COURSE OUTLINE: KALUMBETE

TOPIC 1: SOUTH AFRICA BEFORE FOREIGN INTRUSION

 Peopling of South Africa (People and adaptations)

 Economy and politics

TOPIC 2: THE MERCANTILE ERA

 Early Dutch and Interaction with locals

 Social relations and wars

TOPIC 3: THE MINERAL REVOLUTION

 Significance of Diamond and Gold discoveries

 Politics of minerals control
 Economy after mineral revolutions

TOPIC 4: THE APARTHEID STATE AND OPPOSITION

 The Evolution of Apartheid

 The Apartheid and opposition

TOPIC 5: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL LIBELATION AND DEMOCRACY

 Freedom movement
 Mandela and after
 The current conjunctive – Guess
SOUTH AFRICA BEFORE FOREIGN INTRUSION

A. PEOPLE AND ADAPTATIONS

Before the foreign intrusion, South Africa had been inhabited by the San and Khoi (Thompson,
1990).

 The San and Khoi are together called THE KHOISAN.

 They are related to SANDAWE people of Tanzania in East Africa.
 The history of South goes back to the time when man began to appear especially with the
development of;
- Bipedalism
- Brain capacity
- Living in communities
- Language for communication
- Leaving from the forest

Some evidences especially fossil remains (Australopithecus remains) show that man inhabited
South Africa for about 3.5 million years ago.

Therefore the people indigenous of South Africa before the arrival Whites include the following;

i. The San
ii. The Khoi
iii. The Bantu
I. THE SAN

The San are the indigenous of South Africa and still living in South Africa today. They are
believed to have dominated the area 25-40 thousand years ago.

The San are believed to have living in the Sub-Saharan area and as the time went on, they
were pushed down Southern to Kalahari desert.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE SAN

i. They were hunter-gathered. They obtained their foods. eg, fruits, roots and
vegetables. However, some who lived along the coast engaged in fishing.
ii. They lived in cares. ie case dwellers. They did not have permanent shelters.
 iii. They lived nomadic life shifting from time and place looking for animals to hunt.
The wealthy greatly determined their movements.
iv. They live in small family grownups of 10-50 people. Thus, they live in bands.
v. They did not keep their own animals. Thus, they were not animal keepers.
vi. They did not cultivate crops. This made them more nomadic to seek for their living.
vii. They were Stone Age people who did not use iron tools. They used tools made of
wood, stones and bones.
viii. They did not engage in pottery making, they rather used ostrich egg shells for food
storage especially of liquid.
ix. They did not own properties individually, they owned collectively whether they
obtained and was shared equally.
x. They were physically small in structure, brownish in colour.
xi. They used click language.
xii. They were good stone painters and carvers-rock art.
However, the San still live in Kalahari desert, but they have been absorbed by the
invaders like the Khoi.
II. THE KHOI

The Khoi are the indigenous to South Africa. They are believed to have been originated from
Botswana areas. They spread to the area of South Africa from around 500BC and settled to the
eastern part of the Drankensberg mountains.

FEATURES OF THE KHOI

i. They speak a language very similar to that of San people.

ii. They both pastoralists and hunter-gatherers. They kept animals like sheep, cattle and
goats.
iii. They used late stone tools. ie their tools were made up of stone.
iv. They lived in larger groups compared to the San group.
v. They lived and organized in clan organization.
vi. They owned properties privately eg. Cattle.
vii. They experienced social stratification because of individual ownership of wealth.
viii. They formed chiefdoms among themselves. The chieftain was determined by the
abundant wealthy that one owned.
ix. They inherited properties from one generation to another.
 III. THE BANTU

The Bantu found the San and Khoi as inhabitants of South Africa. The Bantu originated from the
area of Niger delta. From Niger delta, they spread to Congo basin and later on reached East
Africa. This took place from about 1500BC, this is when the Bantu started from migratii from
Eastern Nigeria and Cameroun and it is believed that the Bantu reached the great lakes region
around 1000BCE.

More ever, Bantu continued with their migration southwards. While other Bantu were moving to
eastern Africa, some came from Cameroun into Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe and finally
reached south categories of the Bantu.

The Bantu group included the following categories;

a) Nguni speaking group

b) Sothe-Tswana
c) The venda people

These people migrated from the great lakes region in massive exodus group of people while
others were in small groups.

However, by the 4th A.D, the Bantu had already reached eastern and central Africa. These people
are believed to have migrated from Tanzania crossing the Zambezi. As they moved along, they
carry out with their skills such as pottery making, iron making and cattle keeping. Essentially,
Bantu had already reached Iron Age technology.

FUNDAMENTAL FEATURES OF THE BANTU

i. They were agriculturalists

They cultivated crops like Sorghum, millet and so on; at the same time they practiced
pastoralism hence mixed farmers. Animals kept were sheep, goats and cattle.

ii. They were iron workers

They involved in making iron tools such as hoes, spears and arrows.

iii. They were pottery makers.

Thus, Bantu engaged themselves in pots making used for storing grains and keeping liquid
materials as well as for cooking.

iv. They lived in large communities.

Infact, the Bantu lived in village settlements. It is believed that the villages of Bantu had
more than 15,000 people.
v. They practiced barter trade
Bantu traded among themselves through local trade as well as among the San and Khoi.
They even practiced long distance trade as traded with people around the Eastern west
people especially the Portuguese around 17th C and 18th C. These were the Nguni people
from the North. The Bantu also traded with Shona of central Africa in Zimbabwe as well
as Arabs and Swahili of the east African coast.
vi. They engaged in mining activity eg. Gold

THE SOCIAL ORGANISATION OF THE BANTU

Socially the Bantu people are organized through;

a) The family
The family was the basic unit of social organization, in the family there are
monogamous and polygamous families.
- Monogamous family comprised of a father, single mother and their children.
- Polygamous family comprised of a father, more than one wife (mothers) and
their respective children.
- There are also extended families consisting of father, mother(s), children and
other relatives like uncle, aunts, and grandparents and so on.
b) Patrilineal lineage
- Essentially Bantu people were organized in patrilineal lineage in which in
most cases the children belonged to the father. A few were matrilineal.
- Out of patrilineal, there are clans
c) A clan
- A clan is a collection of number of related families.
- A clan can have as many people as 400 to 40,000.
- Some clans had specific responsibilities example clans responsible for the
organization of religious and initiation ceremonies.
 - Other clans specialized in crafts eg. in Sukumalar there are people called
Walongo who engage themselves in iron smithery-iron smiths.
- Others engage in pottery, wood carrying like Makonde people.
- Other clans specialized in governing other so, the ruling clans are witnessed
here.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE BANTU

Politically, Bantu people were organized in small chiefdoms. An average chiefdom consisted of
four to five villages.

- In chiefdom there were ruling clans-royal clans in which leadership was

hereditary.
- Every chiefdom was led by the chief, thus in South Africa the chiefs are
known’s Nkosi. Those chiefs were chosen from the royal clan.
- Those chiefs were temporal and spiritual leaders ie political and religious
leaders.
- The chiefs administered the chiefdoms as well as dispensing justice.
- The chiefs were powerful and in most cases decisions of chiefs were final.
Everyone in the chiefdom had to obey the chief as well as paying tribute.
IV. EUROPEAN IN SOUTH AFRICA

European historians have been writing that before the intrusion of European in South Africa, the
country was occupied.

Thus, the first Europeans to come in South Africa but did not settle there were Portuguese. In
their way to India, they established the sea route that passed through the cape of South Africa.
The explorer from Portugal who managed to reach the cape of South Africa was Bartholomew
Diaz in 1487. Due to unfavorable climate, he went back home before reaching the far East
Africa.

Another expedition from Portugal was led by Vasco da Gama in 1497/1498. Vasco da Gama
came as far as to the cape and managed to reach Mombasa and finally Calcutta-India.
After Vasco da Gama, the movement from Europe to India becomes the order of the day. In their
way to India, the Portugal managed to construct a number of forts along the coast, the Portugal
engaged in slave trade.

The Portuguese also wanted to control trade which was formerly controlled by Arabs and others.
This situation compelled them to enter competition with other European nations such as the
Dutch.

The Dutch established the company known as the Dutch East Indian Company. This company
was given responsibility by the Dutch government.

The Dutch came in 1649 in the place known as Table Bay, Three years later in 1652, came
another Dutch expedition in South Africa led by JANVAN RIEBEEK. He was sent to establish
at the cape. The station at the cape went to be;

i. Every important centre for trade between India and Portugal.

ii. The centre was for traders to obtain fresh water meat and vegetables.
iii. The centre also could be used for refueling and preparing their ships and navigation
guides.

This station established became the nuclear of colonization of the Dutch in South Africa, from
that station the Dutch started expanding into the interior of South Africa. Those fellows who
came to the cape were settlers who were bought by the company with the support from Dutch
company.

Other Europeans were from France, the people who were known as Huguenots up to 1662. The
Europeans number in South Africa was 75 at the cape and the number went on increasing as the
years came later on they started distributing land among themselves eg. 1708 there were 1441
Europeans and by 1900 there were 17000.

EFFECTS OF THE DUTCH AT THE CAPE OF SOUTH AFRICA

According to Mackinnon (2004) in his work. The making of South Africa; Thompson (1995), in
his work a history of South Africa and UNESCO volume II and IV, General History of Africa,
Dutch settlement at the cape of South Africa had far reaching effects namely;

i. Colonization of the cape by the Dutch.

The establishment of station at the cape in 1652 by Janvan Riebeeck marked the beginning of
colonization of South Africa by the Dutch.

ii. Confiscation of Cattle from African cattle

The Dutch introduced commercial farming which went hand in hand with the great demand of
beef farming.

Cattle were confiscated from indigenous Khoi people for the purpose of meat production.

iii. Enslavement of African indigenous people

- Dutch enslaved Africans so as to produce labour in both domestic and agricultural
activities. At the beginning Africans were not willing to provide slave labour to the
invaders, so the Dutch decided to import slaves from various places such as Dahomey
and Angola. There were slaves who were confiscated from the Portuguese. The Dutch
captured the Portuguese ships, but the demand for slaves increased and started importing
them from west Indies, East Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, Indonesia, India and
Syrinka (cylon). These slaves were intended to produce labour in Wheat plantation and
working in public works such road construction, building of ports and house construction.
- Some slaves also were meant for domestic chores and others for fishing.
- Slaves continued increasing in number, year after year, example in 1708 there were 1258
slaves at the cape, and in 1795 the number reached 18,000.
iv. Land alienation

Dutch confiscated land from the indigenous and gave it to the free Burghers. On the African
land, settlers established commercial farms eg. Wheat and keeping cattle

- The increase of settlers at the cape led to the great demand of land which eventually
caused them to trek towards the interior for acquisition of more land. Thus, African were
made landless.
v. Emergence of new culture in South Africa

The Dutch introduced new culture in South Africa such as new language known Afrikaans as
Boers moved to the interior away from the cape. This language was the result of mixed culture of
the whites and Africans, leading to emergence of mullatoes.

vi. Racial based stratification

This was based on races that is, people were categorized according to the status and colour.

For instance;- Company Officials

Free burghers

Trek Boers

Indigenous Africans, ie San and Khoi who occupied the lower

class

Between the higher and lower classes there occurred another group known as coloured. The
coloured people are the ones born out of mixture of parents. These people were regarded also to
belong to the lower class.

- It is the result of this stratification; whites were regarded as superior hence white
superiority which later developed to Apartheid system that was officialized as a policy in
1948.
- Not only racial superiority was introduced but also racial segregation was consolidated.
- Once the racial segregation developed, whites were more privileged than other groups in
the society, and they started exploiting the blacks.
vii. Emergence of wars between Africans and Boers (Dutch)

The wars were due to land question. The Africans fought to defend their resources such as cattle
and land. Also by 1770, the Kaffir wars emerged, the Boers called the Africans Kaffir which
means unbelievers.

CONFRONTANTIONS BETWEEN THE SAN, KHOI, BANTU AND BOERES-DUTCH.

CONFRONTATION BETWEEN THE SAN AND BOERS

After they had settled at the cape, the Boers started exercising land alienation. The white settlers
started to occupy land that formerly was occupied by the San. In so doing they destroyed San’s
hunting grounds. They took sources of water of San. So, the San tried to evict the Dutch settlers
in their land. The San organized themselves and attacked the settlers, in those attacked they
killed and stole the livestock which belonged to the Dutch settlers.
The San also killed those people who were herding livestock (herdsmen). The San set fire to the
farm houses. When this happened, the settlers revenged.

They organized settlers command units, hold guns and killed many Sans. Almost exterminating

Kalahari region and some parts of Botswana.

THE KHOIKHOI AND DUTCH CONFRONTATION

The relation between the Khoikhoi and the Dutch were relative cordial at the beginning. The
indigenous people initially thought that, Dutch were people passing things started changing when
Dutch started constructing the forts and ports together with growing crops in very large pieces of
land. More and more Europeans came to settle, hence Africans realized that Europeans were
there to stay. That being the case the Africans started to defends themselves and their land.

The Dutch’s attitude towards the Khoikhoi was that, the Khoikhoi were faithless, rubble, dull,
stupid, lazy and stinking. They completed disregarded the indigenous. All these made the
Khoikhoi to fight the Dutch. The Khoikhoi began to attack the Dutch settlers and took cattle and
sheep. They organized themselves in the fighting units. They attack the Dutch settlements and
war was declared between the Khoikhoi and Dutch settlers (free burghers) in 1659.

Initially, in the beginning the Dutch were pushed back to the forts. From that time on wards, the
Dutch started using guns and other military tactics to push the Khoi very far from forts.

In 1660, a peace treaty was signed between the Dutch settlers and the Khoi. The terms in that
peace were not very favourable to the Khoi. These terms of peace treaty were as below;

(a). The settlers allowed the settlers to keep cattle and sheep.

(b). The Khoi were required to recognize the company sovereignty in all areas which were under
the free burghers.

(c). Large piece of land was taken by the Dutch company. Hence, Khoikhoi had lost permanently
their land.

However, the treaty did not clearly state the boundary between the land occupied by the Khoi
and that of the Dutch. Hence, Dutch used that advantage to occupy more and more land. By so
doing the tension between the Dutch and the khoi khoi ended up with the outbreak of another
war in 1673 to 1676; that is, the second war between khoi and Dutch.

During this war, the Dutch settlers defeated the khoikhoi warriors in 1676. That defeat marked
the ended of khoikhoi independence both politically and economically.

With that defeat, the economies and society of the khoi rapidly disintegrated because the
khoikhoi;

-Lost their land

-Lost their Livestock

-Fully became under White domination

-Depended on White settlers economically

THE EFFECTS (CONSEQUENCES) OF THE KHOI AND DUTCH CONFRONTATION

 The khoikhoi becomes laboures

-most of the khoikhoi were forced to become employee of the dutch company as well as
farm laborers and domestic servants.
 Starting point of the Khoikhoi to pay tribute.
When Khoikhoi were defeated, they were forced to pay tribute to the company inform of
cattle and sheep.
 Growth of Dutch expansion.
Dutch expansion in South Africa increased without resistance.
 Growth of social stratification, number of Khoikhoi reduced because of killing from the
war.
 Eruption of disease,-in 1713 to 1715 there was serious outbreak of disease called small
px which brought by whites(Europeans).The indigenous people died as it was rescuer by
them.
 Penetration of khoikhoi to the interior part of south Africa. The Khoikhoi who did not
tolerance from Dutch regime penetrated more and more into the interior of south Africa.
By end and large, in 1700 the independence of Khoikhoi was no longer existing.
Eventually the Dutch come into contract with Bantu people both in the cause of
 expansion, that is, Dutch were expanding northwards while bantu were expanding in
southwest.

BANTU RESISTANCE TO THE DUTCH INVASION

After the Dutch had the conquered the fan and Khoikhoi they went to expanding in the
northeastern part of the cape as far as the fish river.

When they reached those places, they happened to inter into conflicts with the Bantu people
especially Xhosa who were also at the same time moving southern wards.

It should be remembered that the Dutch were agriculturalists, and they intended to move
northwards searching for a suitable land for agriculture and livestock keeping.

The Bantu as well engaged into crop cultivation and animals keeping. They kept moving
southwards for searching arable land for crops production and animals keeping, hence intered
into confrontations with ditches.

CAUSES OF BANTU AND DUTCH CONFRONTATION

 Frontier separating two groups,

-there were no proper land boundaries between that owned by the bantu and that
of the Dutch.
 Cattle raiding
-both Xhosa and Dutch was stealing cattle from the opposing side
 Searching for pasture and arable land.
-both Xhosa and Dutch were expanding in opposite direction for the search of
land for pastures and crop cultivation.
 The Khoi rebellion against Dutch company.
 The weakness of peace treaty signed by the opposition parts. Each party wanted to
be favored by the treaty against the opponents.

Because of the above problems each group wanted to expel the other group from the occupied
land; that is Dutch wanted to remove the Xhosa while Xhosa wanted to do the same. That being
the case there occurred numerous wars between Dutch settlers and Xhosa which include the
following;
 1. The first war began in 1779_1781.

This war was referred by the Dutch as KAFFIR WAR. Kaffir war started as the result of
cattle raid which was carried out by the Boer. The Boer settlers organized cattle raid into
Xhosa territory and in the process of cattle raiding one Xhosa was killed. When the Xhosa
saw that happening, they intended to capture thousands of Boer cattle .Boers also organized
themselves into command units and fought the Xhosa.

2. The second war in 1793

This was the result of the Xhosa crossing the fish river deliberately southwards. In so doing
they reached the area which was occupied by the Dutch.

The Xhosa started grazing on the land of Dutch deliberately. Hence the war outbreak in 1793,
Actually the Boer started by attacking the Bantu in their way to push out the Bantu. The Bantu
counter attacked the Boers and captured the number of cattle from Boers and destroyed farms.
As the result the Boers demanded peace with the Xhosa. Thus, the Boers were forced to
recognize the Bantu occupation.

3. The third war occurred in 1799- 1802 between Boers and Bantu.

This war was initially started by the Khoi people who were working in the Boer farms. This was
brought by the rebellion made by the Khoi against the company.

The Khoi started taking land from the Boers when the Xhosa realized that the Khoi were in
rebellion, they decided to join the Khoi with the intention of expanding Southwards taking it as
an advantage. That ally by Khoi and Xhosa in war enabled them to defeat the large Boer
command units and pushed back the Boers settlement to the Bram toos River.

This alliance did not exist too long since the poor Khoi turned back to the company to seek for
job again. The Khoi left the Xhosa on their own. When this happened Xhosa made peace treaty
with the Boers in 1803.Despite the end of this war, the Xhosa were left to occupy the areas
which had already conquered during the war.

4. The fourth war in 1795.

This war was the result of British occupation of South Africa.

 BRITISH OCCUPATION OF SOUTH AFRICA

In 1789 there occurred a great revolution in Europe and that was French revolution. This
revolution had very many consequences.

One of the consequences is that, the French people wanted to spread the revolution ideas to other
parts of Europe. Thus, the revolution threatened the ruling system. eg the despotic system
(monarchy system) as it spread new ideas such as Freedom, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.

These ideas led to the occurrence of revolution in Netherlands where by the king of Netherlands
asked assistance from British. And it was from that reason that the British came in South Africa
in support of the king of Netherlands in 1795. They stayed at the Cape until 1803 when the peace
treaty known as Amiens in 1802 between the British and the French was signed.

When the British left the cape, they left the cape under the Batavian Republic. The problem came
when the French leader by the name Napoleon Bonaphate roje.

Napolean came with an idea of ruling French, French colonies and the whole Europe. He was a
good commander who was very much feared in Europe. The end of Napoleonic wars was winter
occurred in Russia in Napoleans ambition to rule Europe reached Russia. The rulers who were
left under Batavian Republic unfortunately supported Napolean.

All countries which supported French revolution were regarded as enemies of Britain. Britain
started attacking not only France but also all those countries which supported French including
the Cape colony which was under Batavian Republic. In 1806, the Cape colony was conquered
by the British using 61 battle ships, hence adoption of various measures.

MEASURES TAKEN BY THE BRITAIN TO EXERCISE THEIR RULE AT THEIR

CAPE

 Setting up British administration in 1806. The British implemented this by removing the
Dutch governor and replace with the British governor.
 Introduction of British legal system. Here British laws, Courts system and British judges
were put into practice.
 Introduction of British educational system. Here English language was made a medium
of instruction. They also established schools in the British model (curriculum)
 Encouragement of more British settlers to come at the cape colony.
  Abolition of the slave trade and slavery in 1807.Slave trade was no longer profitable to
British so they decided to abolish it as to get areas for new markets, raw materials,
investment and cheap labour.
 Introduction of economic and social changes. The British made the Cape to be a safe
place for their ship sailed to India. Also they made the Cape to run itself through taxes
paid by people.
 Introduction of registration policy. All slaves had to be registered. No any person was to
be regarded a slave if he or she was not registered.
 Introduction of pass law. Pass law demanded all blacks to carry a pass which showed the
name, tribe where one lived and the name of the employer. It was through system, where
people were forced to go and work for settlers.
 Freeing of the press from censorship. Censorship is the practice of suppressing what is
considered harmful. The efforts made by British privileged settlers because no censor
was done against evil acts to blacks in the mass media.

THE MFECANE / DIFAQANE

What is Mfecane?

Mfecane is a social and political upheaval that occurred in Bantu society in South Africa. It
took place in the 19th c and it was to bring some sort of turmoil in the Bantu society of South
Africa whereby the Ngoni speaking people became dominant over other Bantu groups in
South Africa.

According to Nguni speakers mfecane means crushing or wandering war. According to

Sotho-Tswana in Shillington (1995) Difaqane means Scattering.

CAUSES OF MFECANE

I. Population growth. As population increased, there was naturally the demand for increase
of more and more land for agriculture and cattle keeping. For example among the Nguni
speakers, there were the Xhosa who had the tendency to expand southwards. Thus,
people found themselves struggling to control land for agriculture and cattle keeping.
II. Boer’s settlement in South Africa. Settlement of Boers at the cape of South Africa led to
the collision with the Bantu speaking people due to their tendency to expand northwards
to seek more land for agriculture and pastoralism. The Xhosa Who were also moving
 Southwards for searching of New land for crops cultivation and animals keeping came
into confrontation with the Boers ( Dutch ).
III. The nature of the organization among the Bantu. Bantu were organized in different
groups. For instance; in the first group was that of the Nguni speakers, Xhosa people
were organized in chiefdoms which tended to be relatively small and so many small
chiefdom which created non centralized society for all people that being the case they
tended to quarrel among themselves. They lived by agriculture and pastoralism .
The second group was the Sotho. This also was the Bantu people that lived on Western
margin of Drankensberg. The Sotho lived in large communities.

They lived in groups of more than 10,000 of people Sotho were animal keepers and farmers. The
Sotho people were organized and united. Also the Sotho people had developed the skills of
craftsmanship. This group of Sotho people was more advanced in material culture.

The third group was that of Tswana people who lived on the western parts of Drankensberg who
were also animal keepers and farmers.

The fourth group was of Venda people who lived and occupied the Northern Transvaal so, the
Venda engaged in mining copper and gold, participated in long distance trade and building of
stone house. They traded with the Shona people of the North.

Another group of people were the SHONA people who were living in Zimbabwe. The shona
were also farmers and animal keepers. They were found in the area North of Limpopo river, they
also involved in Ivory collection, extraction of gold and copper as well as stone house building.
Shona were less centralized than the Venda but they were advanced traders and craftsmen.

Moreover, the other group of Bantu speakers’ people in Southern Africa was the TSONGA.
They were found in the little bit North of the Nguni speakers. They were engaging and animal
keepers. They were engaging in long distance trade with the people along the Indian Ocean with
the Coasts among them included Arabs and Portuguese found in Mozambique and Mombasa. It
is this group (TSONGA) that supplied slaves to the Dutch people at cape region.

All these groups found in the Southern Africa were more or less affected by mfecane as all were
struggling to get enough land from agriculture and pastures.

iv. Zulu expansionist policy.

Mfecane was initiated by one of the Nguni speaking people known as Zulu people. In the Zulu
people there were ruler knowns as DINGISWAYO. He was the ruler of Zulu people from 1790’ s,
there started revolutions culminated the so called Mfecane. Dingiswayo organized a strong
society through the introduction of standing army and grouping people into age regiments
(battalions). In Bantu there were age grades but Dingiswayo changed them into age regiments
afterwards. He used the starding army to force the other states into one chief. This regimental
system was somehow popular among the Zulu and very many people joined the regiments.

However Dingiswayo died in 1816 but he had already established a strong army which was to
enable to conquer other neighboring states into one state. Dingiswayo was succeeded by Tshaka
(CHAKA).

Shaka was one of the sons of the tributary of chief Dingiswayo, he was the son of
SENZAGAKOMA.

Shaka was a son out of wedlock. In his early youth Shaka joined one of the Dingiswayo age
regiments and very soon Shaka became very powerful and greatly impressed Dingiswayo. He
later on became the commander of Dingiswayo age regiment.

When Dingiswayo side, Shaka became the leader after him and paramount chief of Zulu he
initiated much legalized and very tough military training so that he could have very good trained
armies.

CHAKA’S MILITARY TACTICS

When Chaka became paramount chief of Zulu he initiated the following military tactics;

i. Introduction of short stabbing spear.

He discouraged the soldiers to throw a spear, because after if had been thrown, it was no longer
held back. Initially the spears were long used to throw at the enemies.

ii. Introduction of the cow horn formation tactics.

Here there was the introduction of encircling the enemies commonly known as cow horn
formation but not facing directly the enemies.

iv. Establishments of barracks.

Shaka’s soldiers were made to live in barracks. Thus, soldiers were not allowed to marry,
marriage was allowed to any soldier after long military services. The male soldier was not
allowed to marry a wife from barracks army that was used to conquer neighbouring state.

iv. Introduction of hand combat.

The hand combat aimed at preventing soldiers against opponent’s weapons.

v. Use of bare footed soldiers in the battle field.

During Shaka’s rule, several changes occurred in Zulu society including. Mixing people from
different communities and putting them in one age- regiments. The aim of this was to try and do
away all sorts of problems by making them all royal out of this, Shaka made a very strong and
royal nation. Advancing in the society through military If one never joined an army, he could not
advance in the society. Using of Zulu language by all people. Shaka wanted all people to use
Zulu language including the conquered.

However, Shaka controlled everything in the Zulu state and he was very ruthless. He did not
entertain descent. All these had the following results;

i. Conquering of many neighboring societies/states. The Zulu states conquered many

surrounding states leading to the emergence of powerful Zulu state/nation.
ii. Emergence of other states. eg Swazi nation, Basulu land, Lesotho etc.

It should be born in mind that, nations came out as the result of Shaka was very ruthless. They
escaped from Shaka rule. A good example of people who ran away from Shaka were;

A. MZILIKAZI, who was the leader of Ndebele, these Ndebele were Nguni speakers.
Mzilikazi and his people moved to Mashona land, they managed to establish themselves
in the place popularity known as MATEBELE LAND. Mzilikazi made himself a king of
Matebele and when he died his son called LOBENGULA took over 1868.
B. SOSHANGANE who was a person of Ndwande tribe belonged the Gaza elan.

Soshangane, also escaped from Shaka and moved into Mozambique and when reached
Mozambique they managed to conquer TSONGA people and established themselves under Gaza
empire, he died in 1828.
 C. NDUNGUNYA ran away from Shaka by leading the Swazi. These people while running
from Shaka, they quickly learnt the tactics from Shaka and managed to establish
themselves as their nation from Shaka. Ndungunya belonged the clan which was known
as the Dlamini clan. He was very clever that he managed to form a council of chiefs the
situation which made people to like him. In 1815 Ndungunya died and king SOBHUZA
I, his son took power until 1838 when king MSWATI I led the Swazi.
D. NGONI people also ran away from Chaka northwards to Mozambique. One of the Nguni
groups was led by ZWANGENDABA, that managed to reach southern and central
Tanzania. Even today there are number of Ngoni people in different parts of Tanzania.

THE GREAT BOER TREK

What is great Boer Trek?

Boer Trek was the movement of the Boers away from the British control at the cape.

Or

Boer Trek was the process of Boers expansion from the cape colony to NATAL. It was the way
of Boer movement from the cape to other parts of south. The Boers called it “The Great Trek”.

The Boer Trek took place from 1830s to 1849s. The Boers who trekked away from the cape
colony were called voor trekkers

The voor trekkers were moving northwards crossing vaal river. They settled at Natal (Zulu
Transvaal) and declared these states republics.

The prominent leaders of the Boer Trek were Liebenberg, Andries Pretorius, Piet Relief, and
Louis Trigardt.

Why Boer trekked from the cape region to the interior of South Africa?

i. Change from commercial sedentary agriculture to subsistence pastoral farming. As the Boers
were trekking from the cape to the interior, they adopted economic activities which were
formerly done by Africans such as Khoi, that is pastoralism
They went abandoning commercial agriculture and therefore were more and more becoming
subsistant pastoralist.
 By adopting nomadic ways of life, Boers started trekking northward trying to occupy the area
on the eastern part of Drankensberg. Instead of moving eastern ward they met with the Xhosa,
they changed the direction and moved westwards to avoid Xhosa.
ii. The British occupation at the cape colony.
- British occupation at the cape started from 1806 but specific in 1815.
- British occupation had many implications not only to Dutch but also to others.

For instance;

 Dutch regarded the British as foreigners and did not want to be ruled by them. Hence
started moving away from the British. The aim was to try to establish other Dutch
Republics into the interior and exercising their control.
 British introduced the system of land registration that is, buying and fencing the land.
So, the Dutch had to move to other open spaces.
 British forced the Boers to free their slaves eg. Khoikhoi. This Campaign would cause
shortage of labour to Boers, hence Boers decided to move with their slaves away from
British domination. The movement of Boers with their slaves was oiled by the racism.
ie Boers believed to be the chosen race, so non whites were to be slaves and labourers
of the whites.

IMPACT OF BOER TREK

1. Africans became labourers.

When the African land and cattle were confiscated by both Boers and British, Africans remained
landless as well as property less leading them to mere labourers

2. Growth of hostility between Boers and Africa.

The conflict emerged in the sense that, Boers continued enslaving Africans after taking by force
their land and cattle.

3. Growth of hostility between Boers and British.

When the British captured cape colony, they introduced their system of administration such as
language, judiciary, fund and land registration contrary to the interests of Boers.
4. African kingdoms were severely defeated eg. Zulu kingdom
5. Creation of Boers Republics eg. Natal, Orange Free states and Transvaal.
6. Deaths
Number of trekkers and Africans died on their course of movement.

MINERAL REVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA

Mineral revolution means discovery of mineral in South Africa particularly diamonds and gold.
It is quit not true to say that gold was discovered by the whites simply because from the early
before the whites the indigenous were involving in mining activities.

In 1867 diamond were discovered at Kimberley by whites, and gold were discovered on 1886
around wattersland.

THE SITUATION BEFORE MINERAL DISCOVERY

In both cape colony and Natal (British colonies) as well as Transvaal colonized later. These two
colonies had plural society that is both provinces there were several racial groups eg. there were
white settles and some Khoi as well as the remnants of the san. There were also the Bantu
speakers which included Xhosa.

By 1860s, some Indians were also settled in those areas that were brought as labourers in
sugarcane plantations.

In the cape colony there were 220,000. European plantations, in Natal there were 20,000 whites.
Although there were minorities in South Africa, they had very powerful influence on the
economy of those places. This gave some sort of racial superiority over other racial groups. This
is because the British had introduced their own administrative system which controlled both
local and central government.

However, Natal became the self government in 1893. Before that, it was under control of the
British, the cape colony and Natal province were basically agricultural areas. This is because
more of the European settlers and the indigenous, Africans engaged in agriculture and
pastoralism. They produced wheat, wine, meat and in some areas there was a plenty of wool
from the sheep that were kept in the area.

Essentially, production of all these were for domestic use although some was for export eg. by
1862, the cape alone was exporting 25 million pound of wool per annum.
In Natal before mineral revolution the British colonialists had introduced sugarcane growing.
Because of sugarcane production, indigenous were imported in Natal and worked in those
sugarcane plantation. Natal had before the mineral revolution became the leading producer of
sugar in South Africa.

In both Natal and the cape British colonies, the British had already introduced cash economy in
her colonies. This means the use of money. This took place before the mineral revolution. The
cape colony for instance had about 23 commercial banks by the time of mineral revolution.

Another thing that was taking place in the British colonies was urbanization process that is there
emerged urban centers in those British colonies such as Natal and cape. Such urban centers
included Durban and Cape Town. There were already developing harbours which had port deg.
Cape town, Durban and port of Elizabeth. This existed before mineral revolution, the harbours
were very essential as they facilitated importation and exportation of manufactures goods and
raw materials in and out South Africa respectively. With those arguments above one can say that,
there were already established commercial links with other people in Europe.

The prime means of transportation in the interior or inland was pottage,-that is, by means of
human beings. eg the use of head, back and others. Therefore there were also horse and donkeys
as means of transportation at that time there were hardly any roads in South Africa, it happened
there were small trucks for horse. There were no railways, no industries. All manufactured goods
consumed in all colonies were manufactured from Europe.

Agriculture was a principal activity in South Africa. In both colonies there occurred a very
severe drought which emerged in 1865 to 1866 which normally caused famine, hence many
people died. In other areas as the result of Boer Trek, they tried to establish their republic apart
from that occupied earlier, and conquered areas which had occupied by indigenous.

Before mineral revolution, Boers had established Boer republics which included Transvaal,
Orange Free State and so on. The Boers as the result of trekking; However these republics had
still with no clear boundaries in the sense that, they were still fighting the process in which the
indigenous as a result of that, they were still many African communities that did not recognize
the regiments of the Boers over the indigenous around them.

It should be remembered that, the Boers had established command units which had to invade the
indigenous settlements .Before mineral revolution, these republics of the Boers were not stable
because of constant attacks by the indigenous and the British. The system of government in Boer
republics were not as efficiency as those of the British. One of the factors troubled those people
was that the organization based on command units which were ineffective and even failed to
collect taxes hence unable to finance their administration as well as military expenditures simply
because were not well organized. By the time of mineral revolution, the two Boers republics
were more bankrupts. Another thing faced Boers Republics was the constant internal conflicts,
that is, the Boer Republic were not very much united because of the establishment of command
unit in which each one tried its best to acquire more power over the other.

THE SITUATION IN BOER REPUBLICS

 Although the Boer establishment the free independent republics they made some resistances
from Africa, thus their frontiers were not clearly defined and were disturbed.
 The Boer tended to depend on command organization units which were not well established.
 The Boer did not correct enough tax to finance the administration as well as military
expenditures.
 At the same time Boer Republics had many conflicts with Africans especially in land
ownership .There were also in constant force to be order the British colonization.
 In the economic fields, the two Boer republics compared to the British colonies, were
economically backwards and depended on pastolalism which was not productive. The land
they claimed was not fully utilized. The land laid idle almost 10% of the land out under the
Boers was not utilized. This created an absentee landlord which was very prominent. This did
not help much in production, hence low productivity.

Because of these Boers owned land without utilizing, all these land owners allowed Africans to
Squat on the land. African Squatters were allowed to cultivate and graze the livestock under
conditions of by being providing their labour to their landlords or were to pay rent in kind in
both.

However, because of Boers had claimed land, lacked sufficient capital to develop land and
machinery for agriculture; Therefore productivity was very inadequate.

CHANGES BROUGHT AFTER THE DISCOVERY OF MINERALS IN SOUTH

AFRICA
According to Leonard Thompson and Landmines the consequences of mineral revolution in
South Africa include the following;

i. Attraction of Europeans from different parts of Europe, America and Australia to

come to South Africa. All these had to come to South Africa to get wealth over there.
Hence whites conquered Africans in South Africa.
ii. Attraction of Africans from different parts of Africa to South Africa so as to seek for
employment in mining.
iii. Incorporation of Africans into the European capitalist economy.
iv. Introduction of forced labour. Africans in South Africa were forced to supply cheap
labour in European owned mining sites.
v. Emergence of big towns (urbanization). Different towns and cities emerged as the
result of minerals discovery in South Africa such as Johannesburg, Pretoria etc.
vi. Emergence of competition among diamond and gold prospects. Good example of
such prospects who competed in mining were Cecil Rhodes and Afred Bites. Hence
creation big mining companies eg. De Boers company which currently controls the
white diamonds market.
vii. South Africa became the major producer of the money form of value. Thus, South
Africa became the main source of wealth through money form of value obtained from
minerals such as gold.
viii. Acceleration of agricultural production. Commodities for consumption in the mining
were highly needed in order to meet the demand of labourers. Hence growth
agriculture.
ix. Construction of infrastructures eg. Roads and railways for the purpose of transporting
mine officials, minerals and labourers.
x. Emergence of heavy industries in South Africa ie. Mining industries grew in all
mining sites.
xi. Labour condition for Africans became very difficult due to poor payment.
xii. Emergence of apartheid policy. Africans (blacks) were segregated in all social aspects
of life.
Africans were restricted from land purchase through land Act of 1913, creation of
Bantustants ie. Africans had to live in their own separate areas where social services
lacked, good jobs were only made available for whites and manual works for
Africans.
 xiii. Improvement of Banking facilities in South Africa.
xiv. Outbreak of Anglo Boer war eg. 1880s wars were attributed with mining activities.
xv. The value of land in mineral areas became very high; farms were sold at very
exorbitant prices.

THE ECONOMY OF SOUTH AFRICA AFTER MINERAL DISCOVERY

PROCESS OF INDUSTRIALISATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

Mining Industry; From 19thc diamond and gold were discovered in South Africa by the whites.
Discovery of minerals played an imported role in the economy of South Africa. eg. when the
Union of South Africa was established in 1910, diamond production as well as marketing of
diamond was monopolized by Boer consolidated. By 1920 De Boer already was controlling
diamond mining in Namibia, Angola and it was also to control diamond in Tanzania and
Botswana. Gold on the other hand became far more important than diamonds in South Africa. it
became a key for development of South Africa’s economy especially in 20 th century. For
instance, by the time the union of South Africa was formed, already gold was accounting more
than 50% of the Southern African export.

In 1930s South Africa experienced a boom in production of gold and it continued until 1960s, for
example between 1933 and 1939 the price of gold increased by 20% and the value of annual gold
sales grew from E 50 million to E 99 million. By 1939 gold accounted for 75% of all South
Africa export, this means gold during the time was a key of South Africa economy.

Apart from diamond and gold other minerals were discovered such as Coal and Uranium. These
two minerals were very vital particularly in Iron and steel industry. Coal also played a vital role
in production oil. Thus, discovery of coal stimulated the development of other industries eg
Petrol chemical industries and Iron and Steel industries. The production of Uranium was to be
very important in the nuclear energy production. South Africa is a nuclear power for domestic
and industrial use.

THE EFFECTS OF MINING INDUSTRY

The mining industry had far reaching effects in South Africa namely;

i. It led to the development of elaborate transport particularly after British colonization.

 - Transport systems such as railways, roads and harbours were highly
developed.
- With this foreign technology, capital and expertise were attracted to South
Africa.
ii. It generated for South African government substantial revenue in form of taxes and
license.

Thus, government collected more revenue for national development.

iii. It created employment opportunities.

European and other African migrants including the indigenous of South Africa secured
employment opportunities in mining industry.

iv. It provided local capital in form of mining surplus.

v. It stimulated industrialization eg. Coal, gold, diamond and uranium mining industries.
vi. It led to the growth of towns eg. Pretoria, Johannesburg etc.

THE PROCESS OF INDUSTRIALISATION

Before the discovery of mineral and the beginning of mining in large scale, South Africa was an
agricultural country. Both indigenous Africans and Whites engaged in agriculture which was
peasantry oriented. Thus, the economy of South Africa at that time was backward, the people
produced for subsistence (consumption) and not for sale. It also depended on pastoralism.

South Africa also depended entirely on the importation of manufactured goods from Europe. But
after the discovery minerals, South Africa changed from relying on agricultural production to
industrial production. Therefore we all know that if there is any industrialized country in Africa
that is South Africa.

From the 1950s, industrial manufacture had overtaken both mining and agriculture. It should be
remembered that South Africa became industrialized as the result mining and the role of South
African states.

HOW DID MINING CONTRIBUTE TO THE INDUSTRIALISATION OF SOUTH

AFRICA?

Mining played a vital role towards industrialization of South Africa as below;

 i. Mining created demand for mining equipment eg, Machinery, at the beginning the
machinery were imported but later on machinery were manufactured internally.

Slowly workshops were initiated and these workshops were initially for maintaining the
machinery, but gradually these workshops for repairing were slowly and transformed into
manufacturing of machinery equipment. These workshops became the basis of engineering
industrial development.

ii. Mining in gold and diamonds were accompanied by growth of urbanization.

These towns generated the high demand for consumer goods such as shoes, clothes, building
materials and so forth. Hence industrialization was unavoidable. These consumer goods initially
were imported from abroad, but with the increase in consumer goods some people decided to
establish light industries for example textile industries, brewering beers and others. Hence,
creation of import substitution industries leading to emergence of industrialization.

iii. The role of the government of South Africa; this was so after the experiences of the
world wars I & II. These wars created severe situation or consequences in the
economy of many countries including South Africa.
iv. To solve the problem South Africa government had to support secondly
industrialization in South Africa.

Before that industrialization was in the hands of a few private companies. This created
employment opportunities, out of this, also South African government came out with the idea of
becoming self reliant in the weapon of manufacturing. The government was also to protect the
local industry by imposing restrictions on imported goods and encouraging local
industrialization. Thus, initial industrialization must involve the protection of the infant
industries from external competition.

The government also introduced parastatal organization eg. The Board of Trade and industry was
established, iron and steel cooperation was established in 1928, and industrial development
cooperation was set up in 1941. These parastatals organization enabled South Africa to develop
iron and steel production. It enabled the petro-chemical industry to develop. Also South Africa
developed nuclear energy as well as other military related industry. South African government
also attracted foreign capital investment and guarantying them cheap African labour. As the
result of that cheap labour industrialization took place in South Africa.
 AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA

Formerly South African agricultural industry was backward, but slowly agriculture (in S.
Africa) was transformed from subsistence agriculture to capitalist farming/large scale farming.
But such agricultural development contained largely in white agriculture. This transformation did
not take place among African population.

Now what happened?

This transformation of agriculture occurred as a result of mining and town development (in what
ways?) These mining and towns created bigger markets for agricultural products. Demands for
food increased etc, because of those white farmers took advantage on this by producing more
vegetables, milk etc. They were endured with reliable market for these products such as maize
was mainly produced for black Africans but vegetable were for whites. Maize was produced by
whites not for consumption but for sale in which they generated high profits. So maize was
produced as a business.

Another thing facilitated agricultural advancement was development of railway and other means
of transportation. This enabled the shifting from subsistence to commercial production.

How transformation essential?

It opened up the countryside; the transformation did open up the countryside thus farmers were
not isolated as they could easily transport their products.

The government made sure that transport was cheap and reliable and by creating opportunities
for exporting agricultural commodities eg. maize and wool and so allowing while the settlers to
recneit labours from any part of the country.

How did the government facilitate development of commercial agriculture?

The government facilitated the development of commercial agriculture in the following

ways;

i. By protesting white farmers from competition of Africans. They were protected by

the introduction of land Act of 1913, this law denied African areas, only 13% of the
land was left for Africans not favourable for agriculture and only 13% of land was
allowed to Africans and 87% was distributed among whites. This land was favourable
 for agriculture and pastoralism. The land also prohibited squatting –no squatting was
allowed. At the same time Africans were prohibited to grow cash crops eg. maize.
They were left with only one alternative which was labour.
ii. Imposing tarrifs on imported food. This was meant that food would not be imported
from outside. And by so doing the government reduced competition from outside,
instead food was to be produced internally.
iii. The government also provided credits to white settler farmers. In order to that, the
government established the so called land Bank, this was to facilitate the farmers so
as to provide them with credits.
- The Land Bank was established in 1912 and enabled people to borrow money
for modernizing their farmers
- They would build dams and purchase fertilizers.
- They would also manage to buy machinery and the credit was only given to
which farmers and not Africans.
iv. The government exempted the white farmers from paying tax.
v. The government provided subsidies to white farmers.
vi. The government provides extension services such as agricultural experts, modern
seeds provision and others.
vii. The govern made the availability of training and research institutes.
viii. The government established produce and marketing cooperatives.
- They were initiated so as to facilitate marketing and distribution. Such
cooperatives were perishable products, export board established in 1926, dairy
industry control board established in 1930. These were meant to control the
quality of the products produced.
ix. The government took control of Pests and insects, providing pesticides and insect
sides and vaccination for diseases control. For the diseased animals were guaranteed
compulsory cattle dipping, soil conservation methods and above all a government
played a major role to price stabilization.
x. The government introduced mechanization for ensuring the farmers to use
mechanized methods in agriculture where deep land machinery was introduced. eg
the use of tractors, combined harvesters and others.
However, as the result of all these measures farming in South Africa was undermined on the side
of Africans with the land Act of 1913, Africans were given unfavorable land for agriculture.
They were deprived from their land.

- Africans furthermore were crowded in native reserves and these reserves

constitute only 13% of the land. This resulted to the occurrence of serious
overcrowding because of that overcrowding there was a lot of overstocking
since they were livestock keepers.
- And with overstocking the land was deteriorated.
- As the result of all these above, the Africans were forced to seek for
employment out in white farmers-farms and mining. That labour was
essentially for men. Thus it was African men who sought jobs in that farms
and mining.
- Behind women and children were left to engage in production of food. Thus
African agriculture suffered severely eventually under development.
- Africans were not given any assistance from the government eg, they were not
provided with credits did not ask to purchase inputs eg. Machinery.
- They were made dependents on the white men in food production.

THE ROLE OF AFRICAN LABOUR IN AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIALISATION IN

THE ECONOMY OF SOUTH AFRICA

African labour played the vital role in the agricultural industrialization in the economy of South
Africa, these included;

I. Development of migrant labour, is the system in which there was occurred an influx
of African workers from different ports of Africa and outside Africa going to work in
mining and large whites plantations as well as in industries. These migrant labours
were paid low wages which can be called subsistence wages.
II. The migrants laborered were hired on contract terms. This contract lasted from 6
months to 18 months.
III. Migrant labourers were forced to live in dormitories of low quality. The dormitories
were set up along ethnic compounds.
IV. The purpose of making them live in dormitories was just to minimize costs.
 V. The migrant labourers were not given pension, educational facilities, health facilities
and recreational facilities. Because of all these conditions, migrants did not settle
there too long.
VI. The migrant labourers were not allowed to organize for their demand for their rights
eg. Rights for high wages, better living condition. On the other hand whites were
allowed to form trade unions.

IMPACTS OF MIGRANT LABOURERS.

i. Women were left behind by their husbands; the women provided almost 80% in
agricultural production. As a result of that there occurred demographic disequilibrium
that is the balance between women and men was tilted.
ii. In mining and plantations there were many men with little women, thus led to the
occurrence of prostitution. This is because men had to compete for a few women
while in the rural areas there were many women with few men and finally Polygamy.
All these resulted to the occurrence of concubinage and single parenthood.
iii. Encouragement of alcoholism
iv. Growth of crimes in South Africa and well violence.
v. Migrant labour led to the economic development in South Africa simply because it
was migrant labour which had to work in mining, large plantation and industries.
vi. Migrant labour drained African labour and destroyed the African traditional ways of
life. African life was greatly undermined, some men had to stay long time away from
the wives the situation which led to the separation of marriages.

THE APARTHEID STATE AND OPPOSITION

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF APARTHEID SYSTEM IN SOUTH AFRICA.

Apartheid means keeping races apart (Thompson 1990)

Or – Is the separation of people on the basic colour.

Or – Is the form of racism which is unique and institutionalized in South Africa.

The Boers themselves called apartheid as a separate development. This separate development of
different racial groups.
In South Africa, there were Africans, Boers from Netherland, the British and later on the mixture
of those above produced the so called COROUREDS, Asians also were there.

-The basis of apartheid policy was the belief by the Boers that South Africa had different racial
groups and these racial groups different from each other in various ways. Example they differed
in culture and they differed in language etc. Thus because of differences each group should
develop along its own way.

-Each group had it own history; because of that different history each group should develop
separately.

-Apartheid policy was officially declared in 1948 by F.D Malan.

Racial segregation in every aspect including in the government was also practiced in political
participation. In such segregation the whites regarded themselves as a superior race.

The bases of racial segregation were;

i. Belief that whites were chosen people from the Calvinist church elect people of God
(Boer) who were chosen by God to play a specific role in South Africa. The
Africaners believed in racial inclusively that Africans are inherently descendents of
Ham one of Noah’s son.
ii. The whites should be kept pore, they should not contaminated with Africans. Because
of such belief the whites had to take deliberate measure to consolidate the racial
segregation.

THE LAWS PUT INTO PRACTICE IN APARTHEID SYSTEM.

In 1913 the government of South Africa passed the so called the land Act 7, 1913 and another
one enacted in 1936.

In the land Act of 1913, Africans were given 13% of land to live on which was unfavourable for
agriculture. While on the other side 87% were given to the whites. From 1948, they put into
practice of racial segregation.

In 1950, there was the population and registration Act, the government which was under the
Boers enacted that law.
According to this law, all South Africans were recognized into three categories which were

I. White - Europeans
II. Black – Africans
III. Coloured – people born out of intermarriage and other Asians and Indians.

This registration was done by Home affair Ministry in the country. All blacks were required by
that law to carry passbooks while others were not. That passbook contained the finger print ie
photo of his/hers and any information on the access of that person black and it an offence to go
to the white settlement.

In 1951 the government enacted the so called the Bantu Authorities Act.

By this Act the blacks were pushed into African reserves and these reserves became to be known
as Bantu house lands.

- The Bantu house lands were;

I. The Transkei.
II. Bophuttasthwans
III. Venda
IV. Coskei
V. Kwa zulu
VI. Kwa Ngwane
VII. So Shengane
VIII. Lebowa
IX. Kwa Ndebele
X. Qwa Qwa.

These houselands as it worked were called independent houselands. Each African in South
Africa was assigned into one of these houselands depending on his/her origin record.

As a result of this law, all political rights including voting which an African has were restricted
houselands and by belonging in one of houseland Africa became. Africans lost citizenship of
South Africa of that houseland that means he/she lost citizen ship of South Africa…….

- It was not allowed to move around without a passport.

- By this Act, Africans could not involve themselves in parliament and they were required to
remain in their houselands.

- 1953, another law was launched known as the public safety Act and in the same year criminal
law amendment Act was enacted.

- These laws empowered the South African government to declare the state of emergence when it
thought so when there is any state of emergency the government could take any measures. So it
became an offence even to protest on any law or demonstrating in the support of any law and one
has to be subjected to the severe punishment eg. fine imprisonment even being canned.

- As result of these laws, 1960 there occurred the sharpville Masscre when the Africans refused
to carry the passports and got declared any state of emergence in which many were short to death
and many were imprisoned. This Sharpville Masscre lasted in 1966, very many people ended in
prison.

- Another Act was enacted known as prohibition of mixed marriages and immovability Act.
According to these laws it was forbidden for people of different races to marry specifically
whites and Blacks. It was an offence to marry the white to Black so as to put the so called purity
even in becoming friends it was also an offence too.

- In 1953, there enacted another law called the Bantu Education Act. For Africans, it was to be
special education which they deserved to get. This was a kind of education in which Africans
were taught before the arrival of whites, South Africa was unoccupied.

- This educational system was deliberately introduced so as to make Africans inferior to the
white’s superiority. A lot of money was given to the white’s superiority. A lot of money was
given to the white minority while a little money was given/provided to African majority schools.

- Blacks received poor services with the intention to delay the Africa child access to high quality
education.

- Another law was called preservation of separate Amenities Act. Under this law racial
segregation was imposed on the use of different amenities for example, cinema Halls, all
facilities shops etc. The blacks were not allowed for instance to go to the shop of whites and vice
versa. Thus, it was an offence for an African to be seen in Amenities which werereserved for
whites only. Blacks for the Africans and whites for the Europeans (whites).
- The Bantu investment cooperation Act of 1959. This was another law that prohibited the
creation of financial, commercial and industrial schemes designed for blacks.

- Extension of University Education Act of 1959. This Act put an end of to black students
attending white University eg. Cape town and Witwatersrand Universities.

- Promotion of Bantu self government Act of 1959. This Act classified black people into eight
ethic groups. Each group had a commission general whose task was to develop the homeland
which eventually that homeland should develop self independent government but citizenship of
their nation was taken by whites.

- The terrorism Act of 1967. According to this Act any person involving in political parties was
called a terrorist. Only suspection was taken as evidence for being detained. It also established
Boss that is, Bureau of state security. This Bureau was responsible for internal security in South
Africa by investigating, shouting etc.

- Bantu Homeland citizens Act of 1970. This Act forced all blacks become homeland citizens
that responded their ethnic group, for instance a black but a zulu had to go to the zulu homeland
etc. these people were forced to live in homelands regardless their will and their South African
citizenship was removed and got citizenship of homeland.

MANIFESTATIONS OF APARTHEID IN SOUTH AFRICA

i. Repression of blacks. eg, No freedom of speech and movement.

ii. Torture and arrest of blacks
iii. Frequent wars, that is blacks usually opposed racial segregation both peaceful and
violent means.
iv. Death. ie, more Africans were killed eg. During Sharpeville Masscre of 1960 and the
Soweto Masscre of 1976.
v. Clamping down of trade unions and nationalist movements eg. All workers unions,
political parties and any form of anti-apartheid movements were banned.
vi. Growth of enemity between Africans and whites. That s because white minority ruled
against the will of black majority.
vii. Impoverishment of Africans; Africans became poor since they were landless by the
whites.
 viii. Africans became labouerers; Africans had nothing to own except their labour power
to sell in white settler’s plantations and mines.
ix. Stagnation of both social and economic development to Africans; the stagnation of
development to Africans in South was due to the fact that the white minority had
owned both economic and social ventures.

THE APARTHEID AND OPPOSITION

(THE FALL OF APARTHEID IN SOUTH AFRICA)

According to Thompson (1990), Barber (1999), Mackinnon (2004) and Worden

(2000) apartheid policy in South Africa began declining in 1970s and completely disintergrated
in 1994 because of the following factors;

1. The emergence of urban and industrial protests. eg Blood Soweto uprising in 1976, hence
demand for creation of a single non-racial state.
2. Opposition from churches; church leaders could openly oppose apartheid political system
in South Africa. They preached that God created all human being equally and thus
segregation is a sin against God.
3. The Growth of manufacturing industries needed both skilled and semi-skilled labourers.
Thus, apartheid was no longer appropriate to the needs of the industrialized nation like
South Africa.
4. Frequent labour and urban protests; frequent protests proved that apartheid was not
sufficient method of administration. African labourers protested frequently due to falling
wages and bad working conditions,
5. Collapse of Bantunization policy; Africans kept on moving from their home lands to
town centres to search for employment. Hence mixed races brought about decline in
apartheid.
6. The rise of militant trade union eg, such unions increased membership after recognizing
the way towards collective bargaining against apartheid practices.
7. The role played Fredrick De clerk; Declerk who was elected the president of the South
Africa by white minority made great charges in bringing about the end of apartheid eg. in
1989 and 1997 released a number of political prisoners including Nalson Mandela. He
then re opened democratic doors by unbanning the nationalist movements.
 8. The collapse of Portuguese colonialism; when Portuguese colonies such as Mozambique
and Angola attained political independence of Zimbabwe from British colonial rule in
1980 made impossible for the white oppressive regime to forge alliance outside South
Africa.
9. The establishment multilateral companies had the elements of mixed races by doing away
apartheid system.
10. Imposition of logical sanction; Sanctions were imposed to the Boers against apartheid
from OAU, front line states and UNO-basing on financial and trade.

By conclusion, apartheid regime completely crumbled in 1994 and majority black rule was
achieved under Nelson Mandela leading African National union (ANC) as the political party,
after winning the first democratic elections.
NATIONALISM NATIONAL LIBERATION AND DEMOCRACY

FREEDOM MOVEMENTS

Freedom movement developed in South Africa when Africans realized themselves as a different
group from other groups in South Africa because of having common culture they developed a
feeling of togetherness.

THE BASIS OF AFRICANERS FEELING OF NATIONALISM

i) The Calvinist doctrines

In this doctrine, they regarded themselves as the chosen people who are different from other
groups. Thus, the Dutch reformed church becomes a pillar.

ii) The Afrikaners believed in racial exclusiveness that is, the Afrikaners believed in inequality
of races. According to the Afrikaans were inherently inferior to the whites. Thus they wanted
to preserve their identity and purity against contamination from other races.
iii) Repulicanisation
This is a feeling that one must true himself this is a feeling that one must rule himself/ herself
independently in the established republic. The Afrikaners from the beginning did not want to
be under British rule. Thus they moved away from the British rule went to established their
republics called the Transvaal and orange free states in central part of south Africa.
 Ever since they established their republics in 1940s and 1950s republicrepublicanisation
become the part and parcel of the Afrikaners’ culture indeed, the Africans wanted to be free
and establish their rule in republics away from British colonial rule.
OBJECTIVES OF AFRIKANERS’
i) To control British imperialism in south Africa the initial and the basic cause was to drive
them away so that south Africa would not be under British rule, by containing the
Afrikaners could be independent from British rule
ii) To achieve economic emancipation by the Afrikaners ie. The economics of South Africa
would be in the hands of Afrikaners. They wanted to set up their own enterprises such as
banks, insurance. Etc. and not for the British or Africans.
iii) Top gain complete political independence or control; of South African state. Once the South
African state become complete under them, this could protect afrikaaners’ interest and
aspirations could be fostered.
iv) To, maintain a separated and distinguish linguistic and cultural identity in South Africa.
v) However the Afrikaners wanted to be totally different from other races in terms of language
and culture. This was aimed at promoting Africans language and literature. The formation of
secret brotherhood organization particular what became known as Afrikaners – Broader
band which means brotherhood. In fact, Afrikaners wanted to have exclusive organization
such as school, churches, cooperatives and trade unions. These organizations and
institutions strengthened the growth of Africanism. It is where even political parties were for
the where even political parties were for the Boers only eg. National party.

AFRICAN NATIONALISM

African nationalism in south Africa was divided into two phases namely ;

i) Period before 1945

ii) Period after 1945
I. PERIOD, BEFORE 1945

According to Longman English dictionary nationalism is the desire by group of people of the
same or origin, language to form an independent country.
African nationalism has been used in very broad way. For example, African nationalism in South
Africa can be seen as all political action and ideological elements to improve the status the use
and position of Africans in the emerging society imposed by white intrusion.

DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM BETWEEN 1945

African nationalism in South Africa developed because of the following factors.

i) Imposition of white rule in South Africa, ie. Boers and British rules.
ii) The imposition of discriminatory laws ie, laws which discriminated Africans. Thus
nationalism was crucial as the reaction again such discriminative laws.
iii) Harsh treated which the Africans were subjected to eg. Forced labour whipping.
iv) The lord act of 1913 that deprived African from their land only 13% of land was given to
Africans while 87% were placed under white mediocrity control.
v) The imposition of Christianity in South African. This is because a part from being a foreign
religion, Christianity completely disregarded African traditional ways of life. eg the Dutch
reformed the church. Christianity also imposed racialism.

HOW WAS AFRICAN NATIONALISM EXPRESSED IN SOUTH AFRICA

African nationalism in South Africa was expressed in the nationalism in South Africa was
expressed in the following ways/ forms.

i) Established of African independent churches, this was a direct reaction to Christianity. E.g.
In 1886 there was an independent church which was formed commonly known as Tembu
ii) Church. This church was formed and led by Nehemiah Tile who separated from Methodist
church other independent Africa churches were.

The Ethiopian church founded in 1892 by Mangewa Makone.

The African Methodist Episcopal formed in 1896 by Dwame.

- The Bantu Presbyterian formed in 1898 by revel and Pambani Mzimba.

All these formed African independent churches signified African nationalism against foreign
religion practices.

iii) Terms of the reaction against racialism and discriminatory laws. Eg. Registration act of 1887
at the cape. Africans reacted against this law by forming the native congress in 1892.
 -They also established a house to publish a newspaper which was called IZWI LA BANTU
which was to express the African’s feedings against is discrimination.

-They also formed political organization in the Transkei called Transkei native vigilaws.

-In natural the Africans formed the native congress of natal.

-There was also formed Transvaal congress in Transvaal.

-in 1902 there developed various African political organizations.

All these opposed discriminatory tendencies of the whites against Africans.

iv) Formation of political parties; eg. In South African nature national congress (SANNC). This
political party was formed by Africans to oppose land act of 1913 by organizing strikes and
demonstrations however more SANNC leader were arrested and other were shot to dead. By
1925 SANNC become African national congress (ANC) .

-ANC tried to faster African interest by supporting one white called J.B Malan- Herzing in 1924
election by opposing an. There Afrikaner known as Louis both a Louits Botha appeared
definitely in favorite of the whites while Herzog appeared relatively neutral.

However, white minority continued enacting oppressive and discriminative act that allowed the
harassment by the Authority in 1in 1927, also in the same year Rioters Assemblies act, was
enabled to prohibit Africans to gather elsewhere to discuss their issues.

- So ANC organized the Bill of right in 1944 led by A.B Yukua.

II. THE PERIOD AFTER 1945

True nationalism In south Africa began Africa the second world war of 1939-1945 nationalist
struggles in south Africa was indeed complicated. It began with the formation of SANNC in
1913.

When SANNC was transformed into ANC in 1925, the youth league of ANC later on came also
into existence. The youth league for ANC was led by Walter Sisalu, Anton Lembede, Nelson
Mandela, Oliver Lambo and so on.

Youth league launched its programme action aiming at getting freedom from white minority rule
in 1949.
In 1959 another party was formed from ANC called PAN- did not like the inclusion of non-
blacks. PAC was led by Mangaliso Sobukwe.

PAC on 21stmarch, 1960 organized peaked demonstration against apartheid at Sharpeville the
fascist police fired un armed demonstrators killings 69 of them in cold blood following the
Sharpeville Massecre. So bukwe and other PAC leaders were imprisoned.

In 1961, ANC established its army using the slogan of Umlchonto we sizwe meaning
spear of the nation led by Nelson Mandela. The Banning of ANC and PAC forced nationalists to
operate in exile.

For instance ANC and PAC opened their office in Dar es Salaam and other parts of Africa
including Europe.

In 1964 Nelson Mandela was arrested and imprisoned for life and ANC was banned.

In n1989, the president of white ministry called F. W. Declerk announced the unbanning of ANC
, PAC and other Africans political parties. He also released from life imprisonment political
leaders such as Wilter Sisalu, Oscar Mpetha , Andrew Mlagen, Ahmed Kathrado and many
others

On 11th December1990, de clear releases Nelson Mandela from life imprisonment after
26 years in Jail.

After his release from Jail Nelson Mandela argued to have been negotiation with white
minority regime until all pillars of apartheid were knocked down and ANC Struggle would
continue until apartheid collapsed.

Eventually, Nelson Mandela called upon De clerk.

i) To release thousands of political prisoners

ii) To end state of emergence
iii) To abolish apartheid legislation
iv) To abolish Bantustant policy
v) To provide security force to African townships.

More over Mandela also appealed to international community eg. Frontline states, OAU, UNO,
EEC and USA to impose more sanction until black majority would get their rights it South
Africa.
In 1994, general election was made a ANC won and asked to from the government nelson
Mandela become the first black executive president of south Africa.