Compendium of selected research in ground

engineering
Prepared for Quality Services, Highways Agency

J D Lewis

TRL Report 517

First Published 2001
ISSN 0968-4107
Copyright TRL Limited 2001.

This report has been produced by TRL Limited, undedas part

of a Contract placed by the Highways Agency. Any views
expressed are not necessarily those of the Agency.

TRL is committed to optimising energy efficiency, reducing

waste and promoting recycling and re-use. In support of these
environmental goals, this report has been printed on recycled
paper, comprising 100% post-consumer waste, manufactured
using a TCF (totally chlorine free) process.
CONTENTS
Page

Executive Summary 1

1 Introduction 3

2 Research themes and list of report summaries 3

3 Report summaries 5

Abstract 17

Related publications 17

...
111
Executive Summary

This document has been prepared as a compendium of

selected research undertaken by TRL Limited (the
Transport Research Laboratory) between 1993 and 1998.
The research is represented by summaries drawn from a
selection of benchmark reports on specific areas of ground
engineering commissioned by the Highways Agency as
part of a broad-based research programme.
The compendium has been produced to indicate some of
the key subject areas, or themes, covered by the
geotechnical research undertaken by TRL for the
Highways Agency over recent years.
The summaries of twenty three key research reports are
presented in this document, grouped under seven linked
themes. The summarised reports focus on engineering
within appropriate environmental frameworks, aspects of
recycling and reuse of materials, specialised laboratory
testing, in situ trials and testing, and the performance
monitoring of materials and processes. They also detail
innovative construction and maintenance issues associated
within sustainable highway engineering practice. The
specific themes selected are as follows:
0 Recycling and reuse of materials in highway
construction.
0 Specialised testing and the performance of construction
materials.
0 Compaction practice and equipment performance.

0 Lime stabilisation.

Earthworks construction, performance, maintenance and

repair.
Reinforced earthworks.
Stabilisation of slopes by bio-engineering techniques.
The summaries have been compiled as a compendium
for the purpose of highlighting some of the principal areas
of applied research undertaken by TFU within the ground
engineering discipline in recent years. A number of the
reports summarised in this document have contributed to
the development of internationally recognised standards in
highway engineering. The document introduces the reader
to some of the areas of geotechnical research
commissioned by the Highways Agency in subjects of
interest to a broad range of practitioners, but they are also
of direct relevance to specialists within the fields of civil
and geotechnical engineering.

1
1 Introduction
As part of an Implementation Support project commissioned
by the Highways Agency, the following report has been
prepared in the form of a compendium of summaries drawn
from a series of selected benchmark reports on specific areas
of ground engineering research. The reports for which
summaries are presented were commissioned by the
Highways Agency as part of a broad-based programme of
research undertaken by TRL Limited (the Transport
Research Laboratory) between 1993 and 1998.
This compendium has been produced to indicate some
of the key subject areas, or themes, covered by the
geotechnical research undertaken by TRL for the
Highways Agency over recent years. However, the work
covers only a small part of the breadth of geotechnical
engineering research undertaken by TRL for the Highways
Agency, and its predecessors, in recent decades.
The subject areas addressed within the reports
summarised in this document are considered to be of
particular interest to a range of potential users, including
those involved in designing and implementing highway
infrastructure development and improvement schemes.
The seven linked themes covered by the report
summaries presented in this document are as follows:
0 Recycling and reuse of materials in highway
construction.
0 Specialised testing and the performance of construction
materials.
0 Compaction practice and equipment performance.
0 Lime stabilisation.
Earthworks construction, performance, maintenance and
repair.
0 Reinforced earthworks.
0 Stabilisation of slopes by bio-engineering techniques.
For information purposes, each report summary includes
a heading identifying the author(s) of the report from
which it is extracted, the TRL Project Report number and
the date when the report was produced. These details will
be of use should further information be required regarding
the subjects covered.
It is considered that specialists and other interested
parties will benefit from an awareness of the subject matter
covered by these selected summaries and their associated
reports. When reading the summaries presented, interested
parties may wish to find out more about the themes
covered and the innovative approaches adopted by TRL in
delivering the Highways Agency’s technical requirements.
Further information regarding TRL’s research
programmes or any of the summaries presented in this
document and their associated unpublished reports, can be
obtained by contacting TRL Limited on 01344 773 131
(email: enquiries@trl.co.uk).
Previous page
is blank
2 Research themes and list of report
summaries
The following is a list of the report summaries presented in
Section 3 of this report.
The list also presents the linked themes within which the
summaries have been grouped for the purpose of
readership interest and ease of presentation, and it also
includes a brief introduction to the subjects covered by the
reports listed within each theme.
Theme 1
Recycling and reuse of materials in high way construction
The summaries presented under this theme are as follows:
1.1 The use of recycled bituminous materials for capping
layers
Authors: A F Toombs, R A Snowdon and D P Steele
1.2 The use of recycled bituminous planings for capping
on the A74
Authors: D P Steele and R A Snowdon
The reports represented by these first two summaries
address specific technical aspects of sustainable highway
construction, principally the use of recycled pavement
materials as capping to avoid disposal of otherwise waste
planings. The reports focus on presenting the results of a
comprehensive laboratory test programme undertaken by
TRL and an associated range of field trials carried out by
TRL and collaborating local authorities. These studies
investigated the compliance of asphalt planings with the
existing specification requirements and also addressed the
development of new specifications where required.
Reported field trials on the A74 involved extensive in situ
monitoring to quantify the performance and suitability of
these materials under live traffic loads.
Theme 2
Specialised testing and the performance of construction
materials
The summaries presented under this theme are as follows:
2.1 Acceptability testing of fills with oversize particles
Author: M G Winter
2.2 Rounded granular capping materials
Authors: D J MacNeil and R A Snowdon
2.3 Moisture content measurement of recycled
bituminous planings using the nuclear density gauge
Author: F A Yuille
2.4 Embankment on soft ground: review of the results of
centrifuge tests
Author: J P Love
The reports represented by these four summaries focus on
matters associated with specialised testing of natural and
recycled materials, relating this to their performance in
highway construction. Issues associated with the effects of
clast (stone) and matrix dominance of local and regional
soil types on their relative performance under laboratory
conditions are addressed, along with their relative
acceptability for use as general and construction fills or as
granular capping materials. Supporting field assessments
were carried out on the stability of selected materials
during full-scale trafficking trials, and a field assessment
of the suitability of the nuclear density gauge for moisture
content assessment of bituminous planings is reported. The
techniques and benefits of centrifuge modelling to
determine design and performance criteria associated with
reinforced earthworks are also discussed in detail, with
particular consideration given to the effects of underlying
clay foundation materials.
Theme 3
Compaction practice and equipment performance
The summaries presented under this theme are as follows:
3.1 The performance of machine-mounted compactors
Authors: A F Toombs and D P Steele
3.2 Chalk classification and compaction trials on the
A289 Wainscott Northern bypass
Authors: A F Toombs and R A Snowdon
The reports represented by these summaries describe
research undertaken on current and recent compaction
practice in highway engineering. Consideration is given to
operating procedures and an evaluation is undertaken of
the types of plant used, including their appropriate use in
confined spaces, for example, for trench reinstatement.
Specifications for material classification, acceptability and
compaction are presented, and the performance of plant
and materials where chalk is the formation material is also
discussed.
Theme 4
Lime stabilisation
The summaries presented under this theme are as follows:
4.1 The effect of lime stabilisation on the MCV of two
cohesive soils
Authors: D P Steele and D J MacNeil
4.2 Lime stabilisation of two cohesive soils using SG60
and flaked lime
Authors: D J MacNeil and D P Steele
4.3 A laboratory investigation of a lime stabilised
capping layer failure
Authors: R A Snowdon, D J MacNeil and D P Steele
The reports represented by these summaries describe the
effectiveness of lime stabilisation techniques and practice
both in the laboratory and on site, the latter relating to
construction of the M40. The reports confirm that the
Moisture Condition Value (MCV) is the best method for
assessing and controlling compaction effectiveness and for
quantifying the anticipated performance of stabilised soils.
The reports discuss the importance of the correct
4
interpretation of MCV results for moisture content control,
to enable the acceptability assessment of cohesive soils
stabilised with either quicklime or flaked lime. This
technique reduces long term risk and helps to avoid the
potential for heave in these soils, the performance of which
differs marginally with the type of lime used.
Theme 5
Earthworks construction, performance, maintenance and
repair
The summaries presented under this theme are as follows:
5.1 An investigation of the mechanism of shallow failure
of Gault Clay embankment slopes
Authors: G I Crabb and D M Hiller
5.2 Monitoring of the Gault Clay embankment slope at
Dunton Green
Author: G I Crabb
5.3 The repair of a highway embankment by grout
injection
Authors: D G Boden, K C Brady and D J Ayres
5.4 Performance of slope maintenance and repair
techniques on the Cambridge Northern bypass
Author: D G Boden
5.5 Performance of the polystyrene fill embankment on
the A1 20 Dovercourt bypass
Authors: K Raby and R A Snowdon
The majority of the reports represented by these
summaries focus on the assessment of the performance of
earthworks in Gault Clay, the material with one of the
highest percentage failure for both embankments and
cuttings on the highway network in England and Wales.
The long term performance of an embankment constructed
on very soft alluvial deposits using ultra-lightweight
polystyrene fill is also presented. The case histories
investigate failure mechanisms, detail procedures and
techniques adopted for slope monitoring, quantify the
effect of drainage on pore water pressure development,
describe the long term performance of structures, and
assess the relative effectiveness of a range of repair and
strengthening techniques used in particular cases. The
latter include grout injection, lime stabilisation, granular
replacement, use of gabion and anchored type walls,
geosynthetic containment and the use of rock ribs, and lead
the reader in to aspects associated with reinforced
earthworks addressed within Theme 6.
Theme 6
Reinforced earthworks
The summaries presented under this theme are as follows:
6.1 Reinforced slopes and embankments
Authors: K C Brady, W McMahon and D G Boden
6.2 A review of the adequacy of HA68 for designing
steepened slopes
Author: D G Boden
6.3 Aspects of the design and construction of two
reinforced embankments on the A414
Authors: K C Brady, W McMahon and D G Boden
The reports represented by the summaries within this theme
describe techniques for design, construction and
instrumentation of steepened highway cuttings and
embankments with reinforced side slopes and bases. The
performance of the latter on weak compressible ground is
detailed. The reports also focus on the specification of the
mechanical properties of geosynthetic reinforcements as
well as their ability to withstand site compaction operations.
An investigation of the adequacy of HA68 for the design of
reinforced earthworks is described. The latter focuses on
design procedures associated with pull out resistance for a
range of potential failure mechanisms, the adoption of
appropriate design factors, and the identification of
mechanisms to improve the mobilisation of pull out
resistance, including lengthening basal reinforcement layers.
Theme 7
Stabilisation of slopes by bio-engineering techniques
The summaries presented under this theme are as follows:
7.1 Review of plant species for the improvement of slope
stability
Author: C A Mamott
7.2 Vegetated reinforced steep slopes
Author: R A Snowdon
7.3 Vegetation for slope stability: construction of a trial
embankment
Authors: R A Snowdon, D J MacNeil and A H Brookes
7.4 Live willow poles for slope stabilisation on the A249
at Iwade
Author: D H Barker
The reports represented by the final four summaries focus
on important research undertaken in recent years on the
use, performance and effectiveness of selected vegetation
to stabilise highway earthworks. This is with particular
reference to slopes steepened as part of the motorway
widening programme of recent years and the associated
potential for increased risk of shallow and deep seated
failures within earthworks. The reports consider the
reduced risk of shallow failure by the provision of slope
stabilisation through plant root systems effecting a
networked reduction in moisture content and porewater
pressure. The performance and relative effectiveness of a
range of species planted on steepened and reinforced
slopes is discussed; 500 live willow poles planted as a
form of vegetated soil nailing in a cutting on the A249 is
reported as a case example. The interim findings are also
reported of an extensive study of the handling, planting
and long term maintenance and performance monitoring of
selected trees, shrubs and perennial species planted on a
trial embankment of over-consolidated cohesive fill at
TRL’s Crowthorne site. Elements of these reports are
summarised in TRL Reports 506,508 and 5 15.
3 Report summaries
Theme 1
Recycling and reuse of materials in highway construction
1.1 The use of recycled bituminous materials for
capping layers
Authors: A F Toombs, R A Snowdon and D P Steele
Project Report No: PRJCE/25/94
Date: I994
The use of recycled pavement materials, such as asphalt
planings, in highway reconstruction or widening schemes
has environmental benefits in that provision is not required
for the supply of natural and perhaps scarce material nor
for the disposal of the otherwise waste planings. In
addition, the recycling and use of material obtained on site
reduces and confines the haulage plant required for their
transportation to the immediate site, thus reducing
congestion on local roads due to construction traffic. Their
use also saves energy and reduces the problem associated
with handling and disposal of these classified waste
materials. Schemes may also be completed in a shorter
time resulting in lower costs for the client and considerable
benefits to the road user.
This report presents the results of a study at TRL into the
use of asphalt planings for capping layers. The work was
aimed at investigating the compliance of asphalt planings
with the existing requirements and developing new
specifications for these materials should they be considered
necessary. The test programme comprised standard
classification, laboratory compaction and strength tests, and
also included investigations into the effect of temperature on
these properties. Consideration was given to variations in
the standard test procedures in order to apply them to these
non-standard materials. Results were also obtained from
field trials camed out by local authorities on certain road
reconstruction or widening schemes where recycled
planings were to be used as capping.
The results show that, although the nature and behaviour
of these materials are different from soils, gravels or other
unbound aggregates, there is no reason why asphalt
planings should not be used for capping provided they
comply with certain requirements. The report includes a
suggested classification for recycled bituminous materials
and associated modifications to Clauses in the
Specification for Highway Works (MCHW 1 ) and HA 44
(DMRB 4.1.1).
1.2 The use of recycled bituminous planings for
capping on the A74
Authors: D P Steele and R A Snowdon
Project Report No: PR/CE/93/95
Date: 1995
A full-scale trial has been carried out on the A74 to
investigate the performance of recycled bituminous
planings as a capping layer. The performance of the
planings was monitored to provide data on their suitability
5
and on material acceptability requirement for the then
proposed introduction of Specification for Highway Works
(SHW) Class 6F3 capping.
Comparison of the in situ compaction data and the
laboratory results shows that the relatively poor state of
compaction achieved on site, i.e. high air voids, could have
been improved significantly if a lower limit for moisture
content of OMC-2% had been applied to the planings. This
is now a requirement for material acceptability in the SHW
Class 6F3. This would have probably reduced some of the
settlement measured during the trafficking trial and
improved the in situ CBR values as indicated by the
dynamic cone penetrometer results.
The performance of planings as capping layers was only
marginally lower than that of an SHW Type 1 granular
sub-base material and was well within the trafficking
requirements for sub-base materials. Extrapolated in situ
and laboratory results indicate that the SHW Method 6
compaction requirements applied to unbound recycled
bituminous materials should produce a satisfactory state of
compaction within the capping layer.
Theme 2
Specialised testing and the performance of construction
materials
2.1 Acceptability testing of fill with oversize particles
Author: M G Winter
Project Report No: PR/CE/208/96
Date: 1996
Problems have been identified and reported by engineers and
contractors regarding the use of BS1377 soil tests required for
determining materials acceptability requirements within the
Specification for Highway Works. In particular, the
laboratory compaction tests to determine optimum moisture
content and maximum dry density values, and the Moisture
Condition Value (MCV) test, require the tests to be canied
out on materials specimens with a maximum particle size.
Classes of materials in the S H W for general fills and
structural fills can often contain high percentages of particles
larger than allowed in the BS1377 test. This can lead to
suitable materials being rejected solely on the basis that the
material cannot be tested to BS1377.
This particular project was established to provide advice
on the effect of large particles on the BS1377 test method
used for material acceptability testing within the Series 600
Earthworks of the SHW, with a view to raising the BSI377
limiting values for the percentage of large particles
permitted whilst retaining the validity of the tests in
relation to the control of earthwork compaction.
Soils can contain a broad spectrum of particle sizes,
often ranging from clay to large boulders. In contrast,
laboratory test procedures for determining the acceptability
of fills for earthworking require the removal of particles
larger than a predetermined maximum size. For example,
the removal prior to test of the particles retained on a
20mm test sieve is an integral part of the MCV test while
the three main British Standard compaction tests limit the
proportion of particles larger than 20mm to 30%. All of
6
these tests are commonly used to determine soil
acceptability for earthworking and the removal of such
large particles, often referred to as scalping, can have a
profound effect on measured properties.
It is not known what proportion of UK earthworks might
comprise materials with large proportions of particles
larger then 20mm but it is likely to be significant given the
extent of glacially deposited soils. Consequently, it is not
in the public interest to base the properties of embankment
construction materials on the limitations of laboratory
scale tests and risk the exclusion of readily available
materials with satisfactory engineering properties.
If the proportion of stones is small, then they act as
‘plums’ within the matrix which will determine the bulk soil
behaviour. Tests on the matrix may thus be used in place of
tests on the bulk material. If, on the other hand, the stone
content of a given soil is sufficiently high that the stones
come into contact and thus determine the bulk soil
behaviour, then tests on the matrix material passing a 20mm
sieve may not be used in place of tests on the bulk soil.
An extensive laboratory test programme has been
conducted to determine the proportion of particles larger
than 20mm at which the transition from matrix to stone
determined behaviour occurs. The resultant data have been
supplemented by some 48 data sets taken and reanalysed
from the available literature.
In general it was found that for stone contents up to 45%
to 50% the matrix controls the compaction behaviour.
Tests on the matrix can thus be used to determine
acceptability. For stone contents greater than 45% to 50%
the stones determine compaction behaviour. For these
cases alternative approaches to acceptability determination
are required, and recommendations for additions to HA 44
in the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges are given to
allow material acceptability testing within the requirements
for the Specification for Highway Works.
2.2 Rounded granular capping materials
Authors: D J MacNeil and R A Snowdon
Project Report No: PR/CE/69/96
Date: 1996
Problems have been identified and reported by some HA
regional geotechnical engineers with local gravels when being
used as SHW Class 6F1 and 6F2 materials for capping layers.
In particular, their poor traffickability performance during
construction of the pavement sub-base layer has been
highlighted. Whilst these materials perform satisfactorily in
the long term as a subgrade improvement layer there is a need
to address the traffickabilityproblem. It is recognised that this
is primarily a ‘local’ problem and that any suggested
amendment to the SHW material acceptability criteria should
not result in a restriction in the use of other suitable materials.
This part of the research project was established to
investigate a possible test method for reliably identifying
such rounded materials, and to provide engineering advice
on their method of working if found to be applicable.
Due to problems reported during highway construction
with unstable rounded gravels that comply with the
acceptability requirements for this class of material, an
examination of methods that may enable the rejection of such
materials has been undertaken and is presented in the report.
The assessment of stability problems with rounded
capping materials suggested a number of different factors
could be responsible. Rounded capping materials could be
compacted to meet the requirements of the Specification
for Highway Works but subsequent trafficking with
narrow tyred lorries, used to deliver sub-base materials,
resulted in unacceptable rutting of the capping layer.
For the test program undertaken, three test methods were
considered to have sufficient potential to be indicative of
stability whilst not compromising the present acceptability
requirements specified for capping materials. The methods
evaluated were: mean angularity of constituent particles;
degree of interlocking of capping materials as measured in
300mm shear box tests; and resistance to penetration as
measured with the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP).
For the different types of tests examined, their
effectiveness in discriminating between stable and unstable
capping materials was judged, where possible, against the
degree of stability of the tested capping materials indicated
by full scale trafficking trial data.
The conclusions drawn from this study are as follows:
Angularity testing may be used to rank materials in term
of degree of interlocking. However, it is not considered
feasible to define stability in terms of an angularity cut-
off value.
A basic interpretation of shear box data permits an
evaluation of the ranking stability of unbound capping
materials. A more advanced analysis, in terms of - with these materials, within the Table 6/1 SHW end-
qcri) which is indicative of the energy required to
overcome interlocking, is unable to discern stability,
probably due to the effects of soundness of test particles.
The DCP testing reflects the degree of stability of a
capping material, however, it can only be used to give
an indicative ranking of stability.
The implications of these conclusions are considered in
terms of possible modifications to the SHW and/or the
relevant Advice Note. It is suggested that, on balance,
stability problems with rounded capping materials can be
best dealt with by:
0 Highlighting possible problem materials and restricting
their use locally.
Proposing a trafficking trial as the most appropriate test
method to indicate stability.
Modifying the use of a capping layer constructed with
such materials so that the sole function of the capping
layer is as a subgrade improvement layer.
2.3 Moisture content measurement of recycled
bituminous planings using the nuclear density gauge
Author: F A Yuille
Project Report No: PWCE/l03/96
Date: 1996
The MCHW 1 Series 600 Earthworks allows the majority
of naturally occurring materials, and many wastes
materials, to be used in earthworks construction.
Specifications for materials classification, acceptability
and compaction are given to ensure these materials are
selected and placed to provide satisfactory long term
performance. There is a need to investigate any individual
problems in material acceptability testing and to consider
their possible implication for the MCHW 1. Specific
material studies have been carried out and include the
provision of advice on the specification and use of
recycled and waste materials as earthworks fills.
Nuclear density gauges (NDG) are permitted within
Clause 612 of the Specification for Highway Works
(MCHW 1) to measure the moisture content of fill material
in connection with end-product compaction requirements,
or if required, field tests with method compaction.
Research has been camed out into the use of recycled
bituminous planings as SHW Class 6F3 capping material and
Class 6N selected granular fill for structures (MCHW 1). If
bituminous materials are found to be suitable as Class 6N
materials, it will be necessary as a part of the end product
requirement to determine the dry density and moisture
content of the compacted material, possibly using a nuclear
density gauge. Therefore, a study has been carried out to
investigate the suitability of the NDG for moisture
readings on recycled bituminous planings.
For the samples of material tested, the bituminous
content of the planings produced significantly higher
moisture content readings on the NDG compared to oven
drying. Therefore, it is essential that a calibration is
obtained if the NDG is used for moisture content control
product compaction requirements.
Whilst it is strongly recommended that a calibration is
always obtained, an approximation of the actual moisture
content could be made by subtracting the percentage
bitumen content from the indicated NDG reading.
2.4 Embankment on soft ground: review of the results
of centrifuge tests
Author: J P Love
Project Report No: PR/CE/115/96
Date: 1996
One of the longer term research programmes undertaken at
TRI.. has concerned the design and construction of
embankments over weak compressible ground. This work
has been prompted by the requirements of land
conservation and environmental concerns which have
increasingly meant that new sections of highway are
restricted to corridors of land deemed unsuitable for
housing, industry or agriculture. A number of reports were
produced by TRL on the subject in the 1970s, including
appraisals of the methods of analysis and of the options
available for construction.
More recently, geosynthetics have been used as basal
reinforcements to embankments, and although a number of
methods have been proposed for analysing the performance
of such structures, their usefulness for routine design is
largely untested. To assess the validity and economy of the
7
 proposed methods, a series of centrifuge models was
commissioned from the University of Cambridge, and data
have been collected from two instrumented reinforced
embankments on the A414; thus both ultimate and
serviceability limit states have been investigated.
A series of centrifuge tests was undertaken by
Cambridge University on 6 metre high (prototype)
embankments built over soft clay. In most cases a layer of
geosynthetic reinforcement was installed at the base of the
models, but no reinforcement was used in two of them.
The tests were undertaken to provide data for failure or
near-failure conditions against which predictions derived
from various design approaches could be compared to
assess their reliability and economy.
There are a number of factors that influence the
performance of reinforced earthworks, some of which are
difficult to quantify accurately. This, coupled with the
inter-dependence of some of the factors precludes a
definitive back analysis of the Performance, whether full
scale structures or models. Nevertheless, the exercise
identified those factors that have a substantial effect on the
results obtained from the various methods of analysis.
The performance of the centrifuge models was shown to
be highly dependent upon the strength of the underlying
clay foundation. The dependence was such that even a
small change in assumed strength (of say &2kN/mz)
swamps any difference introduced by the method of
analysis; furthermore it had a dramatic effect on the
strength of the reinforcement required to maintain stability.
It is therefore important, for economic and safety
reasons, that the strength of the foundation soils is
determined accurately at the site investigation stage.
Recommendations on how this can be achieved should be
provided in an Advice Note that covers the design and
construction of embankments on soft clay. It should be
appreciated that the strength profile at many sites will be
much more complex than that manufactured for the
centrifuge models, and will be much more difficult
therefore to determine accurately. Far less emphasis should
be placed on the method of analysis as it is unlikely that
the use of sophisticated methods of analysis, such as finite
elements, could be justified for most highway works.
Theme 3
Compaction practice and equipment performance
3.1 The performance of machine-mounted compactors
Authors: A F Toombs and D P Steele
Project Report No: PR/GE/22/93
Date: 1993
Research has been carried out to evaluate the application
and performance of machine-mounted compactors in the
compaction of fill in confined spaces. These attachments
fall into two basic types, (i) vibrating wheels normally
fitted to the front forks of a wheeled excavatorAoader and
primarily intended for compacting backfill in narrow
trenches down to lOOmm in width and (ii) vibrating plates,
which when fitted to the end of an articulated excavator or
backhoe arm of a loader, are capable of reaching and
compacting in confined or restricted areas.
8
The performance of machine-mounted vibratory
compactors differs considerably from that of conventional
vibratory compaction plant, due primarily to the damping
effect of a relatively high static downforce on the dynamic
forces. Although they are capable of achieving a satisfactory
state of compaction in cohesive and granular soils at the low
moisture contents associated with method compaction
specifications,they generally require more passes or thinner
layers to be used than for conventional machines. Machine-
mounted compactors therefore require separate categories in
any type of method compaction specification.
The report suggests a method compaction specification
for these compactors to be included in the SHW and in the
Highways Authority and Utilities Committee (HAUC)
Specification for trench reinstatement. Recommendations
are also made for the particular operating procedures that
are required for these types of plant.
3.2 Chalk classification and compaction trials on the
A289 Wainscott Northern bypass
Authors: A F Toombs and R A Snowdon
Project Report No: PR/CE/161/97
Date: 1997
The MCHW 1 Series 600 Earthworks allows the majority
of naturally occurring materials, and many waste materials,
to be used in earthworks construction. Specifications for
material Classification, acceptability and compaction are
given to ensure these materials are selected and placed to
provide satisfactory long term performance. However, a
few problems have occurred with certain materials in
differing geographical locations. There is a need to
investigate these individual problems and their possible
implications to the MCHW 1.
This particular project was established to provide advice
on the classification and compaction of chalk.
Following a review by Greenwood (1 992) comparing
the French and UK methods of classifying, specifying and
compacting chalk, trials were required to validate the
suggested modification to the MCHW and Advice Note
HA 44 presented in the review. A suitable site containing a
Class 3 chalk, which met both sets of classification
requirements, was located on the A289 Wainscott
Northern bypass. Data on the states of compaction were
collected and analysed enabling a direct comparison of
compaction methods.
The conclusions drawn from this study are as follows:
Chalk can be classified using intact lump dry density
and natural moisture content as the classification
criteria. The use of Chalk Crushing Value (CCV) should
be discontinued.
Construction control of chalk for general earthworks is
recommended to be by moisture content alone provided
the material classification and engineering
characteristics have been determined at the ground
investigation stage. Intact lump dry density may be
introduced for specific control where chalk is required
for selected fill.
The new descriptive scheme for chalk proposed by
Greenwood (1 992) should be adopted.
 Recommendations are presented in the report for
consideration as amendments to the clauses of the MCHW
and Advice Note HA 44 current at the time to implement
the findings from the trials.
Reference
Greenwood J R (1992). Classification and specification
of chalk for earthworks. Unpublished report by Travers
Morgan Consulting Group.
Theme 4
Lime stabilisation
4.1 The effect of lime stabilisation on the MCV of two
cohesive soils
Authors: D P Steele and D J MacNeil
Project Report No: PR/GE/26/93
Date: 1993
An investigation was carried out to assess the effect of
lime stabilisation on the MCV of two cohesive soils.
Results of MCV calibrations against moisture content were
obtained for each material before and after stabilisation
with standard SG60 Quicklime and are discussed.
The results of the investigation indicate that lime
stabilisation has a significant effect on the MCV moisture
content calibration which reflects the change in the plastic
properties of the soils studied. The investigation has also
highlighted that it is possible to obtain an MCV, within the
typical working range of MCV 8 to MCV 12, which lies
on the ‘dry leg’, as opposed to the normal ‘wet leg’, of the
MCV calibration curve. As other research has shown that
material drier than MCV 12 on the wet leg is liable to
significant heave, the correct interpretation of an MCV
result is vital if unsuitable materials are not to be
mistakenly classed as acceptable for use in highway
construction.
The report recommends that further research, to include
lime stabilisation of other suitable cohesive materials, is
required to provide advice on the use of the MCV test for
determining the acceptability of cohesive materials
stabilised with lime.
4.2 Lime stabilisation of two cohesive soils using SG60
quicklime and flaked quicklime
Authors: D J MacNeil and D P Steele
Project Report No: PR/GE/27/93
Date: 1993
Most lime stabilisation projects use quicklime in the
standard SG60 form, which is a fine ground, powdered
lime. On larger projects, the design of the spreaders limits
dust clouds during mixing. However, on smaller projects,
for example slope stabilisation, access may be limited,
resulting in the lime being spread directly from bags,
increasing the risk that lime dust can be blown onto
construction staff and the surrounding area. In an attempt
to overcome this problem, Buxton Lime Industries have
now produced a flaked version of the lime.
To investigate whether the flaked lime would be an
acceptable alternative to the SG60 lime, a laboratory trial
was carried out on two cohesive soils. Using the
procedures specified in the relevant British Standards,
soaked CBRs, dry densities, particle densities and moisture
contents were measured and heave due to soaking was
observed for a 28 day period.
The reported results are divided into three stages,
namely stabilisation, compaction and CBR testing. Within
the range of Moisture Condition Values suggested for
acceptability in the Specification for Highway Works
(MCHW 1) and HA 44 (DRMB 4.1. I), the stabilisation
results for both soils are consistent. The compaction
results, as measured via dry densities and air voids, were
broadly similar when comparing SG60 and flaked lime
mixes and the CBR values were also consistent. The only
obvious difference between the performance of the two
lime types is shown in their respective heave performance.
The flaked lime specimens heaved by up to 4.3mm more
than the comparable SG60 specimens and took, with only
one exception, between 2 and 14 days longer to reach a
stable state.
In conclusion, the report indicates that stabilisation with
flaked lime results in a soil with similar handling
characteristics to a soil stabilised with SG60 lime; that the
relative performance of comparable mixes were closely
matched; that, even though the flaked lime mixes showed a
tendency to heave more than comparable SG60 mixes, the
magnitudes of the differences were relatively small, and
that the flaked lime will perform to a similar standard as
the SG60 lime.
The report recommends that further research, possibly to
include other types of cohesive materials suitable for lime
stabilisation, should be undertaken to verify the
preliminary results obtained during this study.
4.3 A laboratory investigation of a lime stabilised
capping layer failure
Authors: R A Snowdon, D J MacNeil and D P Steele
Project Report No: PR/CE/74/94
Date: 1994
During the summer of 1989, lime stabilisation was used to
construct the capping layer on the M40 Banbury IV
Contract. By the end of the following winter localised
areas of the completed pavement were showing heaves up
to 150mm.
Following the failure, an investigation was carried out
by the University of Birmingham with a brief to review the
ground investigation report, site testing and construction
records and consider possible causes of the heave. Within
the report conclusions, the primary cause of the heave was
the formation of ettringite and thaumasite crystals due to
increased sulphate levels, combined with a seepage of
water into the lime stabilised layer. The report also stated
that ‘the site monitoring records indicated that a
considerable portion of the materials was compacted at the
dry end of the specified range’: poor compaction would
produce a material with high air voids, thus allowing
ingress of water.
9
 This report presents the results of a series of laboratory
studies focusing on the importance of site compaction
control and the effect of time on the properties of lime
stabilised materials. Results from the TRL laboratory trials
have demonstrated the importance of compacting lime
stabilised materials to an air void content of 5% or less. At
this level of compaction, the probability of long term
heave will be reduced significantly for cohesive materials
with a total sulphate level approaching the maximum
suggested in Advice Notes on the design and construction
of lime stabilised capping. Also, the control of moisture
content using the Moisture Condition Value is the
preferred method as the MCV is not affected by the
changes in plasticity of the material that occur during the
stabilisation process.
Theme 5
Earthworksperformance, maintenance and repair
5.1 An investigation of the mechanism of shallow
failure of Gault Clay embankment slopes
Authors: G I Crabb and D M Hiller
Project Report No: PRJGEI30l93
Date: 1993
Shallow failures on the slopes of highway embankments
I.
and cuttings, typically in the over-consolidated plastic
clays of southern England, are a common feature of trunk
roads and motorways. To determine the extent of this
problem and the factors contributing to failure, a survey of
570km of motorway was carried out between 1980 and
1988 (Perry, 1989). The survey covered the principal
geologies encountered on the motorway system in England
1:
and Wales and included about 21% of its total length. The
length of failed slopes found amounted to over 17km of
embankment and over 5.5km of cutting.
A typical shallow failure was found to be a slab slide
extending from the crest to the toe of the slope. The depth
to the failure surface rarely exceeded 1Sm. The material
with the highest percentage of failure, in both
embankments and cuttings, was the Gault Clay. Nearly
half of the Gault Clay embankment slopes between 5.0m
and 7.5m high and with a slope angle of 1 in 2.5 had
failed. Based on a maximum of one per cent failure, the
steepest slope recommended in Perry (1 989) for Gault
Clay embankments greater than 5m high is 1 in 5.
The work described in the report was designed to give a
clearer understanding of the failure mechanism by the long
term study of selected sites. The three sites chosen were
Gault Clay embankment slopes over 6.5m high at slopes of
1 in 2, 1 in 3 and 1 in 4. The steeper slopes were adjacent
to existing failures and were judged therefore to be at risk
of failure in the near future. The flatter slope was chosen to
compare its porewater pressure regime with those of the
steeper slopes and assess its stability using equivalent
strength parameters.
One steeper slope was monitored from 1984 until 1988
and the other from 1985 until 1989, during which times
failures occurred at both sites. The remaining unfailed
slope was monitored from 1985 to the production of this
10
report. Porewater pressures were measured several times
per day by an array of automatically recording hydraulic
piezometers at depths from 0.5m to foundation level over
the full cross section of the slope. Rainfall was also
measured by automatic rain gauges. Movement was
measured on two sites by monthly inclinometer
measurements. Also, automatic stereoscopic cameras were
positioned to photograph the slopes daily to provide a
record of any large scale movement. Long term records of
porewater pressure, rainfall and movement are presented
for each site.
It has been found that porewater pressures in the upper
1.5m depth of soil vary in an annual cycle due to seasonal
wetting and drying. Below this is a region of more stable,
lower porewater pressure. In the two steeper slopes there is
a region of sub-atmospheric porewater pressure which
probably extends under the carriageway and tapers off
towards the toe of the slope. Except for two piezometers at
2m depth at the Cambridge site there is very little evidence
that there is any long-term increase in porewater pressure
at any depth within the slopes. This suggests that the
pressure in all slopes is approximately in equilibrium with
the groundwater and infiltration. Therefore, the likelihood
of deeper seated future failures is low unless a path is
created for deeper water ingress. Steps should therefore be
taken to minimise water entry into a slope, such as care in
the design and installation of Carriageway drainage to
avoid run-off on to the crest of high slopes, and leakage
within the slope. The presence of vegetation cover is an
important part of the equilibrium of extraction of water
from the slope and infiltration.
Soil tests to determine both the peak and critical state, or
fully-softened, strength parameters have been carried out
at City University on soil samples recovered from each
site. Stability analyses using the observed geometries and
porewater pressure show clearly that the appropriate
strength parameters required to result in the limiting factor
of safety of 1.Oare at least as low as those for the critical
state (or the fully softened) strength determined for the
Gault Clay (qcrit = 23"). The factors of safety using peak
strength parameters are much too high to indicate that peak
strength was achieved at failure. In the case of the slope at
Dunton Green, which has not failed, the porewater
pressures would need to rise significantly higher than
measured to date to precipitate a failure. The assumption in
design of any greater cp' or c' parameters derived from tests
on over-consolidated materials will inevitably yield
erroneously high factors of safety.
Slopes in over-consolidated clay should be designed
therefore using the fully softened or critical state strength.
This can be obtained from standard laboratory tests on
fully reconstituted, normally consolidated materials, or
alternatively from in situ material tested at much higher
confining stresses than those normally used so that it
behaves as a normally consolidated material.
It is clear that these are long term, drained failures. The
mechanism is a combination of two effects. The first is the
swelling and softening of the near surface material, which
under the influence of shear strains in the slope, reduces its
strength towards the critical state. The most highly stressed
regions will reach failure first and progressively shed load,
as the strength reduces, to other lower stressed regions.
This mechanism of progressive failure may play a part in
shallow slope failures and should be the subject of future
work. The second is the equilibrium of infiltration of
rainwater from the slope surface with flow through the
slope and evapo-transpiration at the surface.
The depth of the failure surface is controlled by the
resulting distribution of porewater pressure. Deeper failure
surfaces are unlikely to develop because the porewater
pressure reduces with depth and showed little change
during the monitoring period.
The sites studied provide some evidence that the porewater
pressure in the near surface zone may be slightly higher in
slopes that are less steep, but that this effect is balanced by the
increase in stability resulting from geometry.
Reference
Perry J (1989). A survey of slope condition on motorway
earthworks in England and Wales. Research Report RR199.
Crowthome: TRL Limited.
5.2 Monitoring of a Gault Clay embankment slope at
Dunton Green
Author: G I Crabb
Project Report No: PWCE/81/94
Date: 1994
This report is a supplement to the unpublished TRL Project
Report PWGE/30/93 (see previous summary 5.1) which
described a project, begun in December 1983, to investigate
the shallow failure of highway earthwork slopes. The report
described a long term study of selected sites and gave a
clearer understanding of the failure mechanisms involved.
The three sites chosen were Gault Clay embankment slopes
over 6.5m high at slope angles of 1 in 2, 1 in 3 and 1 in 4.
The two steeper slopes, at Cambridge on the A45 and
Nepicar on the M26, were adjacent to existing failures and
were therefore judged to be at risk of failure in the near
future. The failure of these slopes is described in the earlier
report. The Cambridge slope was monitored from 1984 until
1988 and that at Nepicar from 1985 until 1989.
The third and flattest slope at Dunton Green on the M26
was chosen to compare its porewater pressure regime with
those of the steeper slopes and assess its stability using
equivalent strength parameters. Porewater pressures were
measured several times per day from 1985 to 1994 by an
array of automatically recording hydraulic piezometers at
depths from 0.5m to foundation level over the full cross
section of the slope. Movement was measured by sets of
monthly inclinometer measurements. Automatic daily
photography of the slope has provided a record of any
large scale movement. Updated long term records of
porewater pressure, rainfall and movement are presented
for the whole of the measurement history.
The data suggest that there were changes in the slope
between 1992 and the production of this report in 1994.
This is as a result of a progression from several years
with rainfall as much as 39% below average to 1994,
with rainfall in the first 10 months some 29.4% above
average. Taking the worst credible porewater pressures
based on the measured data, the potential failure surface
considered in PWGE/30/93, and using the same method
of stability analysis, resulted in a factor of safety of 1.06.
This is lower than that reported previously and indicated
that the slope had only a small margin of safety under
conditions of high rainfall.
5.3 The repair of a highway embankment by grout
injection
Authors: D G Boden, K C Brady and D J Ayres
Project Report No: PWGE/8/93
Date: 1993
Shallow slip failures are a common feature on the trunk
road and motorway network in the UK; a survey of the LJK
motorway network by Perry (1 989), showed that a further
65km of slopes were likely to fail. The cost of their repair
represents a substantial expenditure to the Highways
Agency. This report briefly describes the use of grout
injection techniques to repair earthworks, followed by a
description of the A45 site and details of the repair work.
Although grout injection has been widely used to repair
slope failures on railway earthworks, the technique does not
appear to have been used to repair highway earthworks. The
grout injection technique was used to repair a section of
failed embankment on the A45 north of Cambridge, in order
to assess the effectiveness and economy of the technique.
The slope was 45 metres long and up to seven metres high,
with side slopes of 1:2, and was formed from over-
consolidated Gault Clay. The slip surface was about 1.5
metres deep. The main purpose of the works was to regrade
and stabilise the shallow slope failure, but a secondary
interest was the use of deep grout injection to prevent deep
seated failure of highway earthworks.
The grout injection technique involves the injection of
aerated cementitious grout under pressure, through hollow
steel tubes, into the regraded slope. The steel tubes are
driven vertically in a pattern across the slope and holes are
not grouted until the grout injected into adjacent holes has
gained sufficient strength to maintain slope stability. In total
912 batches of grout, each of 0.1lm3,were injected at 21 1
points on the slope over 22 working days. In all, 23 tonnes
of ordinary portland cement, 69 tonnes of sand and 300
litres of foaminglstabilising agent were used. No problems
were caused by grout migration during the works.
The grout was successfully injected into the region of the
slip planes, at about 1.5 metres depth. However, the high
strength of the intact clay prevented effective penetration of
grout at points deeper then about 3.5 metres. The programme
of deep injection was abandoned midway through the works,
and so the use of the technique to prevent deeper seated
failures of highway embankments seems limited. No uplift of
the road pavement was noted during the site works and no
movement of the face of the slope or the pavement was
recorded in the 18 months or so following the end of the
grouting operations. The injection of grout initially stabilised
the shallow translational slide, but partial failure occurred
after four years (see following summary 5.4).
11
 The cost of the site work was about €870 per metre run
of embankment. The cost of the grout injection, net of
ancillary works, was about E450 per metre run; this was 50
per cent higher than the cost of reinstating failed slopes
using geotextile reinforcement. The cost of grout injection
may reduce as experience is gained through usage and,
unlike other methods of reinstating highway earthworks,
the technique can be used without excavating an unstable
slope. In addition, the technique can be used on sites with
limited access and limited stockpile area, since the slope
repair can be carried out from the slope. Thus grout
injection techniques may find some application in the
repair of highway earthworks. The main restriction on the
technique is that the soil comprising the failed slope must
be dry enough to be dragged back to profile before
grouting commences. Care must be taken in controlling
grout migration; provision must be made in protecting road
drainage gulleys and other underground services.
The use of grout injection for the prevention of deep
seated slips requires hrther study and more powerful plant
would have to be used. However, the frequency of deep
seated long term slips on highway earthworks is low.
Reference
Perry J (1989). A survey of slope condition on motorway
earthworks in England and Wales. Research Report
RR199. Crowthorne: TRL Limited.
5.4 Performance of slope maintenance and repair
techniques on the Cambridge Northern bypass
Author: D G Boden
Project Report No: PRJCE/52/95
Date: 1995
Shallow slip failures on the slopes of cuttings and
embankments are a common feature of the trunk road
network in the UK, and the cost of their reinstatement
represents a substantial expenditure for the Highways
Agency. Failures can undermine the road structure damage
drainage, cabling and safety fences, and occasionally
obstruct the hard shoulder of the carriageway.
Following its construction in the late 1970s, numerous
failures have occurred along the slopes of the embankments
supporting the Cambridge Northern Bypass A14 (formerly
the A45). The embankments, which are up to 8 metres high,
were Constructed from the locally available over-
consolidated Gault Clay. Typically the failures have been
shallow translational slides. During the winter of 1983/84,
TRL in conjunction with the then Eastern Regional Oflice
of the DOT and Cambridgeshire County Council, used five
repair and two strengthening techniques along a length of
embankment on the bypass near Cambridge. A section was
left untreated to act as a control, but this section failed
subsequently and was repaired in 1991 using grout injection
(see previous summary 5.3).
TRL has undertaken site surveys from time to time to
monitor the performance of the embankment. This report
gives a brief description of the site, details of the repair
and strengthening techniques used, and a summary of their
performance up to November 1994.
12
The embankment on the Cambridge Northern Bypass
provided a useful test of six reinstatement and two
preventative techniques. Two sections have failed,
movements are continuing in another, and other sections
have given rise to maintenance problems. The geo-mesh
plus anchors section showed signs of distress at an early
stage but it was some 10 years before it failed completely.
As the adjacent control section failed after five years, it
can be concluded that the geo-mesh plus anchors slowed
down failure but was unable to prevent it. Part of the grout
injection section failed within four years of construction.
The granular replacement, lime stabilisation, gabion wall,
anchored tyre wall and geosynthetic containment
reinstatement techniques have provided stable repairs. The
use of rock ribs has prevented further failures along a
section of the embankment and this section was not unduly
affected by the failure of an adjacent section. The three
most cost effective techniques are, in order of increasing
cost, rock ribs, geosynthetic containment and lime
stabilisation. Further research into the use of rock ribs
seems warranted, as this may provide further savings in
maintenance costs.
5.5 Performance of the polystyrene fill embankment on
the A120 Dovercourt bypass
Authors: K Raby and R A Snowdon
Project Report No: PIWE194197
Date: 1997
Earthworks on highway schemes are constructed to the
Specification for Highway Works. In order to meet the
demands for new construction techniques, and a wider use
of fill materials, research is required to enable their
performance and acceptability requirements to be
established. The project spans a range of individual studies
covering the use of lime stabilisation of cohesive materials,
the use of recycled and waste materials for capping layers,
the use of polystyrene ultra-lightweight fill on poor
ground, vegetation for the prevention of shallow slope
failure, and the general requirements for compaction
specifications and material acceptability limits. All of these
will lead to greater economic efficiency in highway
construction when implemented through the SHW and
departmental Advice Notes.
As part of the study into the use of polystyrene fill for
embankments on poor load bearing ground, an opportunity
arose to continue monitoring the post construction
performance of such an embankment on the A120
Dovercourt bypass. The report describes the long term
performance of the embankment.
Extensive foundation treatments were required before
construction of two approach embankments, on very soft
alluvial deposits, to a bridge crossing an existing railway line.
Whilst one of the embankments could be constructed using a
conventional granular fill, it was necessary to construct the
other using an ultra-lightweight polystyrene fill in order to
minimise differential settlements occumng at the bridge
abutments. In order to control placement of the fill during
construction,instrumentationwas installed to monitor pore
water pressures and ground movement. Following
construction some of the instrumentationwas used to measure
the longer term performance of the embankments.
Apart from difficulty in handling the polyester
membrane which was used for protection against
hydrocarbon spillage, no significant problems occurred
during construction. The polystyrene embankment was
monitored for approximately five years after construction.
Although settlement continued for a longer period than
expected, settlement values recorded show that the
embankment performed within the predicted range of
values. As the rate of settlement has virtually reached zero
no further significant settlement is anticipated.
Using polystyrene fill allowed the embankment to be
constructed to its full height without any intermediate
consolidation stages, as would have been required with
conventional granular fill materials. Only minimal
maintenance of the camageway has been required on both
embankments at the bridge abutments.
Theme 6
Steepened slope design and performance
6.1 Reinforced slopes and embankments
Authors: K C Brady, W McMahon and D G Boden
Project Report No: PR/CE/5 1/97
Date: 1997
The use of geosynthetics as reinforcement to soils has
increased dramatically over the past decade and the use
of reinforced soils is now perceived as the standard
method for repairing failed slopes. Increased use has
demanded the continued development and revision of
Design Standards, Advice Notes, approval certificates
and specifications governing usage. This project was set
up to provide advice and input to the generation of such
documents and also to provide advice on problems that
may arise on highway projects.
Design methods for the reinforcement of highway slopes
by reinforced soil and soil nailing techniques (HA 68/94)
and other Design Standards and specifications covering the
use of geosynthetic reinforcements are now in place. The
project focused on specification of the mechanical
properties of geosynthetics, in particular their ability to
withstand compaction operations. European standards
covering testing, design and installation procedures have
been studied.
6.2 A review of the adequacy of HA68 for designing
steepened slopes
Author: D G Boden
Project Report No: PR/CE/107/96
Date: 1996
One of the longer term research programmes undertaken at
TRL has concerned the design, construction and repair of
highway slopes. This work has been prompted by the need
for economic road construction and more recently
motorway widening. A number of reports have been
produced by TRL on the subject over the last few decades,
including appraisals of the methods of analysis and of the
options available for construction and repair.
Since the mid 1980s or so there has been a rapid growth
in continental Europe of the use of reinforced soil
techniques to steepen earthwork slopes, but the take up of
the technique in the UK seemed to be restricted by the
paucity of information on the design of these types of
structure. To remove this restraint, the Department of
Transport issued Advice Note HA68 (DMRB 4.1.4) in
1994. In early 1995 a designer in Scotland expressed
concern that the design procedures outlined in HA68 may
not provide sufficient pull out resistance for all potential
failure mechanisms. TRL was thus commissioned to
investigate their concerns.
HA68 describes the use of a two part wedge mechanism
to determine the disturbing forces in a steepened slope. The
mechanism providing the maximum disturbing force (T-)
determines the amount of reinforcement needed to resist
rupture, and the mechanism requiring no restoring force
(Tab) determines the extent of the reinforced zone. The
designer’s enquiry related to the possibility of mechanisms
occumng which have a lower factor of safety against pull
out failure than that provided by the ‘extreme’ mechanisms
(T- and To,,). In support of their submission, the designer
provided details of analysis camed out during the appraisal
of the soil nail trials undertaken at Tinney Bank.
The two part wedge mechanisms presented by the
designer were shown to have adequate pull out resistance,
but other mechanisms were found for both horizontal and
inclined reinforcement which have an out of balance force
exceeding the available pull out resistance provided by the
reinforcement. The problem only seems to arise for
mechanisms lying close to the To, mechanism and the
difference between the out of balance force and the
available pull out resistance was always small. From the
limited design examples considered as part of this reported
project, it would appear that soil nails are more likely to be
sensitive to the problem of inadequate pull out resistance
than are horizontal geosynthetic reinforcements. Appendix
G of HA68 advises checking for the existence of
mechanisms likely to have an out of balance force
exceeding the available pull out resistance, but gives little
guidance on how this can be done. Such mechanisms can
be found using spot checks or an automatic grid search,
but these checks may take some considerable time. Checks
can be carried out by hand but they are demanding of the
designer and a spreadsheet or computer program is
essential for such work.
In most of the cases where mechanisms having
insufficient pull out resistance were found, a satisfactory
solution would have been reached if one or more of the
following measures had been applicable:
0 The pull out resistance of the basal layer had been
mobilised (i.e. if a structural facing or wrap around was
used).
0 The basal layers of reinforcement were lengthened.
A lower value of the direct shear factor had been
adopted.
13
 To ensure that design carried out to the rules given in
HA68 provide adequate pull out resistance, consideration
should be given to the following:
0 Expanding the guidance given in Appendix G of HA68.
This could include advice on how to complete spot checks
and grid searches, and could be done in conjunction with a
worked example included in Appendix J.
0 Changing the semi-empirical rules governing the extent
of the reinforced zone.
0 Giving prominence to the advice for checking pull out
resistance.
An additional outcome of this report is that
consideration should be given to the release of an updated
version of HA68 to enhance its utility by improving its
readability and to provide a better balance between the
advice given in the main text and in its appendices.
6.3 Aspects of the design and construction of two
reinforced embankments on the A414
Authors: K C Brady, W McMahon and D G Boden
Project Report No: PR/CE/64/96
Date: 1996
Another of the longer term research programmes
undertaken at TRL has concerned the design and
construction of embankments over weak compressible
ground. This work has been prompted by the requirements
of land conservation and environmental concerns which
have increasingly meant that new sections of highway are
restricted to corridors of land deemed unsuitable for
housing, industry or agriculture. A number of Laboratory
Reports were produced on the subject in the 1970s,
including appraisals of the methods of analysis and of the
options available for construction.
More recently, geosynthetics have been used as basal
reinforcements to embankments, and although a number of
methods have been proposed for analysing the performance
of such structures, their usefulness for routine design is
largely untested. To assess the validity and economy of the
proposed methods, a series of centrifuge models was
commissioned from the University of Cambridge (see
previous summary 2.4), and data have been collected from
two instrumented reinforced embankments on the A4 14;
thus both ultimate and serviceability limits states have been
investigated. The report describes aspects of the design and
construction of the two instrumented reinforced
embankments on the A414.
The A414 is a primary east-west route linking a number
of towns around the north of London and crossing arterial
roads radiating from the capital. The development of these
towns and the consequential growth in road traffic
demanded the upgrading of this highway, but environmental
considerations meant that new sections of road had to be
constructed over poor ground. The search for cost effective
solutions led Hertfordshire County Council (HCC) to
commission the construction of reinforced embankments for
the Stanstead Abbotts bypass and for the Stanstead Abbotts
to Harlow section of the A414.
14
The construction of embankments on weak
compressible ground presented problems of both stability
and serviceability and therefore a number of construction
expedients were employed. These included: the installation
of vertical drains to accelerate the rate of dissipation of
excess pore water pressures; the installation of instruments
to monitor the pore water pressures and deformations
within the subsoils; the incorporation of a layer of
reinforcement at the base of the embankments to increase
stability during construction; and the placement of a
surcharge layer of soil to accelerate primary consolidation
and also to reduce in-service creep movements.
The experience of the construction of the embankments
on the A414 bears testimony to the economy of the
techniques used. In both cases, the total cost of the
construction expedients was far outweighed by the savings
accruing from their application. The successful application
of these techniques on this section of highway should
promote their use on future works and thereby provide
substantial savings in construction costs.
Theme 7
Stabilisation of slopes by bio-engineering techniques
7.1 Review of plant species for the improvement of
slope stability
Author: C A Mamott
Project Report No: PR/CE/97/96
Date: 1996
Shallow slip failures on embankments and cutting are more
likely to occur in certain materials as identified during the
survey of slope condition on motorway earthworks, reported
in Research Report RR199. The reinstatement of these
shallow failures can be costly and the potential for slip may
be reduced by the use of vegetation planted to provide
reinforcement,through the plant root system, and a reduction
in moisture content and pore water pressure. However, there
is a potential conflict between the engineering requirements
of cut as well as fill materials to maintain stability and the
conditions required to promote plant growth.
The use of vegetation will increase environmental
mitigation and reduce the need for costly maintenance of
shallow slip failures on highways embankments and
cuttings. More appropriate planting regimes will reduce
the requirement for replacement planting.
This report presents the results of a literature review
undertaken as the first phase of a project designed to:
0 Identify potential species which can be used to stabilise
cohesive clay soils which show high percentage of slip
failures and were identified in Research Report RR199.
Provide information on their handling, planting and long
term maintenance.
Provide advice on the associated economics.
The principal aim of this review was to identify a
selection of plant species to be use in controlled environment
trials to determine their growth in over-consolidatedclay
soils. The review addresses the problem of slope failures on
clay embankments and discusses the characteristicsthat are
required in vegetation to stabilise slopes, particularly in
relation to the role of roots in soil reinforcement and reduction
in moisture content. It also takes into account specific
requirements of vegetation growing alongside highways, such
as salt tolerance and resistance to pollution from exhaust
fiunes. This information is used to identify several species of
potential value in improving slope stability of over-
consolidated clay embankments and cuttings, from which
twenty five species have been selected for the growth trials in
fill materials consisting of Gault Clay and cohesive units of
the Reading Beds (Lambeth Group).
7.2 Vegetated reinforced steep slopes
Author: R A Snowdon
Project Report No: PR/CE/177/97
Customer: Highways Agency
Date: 1997
As a result of the motorway widening programme there is
an increase in the use of steep reinforced slopes which
include vegetation to prevent erosion at the face, in addition
to providing a completed structure that is environmentally
acceptable. An evaluation of the methods used to establish
vegetation, and the problems encountered, on these steep
reinforced slopes was required.
Over recent years, the requirement for motorway
widening has led to an application of reinforced steepened
slopes. This has allowed the steepening of existing
earthworks slopes, up to 70°, to accommodate extra
carriageway lanes within the existing motorway land
comdors. Whilst the use of these types of construction is
significantly cheaper than hard structures, e.g. concrete,
evidence of their early life performance shows a wide range
of success and failure in the establishment of vegetation.
Vegetation can play an important role in preventing
shallow slip failures in earthworks slopes by the removal
of excess moisture from the embankment, or cutting, and
by providing tensile reinforcement through the roots.
However, when applied to steep reinforced slopes, the lack
of available moisture becomes the primary problem in
establishing and successfully maintaining the required
level of vegetation for reinforcement when biodegradable
facing material has ceased to function.
A survey of vegetated reinforced slopes, and subsequent
follow-up discussions with consultants, contractors and
manufacturers, illustrated highly variable success rates in
establishing these vegetated slopes. Lack of sufficient
moisture, coupled with a southerly orientation of the face
were the primary causes for failure of the vegetation. A
combination of the lack of available water due to rainfall
run-off and desiccation within the top soil can create a
hostile micro-climate.
Systems which use a reinforcing geotextile for soil
retention may only require vegetation to provide an
aesthetic facing and a long term barrier to ultra-violet
degradation. It is envisaged that planting in both new and
existing slopes at the layer interfaces should not present
any major problems. Other systems, which rely on the
vegetation to assume the role of providing long term face
reinforcement, to prevent erosion when the support
provided by the biodegradable facing fails, may require
changes in construction methods for new work.
Also, long term maintenance requirements need to be
considered during the design stage and repair techniques
will need to be developed for use on existing walls.
Whilst each highway widening scheme will be site
specific in terms of its location, slope geometry and aspect,
there are general points that should be considered during
the design stage when reinforced vegetated slopes are to be
used. As yet, some of these points have to be addressed
and will only be solved in the longer term as this use of
vegetation expands.
7.3 Vegetation for slope stability: Construction of a
trial embankment
Authors: R A Snowdon, D J MacNeil and A H Brookes
Project Report No: PR/CE/3/98
Date: 1998
The construction by TRL of a trial embankment has
provided a typical highway earthworks slope which will
enable a long term study on the growth of vegetation and
its effects on the stabilisation of shallow slips, on an over-
consolidated cohesive fill.
Based on results from ongoing vegetation trials, selected
species of trees, shrubs and perennial plants have been
planted in individual panels on the north and south facing
1 :2 side slopes of an embankment constructed from
Reading Beds (Lambeth Group) cohesive fill.
Instrumentation has been installed to monitor any changes
in pore water pressure resulting from vegetation effects.
Initial results in 1997 showed that the trees and shrubs
generally survived their first season, but suffered from the
exceptionally hot dry spring. The lower growing
perennials also succumbed to competition with the grasses.
Apart from a trend in increased suction below 0.75m depth
during the summer months, and marginally higher suctions
on the north facing slope, no defined patterns appeared
from the pore water pressure measurements to enable any
specific effects of the trees, shrubs or perennial plants on
the moisture rkgime to be identified.
The long term monitoring phase of the trial was completed
in November 2000, with any significant data obtained during
the trial of the effects of vegetation on the stability of side
slopes fed into the findings from other ongoing research
projects relating to the use of vegetation on highway slopes
for implementation through relevant Advice Notes.
7.4 Live willow poles for slope stabilisation on the A249
at Iwade
Author: D H Barker
Project Report No: PR/CE/133/97
Date: 1997
This project involved the incorporation of some 500 live
willow poles in a new cutting slope on the A249 Iwade
15
improvement scheme to enhance the existing level of
stability in the cut slope. The poles were installed to
augment the buttressing action of a series of counterfort
drains along an 80m length of south-east facing slope.
Other drainage measures were incorporated at the crest of
the slope to intercept surface water flow from a nearby
farm. The 1 in 3 slope was cut in the Lambeth Group
(Woolwich Beds Clay overlying Woolwich Beds Sands)
containing discontinuous sub-horizontal shear surfaces.
Some occasional seepage had been recorded during a site
investigation in 1987.
Following the installation of the poles during the late
spring of 1996, two visits were made to the site to carry
out monitoring of pole condition and root growth in spring
1997. Whilst the percentage of live poles is somewhat
lower than could be expected, the low survival rate can be
attributed to a number of factors specific to this site. These
relate to significant changes in the slope’s moisture rkgime
combined with some problems encountered with the pole
installation methods and handling of the live poles.
However, valuable information has been gained during the
early life of this trial which will be applicable to future
schemes using live willow poles for the enhancement of
slope stability.
In addition to the points relating to the A249 Iwade trial,
there is a more general need for specific trials to study the
mechanism of root development of live willow poles under
a range of differing soil types and moisture regimes. This
would then allow uprooted samples to be tested at various
stages of root development, both in the short and long
term. Such information would not only enhance
knowledge of the effects of vegetation, but would also be
useful if live poles were to be considered as a form of
vegetated soil nailing in the prevention of shallow slips on
highway embankment and cutting slopes.
This trial is scheme specific and will continue to be
monitored, including both the performance of the willow
poles and the geotechnical instrumentation installed in the
slope. Whilst the information in the report can be applied
to any future scheme using this technique, insufficient data
exists from this reported study for implementation through
Highways Agency Advice Notes.

16
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le, W Mc,Mi$on and D R Carde;.

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