ETHICS is acknowledged as an intellectual
discipline belonging to philosophy.
➢ Generally speaking, it is about matters
such as the good things that we should
pursue and the bad things that we
should avoid; the right ways in which we
could or should act and the wrong ways
of acting.
➢ It is about what is acceptable in human
behavior.
➢ It may involve obligations that we are
expected to fulfill, prohibitions that we
are required to respect, or ideals that we
are encouraged to meet
KINDS OF VALUATION
1. Aesthetics
- The judgments or personal
approval or disapproval that we
make about what we see, hear,
smell, or taste.
- In fact, we often use the word
“taste” to refer to the personal
aesthetic preferences that we
have on these matters such as
“his taste in music” or “her taste
in clothes.”
2. Etiquette
- Concerned with right or wrong
actions, but those might be
considered not quite grave
enough to belong to a
discussion on ethics.
- To clarify this point, we can
differentiate how I may be
displeased seeing a healthy
young man refuse to offer his
seat on the bus to an elderly
lady, out of my indignation and
shock would be much greater if I
were to see a man deliberately
push another one out of a
moving bus.
ETHICS AND MORALS
Ethics
- The discipline of studying and
understanding ideal human behavior
and ideal ways of thinking. Thus, ethics
- However, acceptable and unacceptable
behaviors are also generally described
as ethical and unethical, respectively.
Morals
- Specific beliefs of attitudes that people
have or to describe acts that people
perform. Thus, it is sometimes said that
an individual’s personal conduct is
referred to as his morals, and if he falls
short of behaving properly, this can be
described as immoral.
- However, we also have terms such as
“moral judgment” or “moral reasoning”,
which suggests a more intentional
aspect.
TWO TYPES OF ETHICS
1. Descriptive Ethics
- Study of ethics that reports how
people, particularly groups
make their moral valuation
without making any judgment
either for or against these
valuations.
2. Normative Ethics
- Study of ethics, as is often done
in philosophy or moral theology,
engages the questions: what
could or should be considered
the right way of thinking.
ISSUE, DECISION, JUDGMENT, AND
DILEMMA
Moral Issue
- Matter of ethics (and not just law) insofar
as it involves the questions of respect
for one's property.
- For instance, stealing.
Moral Decision
- When one is placed in a situation and
confronted by the choice of what act to
perform.
- For instance, I choose not to take
something I did not pay for.

Moral Judgment
- When a person is an observer who
makes an assessment on the actions or
behavior of someone.
- For instance, a friend of mine chooses
to steal from a store, and I make an
assessment that it’s wrong.
Moral Dilemma
- When an individual can choose only one
from a number of possible actions, and
there are compelling ethical reasons for
the various choices.
- For instance, a mother may be
conflicted between wanting to feed her
hungry child, but then recognizing that it
would be wrong for her to steal.
THE ETHICAL DIMENSION OF HUMAN
EXISTENCE: SOURCES OF AUTHORITY
- Several common ways of thinking about
ethics are based on the idea that the
standards of valuation are imposed by a
higher authority that commands our
obedience.
LAW
- one’s guide to ethical behavior.
Positive Law
- refers to the different rules and
regulations that are posited or put
forward by an authority figure that
require compliance.
Unethical acts as forbidden by the law:
Murder, theft, etc.
- The law is enforced by way of a system
of sanctions administered through
persons and institutions, which all help
in compelling us to obey.
- Perhaps, one should think of ethics in a
way that does not simply identify it with
obedience to the law.
RELIGION
- the idea that one is obliged to obey his
Creator in all things
- As a foundation for ethical values, this is
referred to as divine command theory.
- by listening to God & reading His
writings, an individual discovers how
God wants her to act.
➢ We are presented with a more-or-less
clear code of prohibitions & many of
these prohibitions given by religion –
“thou shall not kill”, “thou shall not steal”,
“thou shall not commit adultery” – seem
to intuitively coincide with our sense of
what ethics should rightly demand.
Religion is not simply prohibitive but also
provides ideals to pursue.
* be forgiving
* be loving
* help who have less
SUPREME AUTHORITY
- who can inspire & compel our obedience
in a way that nothing else can
CULTURE
- The customary beliefs, social forms, and
material traits of a racial, religious, or
social group; the characteristic features
of everyday existence (such as
diversions or a way of life) shared by
people in a place or time.
DIVERSITY OF CULTURE
a. Aesthetic differences (Japanese art vs
Indian art)
b. Religious differences (Buddhism vs
Christianity)
c. Etiquette differences (conflicting
behaviors in dining practices)
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
- It is the idea that a person's beliefs,
values, and practices should be
understood based on that person's own
culture, rather than be judged against
the criteria of another.
However:
- the argument of cultural relativism (CR)
is premised on the reality of difference
- Under CR, we realize that we are in no
position to render any kind of judgment
on the practices of another culture.
- Under CR, we realize that we are in no
position to render judgment on the
practices of even our own culture
- We can only maintain the CR by
following the presumption of culture as a
single clearly-defined substance or as
something fixed & already determined.
THE ETHICAL DIMENSION OF HUMAN
EXISTENCE: SENSES OF THE SELF
John locke = “a thinking intelligent being that
has reason and reflection and consider itself at
different times and places”
Immanuel Kant = “autonomous
self-regulating, capable of making moral
decisions by and for himself - dignity and
Worth”
Victor Frankl = “live and die for
the sake of his values and ideals”
Erich Fromm = “conscience, to
know what is to be done, to know
Thyself”
SUBJECTIVISM (personal independence)
- The starting point of subjectivism is the
recognition that the individual thinking
person (the subject) is at the heart of all
moral valuations.
In this, the individual is the sole determinant
of what is morally good or bad, right or
wrong:
- No one can tell me what is right or
wrong.
- No one knows my situation better than
myself.
- It is good if I say it is good.
- I am entitled to my own opinion.
PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
“Human beings are naturally self-centered, so all
our actions are always already motivated by
self-interest.”
*The ego or self has its desires & interests, and
all our actions are geared toward satisfying
these interests.
*The idea is that whatever or not the person
admits it, one’s actions are ultimately always
motivated by self-serving desires.
A psychological egoist would argue that a
soldier sacrifices his life for the sake of his
country; only in order to avoid the guilt he would
have, if he did not.
- Sigmund Freud's 'pleasure principle' is largely
based on this theory.
- The phrase 'let them eat cake' can be termed
as psychological hedonism.
- Every act of altruism is rejected as having a
selfish motive behind it, in psychological egoism.
ETHICAL EGOISM
- It differs from psychological egoism in that it
does not suppose all our actions are self-
serving; instead, it prescribes that we should
make our own ends, our own interests, as the
single overriding concern.
- would hold it morally right if you helped in
renovating a local sports stadium than donate
for a flood relief fund elsewhere.
- A private railroad making profit is running more
successfully than a nationalized railroad in the
benefit of the state,
- would choose what he wants as a career,
rather than what his parents or society wants.
MORAL VS NON-MORAL STANDARDS
- Different societies have different moral
beliefs which are deeply influenced by culture
and context. For this reason, some values do
have moral implications, while others don’t.
- Different cultures have different moral
standards. What is a matter of moral indifference
in one culture may be a matter of moral
significance in another.
MORALITY
- may refer to the standards that a person or a
group has about what is right and wrong, or
good and evil.
- is an innate sense, instinctively practiced, of
what is in the best interests of individuals,
nations, and the planet. It seeks to preserve,
and perpetuate, freedom, happiness, and
innocent life.
Moral Standards
- are those concerned with or relating to human
behavior, especially the distinction between
good and bad (or right and wrong) behavior.
- Involve the rules people have about the kinds
of actions they believe are morally right and
wrong, as well as the values they place on the
kinds of objects they believe are morally good
and morally bad. Some ethicists equate moral
standards with moral values and moral
principles.
- We have the RIGHT to FORCE others to act
accordingly (e.g. not to cheat, lie, kill, harm,
and deceive our fellow human beings).
- normally promote “the good”, that is
the welfare and well-being of humans as well as
animals and the environment.
- Norms + Values = Moral Standards
Non-Moral Standards
- Rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical
considerations.
- Either these standards are not necessarily
linked to morality or by nature lack ethical sense.
- Basic examples of non-moral standards
include rules of etiquette, fashion standards,
rules in games, and various house rules.
- Standards by which we judge what is good or
bad and right or wrong in a nonmoral way.
Examples: standards of etiquette (manner), the
law (legal or illegal), standards of aesthetics (art
or rubbish).
The following six (6) characteristics of moral
standards further differentiate them from
non-moral standards:
● Moral standards involve serious wrongs
or significant benefits.
● Moral standards are not established by
authority figures.
● Moral standards ought to be preferred to
other values.
● Moral standards are based on impartial
considerations.
● Moral standards are associated with
special emotions and vocabulary.
● Moral standards have the trait of
universalizability.
Moral Dilemma
Dilemma
- A situation where a person is forced to
choose between two or more conflicting
options, neither of which is acceptable.
Three conditions that must be present in
moral dilemmas:
1. The person or the agent of moral action
is obliged to make a decision about
which course of action is best.
2. There must be different courses of
action to choose from.
3. No matter what course of action is
taken, some moral principles are always
compromised.
TYPES OF MORAL DILEMMAS
1. Epistemic Dilemma
- There are two or more moral
requirements that conflict with
each other. The moral agent
hardly knows which one takes
precedence over the other. One
option must be better than the
other; only, it needs fuller
knowledge of the situation.
2. Ontological Moral Dilemma
- There are two or more moral
requirements that conflict with
each other, yet neither of these
conflicting moral requirements
override each other; Neither of
the moral requirements is
stronger than the other; hence,
 the moral agent can hardly Evolutionary Purpose
choose between the conflicting - To work with others for
moral requirements. mutual benefit
Self-Imposed and World-Imposed Dilemmas Universal triggers
Self-imposed moral dilemma - A cheater (cheating) or someone who
- caused by the moral agent’s works well with a group (fairness).
wrongdoings. Modern-day triggers
World-imposed moral dilemma - Being faithful to your partner (fairness),
- certain events in the world place the shoplifting (cheating)
moral agent in a situation of moral Typical emotions
conflict. - Frustration, thankfulness
Values associated
The 7-step Model for Ethical Decision-Making - Objectivity
1. Gather the facts
2. Identify the stakeholders Loyalty/Betrayal
3. Articulate the Dilemma Evolutionary Purpose
4. List the Alternatives - To form groups that can stick together
5. Compare the Alternatives with the Universal triggers
Principles - An external conflict that the group has to
6. Weigh the Consequences deal with together.
7. Make a Decision Modern-day triggers
- Any sort of organized team
6 Psychological Foundations of Morality Typical emotions
According to Jonathan Haidt’s Moral - Pride, anger at a betrayal
Foundations Theory Virtues associated
Moral Foundations Opposite: - Allegiance to a group
Care: protecting Harm
Fairness: justice Cheating Authority/Subversion
Loyalty Betrayal Evolutionary Purpose
Authority Subversion - To create and sustain positive
Sanctity: purity Degradation hierarchies
Liberty: freedom Oppression Universal triggers
- Someone claiming authority or
Care/Harm submitting to another.
Evolutionary Purpose: Modern-day triggers
- Raise children and keep - Respect in the workplace for superiors
them from harm Typical emotions
Universal triggers: - Esteem, terror
- When the child shows Virtues associated
signs of pain or distress - acceptance
Modern-Day Triggers:
- A cute video, an animal Sanctity/Degradation
at a rescue shelter Evolutionary Purpose
Typical emotions: - To avoid disease or other harm
- Empathy Universal triggers
Virtues associated: - People or animals carrying disease
- Generosity, sympathy Modern-day triggers
- Concepts like fascicism and red-tagging
Fairness/Cheating Typical emotions
 - revulsion 3. Simple voluntariness
Virtues associated - The disposition of a person
- Restraint, faith performing any activity
Liberty/Oppression regardless of his liking or not
Evolutionary Purpose liking it.
- Banding together to protect each other 4. Conditional voluntariness
from tyranny and refusing people who - The disposition of a person who
dominate or bully others is forced by circumstances to
Universal triggers perform an act which he would
- Domination and tyranny not do under normal conditions.
Modern-day triggers
- Bullying and contraining others, human
rights activist
Typical emotions
- Anger at oppression
Virtues associated
- Freedom and self-determination,
protection of victims.

Moral Distinction
- On the basis of their conformity or
nonconformity with the norm of morality, human
acts are either moral, immoral, or amoral.
1. Moral Actions
- Those in conformity with the norm of
morality.
2. Immoral Actions
- Those which are not in
conformity with the norm of
morality.
3. Amoral Actions
- Those which stand neutral or
indifferent to the norm of
morality.

4 TYPES OF VOLUNTARINESS

Voluntariness
- An act is voluntary because it is done under
the control of the will. Voluntariness is either:
1. Perfect voluntariness
- Possessed by a person who is
acting with full knowledge and
complete freedom.
2. Imperfect voluntariness
- Possessed by a person who
acts without fully understanding
what he is doing, or without
complete freedom.