilities are solving complex and unique problems, and learning
from experience. Children's versions consist of 80 items and five subtests for young
children, and 168 items and 6 subtests for older children.
● Scoring involves recording the number of errors. Based on traditional scoring using
cutoff values (cutoff scores are scores that indicate the borderline between normal and
impaired functioning), scores above 41 are considered indicative of brain impairment for
ages 15 to 45. For ages 46 and older, scores above 46 indicate impairment. Reitan has
suggested a cutoff of 50 or 51 errors. Recommended cutoffs also vary depending on age
and education level.
2. Tactual Performance Test
● A form board containing ten cut-out shapes, and ten wooden blocks matching those
shapes are placed in front of a blindfolded individual. Individuals are then instructed to
use only their dominant hand to place the blocks in their appropriate space on the form
board. The same procedure is repeated using only the non-dominant hand, and then using
both hands. Finally, the form board and blocks are removed, followed by the blindfold.
From memory, the individual is asked to draw the form board and the shapes in their
proper locations. The test usually takes anywhere from 15 to 50 minutes to complete.
There is a time limit of 15 minutes for each trial, or each performance segment.
● Other names for this test are the Form Board Test and the Seguin-Goddard Formboard. It
evaluates sensory ability, memory for shapes and spatial location, motor functions, and
the brain's ability to transfer information between its two hemispheres. In addition to
simple detection of brain damage, this test also helps determine on which side of the
brain damage may have occurred. For children under the age of 15, only six shapes are
used.
● Scoring involves recording the time to complete each of the three blindfolded trials and
the total time for all trials combined (time score), the number of shapes recalled (memory
score), and the number of shapes drawn in their correct locations (localization score).
Generally, the trial for the non-dominant hand should be between 20 to 30 percent faster
than the trial for the dominant hand, due to the benefit of practice. If the non-dominant
hand is slower than the dominant hand or more than 30 percent faster than the dominant
hand, brain damage is possible. However, some people without brain damage do not
exhibit this typical improvement rate. Injuries of the arms, shoulders, or hands can also
affect performance. Scores should be adjusted depending on education level and may
vary depending on age.
3. Trail Making Test
● This test consists of two parts. Part A is a page with 25 numbered circles randomly
arranged. Individuals are instructed to draw lines between the circles in increasing
sequential order until they reach the circle labeled "End." Part B is a page with circles
containing the letters A through L and 13 numbered circles intermixed and randomly
arranged. Individuals are instructed to connect the circles by drawing lines alternating
between numbers and letters in sequential order, until they reach the circle labeled "End."
If individuals make mistakes, the mistakes are quickly brought to their attention, and
continue from the last correct circle. The test takes approximately five to 10 minutes to
complete.
● This test was originally known as Partingon's Pathways, or the Divided Attention Test,
which was part of the Army Individual Test Battery. The test evaluates information
processing speed, visual scanning ability, integration of visual and motor functions, letter
and number recognition and sequencing, and the ability to maintain two different trains of
thought. The test can be administered orally if an individual is incapable of writing. The
Color Trails Test, designed for children and individuals of different cultures, uses colors
instead of numbers and letters.
● Scoring is simply the time to complete each part. Errors naturally increase the total time.
Some have argued that the time taken to alert individuals of errors may vary depending
on the person giving the test. For adults, scores above 40 seconds for Part A and 91
seconds for Part B have traditionally indicated brain impairment. Current research
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Handout # 2
discourages the use of such traditional cutoffs, preferring ranges depending on age,
education, and gender. For example, one study reported that for ages 15 to 19, the
average time to complete Part A was 25.7 seconds and the time to complete Part B was
49.8 seconds. For ages 80 to 85, however, the average time to complete Part A was 60.7
seconds and the time to complete Part B was 152.2 seconds. This demonstrates the
importance of considering other variables when scoring.
4. Finger Tapping Test

● Individuals place their dominant hand palm down, fingers extended, with the index finger
resting on a lever that is attached to a counting device. Individuals are instructed to tap
their index finger as quickly as possible for ten seconds, keeping the hand and arm
stationary. This trial is repeated five to 10 times, until the examiner has collected counts
for five consecutive trials that are within five taps of each other. Before starting the test,
individuals are given a practice session. They are also given brief rests between each 10-
second trial, and one to two-minute rests after every third trial. This entire procedure is
repeated with the non-dominant hand. The test takes approximately ten minutes to
complete.
● This test is also called the Finger Oscillation Test. The children's version uses an
electronic tapper instead of a manual one, which was difficult for children to operate. The
test measures motor speed and helps determine particular areas of the brain that may be
damaged. Scoring involves using the five accepted trials to calculate an average number
of taps per trial for each hand. In general, the dominant hand should perform ten percent
better than the non-dominant hand. Yet this is not always the case, especially with left-
handed individuals. Males and younger people tend to perform better than females and
older people. Interpretation should also consider education level, intelligence, fatigue ,
general weakness or lack of coordination, depression, and injuries to the shoulders, arms,
or hands. This test should only be interpreted in combination with other tests in the
battery.
5. Rhythm Test
● Thirty pairs of tape-recorded, non-verbal sounds are presented. For each pair, individuals
decide if the two sounds are the same or different, marking "S" or "D" respectively on
their answer sheets. The pairs are grouped into three subtests. This test is also called the
Seashore Rhythm Test, and is based on the Seashore Tests of Musical Ability. It
evaluates auditory attention and concentration, and the ability to discriminate between
non-verbal sounds. The test helps detect brain damage, but not the location of damage.
Adequate hearing and visual abilities are needed to take this test. Scoring is based on
number of correct items, with higher scores indicating less damage or good recovery.
Scores should be interpreted along with information from other tests. Some researchers
consider this test unreliable and simplistic. The children's version does not include this
test.
6. Speech Sounds Perception Test
● Sixty tape-recorded nonsense syllables containing the sound "ee" (for example, "meer"
and "weem") are presented. After each syllable, individuals underline, from a set of four
written syllables, the spelling that represents the syllable they heard. This test evaluates
auditory attention and concentration and the ability to discriminate between verbal
sounds. It provides some information regarding specific areas of brain damage, and may
also indicate attention deficits or hearing loss. Scoring and interpretation are similar to
that used for the Rhythm Test. The children's version contains fewer syllable choices.
7. Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test
● Aphasia is the loss of ability to understand or use written or spoken language, due to
brain damage or deterioration. In this test, individuals are presented with a variety of
questions and tasks that would be easy for someone without impairment. Examples of test
items include verbally naming pictures, writing the name of a picture without saying the
name aloud, reading printed material of increasing length, repeating words stated by the
examiner, simple arithmetic problems, drawing shapes without lifting the pencil, and
placing one hand to an area on the opposite side of the body.
● This test is a modification of the Halstead-Wepman Aphasia Screening Test. It evaluates
language-related difficulties, right/left confusion, and non-verbal tasks. A typical scoring
procedure is not used because this is a screening test; its purpose is to detect possible
53
Handout # 2
signs of aphasia that may require further evaluation. Subtle language deficits may not be
detected.
8. Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination
● This test detects whether individuals are unable to perceive stimulation on one side of the
body when both sides are stimulated simultaneously. It has tactile, auditory, and visual
components involving the ability to (a) specify whether touch, sound, or visible
movement is occurring on the right, left, or both sides of the body; (b) recall numbers
assigned to particular fingers (the examiner assigns numbers by touching each finger and
stating the number with the individual's eyes closed); (c) identify numbers "written" on
fingertips while eyes are closed; and (d) identify the shape of a wooden block placed in
one hand by pointing to its shape on a form board with the opposite hand.
Ancillary tests
● In addition to the core tests, examiners may choose to administer other tests based on the
difficulties that an individual is experiencing. Tests commonly used in combination with
the Halstead-Reitan battery include the Grip Strength Test, the Grooved Pegboard Test,
the Reitan-Klove Lateral Dominance Examination, the Wechsler Memory Scale, the
California Verbal Learning Test, the Buschke Selective Reminding Test, the Rey
Auditory Verbal Memory Test, the Rey Complex Figure Test, the Test of Memory and
Learning, the Wide Range Achievement Test , the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory , and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale or Wechsler Intelligence Scales for
Children .
o Results and Interpretation:
o Interpretation of the Halstead-Reitan involves analysis of various factors:
1. Overall performance on the battery. The Halstead Impairment Index (HII) and the General
Neuropsychological Deficit Scale (GNDS) are commonly used to obtain an overall score. The HII
is calculated by counting the total number of tests in the impaired range, and dividing that number
by the total tests administered, resulting in a decimal between zero and one (0.0–0.2: normal
functioning; 0.3–0.4: mild impairment; 0.5–0.7: moderate impairment; 0.8–1.0: severe
impairment). The GNDS is calculated by assigning a value between zero and four to 42 variables
contained in the tests, then summing those values (0–25: normal functioning; 26–40: mild
impairment; 41–67: moderate impairment; 68+: severe impairment).
2. Performance on individual tests. Each test must be interpreted in relation to other tests in the
battery. Significantly poor performance on one test may be due to various factors. However, if a
pattern of poor performance occurs on three or more tests, or if significant discrepancies occur on
two or more tests, impairment is likely.
3. Indications of lateralization and localization. This refers to the particular region of the brain that is
damaged. Performance on sensory and motor tasks provides the necessary clues.
o With the above information, a psychologist can diagnose the type of condition present, predict the course of the
impairment (staying the same, getting better, or getting worse), and make recommendations regarding treatment, care,
or rehabilitation.
o Precautions:
o Due to its complexity, the Halstead-Reitan requires administration by a professional examiner and
interpretation by a trained psychologist . Test results are affected by the examinee's age, education level,
intellectual ability, and—to some extent—gender or ethnicity, which should always be taken into account.
Because the Halstead-Reitan is a fixed battery of tests, some unnecessary information may be gathered, or
some important information may be missed. Overall, the battery requires five to six hours to complete,
involving considerable patience, stamina, and cost. The battery has also been criticized because it does not
include specific tests of memory; rather, memory is evaluated within the context of other tests.
c. Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (LNNB)
The LNNB is a standardized test that identifies neuropsychological deficiencies by measuring functioning on fourteen scales. It
evaluates learning, experience, and cognitive skills. The test was created by Charles Golden in 1981 and based on previous work
by Alexander Luria that emphasizes a qualitative instead of quantitative approach. The original, adult version is for use with ages
fifteen and over, while the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery for Children (LNNB-C) can be used with ages eight to
twelve; both tests take two to three hours to administer. The LNNB has 269 items divided among fourteen scales, which are
motor, rhythm, tactile, visual, receptive speech, expressive speech, writing, reading, arithmetic, memory, intellectual processes,
pathognomonic, left hemisphere, and right hemisphere. The test is graded on scales that are correlated to regions of the brain to
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Handout # 2
help identify which region may be damaged.The Luria-Nebraska has been found to be reliable and valid; it is comparable in this
sense to other neuropsychological tests in its ability to differentiate between brain damage and mental illness. The test is used to
diagnose and determine the nature of cognitive impairment, including the location of the brain damage, to understand the patient's
brain structure and abilities, to pinpoint causes of behavior, and to help plan treatment.
The 2- to 3-hour LNNB was a product of brain-behavior observations made by Alexander Luria and consists of 269 brief items
that assess motor, rhythm, tactile, visual, oral language, writing, reading, arithmetic, memory, and intellectual functions.
o History of the LNNB
Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902- 1977) was probably the greater contributor to the development of what is the contemporary
Clinical Neuropsychology, based essentially in the precise knowledge of functional neuroanatomy, as well as cerebral
affection/dysfunction/lesions semiology. The interest of the possibility of using an accurate assessment model, to classify (assess)
a given cerebral function (or dysfunction) related with a set of potentially localized cerebral areas has been developed in the last
decades, and is part of the Psychology History, namely on the field of Neuropsychology development (see Luria, 1980a, 1976b,
1973). Luria based his evaluation model in a strong knowledge about functional neuroanatomy and deficits provoked by cerebral
cortical areas lesions. Based on that knowledge Luria presented a set of simple tasks that were believed to elicit superior and
basic cortical mechanisms of neuropsychological functions. In his most known book “Higher Cortical Functions” (England,
1966; In Hebben & Milberg, 2002) Luria developed his approach describing hundreds of tasks that could be used with the
objective to characterize the details of cerebral affection effects in each particular case (Hebben & Milberg, 2002; see also
Golden, Freshwater & Vayalakkara, 2000).
According to Hebben & Milberg (2002) this work is not confined to scientific history greatly because of the efforts from A. Lise
Christensen, a Norwegian researcher. Christensen was herself a Luria apprentice that introduced the Luria method in the United
States of America. This assessment method gave rise to the so-called “Luria’s Neuropsychological Investigation” (Christensen,
1985, 1975), which included a set of materials (suggestions on objects utilization, like pens, sound-instruments, etc., stimulus
cards, photographs, etc.) used by Luria in its investigations and clinical applications. The next important step on the
Neuropsychological Assessment History was the development of the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Test Battery (LNNB),
by Golden, Hammeke & Purisch (1978) (Golden et al., 2000; Hebben & Milberg, 2002). Charles Golden, a Neuropsychologist
with a strong specialization in the utilization of the Halstead – Reitan Battery, jointly with Thomas Hammeke and Arnold
Purisch, utilized the model presented by A. Lise Christensen in order to develop a battery of tests. Golden intended to develop a
test with strong fidelity to the Luria Model in which a simple and structured set of tasks could assess the functioning of a
particular area, simultaneously considering the empiricist and rigorous tradition of the American psychometric models (Hebben
& Milberg, 2002). Several authors like Hebben & Milberg (2002) states that the publication of LNNB in 1978 represented a
milestone on the neuropsychological assessment methods.
55

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Psychological Assessment

a. Nature vs. Nurture

– Procedural knowledge (non-verbal)

o Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – IV (WISC-IV)

o FSIQ is derived from combining the scores of the four indices.

o Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) 1967

o Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised as a Neuropsychological Instrument (WAIS-R NI)

c. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children

▪ Part 2—Tests of Achievement

e. Army Alpha vs. Army Beta

OTHER INTELLIGENCE TESTS

▶ Panukat ng Katalinuhang Pilipino (PKP) by Palacio

▪ Scoring = based on the number of correct answer

Personality Definition: Depends on the theory that defines it

Personality Definition: Depends on the approach taken by the theorist

Personality Definition: What’s common among most definitions?

There are common components of personality’s definition:

Personality Definition: Three Levels of Personality Analysis

o Traits vs. State

o Response Style vs. Response Set

o Nomothetic approach vs. Idiographic approach

o Change - need for new experiences and avoid the usual.

▶ Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory (MMPI) by Storke C. Hathaway, McKinley

o In 2008, the MMPI-2-RF (Restructured Form) was published to psychometrically and

o Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales:

▶ Bell Adjustment Inventory by Hugh M. Bell

▶ Mooney Problem Checklists R. L. Mooney; . V. Gordon.

▪ major areas of concern such as:

▶ Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

JUDGING PERCEPTIO SENSING INTUITION THINKING FEELING

▶ Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales

▶ Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)

13. (Q1) OPENNESS TO CHANGE - Open to change vs. Traditional

FACTOR LEFT MEANING RIGHT

▶ Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao (PUP) by Enriquez

EXTRAVERSIO AGREEABLENES CONSCIENTIOUSNE EMOTIONAL Intellect/Openne

Pagsunud- Pagkamapunahin Pagkasalawahan Pagkamapagtimp Pagkamausisa

▶ Panukat ng Pagkataong Pilipino (PPP) by Carlota

Form K/Porma K Form KS/Porma KS Form S/Porma S

▪ Description of the Forms or Dimensions

– lubos na sumasang-ayon LS or strongly agree SA

Neuroticism Extraversion Openness to Agreeableness Conscientiousness

▶ Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee Model of Personality

EXTRAVERSIO AGREEABLENE CONSCIENTIOUSNE NEUROTICIS OPENNESS

● The Social Self-Esteem scale assesses a tendency to have positive self-regard,

● The Perfectionism scale assesses a tendency to be thorough and concerned with

▶ John Holland RIASEC Vocational Model (Holland Codes)

▶ Kuder Occupatioal Internventory of G. Frederic Kuder

▶ Strong Vocational Interest Blank or Strong Interest Inventory

Description Work Environments

Investigative: The ● Like to gather information, uncover ● Unstructured work

● Enjoy beauty, variety, and what is

Conventional: ● Like activities requiring attention to ● Prefer support service roles

o Usually two to three letters show up most

▪ Little = less interest than most

XI. Tests in Action: Clinical, Counseling, and Neuropsychological Assessment

What is a test battery?

o Test Battery in Clinical Psychology

C. Barnum Effect (Forer Effect)

c. Irresistable Impulse Test

d. American Law Institute Model Penal Code Test (ALI-MPC Test)

a. Hard Sign VS Soft Sign

o History of Neuropsychological Assessment:

● Computerized Tests Still Have to be Interpreted Individually