Lesson 1

Foundation of Moral Valuation

Objectives for this lesson:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be
able to:
a. Identify actions related and not related to
Ethics.
b. Appreciate the role of Ethics in making
one’s life meaningful.
c. Distinguish moral actions from immoral
actions.
 Ethics
Foundation of Moral Valuation

Erwin C. Cangas
Teacher
Meaning of Ethics
 Generally speaking, is about matters such as the good thing
that we should pursue and the bad thing that we should
avoid;
 the right ways in which we could or should act and the wrong
ways of acting.
 It is about what is acceptable and unacceptable in human
behavior.
 It may involve obligations that we are expected to fulfill,
 prohibitions that we are required to respect,
 or ideals that we are encouraged to meet.
 As a subject, it is about determining the grounds for the
values with particular and special significance to human life.
Kinds of Valuation

Aesthetics
 Greek word aisthesis (sense or feeling)
refers to the judgments of personal
approval or disapproval that we make
about what we see, hear, smell, or
taste.
Etiquette
Concerned with right and
wrong actions, but those
which might be considered
not quite grave enough to
belong to a discussion on
ethics.
Technical valuation
Greek word techne-
means technique in
English- used to refer to
proper way (or right
way) of doing things.
Matters that concern life and
death such as war, capital
punishment, or abortions and
matters that concern human well-
being such as poverty,
inequality, or sexual identity are
often included in the discussion of
ethics.
 Lesson 2
Ethics and Morals

RENZO A. PAGSUGUIRON
Teacher
Ethics and Morals

 Morals- refer to specific beliefs or

attitudes that people have or to
describe acts that people perform.
Thus, it is sometimes said that an
individual’s personal conduct is referred
to as his morals, and if he falls short of
behaving properly, this can be described
as immoral.
Ethics- the discipline of
studying and understanding
ideal human behavior and
ideal ways of thinking.
Thus, Ethics is acknowledged
as an intellectual discipline
belonging to philosophy.
Philosophy
Gk. Philia- means
friendship or love
Sophia- means wisdom.
Thus, it is a love of
wisdom.
Areas or Branches of Philosophy
1. Metaphysics- wonders as to what
constitutes the whole reality.
2. Epistemology- asks what the basis for
determining what we know is.
3. Axiology- refers to the study of
values.
3.1 Aesthetics- concerns itself with
the value of beauty.
3.2. Ethics- concerns itself with the
value of human actions.
Descriptive and Normative Ethics

Descriptive study of ethics reports

how people, particularly group, make
their moral valuations without making
any judgment either for or against
these valuations.
This is the work of a social scientist
like historian or sociologist or
anthropologist.
Normative study of ethics is
often done in philosophy or
moral theology.
A normative discussion
prescribes what we ought to
maintain as our standards or
bases for moral valuation
 Lesson 3
Issue, Decision, Judgment, and
Dilemma
Issue, Decision, Judgment, and Dilemma

Issue- used to refer to those particular

situations that are often the source of
considerable and inconclusive debate

When one is placed in a situation and

confronted by the choice of what act to
perform, she is called to make a moral
decision
When a person is an observer who makes
an assessment on the action or behavior of
someone, she is making a moral judgment

Going beyond the matter of choosing right

over wrong, or good over bad, and
considering instead the more complicated
situation wherein one is torn between
choosing one of the two goods or choosing
between the lesser of two evils: this is
moral dilemma
 Reasoning
Principle- rationally established grounds
by which one justifies and maintains her
moral decisions and judgment.

Moral theory- is a systematic attempt to

establish the validity of maintaining
certain moral principles.
It can also be referred as framework
Framework- theory of
interconnected ideas, a structure
through which we can evaluate our
reasons for valuing a certain decision
or judgment.
Sources of authority
Several common ways of thinking about
ethics are based on the idea that the
standards of valuation are imposed by a
higher authority that commands our
obedience.
Law
 Positive law- refers to the different
rules and regulations that are posited or
put forward by an authority figure that
require compliance.
Religion
Divine Command Theory- it
expresses a claim that many people
of a religious sensibility find
appealing and immediately valid:
the idea that one is obliged to obey
her God in all things.
The divinity called God, Allah, or
Supreme Being commands and one is
obliged to obey her creator
 Many of us had been brought up with one form of
religious upbringing or another, it is very possible
that there is a strong inclination in us to refer to
our religious background to back up our moral
valuations.
 We are presented with more or less clear code of
prohibitions given by religion- thou shall not
kill-seem to intuitively coincide with our sense of
ethics should rightly demand.
 Religion
is not simply prohibitive, but it also
provides ideals to pursue.
WHAT AM I?
 Lesson 4
Culture and It’s components
 Culture
 Latin word cultus - care or
cultivation (Etymological meaning)
 isa complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, law,
morals, customs and any other
capabilities and habits acquired
by man as a member of society.
(Most quoted definition given by Edward B. Tylor, an
English anthropologist)
Various definition of
culture.
Descriptive – with emphasis on social
heritage
Normative – with emphasis on rules or
ways
Psychological – with emphasis on
adjustment
Structural – with emphasis on the
pattern or organization of culture
Generic – with emphasis on culture as
a product or artifact.
Culture tells man what to do,
what not to do and how to
do things.
Culture represents the
design or recipe for living.
Culture is closely associated
with civilization.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

1. Culture is
learned
Culture is derived from the
family and other social groups
and institutions through the
means of:
a. conditioning
b. Imitation
c. suggestions
d. informal and formal
instruction
e. mass communication
2. Culture is
transmitted
-Training
3. Culture is social.
It is a group
product developed
by many persons.
4. Culture
is
ideational.
Within the culture are
group habits
considered as ideal
pattern of behavior
which members are
expected to follow.
5. Culture is
gratifying
-Recognition
6. Culture is
adaptive
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
Folkways
Mores

Social Norms Laws

Fashion/Fad/Craze
Beliefs
CULTURE Ideas
Values

Material Things

37
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
CULTURE

A.Social Norms
These are group expectation or
guidelines that people are supposed to
follow in their relationship.
Itis usually in
the form of
rules,
standards or
prescription
 Everyday Social Norms
 Shaking hands when greeting someone.
 Saying "please" and "thank you"
 Apologizing when one makes a mistake.
 Standing up when someone enters the room.
 Making eye contact during a conversation.
 Listening when someone is speaking.
 Offering help when someone is struggling.
 Respecting personal space.
Sanction
 is a system of
giving rewards and
punishment to
encourage socially
acceptable
behavior.
2 forms of Sanction

1. Formal sanctions – these

are usually in written form
and enforced by person in
authority
2. Informal sanctions – these
are usually in verbal and
may come in the form of
gossip, public opinion, giving
or withdrawal of love or
friendship.
Sub-components of
Social Norms
1. Folkways/Customs
(Right vs. Rude)
 behavior or way of life of a
particular community or
people they are so customary
and habitual that we do not
even realize we are doing it.
People follow customs for the
sake of respecting their
parents or the community’s
way of life and for the sake of
convenience.
Folkways/Customs
 It is customary ways of
behaving and doing things.
 It includes rules or customs
of eating, sleeping,
dressing, cooking, working,
modes of greeting and
farewell, burial, marriage,
etc.
Folkways/Customs
Examples:
 Ex. Waiting in the line, Not
talking while eating,
talking loudly in public,
correct manners, proper
eating behavior, wearing
an appropriate dress, and
“best-beso” embracing
each other when meeting
for the first time, use of po
and opo, correct manners,
appropriate dressing.
2. Mores
(Right vs. Wrong)
These are folkways with
ethical and moral values
and are associated with
strong feelings about
right and truth.
Violators of Mores is
regarded as immoral,
sinful, vicious or anti-
social.
2. Mores
(Right vs. Wrong)

 Norms that regulate

ethical and moral
behavior, which point
to question what is
wrong and what is
right as prescribed by
society.
2.Example of Mores
(Right vs. Wrong)
Ex. Respect for parents ,
entering others house without
permission , having sex with
women without marriage ,
taking drugs , Stealing, setting
one's own property on fire,
talking while someone else
is talking ,rising during the
national anthem , dishonesty,
murder, rape ,etc.
3. Laws

Written norms legislated

by a law-making body,
which carry punishment
as a consequence for
violators.
3. Laws

It is formalized social
norms enacted or made
by the proper authorities
so that people would act
accordingly.
4.Fashion, Fad,
Craze
It is short lived social norms
which demand compliance at
the time they operate.
These include styles of
dresses, bags, shoes and hair
or styles of houses,
furniture, cars and gadgets.
Addition to Social Norms
Taboos (Right vs. Forbidden)
 Theseare norms prohibiting individuals
against practices that are considered to
be extremely “ immoral” or
“unacceptable” in society.
 Ex.Having sex with animals, Muslims
forbid to eat pork (food taboo), incest
relationships, etc.
Conclusion!
Social norms are shared expectations about what
kind of behaviors are and are not acceptable. These
are not actual rules because you cannot get in
actual legal trouble for breaking them. Breaking
social norms does not have any legal consequences,
but it can have a major impact on a person’s social
life because it can make people very uncomfortable
being around them and can mark them as ”weird"
and different. In terms of events that ”break” social
norms and how people will react to them, each
circumstance is different.
 If you are somehow inclined to break the social norms, be
prepared for criticism, opposition, even ostracization. If
by breaking the time-tested norms you are causing some
damage to other members of your society, it is better to
restrain yourself.

 When you break social norms, people stop associating with

you and you may lose your job. You may be kicked out of
the homeowner’s association or other groups. You end up
alone, ostracized because society is not comfortable with
your behavior and therefore Wish it to go away.
 Sometimes the consequence of breaking
social norms is that you break a law. Laws
are frequently developed around social
norms. Some laws govern hate crimes. If
you go against these, more than likely
you’ll go to jail. Breaking social norms can
make you a hero or an outcast. Many
people admire individuality, and sometimes
breaking a small social norm can get you
noticed.
 You will encounter the true arrogance of
mankind. You will be mocked, ridiculed,
humiliated, harassed, ostracized and there
will be threats made against you. You’ll lose
friends and sometimes family. They will
conspire against you so that you have
difficulty earning a living for yourself or your
family. They’ll slander your good name
without hesitation and will delight in doing so.
You might be physically assaulted. In some
places, they’ll murder you with stones. The
most incredible aspect will be their grotesque
sense of entitlement to judge others.
Importance of Culture
Culture distinguished man from
animal.

Culture sets a pre-conditioning

factor for the development of
man’s personality

Culture provides knowledge which

enable man to survive physically
and socially.

Culture is a tool for analyzing

human behavior.
Psychological Egoism
“Human beings are naturally self-centered, so all our
actions are always already motivated by self-
interest.”
 This is the stance taken by psychological egoism,
which is a theory that describes the underlying
dynamic behind all human actions.
 As a descriptive theory, it does not direct one to act
in a particular way. Instead, it points out that there
is already an underlying basis for how one acts.
 The ego or self has its desires and interests, and all
our actions are geared toward satisfying these
interests.
Ethical egoism
 It prescribes that we should make our
own ends, our own interests, as the
single overriding concern.
 We may act in a way that is beneficial
to others, but we should do that only
if it ultimately benefits us.
 One should consider herself a priority
and not allow any other concerns, such
as the welfare of other people, to
detract from this pursuit.
 Lesson 5
Values and Filipino Values
Analyze the story and
provide your reflection
Group of 5
PHILIPPINE VALUES

A family in the Philippines was

puzzled when the coffin of their
deceased mother arrived from the US
sent by their sister.
The tiny corpse was jammed so
tightly into the box that their mother’s
face was flattened against the glass lid.
When the family opened the coffin
they found a letter pinned to their
mother’s chest.
“Dearest brothers and sisters:

I am sending you our mother’s remains

for burial there. Sorry I could not
come along as the expenses were so
high. You will find under Mama’s body
12 cans of Libby’s corned beef, and 12
cans Spam. Just divide these among
yourselves. On Mama’s feet is a brand
new pair of Reeboks (size 8 for
Junior).
There are 4 pairs of Reeboks
under Mama’s head for Meloy’s
sons. Mama is wearing six Ralph
Lauren T-shirt, one for Manong
Roy and the rest for my
nephews. Mama is wearing one
dozen Wonder bras and 2
dozens Victoria’s Secret
panties to be distributed
among my nieces and cousins.
Mama is also wearing 8 pairs of Dockers pants. Kuya,
Diko, please take one each and give the rest to
your boys. The Swiss watch Ate asked for is on
Mama’s left wrist. Auntie Sol, Mama is wearing the
earrings, ring and necklace you asked for. The 6
pairs of Chanel stockings that Mama is also wearing
are for teen age girls. I hope they like the colors.

Your loving sister,

Nene.

This was printed in the book: Sociology Focus in the Philippines by Panopio
and Raymundo which was published in Malaya, 7 May 2002 by Dahli
Aspellera.
Share your
reflection in the
class!
WHAT ARE VALUES?

Values are beliefs

or intangible
qualities
accepted and
endorsed by a
given society.
WHAT ARE VALUES?

Culturally, Values are

define as standards by
which people assess
desirability, goodness and
beauty.

Values are statement

about what ought to be.
(Macciones 1997:70)
WHAT ARE VALUES?

a. Religiosity - spiritual life

and religious practices
are common to
Christian, Muslims, and
other Filipinos who
belong to different
religious groups.
b. Utang na loob - (sense of
gratitude or debt of
gratitude) returning the
favor or doing good to a
person who helps you.
WHAT ARE VALUES?
c. Bayanihan - the act of an
entire village or group of
neighbors to help their
fellows or kapwa.
Pakikipagkapwa - similar to
Golden Rule of Confucius:
do not do unto others if you
don’t want others to do unto
you. It starts with a kind
heart, with a good intention
to be with others, to help
them and grow together.
Filipino Values/Traits

Positive Traits
1. Close Family Ties and
Religious
 Filipinos value their
family so much that
they tend to be intact.
2. Hospitable

When one visits a

friend’s house, they
greet them with a
very warm welcome,
offer the best food…
3. Respectful

Children respects
elders by saying po
or opo which means
yes when answering
the elders.
4. Generosity and Helpful
This is observed when
one has nothing and they
tend to share what they
have to them.
When a neighbor is in
trouble, they are always
ready to help them.
5. Hardworking

Filipinos are willing

to work several time
to almost whole day
just to feed their
families.
6. Loving and
Caring

Filipinos are the

sweetest and
loving people
around the world.
Negative Filipino
Traits
1. Fatalism (Bahala na
si Batman
Mentality)
An attitude wherein,
“what goes around,
comes around,” or
“come what may.”
They tend to surrender
their future on fate.
2. Crab Mentality

 They tend to push each

other down for the
benefit of themselves to
go up so they try their
best to make the person
down or ruin. This is also
selfishness.
Lesson 6
Culture Relativism
Culture Relativism

Cultural Relativism- what is

ethically acceptable or
unacceptable is relative to, or
that is to say, dependent on
one’s culture.
Cultural relativism refers to not
judging a culture to our own
standards of what is right or
wrong, strange or normal. Instead,
we should try to understand
cultural practices of other groups
in its own cultural context.
Cultural Relativism

• This perspective
states that culture
differ and should be
viewed on their own
terms.
This means cultural relativism leads us to:
a. Conform to what we experience, which is
the reality of the differences in how cultures
make their ethical valuations.
b. By the taking one’s culture as the standard,
we are provided a basis for our valuations.
c. This teaches us to be tolerant of others
from different cultures, as we realize that we
are in no position to judge whether the ethical
thought or practice of another culture is
acceptable or unacceptable.
What is the
importance of
CULTURAL
RELATIVISM?
 Lesson 7
Principles governing Human Acts
and Acts of Man

RENZO A. PAGSUGUIRON
Teacher
Human Acts
 Are those actions which man
performs knowingly, freely, and
voluntarily.
 These actions are the result of
conscious knowledge and are
subject to the control of the will.
 We refer to these actions as
deliberate, intentional, or
voluntary.
Acts of man
Are those actions
which happen in man.
They are instinctive
and are not within the
control of the will.
For an act to be considered a human act,
it must possess the following
characteristics:
1. It must be performed by a conscious
agent who is aware of what he is doing
and of its consequences.
2. It must be performed by an agent who
is acting freely, that is, by his own
volition and power.
3. It must be performed by an agent who
decides willfully to perform the act.
Human acts must, therefore, be
knowing, free, and willful.

Kinds of human acts

1. Elicited acts- are those
performed by the will and are
not bodily externalized.
Paul Glenn enumerates the following elicited
acts:
1. Wish is the tendency of the will
towards something, whether this be
realizable or not.
2. Intention is the tendency of the will
towards something attainable but without
necessarily committing oneself to attain
it.
3. Consent is the acceptance of the will
of those needed to carry out the
intention.
4. Election is the selection of the
will of those means effective
enough to carry out the intention.
5. Use is the command of the will
to make use of those means elected
to carry out the intention.
6. Fruition is the enjoyment of the
will derived from the attainment of
the thing he had desired earlier.
2. Commanded acts- are those done either by
man’s mental or bodily powers under the command
of the will. They are either internal or external
actions.
 examples of internal actions are conscious
reasoning, recalling something, encouraging
oneself, controlling aroused emotions and
others.
 examples of external actions are walking,
eating, dancing, laughing, listening, reading and
others.
 some actions are combinations of internal and
external movements such as, listening, studying,
reading, driving a car, writing a letter or playing
chess.
Moral distinction
 Human acts may either be in conformity or
not with the dictates of reason.
 “Dictates of reason” refers to the shared
consciousness of prudent people about the
propriety of a certain action or manner of
behavior. It shows what is permissible in a
given situation, the best option as a
matter of fact.
 Dictatesof reason stands for the norm of
morality which is the standard by which
actions are judged as to their merits or
demerits.
Classification of actions
1. Moral actions are those actions which are
in conformity with the norm of morality.
They are good actions and are permissible.
2. Immoral actions are those which are not
in conformity with the norm of morality.
They are bad or evil and are not
permissible.
3. Amoral actions are those actions which
stand neutral in relation to the norm of
morality.
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Evil
something is intrinsic to a thing
when it is integral to the nature of
that thing. The sweetness of a
mango fruit is, for example,
intrinsic to it.
an appeal of a mango to a
particular person is extrinsic to it,
that is, such quality is not an
integral element of it as fruit.
Voluntariness
Latin word voluntas-
referred to the Will.
It is essential to an
act. Without it, an act
is just a mere act of
man.
Distinction of voluntariness
1. Perfect voluntariness- is
present in a person who fully
knows and fully intends an act.
2. Imperfect voluntariness- is
present in a person who acts
without fully realizing what he
means to do, or without fully
intending the act.
3. Conditional voluntariness is
present in a person who is forced
by circumstances beyond his
control to perform an act which he
would do under normal conditions.
4. Simple voluntariness is present
in a person doing an act wilfully,
regardless of whether he likes to
do it or not.
Types of voluntariness
1. Direct voluntariness accompanies
an act which is primarily intended by
the doer, either as an end in itself or
as a means to achieve something else.
Ex. eating lunch.
2. Indirect voluntariness accompanies
an act or situation which is the mere
result of a directly willed act.
Ex. Getting a failing grade.
Modifiers of Human Act
Modifiers- are factors that influence man’s
inner disposition towards certain actions.
They affect the mental or emotional state of
a person to the extent that the voluntariness
involved in an act is either increased or
decreased.
Principle: “The greater the knowledge and the
freedom, the greater the voluntariness and
the moral responsibility.” (Panizo)
1. Ignorance- the absence of
knowledge which a person ought to
possess.
a. Vincible ignorance- can easily be
reminded through ordinary diligence
and reasonable efforts.
The ignorance of a visitor regarding a
particular address in a certain place is
vincible, since he can easily ask for
information from a policeman or
pedestrian.
b. Invincible ignorance- is the type which a
person possesses without being aware of it,
or, having awareness of it, lacks the means
to rectify it. The ignorance regarding a
missing persons or objects is often invincible.
c. Affected ignorance- this is a type which a
person keeps by positive efforts in order to
escape responsibility or blame.
It is affected ignorance when an employee
refuses to read a memo precisely so that he
may be exempted from its requirement.
Principles:
1. Invincible ignorance renders an act involuntary. A
person cannot be held morally liable if he is not aware of his
state of ignorance. A waiter who is not aware that the food he is
serving has been poisoned cannot be held for murder.
2.Vincible ignorance does not destroy, but lessens the
voluntariness and the corresponding accountability over
the act. A person who becomes aware of the state of ignorance
he is in has the moral obligation to rectify it by exercising
reasonable diligence in seeking the needed information.
3. Affected ignorance, though it decreases voluntariness,
increases the accountability over the resultant act.
2. PASSION
• Passion or concupiscence are either tendencies towards
desirable objects, or, tendencies away from undesirable or
harmful things. The former are called positive emotions; and the
latter, negative emotions.
• Positive emotions: love, desire, delight, hope and bravery.
• Negative emotions: hated, horror, sadness, despair, fear and
anger.
• Passions are psychic responses. They are neither moral or
immoral.
PASSION ARE EITHER ANTECEDENT OR CONSEQUENT
Antecedent passions are those that precede an act. It may
happen that a person is emotionally aroused to perform an act. It
predisposes a person to act.
Thus, love may induce one to make numerous and lengthy phone
calls to his sweetheart, or, to plot the murder of a rival.
Principle: Antecedent passions do not always destroy
voluntariness, but they diminish accountability for the
resultant act.
Antecedent passions weaken the will of a person without,
however, completely obstructing his freedom. Thus, the so called
“crimes of passion” are voluntary.
Consequent passions are those that are intentionally
aroused and kept.
Consequent passions, therefore, are said to be voluntary
in cause, the result of the will playing the strings of
emotions.
Thus, a young man may deliberately arouse himself
sexually by reading pornographic magazines. He is morally
accountable.
Principle: Consequent passions do not lessen
voluntariness, but may even increase accountability.
3. FEAR
Fear is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is
confronted by an impending danger or harm to himself
or loved ones.
Act done with fear: climbing a cliff, flying an airplane
through a storm, diving for pearls, arresting a notorious
killer.
Act done out of fear or because of fear: the child
reads his book out of fear of the mother, the employee
volunteers to work overtime out of fear of being fired by
the boss.
Principle:
1. Acts done with fear are voluntary. A
person acting with fear is acting inspite
of his fear and is in full control of himself.
2. Acts done out of fear, however great, is
simply voluntary, although it is also
conditionally voluntary.
3. Acts done because of intense fear or
panic are involuntary. Panic
completely obscure the mind. It causes
a person to lose complete control of
himself.
4. Violence
 Itrefers to any physical force
exerted on a person by
another free agent for the
purpose of compelling the said
person to act against his will
 Bodily torture, maltreatment,
isolation and mutilation- are
examples of violence against
person.
Principle:
1. External actions, or commanded
actions, performed by a person
subjected to violence, to which
reasonable resistance has been
offered, are involuntary and are not
accountable.
2. Elicited acts, or those done by the will
alone, are not subject to violence and
are therefore voluntary.
5. HABITS
It is defined as a lasting readiness
and facility, born of frequently
repeated acts, for acting in a
certain manner.
Principle:
Actions done by force of habit are
voluntary in cause, unless a
reasonable effort is made to
counteract the habitual inclination.
 EMOTION
➢Emotions are generally
instinctive in origin.
➢They become good or evil by
the attitude of the person
manifesting them.
➢Ethics deals with emotions as
factors affecting human
motivation and behavior.
THE ENDS OF HUMAN ACTS
End is the purpose or goal of an act. It is that which
completes or finishes an act.
Distinction between end of the act and end of the doer or
agent.
End of the act is the natural termination of an activity.
The end of eating is nourishment; of reading is
comprehension; of basketball is scoring a goal; of jogging is
physical exercise.
DISTINCTION CONTINUES……

End of the doer or agent is the personal purpose

intended by the person performing the act.
The end of the doer is called the motive.
The motive is the reason why a person performs an
act. It is the force that sustains the act and brings it to
completion.
He who eats aims to satisfy his hunger; the reader, to
relax himself; the basketball player, to win the game;
and the jogger, to maintain physical fitness.
KINDS OF ENDS
THE END OF THE DOER IS EITHER…
1. PROXIMATE OR REMOTE END
2. INTERMEDIATE OR ULTIMATE END
1. Proximate End is the purpose which a doer wishes
to accomplish immediately by his action. The remote
end is the purpose which a doer wishes to accomplish
in a series of acts.
The proximate end of eating is the satisfaction of
hunger. Its remote end is the promotion of health.
2. The ultimate end is the purpose which is desired for its
own sake and not because of something else. The
intermediate end is the purpose which is desired as means
for obtaining another thing. The attainment of an ultimate
end completes an act and stop all further acts. The
attainment of an intermediate end leads either to another
intermediate end or to an ultimate end.
A student may assign his graduation as an ultimate end.
Those activities leading to graduation such as attending
classes, taking exams, participating in oral recitation
and so on are intermediate end.
PRINCIPLES CONCERNING HUMAN ACTIONS
1. Every agent that performs an action acts for the
sake of an end or purpose to be attained. Man is
a motivated animal. For him to act, he must first
find the motive to act.
2. Every agent acts towards an ultimate end. The
ultimate end gives meaning to an activity.
3. Every agent has the power to move himself
towards an end which he finds suitable for him.
Only what is good can be suitable for man. End
is synonymous with the concept “good”.
GOOD
Aristotle defines good as
that which fits a function.
The good of man is that
which fits his function as
rational being.
 KINDS OF GOOD
1. Essential and Accidental. Those that fit the natural needs of man
as man are essential good. These include food, shelter, health,
knowledge, virtue and life.
Those that fit the wants of an individual because of his circumstances
are accidental goods. Such include money, car, good name,
academic degree, power, luxury, and many more
Essential good is also called perfective because they contribute
to the integral perfections of man.
Accidental good are called non-perfective because they merely
contribute to the external worth or appearance of the person.
2. Real and Apparent. A real good is
something which has intrinsic value. We
call it Value. It possesses qualities
rendering it fitting or desirable
Examples of real good are good acts
and habits, parents and parenthood,
pleasure and joy, work and leisure.
Apparent good is actually an evil thing
but is viewed as good under certain
aspects. Examples are diseases, sadness,
death, worry, crimes, etc.
3. Perfective and Non-perfective
good. Perfective good is that which
contributes to the integral
perfection of the person such as
education, virtue, food, exercise,
medicine.
Non-perfective good is that which
merely contributes to the external
appearance or convenience of the
person such as clothes, wealth,
social status, political power, etc.
4. Perfect and Imperfect good. Also called
unlimited or limited goods or absolute or
relative goods.
Perfect good has the fullness of qualities
enabling it to fully satisfy human desire.
Imperfect good possesses only certain
qualities so that it does not fully satisfy
human desire except in a relative or
limited sense.
All earthly goods are imperfect. Only God
in absolute sense, is perfect good.
THE GREATEST GOOD
For Aristotle the highest
good is happiness. It is
what man aims to
achieve in all his
activities. The ultimate
purpose of life is the
attainment of happiness.
SOME ERRORS CONCERNING HAPPINESS
1. Some people give the impression that money
or wealth can buy happiness.
2. Some people equates health with happiness.
3. Sensual people vainly seeks happiness in
earthly pleasures.
4. Certain people cling to their public image as
if God Himself was made after their illusion.
5. Some dedicate their lives to science and arts.
6. Some propose that the final purpose is the
promotion of State or Government.
THE DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY

1. The act in itself (Object)

2. The motive of the act (End)
3. Circumstances of the act
1. ACT IN ITSELF
In the physical sense, some actions are bad because they
produce such evil as pain, hunger, illness or death.
In the moral sense, actions are bad because they disturb
the harmony within the acting person. They are “unfit” to
the natural and spiritual tendencies of the human soul.
Moral evils produce physical harm and damage of oneself
and others. They are moral evils because they destroy the
innate goodness, the image of God in our nature.
All moral evils are those that go against the natural law.
 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC EVIL
“Intrinsic” implies a quality inherent in a thing. An intrinsic evil act
is an act which is evil by its nature.
“Extrinsic” implies a quality which is superficially added to a
thing in a manner that a coat paint covers the surface of a wall
without modifying the essentiality of the wood constituting the
wall.
According to Panizo, an extrinsic evil is that which, although good
or indifferent in itself, is however prohibited by a human law.
An example of extrinsic evil act is that of eating by Catholics on
the Fridays of Lent.
An intrinsic evil act is one which by its
nature, that is, by its functional
purpose, is wrongful. Any act which
prevents man from realizing his true
worth as a person is intrinsically evil.
Murder, robbery, rape, adultery, lies,
and slavery are examples of actions
that contradicts the demands of reason
for justice, truth and decency.
2. THE MOTIVE OF THE ACT
It is the purpose which the doer wishes to achieve by such
action. It is what gives direction and motivation to an act. It
comes first in the mind as intention and occurs last in the
action as its culmination or fulfillment. Without a motive, an
act is meaningless, an accident.
A good motive is consistent with the dignity of the human
person.
It is in accordance with truth, justice, prudence, and
temperance.
In the OT, a good man is a “just man”, he acts rightly out of
respect for himself and out of concern for others.
Paul Glenn gives us the following insights on the effects
of the motive on the action:
1. An evil act which is done on account of an evil
motive is grievously wrong. A youngster who steals
from his parents on order to buy “shabu” for himself is
committing a grievous wrong to himself and his
parents.
2. A good action done on account of an evil motive
becomes evil in itself. The executive who gives a job
to a lady applicant in order to seduce her later makes
his kindness immoral because of his evil intention.
3. A good action done on account of a good
purpose acquires an additional merit. The father
who foregoes his expensive hobby in order to send his
children to school shows a deeper concern for the
welfare of his loved ones.

4. An indifferent act may either become good or

bad depending on the motive. Opening the door of a
house is an indifferent act. But the servant who, in
connivance with the thieves, opens the door of the house
his master, does a wrongful act.
3. CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE ACT
• An act is an event. It happens is a definite time and place. It
is accompanied by certain elements which contribute to
the nature and accountability of such act. This is the
mitigating or aggravating factors affecting a criminal act.
• These circumstances are: who, what, where, with whom,
why, how and where.
1. Who refers primarily to the doer of the act. At times,
it also refers to the receiver of the act. This circumstance
includes the age, status, relation, family background,
educational attainment, health and socio-economic situation
of the person or persons involved in the act.
Observations:
a. The moron, the insane, the senile and the children
below the age of reason are considered incapable
of voluntary acts and, are therefore, are exempted
from moral accountability. But actions against these
persons are normally regarded most cruel due to
their helplessness in defending themselves.
b. Persons with higher educational attainment are
presumed to know better than those with little
education. Their liability is higher. “To whom much
is given, much is expected.”
c. Persons vested with authority have higher
accountability than those who merely
follow their order or command.
d. The relationship between people involved
in act may modify the nature of such act.
Cruelty to one’s own children is, for
instance, more wrongful than that done
against children of other people.
2. What refers to act itself and to the quality and
quantity of the results of such act. The graveness of
robbery is measured by what is stolen and by how much
is stolen.
3. Where refers to the circumstance of the place where
the act is committed. Rape done inside the church is
more scandalous than that which is done in the privacy
of the house.
4. With Whom refers to the companion or
accomplices in an act performed. This includes the
number and status of the persons involved.
5. Why refers to the motive of the doer.
6. How refers to the manner how the act is made
possible. Was the killing accompanied with deceit?
Was it done by the use of torture? How an act is
performed contributes to the malice of an act.
7. When refers to the time of the act. A murder
committed when the victim is sleeping is more
offensive than the one done when the victim is
wide awake.
Law
 According to St. Thomas Aquinas, it is an
ordinance of reason promulgated for the
common good by one who has charge of society.
 It is an “ordinance of reason” because they are
rational deliberations intended to guide men
towards what is good for them and for society. The
objective or purpose of the law is the attainment of
the common good.
 It is “promulgated”, that is, they are made known
to the people who are bound to observe them.
 Law are passed by “one who has the charge of
society” because they can only be valid if they are
the legitimate exercise of authority.
Kinds of Law
1.Divine Positive Law are those
promulgated, or made known to us, by
special command of God. The
Decalogue of Moses is an example.
2.Human Positive Laws are those
promulgated by a legitimate human
authority. It is intended to preserve
peace and harmony within a society and
to direct each member of that society
to work towards the common good.
3. Moral and Political Laws
Moral Laws are those derived from the natural law.
They direct man towards the higher values of his
development as a human being.
Natural moral laws are those that are “written” in
the hearts of all men. They are the inherent and
essential tendencies of human nature towards the
good proper to it. They are the tendencies of
rational soul for Aristotle.
Political Laws, both civil and criminal laws, are
those enacted by men to guide their actuations in
society and in relation to one another. The objective
is peace and order and material prosperity.
Properties of Human Laws
1. Human laws must conform with Divine laws.
2. Human laws must promote the common
good.
3. Human laws must be just and not
discriminatory of certain individuals or
groups.
4. Human laws must be practicable.
5. Human laws regulate external actions only.
6. Human laws are fallible, because human
legislators are liable to commit errors.
 Norms of Morality
 Norm. In general, it is a standard of
measurement. It is an instrument of which the
quality or quantity of a thing is determined.
 Theclock that tells time, the thermometer
that indicates temperature, the speedometer
that measures velocity- are examples of
norms.
 The norms of morality are the standards that
indicate the rightfulness or wrongness, the
goodness or evilness, the value or disvalue of
a thing.
 Richard M. Gula defines the norm of morality as
“criteria of judgment about the sorts of person
we ought to be and the sorts of actions we
ought to perform.”
 Moralitytherefore, consists in the relation of a
thing with the norm. Morality is defined as the
“quality of things manifesting their conformity
or non-conformity with the norm or criteria.”
 Theremote norm of morality is Natural Law.
The proximate norm of morality is Conscience.
 Bothnatural law and conscience are rooted on
Eternal Law, the ultimate norm.