GECETH-18: Ethics
of “mano” as a sign of respect for elders, which is part
Module 2: The Moral Agents
Introduction
Module 2 contains two parts. The first part discusses
the role of culture that shapes human's moral
behavior. Another topic concerns the theory on
cultural relativism that explains someones’ beliefs,
values, and practices differ from one culture to
another culture, as well as its ethical faults.
deeper understanding of Asian morality, particularly
Filipino moral characteristics, and its strengths and
weaknesses are also one concern of the study.
The second part delved into how moral agents
served as an instrument in understanding moral
theory and moral practice. This module posits the
importance of developing virtue as a habit which
includes the circular relation of acts that help build a
man's character. Finally, Lawrence Kohlberg’s Six
Stages of Moral Development is also part of this
module.
Topic 1: Culture in Moral Behavior
Culture is all around us. It is our way of life.
Generally speaking, culture is the cumulative
deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values,
and attitude among many others, that is acquired by
a group of people making up a community in the
course of their generations. It includes practices,
beliefs, and perceptions in a given society. Culture is
said to be a part of our social life as well as our
personality, in which one might say “ that person is
cultured” - meaning that person is seen to have a
culture based on some factors such as status, class,
education, taste in music and speech habits.
Culture is the way of life, such as the Filipino principle
of the Filipino culture. Culture as a way of life naturally
follows the moral values and behaviors that are
deemed right and wrong in said community. This set
of rules is what the community approves of and is thus
passed on to later generations of the same culture
and community.
Summing it up, culture includes all the things that
A an individual learns while growing up in a particular
group namely: attitudes, standards of morality, rules of
etiquette, language, ideas about how the world works,
and many more - and called them all cultural
knowledge.
Topic 2 - Moral Standards as social
convention & social conditioning theory
What is a moral standard?
In your previous learning, you come up to a
realization about ethical standards- doing the right
thing, and avoiding wrongdoings. But how do we
really say that what we do is always the right thing?
In this lesson, you will study moral standards as a
social convention.
Moral standard in its simplest term refers to
norms in which people do and is believed to be
morally acceptable and/or unacceptable. By theory,
the moral standards are social conventions agreed
upon by people, or simply means the usual belief of
how people do and believe, without having a second
thought. In line with this, you will be learning more
about moral standards as a social convention and
social conditioning theory.
 Among the popular notions which attempt to give
account for basic concepts in Ethics are the
so-called “Social Convention” and “Social
Conditioning” theories. These theories are the
consequence of the fact that we can gain knowledge
regarding morality through culture and socialization.
Social Convention Theory
By this theory, it is claimed that the rules and
moral standards that are in place are actually merely
inventions of man. Convention refers to the usual or
customary ways through which things are done
within a society or community. Since these rules are
supposedly made by man, it is believed that the
rules could have been different if a man wanted
them to be different.
An example of this would be the rule that people
must keep on the right of the road. This is true in the
Philippines, but maybe different in other countries
where the norm would be to keep on the left.
Social Conditioning Theory
By this theory, on the other hand, it is claimed
that the rules people follow only echo social
approval or disproval. This may be compared with
peer pressure, where the decisions of one may be
influenced by the people around him.
An example of this would be the decision to
engage in pre-marital sex. Although many people
around us may believe that engaging in such
activities is neither immoral nor moral, one may think
that it is ethically wrong despite potential influences
around him. This, in turn, refers to the sense of
moral obligation, wherein where a person feels that
an action is morally wrong, he is morally obliged to
disobey or deviate from society’s conditioning or
insulations.
Topic 3 - Culture Relativism in Ethics
Topic #3: Culture Relativism in Ethics
Cultural Relativism is the most known form of
moral relativism. Moral Relativism holds that no
act is good or bad objectively. Thus it believes that
the morality or immorality of every action must be
seen and evaluated depending on different
situations. Cultural Relativism dictates that an act
is moral if the cultural society approves of it, and
an act is therefore immoral if the cultural
community disapproves of it.
Valuable Lessons
Cultural Relativism discourages
being judgmental. It reminds us that
different cultures have different
standards that must be respected by Figure 4:
all. It further teaches us that All
tolerance is necessary for a peaceful cultures
world. Tolerance is needed so that must be
different cultures with a different set respected.
of rules may co-exist in this world.
Ethical Faults
Cultural Relativism discourages analytical thinking
and independent decision-making. Because it is
taught that any act that society approves is
correct, it is required that an act be done without
suspicion. Society is the only basis, regardless of
the morals stand of an individual.
Topic 4 - Asian Moral Understanding the moral character or virtue of being honest will
(Filipino Moral Character) and Universal generate more acts of telling the truth. Thus, the
Values circular relation of acts and character.

Topic 6 - Kohlberg’s Six Stages of Moral

Development

Topic 5 - Moral Characters and Disposition

Moral character is defined as the existence or lack of

virtues. When a certain individual has good moral
character, it means that he or she is a good person
who possesses virtues. On the other hand, if one
lacks virtues, he or she may have vices instead of
virtues.

Reference/s:
An individual’s actions determine his or her moral
character. A moral character itself generates acts that
De Guzman, Jens Micah, et.al. Ethics: Principles
help in developing virtue or vice.
Of Ethical Behavior In Modern Society. Mutya
Publishing Inc. Quezon City. 2018

Disclaimer: All credits regarding the photos

contained in Figures 1 to 6 are given and reserved
to the owner/creator of the images used in this
educational module solely for academic purposes.
Thus, in the above example, the act of telling the truth
generate the moral character of being honest. In turn,
Module 3- The Act Feelings and Moral Decision-Making

Introduction/Overview There are at least two theories in ethics that give

One of the most difficult things in life is making focus on the role of feelings on morality. They are (1)

decisions. In our decision, at stake is not only our Ethical subjectivism and (2) Emotivism. But before

own destiny but of our companions, peers, the discussion of these theories, let us first deal with

co-workers, and loved ones or perhaps even a the view that feelings are instinctive and trained

greater number of people. response to moral dilemmas.

At this juncture, we are going to examine how we Feelings as Instinctive Response to Moral

decide, the things that influence our decisions. Dilemmas

When can we say that we have made the right

Some ethicists believe that ethics is also a matter of
decision? Is there such thing as objectively right or
emotion. They hold that moral judgments at their
wrong?
best should also be emotional. Feelings are seen

As leaders, no matter how small or large an necessary in ethical judgment as they are even

organization may be, we need to make the right deemed by some as instinctive and trained

decision. At this point, we need to examine how we responses to moral dilemmas.

make decisions. What are the factors that affect our

2.1. Feelings as Instinctive Response to Moral
decision? Should we decide on the basis of our Dilemmas
feelings or emotions? What are the obstacles to
make the right decision? When can we say that we
made the right decision? These are some of the
questions that we will attempt to answer in this
module.

Topic 1: Feelings and Moral Decision-Making

The Act

Most of the time we tend to respond to a moral

dilemma without understanding why we reacted that
way. Sometimes we are highly emotional as we
2.2. Feelings as Obstacles to Making the Right
express our approval or disapproval of various acts. Decisions
Our feeling can be an obstacle in becoming ethical.
Thus, it is important to understand the role of
feelings on morality.
2.3. Emotivism
One way to look at Emotivism is to view it as an
improved version of subjectivism. Considered by its
proponents as far more subtle and sophisticated
than subjectivism. Considered by its proponent as
far more subtle and sophisticated than subjectivism.
Emotivism is deemed invulnerable to many
objections. This theory was developed chiefly by the
American Philosopher Charles L. Stevenson
(1909-1979) has been one of the most influential
theories of Ethics in the 20th Century.
The theory basically states that moral judgments
express positive or negative feelings. “X is right”
merely means “Hooray for X! and “X is immoral” just
means “Boo on X!” Since ethical judgments are
essentially commands and exclamations, they are
not true or false; so there cannot be moral truth and
moral knowledge. Emotivism is actually the most
popular form of non-cognitivism, the meta-ethical
theory that claims that ethical sentences do not
convey, authentic propositions. Moral judgments,
according to Emotivism, are not statements of act
but are mere expression of the emotion of the
speaker, especially since they usually
feelings-based.
To understand how the theory views moral
judgments, it would help to note that language is
used in a variety of ways. Principally language is
used to state facts or what we believe to be facts.
Thus, we may say, Marcos was president of the
Philippines”, Gasoline cost Php 50 per liter,” and
Jose Rizal is the author of Noli Me Tangere.” In each
case, we are saying something that is either true or
false, and the purpose of our utterance is typically, to
convey information to the listener.
But there are other purposes for which language
may be used. Suppose one says, “Close the door!”
This utterance is neither true nor false. It is not a
statement of any kind but a command. Its purpose is
not to convey information but to get one to do
something. In giving you a command, I am not trying
to alter your beliefs; instead I am trying to influence
your conduct.
Emotivism claims that they have two entirely
different purposes: First, they are used as a means
of influencing others behavior. If someone says
“Stealing is immoral,” Emotivism interpret it as an
attempt to stop you from doing the act. Thus, the
utterance is more like command – it is equivalent to
saying, “Don’t do that!”
Second, moral sentences are used to express (not
report the speaker’s attitude. Accordingly, saying
“Fair play is good is not like saying approve of fair
play, but it is like saying “Hurrah for fair play!”.
So there lies the difference between Emotivism and
Subjectivism
2.4. Ethical Subjectivism
2.5. Emotivism vs Subjectivism
2.6. Evaluating Emotivism
2.7. Feelings and Decisions
3.1. Reason and Impartiality Defined
Reason. Humans have not only feelings but also
reason, and reasons plays a vital role in Ethics. In
fact, moral truths of reasons; that is, a moral
judgment is true if it is espoused by better reasons
than the alternatives.
If someone tells us that a certain action is immoral,
we may ask why it is so, and if there is no
reasonable answer, we may discard the proposition
as absurd. Also, if somebody utters that a particular
act is wrong and explains that is because it does not
happen to fit his taste, then we also do not count his
claim as a legitimate ethical judgment. Clearly thus,
reason is a necessary requirement for morality.
At least in Philosophy, reason is the basis or motive
for an action, decision, or conviction. As a quality, it
refers to the capacity for logical, rational and analytic
thought; for consciously making sense of things,
establishing and verifying facts, applying common
sense and logic, and justifying and if necessary,
changing practices, institutions, and beliefs based
on existing new exiting information.
Actually, reason spells the difference of moral
judgments from mere expression of personal
preference. If after eating, someone says, I like a
sweet cake,” he is not required to support it with
good reasons for that is a statement about his/her
personal state and nothing more. But in the case of
moral judgments, they require backing by reasons.
In the absence of sensible rational, they are merely
capricious and ignorable.
Moral deliberation is a matter of weighing reasons
and being guided by them. In understanding the
nature of morality, considering reason is
indispensable. Truth in ethics entails being justified
by good reasons. That is the rightful moral decision
involves selecting the option that has power of
reason on its side.
Impartiality. On the other hand, impartiality
involves the idea that each individuals interest and
point of view are equally important. Also called even
handedness or fair-mindedness, impartiality is a
principle of justice holding that decisions ought to be
based on objective criteria rather than on the basis
of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one
person another for improper reasons.
Impartiality in morality requires that we give equal
and or adequate consideration to the interest of all
concerned parties. The principle of impartiality
assumes that every person, generally speaking, is
equally important; that is no one is seen as
intrinsically more significant than anyone else.
Humans have not only feelings but also reason, and
reasons plays a vital role in Ethics. In fact, moral
truths of reasons; that is, a moral judgment is true if
it is espoused by better reasons than the
alternatives.
If someone tells us that a certain action is immoral,
we may ask why it is so, and if there is no
reasonable answer, we may discard the proposition
as absurd. Also, if somebody utters that a particular
act is wrong and explains that is because it does not
happen to fit his taste, then we also do not count his
claim as a legitimate ethical judgment. Clearly thus,
reason is a necessary requirement for morality.
At least in Philosophy, reason is the basis or motive
for an action, decision, or conviction. As a quality, it
refers to the capacity for logical, rational and analytic
thought; for consciously making sense of things,
establishing and verifying facts, applying common
sense and logic, and justifying and if necessary,
changing practices, institutions, and beliefs based
on existing new exiting information.
Actually, reason spells the difference of moral
judgments from mere expression of personal
preference. If after eating, someone says, I like a
sweet cake,” he is not required to support it with
good reasons for that is a statement about his/her
personal state and nothing more. But in the case of
moral judgments, they require backing by reasons.
In the absence of sensible rational, they are merely
capricious and ignorable.
Moral deliberation is a matter of weighing reasons
and being guided by them. In understanding the
nature of morality, considering reason is
indispensable. Truth in ethics entails being justified
by good reasons. That is the rightful moral decision
involves selecting the option that has power of
reason on its side.
Topic 2: Reason and Impartiality as Minimum
Requirements for Morality
The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model
The following are the steps or elements of a model
for making moral decision:
1. Gather the Facts. Some moral dilemmas
can be resolved just by clarifying the facts of
the case in question. But in more complex
cases, gathering the facts is the
indispensable first step prior to any ethical
analysis and reflection on the case.
2. Determine the Ethical Issues. The moral
issues should be correctly stated in terms of
competing interests. It is these conflicting
interests that practically make for a moral
dilemma.
3. Identify the Principles that Have a Bearing
on the Case. What principles have a bearing
on the case? In any moral dilemma, there
are sure moral values or principles that are
vital to the rival positions being taken. It is
very significant value or principles that are
vital to the rival positions being taken. For
Rae, biblical principles will be clearly
weighted the most heavily. But there may be
other principles essentially relevant to the
case that may come from other sources.
4. List the Alternatives. This step involves
coming up with various alternatives courses
of actions as part of the creative thinking
included in resolving a moral dilemma.
5. Compare the Alternatives with the
Principles. This step involves eliminating
 alternatives according to the moral principles
that have a bearing on the case. In many
cases, the case will be resolved at this point,
since the principles will remove all
alternatives except one. As a matter, of fact,
the purpose of this comparison is to
determine whether there is a clear decision
that can be made without further
deliberation.
6. Weigh the Consequences. If the principles
do not produce a clear decision, then a
consideration of the consequences of the
remaining available alternative is in order
7. Make a Decision. After deliberation, the
decision should be made.
The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model
6.1. The Importance of Will and Moral
Courage
Both will and moral courage are important in a good
rational moral decision. But we need to clarify the
definition of the moral courage.
Moral courage means doing the right thing even at
the risk of inconvenience, ridicule, punishment, loss
of job or security or social status, etc. Moral
courage requires that we rise above the apathy or
social status, etc. Moral courage requires that we
rise above the apathy, complacency, hatred,
cynicism and fear-mongering in our political systems
, socioeconomic division and cultural religious
differences.
One sense of the concept will refers to that faculty of
the mind which chooses at the moment of making
decisions, the strongest desire from among the
various desires present. Will does not refer to any
particular desire, but rather to the capacity to act
decisively on one’s desires. Within philosophy the
will is important as one of the distinct parts of the
mind, along with reason and understanding. It is
considered important to ethics because of its central
role in enabling a person to act deliberately.
Commonly, we think of will in the active sense, of
self-control, of working toward attaining goals.
The German Philosopher Arthur Schoperhauer
explained that when we become conscious of
ourselves, we recognize that our essential qualities
are endless urging, craving, striving, wanting and
desiring. He said that these are the features of that
which we call our will. According to Schopenhauer,
will is the innermost essence, the kernel of every
particular thing and also of the whole. He believed
that the will is the primary and uses knowledge in
order to find an object that will satisfy its craving.
Having moral courage and will means doing the right
thing, which may include listening to our conscience,
that quiet voice within. Disregarding that voice may
lead to feeling of inadequacy, guild and diminished
personal integrity.
Topic 3: Moral Courage
We have learned that reliance on feelings is
disadvantageous. In resolving dilemmas, we are
thus advised to guide our emotion with reason, if not
totally suppress them. But reason, for many
ethicists, is also not enough in carrying out moral
decisions. Moral Courage is also as important.
7.1. Developing Will and Moral Courage 6. Avoid deeds that show lack of moral courage and
will. This involves evading acts that show
The following are tips or suggestions on how to irresponsibility, cowardice, apathy, rashness,
develop will and moral courage. imprudence, ill will and wickedness.

Develop and practice self-discipline. One way to
develop moral courage and will is to develop and
practice self-discipline. Developing will and courage
involves developing self-control. It includes
nurturing the ability to stick to actions, thoughts and
behavior, which lead to moral improvement and
success. It encompasses endowing the inner
strength to focus all the energy on a moral goal and
persevere until it is accomplished.
Do mental strength training. One of the most
simple and effective methods under this mental
7. walking away from someone in need
8. taking more than you fair share
9. laughing at someone’s misfortune or accident.
10. grabbing the spotlight from someone who has
earned it
11. remaining silent in the face of wrong doing or
injustice
12. rationalization or justification for action/lack of

strength training involves declining to satisfy action.

unimportant and unnecessary desires.

13. being inconsistent or capricious with rules and

Draw inspiration from people of great courage. standards for one’s children

People usually admire and respect courageous

14. breaking a promise
persons who won great success by manifesting
self-discipline and will power. 15. lying or cheating.

Repeatedly do acts that exhibit moral courage

and will. A person must strive doing the acts that
manifest them whenever opportunity allows it. The
following are some examples.

1. helping someone push a car

2. picking up litter

3. do what your preach

4. becoming a company whistle blower.

5. participating in a peaceful protest.