CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Ethics and Morals
1.2 Descriptive and normative ethics
1.3 Value and Kinds of Valuation
1.4 Moral issues, moral decision, moral judgment, moral dilemma.
1.5 The case of Baby Theresa, Jodie and Mary and Tracy Latimer
1.6 Minimum Conception of Ethics/Morality

1.1 Ethics and Morals

ETHICS is derived from the Greek word ethicos/ethos which means custom or character. The good thing that we
should pursue and the bad thing that we should avoid; the right ways in which we could or should act and the
wrong ways of acting. It is about what is acceptable and unacceptable in human behavior. Ethics is also called
MORAL PHILOSOPHY however; Morality and Ethics has differences which will be illustrated by the table
shown below.

Ethics Morality
SIMILARITY
Comes from the Greek word ethos/ethicos which means Comes from the Latin word mos/moris which means
custom. custom.
Custom means long established practice among people in particular group or place.
DIFFERENCES
- a theoretical science of good and bad or right - The application of ethics.
and wrong actions. - Translates theories into real action.
- provides principles on the morality of human
acts *Morality is nothing else but a doing of ethics
- equips man with a (theoretical) knowledge of
the morality of the human acts.

*Ethics does not actually guarantee that man will be

moral.

Table 1. implies that anyone can be ethical but not actually moral.
For example, Ana memorized the Ten Commandments in the bible and she knows how to explain it well.
However, her friend John sees Ana as a hypocrite because she does not practice what it says in the
commandments. We can say that Ana is Ethical but not Moral. But again, we should remember that it does not
necessarily mean that when you are religious, you are ethical or moral because religion does not always equate
with ethics and morality. This will be further discussed in the latter part of this module.
Concerning “ethics” and “morality”, various thinkers and writers posits a distinction between these two
and they may have good reasons for doing so, but there is no consensus as to how to make that distinction.
Ordinary conversation presents a much less rigid distinction between these terms, and in this module, we will
lean in that direction, we will be using the terms “ethical” and moral” (likewise, “ethics” and “morality”)
interchangeably.

MORAL PHILOSOPHY
The study of what morality is and what it requires of us. As Socrates said, it’s about “how we ought to
live”—and why. It would be helpful if we could begin with a simple, uncontroversial definition of what morality
is, but unfortunately we cannot. There are many rival theories, each expounding a different conception of what it
means to live morally, and any definition that goes beyond Socrates’s simple formulation is bound to offend at
least one of them.

NON-MORAL, AMORAL, AND IMMORAL

1. Non-Moral Act or Not Ethical

- Areas of interest where moral categories cannot be applied. These actions come out naturally as part of
our human nature.
Ex: Snoring while sleeping.
2. Amoral Act or Not Ethical
 - Areas of interest exhibiting indifference. At times, these are manifested in the absence of knowledge,
freedom and voluntariness on the part of the acting agent.
Ex: A young child who is picking a fight.
3. Immoral Act or Unethical
- Areas of interest where moral categories do apply and are considered to be evil, sinful, or wrong
according to the code of ethics.
Ex: Cheating during examinations.

ACTIVITY 1
Let us practice!
An Aeta went to Manila for the first time. He crossed the highway by not following the traffic rules
because he was not aware that such rule in that place existed. Is he wrong for doing it? Is his action non-moral,
amoral or immoral?

Your answer should be AMORAL ACT. Why? First, it’s not a non-moral act because there was a decision made
and that is by choosing to walk across the highway when he is not supposed to do so. Second, it’s not an immoral
act because it was his first time to be in a place where traffic rules existed. There is a big possibility that he didn’t
know about the rule. He can indeed be imprisoned for the act that he committed but it does not mean that he is
immoral. Besides, one cannot be automatically judged as immoral for not following a mere rule or law. It is
therefore an amoral act because of the reason that he lacks awareness of the rule.

1.2 Descriptive and normative ethics

DESCRIPTIVE study of ethics reports how people, particularly groups, make their moral valuations without
making any judgement either for or against these valuations. This kind of study is often the work of the social
scientist:
Examples:
 A historian (studying different moral standards overtime)
 A sociologist on an anthropologist (studying different moral standards across cultures).
 Noting how filial piety and obedience are pervasive characteristics of Chinese culture.

NORMATIVE study of ethics, as is often done in philosophy or moral theology, engages the question: What
could or should be considered as the right way of acting? In other words, a normative discussion prescribes what
we ought to maintain as our standards or bases for moral valuation. Ethics as a normative philosophical science, is
a theoretical science of good and bad or right and wrong. So, ethics provides principles on the morality of human
acts; it equips man with a (theoretical) knowledge of the morality of human acts.
Example:
 Studying how Confucian ethics enjoins us to obey our parents and to show filial piety.

A philosophical study of morality is very different from a sociological or anthropological study, or a

study from the perspective of biology or psychology. One important difference is that in moral philosophy we do
not distance ourselves from our own moral views in the way we would if we were engaged in a study of one of
these other kinds. We do not take the fact that people, including ourselves, have moral views as merely a datum to
be explained. Our goal is not merely to explain data of this kind, whether it be the distribution of moral beliefs
and attitudes, or the occurrence of selfish or altruistic actions. Rather, in moral philosophy, the correctness or
cogency or defensibility of moral claims, convictions, and attitudes, and the probity of various behaviors, are
among the things at issue.
We need to go further. A philosophical discussion of ethics goes beyond recognizing the characteristics of
some descriptive theory; also, it does not simply accept as correct any normative theory. A philosophical
discussion of ethics engages in critical consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of these theories. This will
be our primary concern throughout this module.

Reasons on why we need to spend time learning Ethics:

Ethics teaches us how to know:
1. Obligations that we are expected to fulfill.
- To be under an obligation signifies being tied, required, or to do (or from doing) something by virtue of a
moral rule, a duty, or some other binding demand. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (2 ed.)
 - For example, at home, you have the obligation to obey your parents. When they say you have to wash the
dishes, you will act on it. Why do you do it then? Simply because you believe that obeying your parents,
ACT OF DOING WHAT THEY WANT YOU TO DO, makes you a good child.
2. Prohibitions that we are required to respect.
- Prohibitions are powerful, (theoretically) enforceable, and sanctionable social and/or legal restrictions on
certain behaviours, events, or other activities—including, for example, sexual ‘deviations’, drug-taking or
trafficking, and trade in endangered species. A Dictionary of Sociology (4 ed.)
- This could be understood as to the action that we should not do because a certain punishment will take
place if we will.
- For example, your parents told you not to have a boyfriend/girlfriend at your age so you obeyed them by
NOT DOING THE ACT, thus makes you a good child.
3. Ideals that we are encouraged to meet.
- Ideals mean standard of perfection or excellence. Dictionary.com
- A conception of something that is perfect …that attempts to reproduce the best of nature, but also to
improve on it, eliminating the inevitable flaws of particular examples. The Oxford Companion to the
Mind (2 ed.)
- Going back to your obligation on washing the dishes, we think that doing the act makes us already a good
child however we should remember that the process of doing the act should also be good. It should be
ideal.
- It means that you are washing the dishes by not showing that you don’t like what you are doing. Minsan
nagdadabog ka kapag naghuhugas ka. Tama ba yun? (Is it good to throw tantrums while obeying your
parents?) This simply means that you don’t just have to wash the dishes but to wash it excellently because
by doing so shows that you are excellently obeying your parents.
4. Values with particular and special significance to human life.
- The principles by which individuals or social groups are supposed to conduct themselves and/or which
denote WHAT IS IMPORTANT. A Dictionary of Human Geography

Ethics, generally speaking is about matters as the good things that we should pursue and the bad thing that we
should avoid; the right ways in which we could or should act and the wrong ways of acting. It is about what is
acceptable and unacceptable in human behavior. It may involve obligations that we are expected to fulfill,
prohibitions that we are required to respect, or ideals that we are encouraged to meet. Ethics as a subject for us to
study is about determining the grounds for the values with particular and special significance to human life.

GROUP ACTIVITY
Your task now is to identify a list of: (a) obligations you are expected to fulfill, (b) prohibitions you are
required to respect, and (c) ideals that you are encouraged to meet. Discuss whether this are ethical in nature or
not.

1.3 Values and Kinds of Evaluation

VALUES are our fundamental beliefs. They are the principles we use to define that which is right, good and just.
Values provide guidance in determining the right versus the wrong, the good versus the bad. They are our
standards. Another way to characterize values is the that they are what an individual believes to be of worth and
importance to their life. It should be noted that values do not encompass all beliefs; just the beliefs that define
importance and worth. Moreover, values are our motivations behind our purposeful actions. They are the ends to
which we act. Values entail a relationship between a person and a goal. It can be said that a valuer or a particular
person who wants to achieve something. A thing cannot have a value in itself. It only gains its value when a
person acts to achieve it. Thus, value is always relational. Consider the word “evaluate”. When we evaluate
something, we compare it to a standard. We determine whether it meets that standard or falls short. To evaluate is
to determine the merit of a thing or an action as compared to a standard.

Let us be reminded that there are instances when we make value judgments that are not considered to be
part of ethics because they can be in a form of aesthetics, etiquette and technical valuation.
 1. Ethics/ Moral Valuation
- Values that we attribute to a system of beliefs that help the individual define right versus wrong, good
versus bad. The good thing that we should pursue and the bad thing that we should avoid; the right ways
in which we could or should act and the wrong ways of acting. It is about what is acceptable and
unacceptable in human behavior.
Example: A father being a good dad by protecting his child from danger.

2. Etiquette
- sense of approval or disapproval concerning certain actions which can be considered relatively more
trivial in nature.
- concerned with right and wrong actions, but those which is not considered not grave enough to belong to
the discussion on ethics.
- to clarify this point, we can differentiate how I may be displeased seeing a healthy young man refuse to
offer his seat on the bus to an elderly lady, but my indignation and shock would be much greater if I were
to see a man deliberately push another one out of moving bus.
Example: Saying “po” at “opo” to someone older than you.

3. Aesthetics
- derived from the Greek word aesthesis (sense or feeling)
- refers to the judgements of personal approval or disapproval that we make about what we see, hear, smell,
or taste.
- for instance, I could say that this new movie I had just seen was a “good” one because I enjoyed it, or a
song I had just heard on the radio was a “bad” one because it had an unpleasant tone, but these are not
part of the discussion of ethics. I may have an opinion as to what is the “right” dip (sawsawan) for my
chicken barbecue, or I may maintain that it is wrong “wrong” to wear a leather vest over a Barong
Tagalog
Example: Saying that the ramen is good because it tastes delicious.

4. Technical valuation
- derived from the Greek word techne, in English words technique and technical which often used to refer
to a proper way or right way of doing things.
- right and wrong technique of doing things
- for instance, I am told that the right thing to do would be to mix the dry ingredients first such as flour or
sugar before bringing in any liquids, like milk or cream; this is the right to do in baking, but not one that
belongs to a discussion of ethics. Example: The correct way of playing basketball.

Recognizing the characteristics of aesthetic and technical valuation allows us to have a rough guide as to
what belongs to a discussion of ethics. They involve valuations that we make in a sphere of human actions,
characterized by certain gravity and concern the human well-being or human life itself. Therefore, matters
that concern life and death such as war, capital punishment, or abortion and matters that concern human well-
being such as poverty, inequality, or sexual identity are often included in discussions of ethics. However, this
general description is only a starting point and will require further elaboration.

One complication that can be noted is that the distinction between what belongs to ethics and what does
not is not always clearly defined. At times, the question of what is grave or trivial is debatable and sometimes
some of the most heated discussions in ethics could be on the fundamental question of whether a certain
sphere of human activities belongs to this discussion. Are clothes always just a matter of taste or would
provocative clothing call for some kind of moral judgement? Can we say that a man who verbally abuses his
girlfriend is simply showing bad manners or does this behavior deserve stronger moral condemnation?

1.4 Moral Valuation

MORALITY AND HUMAN EXISTENCE

1. Man as Animal
- Uses senses (sentient) and instinct.
 - Looking at table 2 below, it is clear that brutes and ordinary grades of animals do acquire knowledge
through their senses. Their senses, undoubtedly, are indispensable medium of knowledge. As an animal,
man also acquires knowledge through his senses.
- By appetency, we mean the drive to seek or to strive for something. Brutes and ordinary forms of animals
are driven to seek for something out of their instincts. Instincts are natural biological drives of animals.
Thus, man, being an animal is also a subject of these drives. Just like any other animal, man desires food
when hungry and seeks water when thirsty. There are of course manifold kinds of psychological drives or
instinctive drives. Sex is one of them. An inasmuch as man is an animal, he is also subject to the
instinctive sexual drive.
- In this given schema, nothing special can be said of man. He is just like any of the other forms of animals.
If we rely on this, man cannot be conceived of as a moral agent. His animality does not give him license
to be moral.

Knowledge: Senses

Animal
Appetency: Instinct
Man

Knowledge: Senses and Itellect

Rational

Knowledge: Instict and Will

2. Man as Rational Animal

- Does not just simply perceive things but also intellectualizes things.
- It is his being rational animal that makes a man. It is only in this context that man’s being rational that
that makes him a unique grade of animal. Being rational, man’s knowledge does not stop in the senses
since his sensual knowledge (perception) is further “processed” by his intellectual abstraction.
- As rational animal, capable of reasons, man strives for something not only through his instincts, but also
through his will. It is true man has instincts drives, but man can transcend all these drives into a higher
degree. Man, therefore, is capable of injecting a dose of his discipline to his physiological drives because
he has intellect and will.

3. Man is the only Moral Being

a. Man is a being of action.
 Man acts and knows his acts. Because he knows he acts, he knows he is responsible for
his actions.
b. Man has intellect.
 His intellect enables him to know, what is right or wrong and good or bad actions.
Because He is capable of knowing, he is therefore manDated to face the consequences of
his actions. Morons, idiots, imbeciles, insane persons, and the like are not moral agents.
The same thing Can be said of infants and children who have not yet reached the age of
reason.
c. Man has will.
 Man is free to act or not to act. Man’s will equip man with the power to choose either
good bad and right or wrongs actions. It is his will that enables him to enjoy freedom to
choose what course of action to perform. Man’s will, therefore, requires of man a
decision which obligates him to be responsible for the consequences of his actions.

Because man is a moral being, man possesses intellect and will. Through his intellect, man knows and can
know right or wrong actions. Through his will man can choose between good or bad actions.
Man’s intellect makes him capable of understanding right or wrong actions; his will makes him capable
of doing his choice, either good or bad actions.
Man’s intellect enables him to search for truth while his will, for good. When man is in possession of
truth then he can practice what he knows (wisdom) while his exercise of good makes him virtuous. In the
fundamental moral option between right or wrong good and good or bad actions, man is will-bound to choose
what is right and what is good. This is the moral command demanded in ethics. But, whether or not man opts for
what is wrong and what is bad, he still remains a moral being, since he has freedom.
 INTELECT WILL
Wisdom Highest Goal Virtue
Truth Goal Good
Thinking Function Doing
Knowing Purpose Choosing

HUMAN ACTS VS. ACTS OF MAN

Human Acts Acts of Man
- These acts are under the control of will and - These are bodily actions performed without
therefore done knowingly and willingly; not deliberation and in the absence of will.
acts which happen by accident, as falling, or by
nature, as growing, but acts performed by Ex: Palpitation of the heart, sneezing or
choice, that is, after deliberation and decision. breathing patterns.
They are imputable to their human author to
the extent that he has knowledge of his own
activity and its import, and to the extent that he
has freedom of election.

Ex: Studying a lesson in Ethics.

Moral Issue, Moral Judgement, Moral Decision, Moral Dilemma

Moral Issue
 A situation that calls for moral valuation.
 refers to those particular situations that are often the source of considerable and inconclusive debate.
Ex: Capital punishment and euthanasia (There is two opposing ideas)

Moral Decision
 refers to the choice of what act to perform. Ex: You choose not to take something you did not pay for.

Moral Judgement
 refers to a person who makes an assessment on the actions or behavior of someone
Ex: Your friend chooses to cheat just to pass your ethics subject and you made an assessment that what
your friend did is wrong.

Moral Dilemma
 refers to the matter of choosing right over wrong, or good over bad, and considering instead the more
complicated situation wherein one is torn between choosing one of two goods or choosing between the
lesser of two evils.
 a person is experiencing moral dilemma when she/he can choose only one from a number of possible
actions, and there are compelling ethical reasons for the various choices.
 are not in themselves a determinant of the rightness or wrongness of certain way of acting or of the
good or the bad in a particular pursuit.
Ex: Your mother may be conflicted between wanting to feed you, but recognizing that it would be wrong
for her to steal

ACTIVITY
HEINZ DILEMMA In Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. One drug might save her, a form
of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The druggist was charging $2,000,
ten times what the drug cost him to make. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew
to borrow the money, but he could only get together about half of what it cost. He told the druggist that
his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But
the druggist said, “No.” The husband got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for
his wife. Should the husband have done that? Why?

Can you identify the moral issue, moral judgement, the moral decision and moral dilemma in the story
illustrated in Table 4?

(a) Moral Issue: The issue in the story would be the rightness and wrongness of STEALING. Some people might
say that it is okay for Heinz to steal the radium as so that he could save his wife. However, some people might say
that stealing will never be right because it is against the law or against the teaching of their religion. How about
you? Is stealing right considering Heinz’ situation or is it wrong?
(b) Moral Decision: With Heinz’ desperation to save his wife from death, he chose to steal the radium.
(c) Moral Judgement: Since Heinz’ chose to steal, it can be implied that for him it is right or acceptable so long
as he can save his wife from death.
(d) Moral Dilemma: Is it okay for Heinz to steal knowing that he might end up going to jail or sacrifice himself
to steal just to let her wife have the drug to cure her sickness and live?

As a student, have you thought of what might actually be your respond when you’re in Heinz’ position?