Intelligence refers to the ability to learn and understand and think in a logical way about things.

(Oxford Dictionary, 2010). Ellis (2008) as cited in Bamuhiga (2019) defines intelligence as the
general set of cognitive abilities involved in performing a wide range of learning tasks. The two
definitions have two things in common; ability and learning. In learning second language ,
cognitive capacity determine the rate of predict how successful a learner would be at language.

Bamuhiga (2019) shows that intelligence is more concerned with skills which are use in
academic studies. It involve language skills like reading , language analysis, writing, and
vocabulary. But all these are less likely to influence the way in which oral communication skills
are developed. Intelligence plays a great role in learning a second language when is conducted
formally in classroom and instructions are formal. But when is done in natural setting and in an
informal way intelligence may play less important role. Intelligence is measured through IQ
Test.

Psychologists found that there are different types of intelligence that used to differentiating
human beings . These are verbal and non-verbal intelligence, which is concrete reasoning and
abstract reasoning. According to Garder (1983) there are different kinds of intelligences, which
are ;

Linguistic intelligence, which is involved in reading, writing, listening and talking. Musical
intelligence, which is involved in playing, composing, singing and conducting. Logical
mathematics intelligence, which is involved in solving logical puzzles ,deriving proofs,
performing calculations. Spatial intelligence, which is involved in moving from one location to
another or determine one’s orientation in spaces.

Theories of Intelligence
Different researchers have proposed a variety of theories to explain the nature of intelligence.
Here are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.
General Intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to
as general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to
examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were
remarkably similar.
People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while
those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that
intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically expressed.
Primary Mental Abilities

Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead

of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different
primary mental abilities

1. Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall

2. Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems
3. Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects
4. Reasoning: The ability to find rules
5. Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships
6. Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words
7. Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly

8Theory of Multiple Intelligences

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.
Gardner proposed that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on IQ testing, did not fully and
accurately depict a person's abilities. His theory proposed eight different intelligences based on
skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures:

1. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your body movements and to

handle objects skillfully
2. Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations, and desires of others
3. Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings,
values, beliefs, and thinking processes
4. Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and
the capacity to discern logically or numerical patterns

8. Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre
9. Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants, and
other objects in nature
10. Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds,
meanings, and rhythms of words
11. Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize
accurately and abstractly

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive
adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one's life."
While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he
suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as individual talents.
Sternberg proposed what he referred to as "successful intelligence," which involves three
different factors:

5. Analytical intelligence: Your ability to evaluate information and solve problems

6. Creative intelligence: Your ability to come up with new ideas
7. Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment

Generally, intelligence. A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the
ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn
quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or
test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our
surroundings—"catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.

(1995), a report published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological

Association:
Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt
effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of
reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be
substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary
on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of
"intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although
considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet
answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two
dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen,
somewhat different, definitions.
Human intelligence is the intellectual power of humans, which is marked by
complex cognitive feats and high levels of motivation and self-awareness.  Intelligence enables
humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It is a
cognitive process. It gives humans the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand,
and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, innovate, plan, solve problems, and
employ language to communicate. Intelligence enables humans to experience and think
Intelligence is different from learning. Learning refers to the act of retaining facts and
information or abilities and being able to recall them for future use, while intelligence is the
cognitive ability of someone to perform these and other processes. There have been various
attempts to quantify intelligence via testing, such as the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test. However,
many people disagree with the validity of IQ tests, stating that they cannot accurately measure
intelligence.
There is debate about if human intelligence is based on hereditary factors or if it is based
on environmental factors. Hereditary intelligence is the theory that intelligence is fixed upon
birth and not able to grow. Environmental intelligence is the theory that intelligence is developed
throughout life depending on the environment around the person. An environment that cultivates
intelligence is one that challenges the person’s cognitive abilities.
Much of the above definition applies also to the intelligence of non-human animals.

Emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence is thought to be the ability to convey emotion to others in an
understandable way as well as to read the emotions of others accurately  Some theories imply
that a heightened emotional intelligence could also lead to faster generating and processing of
emotions in addition to the accuracy  In addition, higher emotional intelligence is thought to help
us manage emotions, which is beneficial for our problem-solving skills. Emotional intelligence is
important to our mental health and has ties into social intelligence
Social intelligence
Social intelligence is the ability to understand the social cues and motivations of others and
oneself in social situations. It is thought to be distinct to other types of intelligence, but has
relations to emotional intelligence. Social intelligence has coincided with other studies that focus
on how we make judgements of others, the accuracy with which we do so, and why people
would be viewed as having positive or negative social character. There is debate as to whether or
not these studies and social intelligence come from the same theories or if there is a distinction
between them, and they are generally thought to be of two different schools of thought.

What is aptitude?

Aptitude refers to the natural ability or skill at doing something (Oxford Dictionary, 2010).
Bamuhiga (2019) defines aptitude as a specific talents for language learning that varies from
individual to individual. Ellis (2010) identifies auditory ability , linguistic ability and memory
ability as examples of such talents. Caroll (2006) as cited in Troike (1965) proposed four
components as the basis for most aptitude test : these can be summarized as follows;

i. Phonemic coding ability

Troike (2006) define this as the capacity to process auditory input into segments which
can be stored and retrieved. Bamuhiga (2019) simplify it as the ability to identify and
memorize new words.
ii. Inductive learning ability
Bamuhiga (2019) identify this as the ability to understand how words function
grammatically in sentences.
iii. Ability to figure out grammatical rules from language samples. According to Troike
(2006) call it grammatical sensitivity, the central processing.
iv. Associative Memory Capacity
Troike (2006) defines it as the ability concerned with how linguistics items are stored ,
and with how they are recalled and used in output. Bamuhiga (2019) identify it as the
memory for new words.
Richard (1985) add that language aptitude is thought to be a combination of various abilities,
such as the ability to sound pattern in a new language, the ability to recognize the different
grammatical functions of words in sentences , sentence pattern and meanings.

Ortega (2009) explain that in 1953 John Caroll the late Harvard psychologist and founder of
language aptitude research , develop the aptitude test research known as modern language
aptitude Test (MLAT). It was responsible for measuring the above skills in second language
learning and still used up to date.

Aptitude tests
There are a variety of tests that can determine your aptitudes. Some will test for whether you
have a combination of aptitudes that can indicate potential in a certain field, and some test for
individual aptitudes such as mechanical or spatial.

Some companies may give you an aptitude test as part of the hiring process to see if you have the
necessary strengths to do the job. You can also take aptitude tests on your own time or at a career
center.

Here are some of the common aptitude tests:

12. Watson Glaser critical thinking test. This test assesses your critical thinking skills. It will
measure your ability to understand information and come to a logical conclusion. 

13. Logical reasoning tests. A logical reasoning test examines how you understand
relationship between shapes and pattern..

14. Situational judgment tests. These tests will measure your problem-solving abilities with
specific workplace scenarios. 
15. Verbal reasoning tests. Verbal reasoning tests gauge how you gather information from a
paragraph or short passage. 

16. Inductive reasoning tests. In an inductive reasoning test, you will have to look at patterns
and determine the next step in the pattern based on logic. 

17. In-tray exercises. This test is also known as an "e-tray exercise." It determines your ability
to prioritize work-related tasks. .

Linguistic aptitude
Linguistic aptitude is the ability to learn a foreign language with ease. If you have this aptitude,
you may find it easy to learn the structure of a new language and memorize words and phrases
quickly. You may excel in learning how to read and write in a new language as well.

Most people confuse aptitude and intelligence, but two terminologies are quite different though
they have the same correlation to cognitive abilities. Skehan (1998) as cited in Troike (2006)
concludes that language learning aptitude “is not completely distinct from general cognitive
abilities such as represented by intelligence test, but it is far from the same thing” (2006, pp 85).
Aptitude, is an individual set of characteristics which correlates with success in language
learning.

What is a second language?

Second language, is a language which is a foreign language, a target language or a foreign

language. If you have a second language , you are non-native speaker of that language. Second
language is learned through the process know as second language acquisition, SLA. Also, second
language learning is the process of learning a new language after acquisition of the native
language. Acquisition of language two takes place when learners already have learned one or
two languages.
How Aptitude and Intelligence affect second language learning.

Intelligence

Inteligence states that “an individual is intelligent in proportion as he is able to carry an abstract
thinking”. Therefore. Inteligence conceptualized as abstract thinking was demonstrated to predict
academic success.

Brown (1994:93) states that in the past it was conceived that “the greatest barrier to second
language learning seemed to boil down to a matter of memory” in the sense that if a student
could remember something he or she was exposed to, he or she would be a successful learner
because intelligence was traditionally defined and measured in terms of linguistic and logical –
mathematical abilities. Based on that , it is clear that intelligence contributes to successful
language learning.

Since we saw that aptitude and intelligence are terms that involves ability, talent and learning.
And also they differentiate one person from the other, this simply proves that it is differing from
one person to another and it can affect their abilities, rate and percentages in learning the second
language. According to Bamuhiga (2029) when the instructions are done formally in a
classroom, intelligence plays a great room compaired to informal context. So, in academic
setting ,intelligence affects language learning especially the second language learning. But, it
does not affect learning and acquisition of the second language when the environment is natural
or informal like from the society. It is proved that intelligence can predict the rate and success of
second language learning in the formal language classroom (Genesse,1976)

“The ability to perform well in standard intelligence tests correlates with school related second
language learning” (Spolsky,1989:103)

McLaughlin (1987), suggests that intelligence is an important in determining the success of

second language acquisition. However, it depends on the way language is taught. When material
is taught in a formal manner and in a classroom setting that is when emphasis is given on
reasoning analytically about verbal material, intelligence play a great role. Verbal materials are
those where words used in written or spoken form. He explains that children learn the second
language in an immersion setting or in bilingual classroom and do not approach the language
analytical. On the other hand students in traditional high schools or colleges classes consider the
language analytically and acquire it in formal ways.

Gardner (1993) emphasizes that language is not grammar specific , but it is influenced by other
factors that are intelligence-based. Second phase of Gardner’s model introduces four individual
differences which are influential in second language acquisition. Include variables of
intelligence, language aptitude, motivation and situational anxiety (Giles and Coupland 1991.
Closely to this formal and informal context or setting were introduced . Formal setting or
instruction within the classroom. Unstructured language acquisition in a natural setting.
Depending on context , the impact of individual difference variables alters example in formal
setting intelligence and aptitude play a dominant role in learning , while exerting a weaker
influence in an informal setting.

The MIT- develop nine different intelligences: mathematical-logical, the Verbal-linguistic , the
musical -rhythmic , the intrapersonal, the visual-spatial , the naturalist and extential intelligence.

The following are the criteria used in MIT to find intelligence :

 Entails the ability to solve problems.

 It has an identifiable neurological core operation or set of operation.
 It is susceptible to encoding in a symbol system which captures and conveys important
forms of information.

These different intelligences reflect a pluralistic panorama of learner’s individual differences ,

they are understood as personal tied earn individual possesses to make sense out of new
information and to store in such a way that it can be easily retrieved when needed for use. The
different intelligence are neutral value; none of them is considered superior to others. In their
basic form , they are present to some extent in everyone , although a person will generally , be
more talented in some than in others , each of these frame is autonomous , changeable and
trainable and they interact to facilitate the solution of daily problems.

Our vast intelligence also allows us to have language as a system of communication that uses
symbols in a regular way to create meaning. Language give us the ability to communicate our
intelligence to others by talking, reading, and writing. The psychologist Steven Pinker put it ,
language is the “the jewel in the crown of cognition” (Punker,1994) Although other species have
at least some ability to communicate , none of them have language.

The studies on intelligence (intelligence quotient) IQ test scores- shows a strong relationship
between intelligence and second language learning as far as academic skills are concerned.
Learners with high IQ achieve better results on language tests.

Language is derived from cognitive development and more intelligence helps individuals acquire
foreign language or second language faster and more easily, because cognitive factors
determines the meaning of language and also make sense of linguistics system.

Other scholars agree that intelligence play a little or no role in many of the communication task.
Genesee (1976) as cited in Teepan 2005) found out that intelligence did not play any role in the
ability of individuals to acquire certain communicative aspects of second language. Higher
intelligence where significant on skills such as interpersonal communication, pronunciation and
learning comprehension . Its believed that intelligence in its traditional definition, may have little
to do with wide range of IQS have proven to be successful in acquiring a second language the
reason is about the role of intelligence in classroom language learning and it lacks in real life
contents (Brown,2000). Gardner (1996) claim that the people who are strong in verbal linguistic
intelligence usually have a good vocabulary potential to absorbed in the books and perform well
in second language classes.

Learning is impossible without intelligence. In other words, intelligence is the basis of learning.
The effectiveness of learning is conditioned by the degree of intelligence. It is an accepted fact
that students with high intelligence are easier to teach or direct and guide than students with low
intelligence.

Some derived findings indicates that intelligence and language learning are closely connected
when it comes to deal with cognition demanded tasks. Cognitive abilities can make sense in the
learning language structures , therefore cognitive abilities and intelligence can help individuals to
learn a second language more effective and faster however there is a low relationship between
communicative competence and intelligence, researchers shows that correlation between
intelligence and communication skills is low.
The research that was undertaken to assess the role of intelligence as measured by standardized ,
group I.Q tests in the learning of a second language. Anglophone students from three language
programmes were evaluated on a battery of French language tests including test of reading,
language usage, listening comprehension, and other personal communication . The sample of
various students based on their IQ’S that is average IQ were selected to represent each program
at each grade level. The results indicated that performance on the reading and usage tests
correlated with IQ level. On the other hand performance on the test of listening comprehension
and interpersonal communication skills did not correlate with IQ level.

Aptitude

Carroll describes aptitude as a stable factor which can not be trained. It separates from
motivation, achievement and intelligence. It is an ability that allow to learn second language and
with less effort. He identified four factors in language aptitude : phonemic coding ability,
grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability and role learning ability.

Aptitude is your natural ability or capacity to learn and it manifests in tendencies and
inclinations. Your aptitudes are the ease you develop your strengths that are either innate or
quickly learned. When we say you have a high aptitude for some skill, it means you excel at
learning and performing that skill.Think of a professional athlete. Almost all professional
athletes have aptitudes for hand-eye coordination and endurance. This is because hand-eye
coordination and endurance are important skills in many activities of athletic development.
Though almost anyone can learn these skills, those who have a natural ability succeed earlier. A
child with excellent hand-eye coordination and endurance will do better at sports. This athletic
child most likely will play and enjoy sports because the skills come to them naturally.This sets
off a feedback loop where the child will be exposed to more athletic rigor. Those that are both
persistent and lucky enough become the professional athletes we see today. Now, of course,
other factors, such as opportunity and coaching, are necessary to become a professional athlete.
Just because someone is born with high levels of hand-eye coordination and endurance doesn’t
mean they are destined to become a professional athlete.

Also, According to Kolmar (2021).Sometimes one task can seem easier to do than another to the
point where it’s almost natural. This is why some people are better than others at certain skills.
Skills  are obviously developed through effort and practice. However, you may find that it’s
easier or harder to develop a skill, depending on your natural inclinations.This inner nature is
your aptitude. It is important to understand where your aptitudes lie because it will help you
understand your strengths and weaknesses. Such knowledge about yourself is the first step
to professional growth. It also allows you to focus your efforts on jobs that complement your
aptitudes or look for ways to improve in areas where you struggle.