Lithos 155 (2012) 81–93

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Lithos
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A Cretaceous forearc ophiolite in the Shyok suture zone, Ladakh, NW India:

Implications for the tectonic evolution of the Northwest Himalaya
Ngo Xuan Thanh a,⁎, V.J. Rajesh b, Tetsumaru Itaya c, Brian Windley d, Sanghoon Kwon e, Chan-Soo Park f
a
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Dong Ngac, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Viet Nam
b
Department of Earth and Space Sciences, Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram 695-547, India
c
Research Institute of Natural Sciences, Okayama University of Science, 1‐1 Ridai‐Cho, Kita‐ku, 700-0005 Okayama, Japan
d
Department of Geology, The University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
e
Department of Earth System Sciences, Yonsei University, 134 Shinchon‐dong, Seodeamun‐gu, Seoul 120‐749, Republic of Korea
f
Division of Earth and Environment Science, Korea Basic Science Institute, 804‐1 Yangchoeng‐ri, Ochang‐eup, Cheongwon‐gun, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The northwestern Himalaya in India contains critical evidence of the convergent margin and collision tecton-
Received 16 April 2012 ics between the Ladakh arc and the Karakoram block. Here we present new petrochemical and geochronolog-
Accepted 22 August 2012 ical data from a forearc ophiolite at the Shyok‐Nubra river confluence. Whole-rock geochemical data show
Available online 1 September 2012
relatively high large-ion lithophile elements (LILE), light rare earth elements (LREE), and Ba, U and Pb anom-
alies, and depletions in La, Ce and Zr, particularly, the high-field strength elements (e.g. Nb, Ta); these geo-
Keywords:
Ladakh Himalaya
chemical characteristics are similar to those in modern ophiolites that formed in arc-related environments.
Shyok suture Meta-volcanic greenschists that contain spinel layers have high MgO, Ni, Co, and Cr contents. In contrast,
Boninite they have low contents of TiO2, very low Nb and Zr that are diagnostic of high‐Ca boninitic magmas in mod-
Forearc ophiolite ern forearc settings, as in Izu–Bonin–Mariana (IBM) and Tonga. The spinels have high Cr# [Cr / (Cr + Al)] and
K–Ar age Mg#[Mg / (Mg + Fe 2+)], which are characteristic of spinels in forearc boninite‐type of melts. The spinel-free
meta-volcanic samples have incompatible trace element abundance patterns similar to those of MORB. How-
ever, their enrichments in Cs, Rb, Pb, U and depletion in HFSE may reflect an input of subduction fluids that
are different from MORB; these MORB-like basalts are suggestive of a forearc complex that erupted prior to
the formation of boninitic rocks.
Our data from the Shyok ophiolite indicate the existence of supra-subduction rocks on the southern
Karakoram margin. Albite porphyroblasts in greenschists yield a K–Ar age of 104.4 ± 5.6 Ma that represents
the time of early exhumation of the greenschists. The boninite‐type melts formed prior to 104 Ma, thereby
indicating that the time of initiation of subduction on the southern margin of the Karakoram block was before
104 Ma. These geochemical signatures together with the spatial and temporal distribution of the arc rocks on
the southern margin of Karakoram block suggest northward subduction of NeoTethys in the Early Cretaceous.
The subsequent collision between the Ladakh arc and the Karakoram block thrusted/obducted the forearc
ophiolite onto the southern edge of the Karakoram block probably between 74 Ma and 97 Ma.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction among which the geodynamic evolution of the northwestern

It has long been known that the closure of the Tethys ocean led to
the collision of the Indian and Eurasian continental plates in the Late
Cretaceous. After decades of research there is a general consensus
about the main elements of the tectonic evolution of the Himalaya
(e.g., Coward et al., 1982; Jain et al., 2002; Searle et al., 1987;
Weinberg and Dunlap, 2000; Weinberg and Searle, 1998; Weinberg
et al., 2000; Yin and Harrison, 2000), but there is still considerable
controversy about many specific problems, regions and models,
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +84 97 822 4246.
E-mail address: ngoxuanthanh@humg.edu.vn (N.X. Thanh).
Himalaya in Ladakh (India) is prominent. The NW Himalaya is charac-
terized by two suture zones: the Indus and Shyok. Firstly, subduction
gave rise to the Trans‐Himalayan calc–alkaline batholith on the south-
ern margin of the Eurasian continental plate and led to the Indus su-
ture (Searle et al., 1987). Many pioneering geochronological studies
have shown that the magmatism started at least 100 Ma ago and con-
tinued until the collision of India to Eurasia at ca. 40–60 Ma (Achache
et al., 1984; Guillot et al., 2003; Patriat and Achache, 1984; Weinberg
and Dunlap, 2000). The well‐studied Indus suture zone contains
ophiolites, ophiolitic mélanges, high‐ to ultrahigh‐pressure rocks, the
Kohistan island arc, and the Jijal Complex (Coward et al., 1982;
Gouzu et al., 2006; Khan et al., 1989; Kojima et al., 2001; Petterson,

0024-4937/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2012.08.016
82 N.X. Thanh et al. / Lithos 155 (2012) 81–93
2010; Petterson and Treloar, 2004; Ringuette et al., 1999; Robertson
et al., 2000; Tahirkeli et al., 1979). A young phase of post-collisional
leucogranitic magmatism at 30–10 Ma was due to intra‐crustal melt-
ing at the base of thickened crust (Bhutani et al., 2004; Petterson
and Windley, 1985).
However, the second Shyok suture in India, which extends into
Pakistan as the so-called Northern Suture (Coward et al., 1982), still
remains controversial (Robertson and Collins, 2002). Using the pres-
ence of Cretaceous calc–alkaline rocks on the northern side of the
Shyok suture Coward et al. (1982), Rolland et al. (2002), and Thanh
et al. (2010) proposed that the Shyok oceanic plate subducted north-
wards under the Karakoram block. Unlike the subduction along the
prior Indus suture, the subduction along the Karakoram margin did
not give rise to the development of large batholiths all along the
Eurasian margin. An ophiolitic mélange and associated volcanic
rocks in the Shyok suture zone possibly formed in a back-arc setting
(Dunlap and Wysoczanski, 2002; Mahéo et al., 2004), and minor
leucogranites formed as late as 15 Ma (Weinberg et al., 2000).
However, these back-arc magmatic rocks cannot be well correlated
spatially and temporally and are difficult to assign to any specific
stage in the tectonic evolution of the Shyok suture. Therefore, the
ophiolite in the Shyok suture provides an important constraint on
the tectonic evolution of the northwest Himalaya.
The aim of this paper is to present new mineral chemistry, petro-
chemistry and geochronology of meta-volcanic greenschists associat-
ed with an ophiolite in the Shyok suture. These new data allow better
constraints on the geodynamic evolution of the Shyok suture in
Fig. 1. Geological map of the Ladakh area, western Himalaya showing the sample localities (Modified after Rolland et al., 2002; Thakur and Rawat, 1992).
Ladakh, and should provide new insights into petrological processes
related to the tectonic history of the northwestern Himalaya.
2. Geological outline
The Ladakh Himalaya are composed of five geotectonic units (Fig. 1),
from north to south: the Karakoram block, Shyok suture zone, Ladakh
arc, Indus suture zone, and Tethys Himalaya, (Thakur and Rawat,
1992). The Karakoram block consists of high‐grade metamorphic and
granitic rocks. The Ladakh arc is composed of huge Andean‐type, calc–
alkaline batholiths with minor rhyolitic to andesitic rocks that formed
as a result of subduction of the Neo‐Tethys oceanic plate under the
Eurasian continental plate in the Early Cretaceous–Late Eocene (Jain et
al., 2002; Sharma and Choubey, 1983). The Indus suture zone is the
site of demise of the Neo‐Tethys ocean and of the collision between
the Asian and Indian plates from ~50 to 55 Ma (Achache et al., 1984;
Patriat and Achache, 1984). In Ladakh the suture zone contains ophiolites
and ophiolitic mélanges of Cretaceous to Tertiary age (e.g. Ahmad et al.,
1996, 2008; Robertson et al., 2000). The Tethys Himalaya are mainly
composed of fossiliferous sediments of Precambrian to Cretaceous age
that accumulated on the northern margin of the Indian subcontinent
(Robertson et al., 2000; Thakur and Rawat, 1992). The northerly
sediments in the Tso Morari Complex have been subducted and
metamorphosed under ultrahigh‐pressure metamorphic conditions
(Gouzu et al., 2006; Sachan et al., 2004).
The Shyok suture zone between the Ladakh arc and the Karakoram
block contains mélanges, ophiolites, sedimentary and metamorphic
 N.X. Thanh et al. / Lithos 155 (2012) 81–93
rocks. Ehiro et al. (2007) divided the sedimentary unit into the lower
Tsoltak and the upper Shyok Formations. The Tsoltak Formation,
which mainly consists of mudstone, minor sandstone, and alternating
sandstone and mudstone, yields Callovian (Middle Jurassic) ammo-
noids such as Macrocephalites sp. and Jeanneticeras sp. The Tsoltak
and Shyok Formations are composed of mudstone, sandstone, con-
glomerate, limestone and volcaniclastic rocks, and are lacking in
chert and mélange characteristic of subduction/accretion complexes,
indicating that the sediments accumulated on a shallow marine
shelf. Since the conglomerate includes granitic clasts, the provenance
is probably a mature continental volcanic arc. Back-arc sediments
have been reported in the Shyok suture zone and in Kohistan and La-
dakh (e.g. Crawford and Searle, 1992; Khan et al., 1997; Robertson
and Collins, 2002). Ophiolitic mélanges containing serpentinites and
ultrabasic rocks as blocks are intercalated with volcaniclastics and
sedimentary rocks. Lavas ranging from basalts to andesites in the
Shyok suture have undergone low greenschist facies metamorphism
(Sharma, 1987). The basalts have low TiO2 contents and a geochemi-
cal signature with a combination of MORB and island arc affinity (Rai,
1983). Basalts in the Ladakh arc show high FeO and MgO and low CaO,
Al2O3 and TiO2 contents and trace-REE elements that are close to tho-
leiitic, transitional between N–MORB and island arc tholeiites
(Rolland et al., 2000, 2002).
3. Field description
In the Shyok suture zone between Tirit and Hundar, on the south-
western side of the Shyok–Nubra river confluence, meta-volcanic
greenschists are widespread (Fig. 1). They strike 60–85°E and dip
steeply south. They are well foliated (Fig. 2a, b), and locally intercalat-
ed with pelitic schists that contain fine‐ to very fine‐grained mica, and
albite porphyroblast-rich greenschist layers (and veins), which are
Fig. 2. Photographs showing field occurrence of greenschists on the southeastern side of the Shyok–Nubra river confluence. (a) Main greenschist, (b) albite-rich, greenschist layer
with chromian spinel, (c) and (d) their photomicrographs, respectively. Abbreviations: Am, amphibole; Chl, chlorite; Qtz, quartz; Ab, albite; Ep, epidote; Cr-Spl, chromian spinel.
83
about 10–20 m long and 0.2–1.0 m wide and are distinguished from
other greenschists in the area by their coarser grain-size and common
and prominent albite porphyroblasts (Fig. 2b). These albite-rich
layers have sharp boundaries with adjacent greenschists (Fig. 2b),
and locally contain chilled margins, suggesting an intrusive origin.
Of the samples for this study, which were collected from the roadside
between Tirit and Hundar (Fig. 1), three (2903, 2906 and 2907) are
from albite porphyroblast-rich greenschist layers, and the remainder
from the main meta-volcanic greenschists.
4. Petrography and mineral chemistry
The main greenschists consist of fine‐grained amphibole, epidote,
albite, calcite, chlorite, quartz and Fe–Ti oxides (Fig. 2c). The coarser‐
grained albite porphyroblast‐bearing greenschists have additional
phases of clinozoisite and spinel. The spinels mostly form subhedral to
euhedral grains disseminated in the matrix of the other minerals. Epi-
dote and clinozoisite are coarser-grained than other phases. The albite
porphyroblasts are 1–3 mm, lens‐shaped grains with pressure solution
edges (Fig. 2d). In sample 2903 the albite commonly contains fine‐
grained inclusions of epidote, phengite, amphibole as confirmed by
laser RAMAN spectroscopy. Mylonitic amphibole inalbite porphyroblast‐
bearing greenschists is coarser‐grained than the other samples.
Electron microprobe (EMP) analyses of minerals were carried out
at Okayama University of Science using a JEOL JXA‐8900R with a
15 kV accelerating voltage, 12 nA beam current and 3 μm beam size
(Tsujimori et al., 1998). Natural and synthetic silicates and oxides
were used for calibration. The ZAF method (oxide basis) was
employed for matrix corrections. Estimation of Fe2+ and Fe3+ contents
from total FeO is based on the charge balance using stoichiometic
criteria (Droop, 1987). Albite is pure (XAb = 95–98). Epidotes have a
small range of Ca (1.8–2.0 a.p.f.u) and a wide Fe3+ / (Fe3+ + Al) ratio
84 N.X. Thanh et al. / Lithos 155 (2012) 81–93

(0.20–0.35); these values are similar in epidotes in the matrix and the
inclusions. Amphiboles are actinolite and magnesio‐cummingtonite.
The core compositions of the spinel grains are characterized by
high Cr2O3, low Al2O3, FeO and TiO2. Cr# and Mg# have minor ranges
of 0.78–0.85 and 0.44–0.66, respectively. Their Fe 3 +# [Fe 3 + /
(Fe 3 ++ Al + Cr)] and Fe 2+/Fe 3+ range from 0.05 to 0.08 and from
5.52 to 11.24, respectively. These characteristics reflect the primitive
compositions of magmatic spinel (e.g. Mellini et al., 2005). The
cores are rimed by magnetite and ferritchromite, which are charac-
terized by slightly higher FeO, Al2O3 and low MgO contents compared
with the cores (Table. 1) indicating altered compositions.
5. Geochemistry
Major and trace elements were analyzed using an X-ray fluores-
cence spectrometry (XRF) of XRF-1700 (Shimadzu, Japan) at Pukyong
National University, Korea and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectrometry (ICP-MS) (X5, Thermo Scientific, Germany) at Korea
Basic Science Institute — Ochang Center, Korea. The XRF procedures
for major elements analyses were described by Uto et al. (2004);
reported accuracies are better than ±1.5% based on repeated mea-
surements of USGS standard BIR-1 (basalt). Loss on ignition (LOI)
was determined after ignition at 1000 °C for 1 h. CIPW norms were
calculated using the computer program SINCLAS (Verma et al.,
2002). All samples for ICP-MS analysis were diluted with 1% nitric
acid to ensure that all rare earth element concentrations were within
the calibration limits (minimum 200) after acid digestion.
The ICP-MS performance was optimized with standard tuning
solution (10 ppb), and the oxide ratio (m/z156/140) was less than
0.03 and the doubly charged ratio (m/z69/138) below 0.01. The cal-
ibration standards of 0.1, 1, 10 and 20 ppb of REEs were used for
total analysis and correction for mass interference from other iso-
tope elements and matrix effects through the use of internal stan-
dards that were made automatically. Accuracy of these analytical
procedures is shown in Appendix 1 and 2.
Six representative samples were analyzed for geochemical compo-
sitions and they are shown in Table 2 and Figs. 3a, 3b, 4, 5, 6 and 7. The
spinel-bearing samples have SiO2 contents and Mg# that range from
51.7 to 53.7 wt.% and from 0.61 to 0.66, respectively, and are andesitic/
boninitic, the relatively lower SiO2 content (49.3–50.5 wt.%) together
with lower Mg# (0.50–0.64) in the spinel-free samples are basaltic
in composition according to their silica content (Le Bas, 2000; Le
Maitre, 2002). All the samples show high loss on ignition (LOI) be-
tween 3 and 11 wt.%. It is commonly accepted that subaerial
weathering or low-grade metamorphism will affect to some extent
the compositions of rocks (e.g. Beane et al., 1986; Fan et al., 2008).
All the rock samples were collected in new road-cuts with minimal
weathering effects. The high LOI content in the rocks, therefore, can
be expected to result from low-grade metamorphism. Alteration ap-
pears to have variably affected K, Na, Ca, Rb, Sr and Ba contents in the
meta-basic samples. This effect can be clearly seen in sample 2907
that has high LOI compared with other spinel-bearing rocks
(Table 2). Spinel-free samples with similar LOI contents show almost
the same variations in all elements indicating the minimal effect of
metamorphism. In major element variation diagrams, plotted
against the SiO2 content (Fig. 3a), all the rocks generally show pos-
itive trends for Na2O and CaO, negative trends for Fe2O3 and MgO,
and relatively flat trends for K2O, P2O5 and TiO2. Although during
metamorphism MgO and TiO2 mobilization is well documented,
the magnitude of the changes is relatively small, and therefore, it
is reasonable to regard the rocks as mantle protoliths of the
greenschists. The diagrams TiO2, and MgO vs. SiO2 indicate that
TiO2 increases with decreasing MgO; this is consistent with
low-pressure fractional crystallization of clinopyroxene and plagio-
clase. Trace element data show linear and negative trends for Yb, Y
and Sr and a positive trend for Cr when plot against MgO (Fig. 3b).
The spinel-bearing samples show variable Rb contents, while sam-
ple 2907 has a very different Ba content compared with the others.
These variations may be due to the differences in the effect of
post-magmatism processes.
On a chondrite-normalized rare‐earth element diagram (Evensen
et al., 1978) (Fig. 4a), all samples display a slight enrichment in
LREE and a depletion in HREE, and they have (La/Sm)N = 1.19–1.40,
and (Gd/Yb)N = 1.00–1.88. On the primitive mantle‐normalized

Table 1
Representative compositions of chromian spinels from albite porphyroblast-bearing greenschists from the Shyok‐Nubra river confluence.

Sample No 2903 2903 2903 2903 2903 2903 2903 2906 2906 2906 2906 2906 2906 2906 2907 2907 2907 2907

core/rim c c c c c r r c c c c c r r c c c c

TiO2 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.09 0.07 0.11 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.12 0.07 0.05 0.00 0.10 0.09 0.13 0.10
Al2O3 7.94 7.87 8.03 7.71 10.42 7.61 10.27 7.59 7.29 10.74 10.67 10.05 9.05 7.94 7.88 8.24 9.79 8.46
Cr2O3 59.63 59.23 58.28 60.93 55.94 55.73 56.13 61.31 60.92 56.13 56.33 56.52 57.35 56.64 58.16 59.60 57.73 59.88
FeO 16.10 16.50 15.80 16.00 14.47 24.64 15.21 15.70 14.88 14.28 13.86 14.25 15.73 23.92 15.79 16.10 12.56 12.74
Fe2O3 5.30 5.69 5.60 3.96 6.82 4.95 6.54 3.51 4.58 6.84 6.32 6.19 5.59 4.79 4.98 4.52 6.22 5.31
MnO 0.41 0.46 0.48 0.38 0.28 1.59 0.41 0.25 0.45 0.33 0.41 0.39 0.63 1.67 0.39 0.46 0.31 0.27
MgO 11.02 10.75 10.93 10.97 12.41 4.32 11.94 11.23 11.66 12.74 12.84 12.36 11.00 4.98 10.81 11.00 13.60 13.31
NiO 0.08 0.07 0.04 0.12 0.15 0.12 0.00 0.09 0.05 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.11 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.11 0.12
Total 100.51 100.62 99.21 100.09 100.57 29.59 21.75 99.77 99.90 100.27 100.60 99.87 21.32 28.71 98.12 100.01 100.45 100.19
Cr 1.56 1.55 1.54 1.60 1.43 1.55 1.44 1.61 1.60 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.50 1.55 1.55 1.56 1.47 1.54
Ti 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Al 0.31 0.31 0.32 0.30 0.40 0.32 0.39 0.30 0.29 0.41 0.41 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.31 0.32 0.37 0.32
Fe3+ 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.10 0.17 0.13 0.16 0.09 0.11 0.17 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.13 0.11 0.15 0.13
Fe2+ 0.44 0.46 0.44 0.44 0.39 0.72 0.41 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.37 0.39 0.44 0.69 0.45 0.45 0.34 0.35
Mn 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Mg 0.54 0.53 0.54 0.54 0.60 0.23 0.58 0.56 0.58 0.61 0.62 0.60 0.54 0.26 0.54 0.54 0.65 0.65
Ni 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mg/(Mg + Fe2+) 0.55 0.54 0.55 0.55 0.60 0.24 0.58 0.56 0.58 0.61 0.62 0.61 0.55 0.27 0.55 0.55 0.66 0.65
Cr/(Cr + Al) 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.84 0.78 0.83 0.79 0.84 0.85 0.78 0.78 0.79 0.81 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.80 0.83
Al2O3melt 9.41 9.37 9.45 9.29 10.53 9.23 9.08 10.66 10.63 10.37 9.38 9.55 10.26 9.66
FeO/MgO melt 1.03 1.08 1.02 1.04 0.86 1.00 0.90 0.83 0.80 0.84 1.04 1.05 0.67 0.68

r: rim; c: core.
 N.X. Thanh et al. / Lithos 155 (2012) 81–93 85

Table 2
Major‐element and trace‐element data from the analyzed volcanic rocks.

Location Shyok-Nubra river confluence Chalt boninite after Bignold

Sample no. 2901 2903 2904 2905 2906 2907 N158 N172 N163 N169 N138

SiO2 50.31 51.69 50.54 49.30 53.72 52.34 53.00 55.39 53.20 59.14 59.80
Al2O3 12.70 8.49 11.96 11.62 11.13 9.48 9.40 15.84 12.00 14.26 13.17
TiO2 0.23 0.16 0.24 0.27 0.23 0.21 0.21 0.37 0.26 0.36 0.23
Fe2O3 10.45 8.74 7.82 11.32 8.18 10.00 8.28 9.12 6.39 6.98 7.11
MnO 0.16 0.15 0.11 0.17 0.12 0.12 0.16 0.15 0.12 0.13 0.18
MgO 10.49 17.00 13.99 12.27 12.07 13.07 14.40 7.17 6.90 7.63 8.70
CaO 4.42 8.12 4.55 4.13 7.96 4.03 10.90 10.26 8.20 6.74 10.10
Na2O 2.23 1.78 3.57 1.16 3.56 0.00 1.90 2.38 1.30 4.72 0.70
K2O 0.28 0.07 0.27 0.62 0.06 0.02 0.11 0.05 1.16 0.42 0.20
P2O5 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.04
LOI 8.61 3.73 6.86 8.95 2.83 10.61 1.61 (0.81) 10.44 (0.43) (0.23)
Total 99.90 99.93 99.92 99.83 99.90 99.90 98.39 100.81 89.56 100.43 100.23
Mg# 0.50 0.66 0.64 0.52 0.60 0.57 0.63 0.44 0.52 0.52 0.55
FeO/MgO 1.01 0.52 0.56 0.94 0.69 0.77 0.58 1.27 0.93 0.91 0.82
Sc 33.99 25.27 33.94 34.65 30.90 25.73 – – – – –
V 198.01 134.65 169.97 193.55 142.51 147.84 135.00 181.00 136.00 159.00 164.00
Cr 269.35 823.88 482.82 419.15 837.36 960.63 1148.00 193.00 418.00 375.00 72.00
Co 43.90 53.96 34.86 39.47 45.46 47.26 – – – – –
Ni 55.85 310.98 87.03 71.05 195.28 263.65 64.70 41.50 105.00 92.00 114.30
Zn 61.97 60.41 36.22 61.45 51.60 68.94 38.70 33.70 25.60 30.50 58.20
Cu 2.04 2.42 1.40 145.35 0.55 17.24 52.60 58.10 30.50 38.60 2.48
As 1.09 1.59 0.35 1.17 1.49 0.90 – – – – –
Cd 0.09 0.12 0.04 0.43 0.01 0.06 – – – – –
Cs 3.43 0.75 5.28 8.17 0.58 0.65 – – – – –
Er 0.67 0.46 0.57 0.63 0.64 0.56 0.66 1.08 1.07 1.07 0.70
Tm 0.10 0.07 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.15 0.16 0.18 0.16 0.10
Rb 16.33 0.90 25.30 35.22 0.74 0.04 0.60 0.70 13.20 3.80 2.48
Ba 21.26 32.98 20.90 75.44 35.14 4.09 10.90 10.60 46.10 32.60 10.40
U 0.16 0.12 0.16 0.17 0.37 0.18 0.77 – – – 0.08
Nb 0.42 0.23 0.38 0.40 0.28 0.32 0.30 0.59 0.33 0.55 0.74
Ta 0.35 0.03 0.12 0.07 0.05 0.21 0.05 – – – 0.14
La 1.87 0.92 1.38 1.04 1.17 0.98 0.57 1.16 0.70 0.93 0.62
Ce 3.94 1.95 2.65 2.41 2.63 2.13 1.00 2.38 0.52 1.89 1.67
Pb 3.71 1.26 0.82 16.58 1.61 1.03 – – – – –
Pr 0.53 0.27 0.37 0.34 0.38 0.29 0.22 0.45 0.23 0.45 0.23
Sr 101.35 39.22 57.58 84.06 114.79 16.42 50.20 149.00 203.00 453.00 52.20
Nd 2.41 1.29 1.74 1.68 1.77 1.39 1.38 2.60 1.71 2.49 1.63
Zr 10.37 7.89 8.35 13.01 10.13 15.41 13.30 27.80 14.60 24.10 19.10
Sm 0.70 0.41 0.49 0.56 0.61 0.44 1.13 0.89 0.73 0.92 0.46
Eu 0.29 0.15 0.19 0.22 0.24 0.13 0.27 0.43 0.29 0.40 0.17
Dy 1.07 0.70 0.90 0.86 1.00 0.77 0.93 1.61 1.42 1.64 0.95
Y 5.91 3.76 4.98 5.11 5.61 4.50 4.80 8.00 7.50 8.40 6.20
Yb 0.64 0.45 0.58 0.62 0.53 0.63 0.76 1.15 1.28 1.44 0.79
Lu 0.10 0.07 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.16 0.23 0.21 0.21 0.12
Gd 0.88 0.55 0.79 0.78 0.90 0.56 0.61 1.28 1.03 1.20 0.74
Tb 0.17 0.10 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.11 0.19 0.22 0.21 0.24 0.14
Ho 0.22 0.13 0.18 0.22 0.21 0.17 0.22 0.34 0.32 0.37 0.19

trace element diagram of Fig. 4b, all the samples have similar distri-
bution patterns. They have strong negative Nb and weak negative Zr
anomalies; in contrast, all samples show positive U, Sr and (remark-
able) Pb anomalies. The Sr anomaly is negative in all samples, except
for the high-LOI, spinel-bearing sample 2907.
6. K–Ar age
There are no suitable primary minerals available for isotopic dat-
ing of the rock protoliths due to later metamorphism. Thus, we have
dated albite porphyroblasts separated from samples 2903 to 2906
by the K–Ar method. The samples were crushed with a jaw crusher
and then sieved. Albite was separated from the 100–150, 150–200
or 200–250 mesh size fractions of the samples. We chose the best
fraction for the abundance and purity and then carried out K and Ar
analyses. During the analysis of potassium and argon of the albite sep-
arates, calculations of ages and errors were carried out following the
methods of Nagao et al. (1984) and Itaya et al. (1991). Potassium
was analyzed by flame photometry using a 2000 ppm Cs buffer with
an analytical error within 2% at a 2-σ confidence level. Argon was an-
alyzed on a 15 cm radius sector type mass spectrometer with a single
collector system using the isotopic dilution method and 38Ar spike.
Multiple runs of the standard (JG-1 biotite, 91 Ma) indicate that the
error of argon analysis is about 1% at a 2-σ confidence level (Itaya et
al., 1991). The decay constants of 40K to 40Ar, 40Ca, and 40K content
in potassium used in the age calculations are 0.581 × 10 −10/year,
4.962 × 10 −10/year and 0.0001167, respectively (Steiger and Jäger,
1977). The results yield ages of 65.4 ± 3.3 Ma for sample 2903 and
104.4 ± 5.6 Ma for sample 2906 (Table. 3). As described above, the
abundant phengite inclusions in albite in sample 2903 may strongly
affect the K–Ar age result; therefore we will use the age data from
sample 2906 for later discussion.
7. Discussion
7.1. Magma genesis
The weakly metamorphosed mafic rocks from the Shyok–Nubra
river confluence have relatively high concentrations of LILE and
LREE and U, Sr and Pb, and depletions in Nb, La, Ce and Zr. In particu-
lar, the depletions in HFSE (high-field strength elements) such as Nb
and Ta are indicative of magmas from a SSZ-setting (e.g., Ahmad et al.,
86 N.X. Thanh et al. / Lithos 155 (2012) 81–93
Fig. 3. (a) SiO2 versus other major elements of samples from the Shyok-Nubra river
confluence. Data from the Chalt boninite (Bignold et al., 2006) are also shown.
(b) MgO versus trace elements of rocks from the Shyok-Nubra river confluence. Data
from the Chalt boninite (Bignold et al., 2006) are also shown.
2005; Ernst, 2010; McCulloch and Gamble, 1991; Nakamura and
Iwamori, 2009; Pearce, 1983; Pearce and Robinson, 2010). Fig. 5a, b
compares the Ti/Zr and Ti/V ratios of the studied samples including
Fig. 4. (a) chondrite-normalized rare -earth element patterns (b) primitive-mantle nor-
malized multi-element diagram for rocks from the Shyok‐Nubra river confluence (nor-
malization values from Sun and McDonough (1989) and Pearce (1983)). Data from the
Chalt boninite (Bignold et al., 2006) are also shown.
Chalt boninites from the Shyok suture zone in Pakistan (Bignold, et
al., 2006) with basic rocks from various tectonic environments world-
wide reported by Furnes et al. (2007). The diagrams show that all the
samples have very low Ti, Zr contents and a Ti/V ratio lower than 10;
these characteristics are similar to those of boninitic rocks or
arc-related basalts reported elsewhere, and they are also distinct
from back-arc basalts (BABB) and island arc tholeiites (IAT)
(Figs. 5a, b). Furthermore, Pearce and Norry (1979) and Floyd et al.
(1991) reported that forearc basin basalts (FABB) have low Zr/(Zr/Y)
and Y/(La/Nb) ratios compared with back-arc basin basalts (BABB)
or island arc basalts (IAB). The Zr vs. Zr/Y and Y vs. La/Nb diagrams,
therefore, are effective indicators that clearly discriminate between
FABB, BABB and IAB subduction-related basic rocks (Pearce and
Norry, 1979; Floyd et al., 1991). On the Zr vs. (Zr/Y) and Y vs. (La/Nb)
diagrams, all the studied rocks plot entirely within the field of
fore-arc basalts (Fig. 5c, d), similar to those from the Izu–Bonin–
Mariana forearc (IBM) and they are distinct from back-arc and island
arc basalts.
The spinel-bearing samples have high MgO, Ni, Co, Cr contents and
Al2O3/TiO2 ratios, but low TiO2, Nb, Zr; these are typical boninite com-
positions (Hickey and Frey, 1982; Pearce et al., 1992). The spinels are
characterized by high Cr# (0.78–0.85), indicating a high degree of
partial melting of a parental upper mantle source (Arai, 1994a, b;
Dick, 1989) (Fig. 6a), and they are typical of spinels from supra‐
subduction zone (SSZ) rocks. The degree of mantle melting correlates
with the Cr# in spinel; but the Mg# trend correlates with that of
the parental magma, and normally decreases during reaction with
crustal fluids derived from a subducted slab (Arai, 1994a, b; Dick,
1989; Pearce et al., 2000). On a Mg# versus Cr# diagram (Fig. 6a),
the primary spinel compositions plot entirely within the boninite
field, and are similar to those of high‐Ca boninites from the forearc
 N.X. Thanh et al. / Lithos 155 (2012) 81–93 87

Fig. 5. (a) Ti vs. V, (b) Ti vs. Zr, (c) Zr vs. Zr/Y and (d) Y vs. La/Nb discrimination diagrams showing the composition of the high‐Mg volcanic rocks (Floyd et al., 1991; Furnes et al.,
2007). Indicated are fields of arc tholeiite, MORB and BAB that are after Shervais (1982) (MORB, mid‐oceanic ridge basalt; BABB, back‐arc basalt; FABB, fore-arc basalt; IAT, island arc
tholeiite; VAB, volcanic-arc basalt; WB, within-plate basalt). The Chalt boninite data are after Bignold and Treloar (2003).

ophiolites of Troodos, North Tonga and Oman (Arai, 1992; Barnes

Fig. 6. (a) Mg# vs. Cr# and (b) Cr# vs. TiO2 diagrams showing the compositions of spinel from
this study in comparison with spinel compositions from typical high-Ca boninites and low-Ca
boninites worldwide. Data sources are: Troodos (Bednarz and Schmincke, 1994; Duncan and
Green, 1987; Thy and Xenophontos, 1991); North Tonga (Danyushevsky et al., 1995; Sobolev
and Danyushevsky, 1994); Oman (Ishikawa et al., 2002); Chichijima (Taylor, 1992; Umino, 1986).
and Roeder, 2001; Crawford et al., 1989; McElduff and Stumpfl,
1991). The Ti content of spinel is a very important factor for tectonic
discrimination of parental magmas. Intraplate magmas have the
highest TiO2 contents, whereas arc magmas have the lowest (Arai,
1992). In addition, Pearce et al. (2000) suggested that impregnated
MORB-like melts are generally rich in Ti relative to the primary com-
position of the host peridotite. On Cr# versus TiO2 diagrams (Fig. 6b),
the spinel data plot entirely within the boninite field and are similar
to spinel composition from IBM forearc boninites. Fig. 6b also indi-
cates that melting increases (i.e. Cr# increases) together with a slight
decrease in TiO2 content; this trend should be a consequence of
melt–mantle interaction through reaction or melt impregnation,
as in typical forearc settings (Kelemen and Dick, 1995; Edwards
and Malpas 1996; Pearce et al., 2000). The Al2O3 content and
FeO/MgO ratio of a primitive magma are estimated from spinel
compositions. The former was calculated using the equation pro-
posed by Maurel and Maurel (1982) for a spinel‐liquid equilibri-
um at 1 kbar, and the formula of Maurel and Maurel (1984).
Representative Al2O3 values and FeO/MgO ratios are given in
Table. 1. The Al2O3 contents range from 9.00 to 10.73 wt.%, and the
FeO/MgO ratios are 0.67–1.11. These values fit best with the composi-
tions of boninites formed in a forearc tectonic setting (Tables 1 and 4).
The spinel-free basalt samples have incompatible trace element
abundance patterns similar to those of MORB (Fig. 4). However,
their enrichments in Cs, Rb, Pb and U (Fig. 4b) indicate mobility of
fluid elements, and thus may reflect an input of subduction-derived
fluids that are different from MORB. Moreover, their low Ti, Zr, Yb
contents and Ti/V ratio reflect a stronger depletion of their mantle
source compared to the source of basalts erupted in a spreading
ridge such as MORB and BAB. In particular, the depletions in HFSE
such as Nb and Ta are diagnostic of magmas from SSZ settings, and
88 N.X. Thanh et al. / Lithos 155 (2012) 81–93

Fig. 7. Plots of trace element ratios of (a) Zr/Yb vs. Nb/Yb, (b) Nb/Yb vs. Nd/Yb, (c) Nb/Yb vs. La/Yb and (d) TiO2 vs. La/Sm for our forearc metabasic rocks (Pearce et al., 1995). The
area of the shaded rectangle shows the local MORB-array defined by oceanic basalts and local basaltic rocks (see the text). The fields for typical forearc boninites, IBM and arc rocks
worldwide are shown for comparison (see references in the text). The average N-MORB values are from Arevalo and McDonough (2010) and Lázaro et al. (2011).

are distinct from those of MORB (Pearce, 1983; McCulloch and
Gamble, 1991; Ahmad et al., 2005; Nakamura and Iwamori, 2009;
Ernst, 2010; Pearce and Robinson, 2010). On the Ti vs. V, Ti vs. Zr, Zr
vs. (Zr/Y) and Y vs. (La/Nb) discrimination diagrams (Fig. 5), the
data plot separately from the MORB–BAB and IAT fields and similar
to basalts formed in a forearc. Low-Ti, high depletion basalts occur
in the Izu–Bonin–Mariana forearc, where MORB-like basalts were
the first lavas to erupt when the oceanic slab started to subduct,
when the magmas were generated by mantle decompression during
near-trench spreading with little or no mass transfer from the
subducting plate (Morishita et al., 2011; Reagan et al., 2010).
Further insights to the influence of subduction zone fluids to the
petrogenesis of basic rocks can be investigated using the relations of
Zr/Yb, Nd/Yb and La/Yb vs Nb/Yb (Fig. 7), as Nb is widely thought to
be least effectively transferred from a slab to the melting region in a
mantle wedge (Pearce and Peate, 1995; Peate et al., 1997). According
to Pearce and Peate (1995), if Zr, Nd, and La are added from a
subducting slab to a mantle wedge with a constant composition, the
resulting rocks will range from a MORB array to higher ratios in a ver-
tical trend at a given Nb/Yb, or they will plot within a MORB array. On
Fig. 7a, b, all data from the Chalt boninite range from near or lower
than the average N-MORB to progressively more depleted mantle,
supporting a mantle origin or a low subduction contribution of Zr
Table 3
K–Ar age-data of albite separates from the albite porphyroblast‐bearing greenschist
(Rad; Radiogenic: Non-Rad; Non-radiogenic).
Sample K Rad. 40Ar K–Ar age
no. (wt.%) (10−8ccSTP/g) (Ma)
2903 0.34 ± 0.017 88.1 ± 1.1 65.4 ± 3.3
2906 0.085 ± 0.004 35.45 ± 0.80 104.4 ± 5.6
and Nd to the samples. The rocks from the Shyok-Nubra River plot
within and above the average N-MORB field, indicating they have suf-
fered several degrees of Zr, Nd and La addition from a subducting slab.
The different spinel-bearing rocks and the Chalt boninite are scattered
almost parallel to the depletion trend indicating their formation in a
highly depleted mantle. The spinel-bearing and spinel-free rocks plot
parallel to the subduction vector and may be attributed to a heteroge-
neous slab flux. In comparison, regarding Zr/Yb, Nd/Yb, La/Yb vs Nb/
Yb and La/Sm vs. TiO2, the study samples plot within or very near
the compositional fields of the IBM forearc; these compositions are
also distinct from those of intra-oceanic arc, back-arc and arc basalts
(Fig. 7).
Pearce et al., 1995 demonstrated that simple petrogenetic model-
ing of processes operating in a source region can be carried out with a
highly compatible element such as Cr and an immobile incompatible
element such as Yb or Y, which are indices of partial melting and frac-
tionation, respectively, because their abundances in the source region
of most magmas probably approximate primordial mantle. The Cr vs.
Y diagram of Fig. 8a shows that the spinel-bearing samples formed by
>10% fractionation melt from a 10 to 15% depleted harzburgite, indi-
cating that the rocks have mainly suffered from mantle depletion,
which is typical of high-Ca boninites from the Mariana forearc.
Spinel-free samples and the Chalt boninites plot along the trend of
melt fractionation from a depleted harzburgites residue after 12%
melt extraction from a source lherzolite; these plots are also similar
to those of basalts and island arc tholeiites from the Mariana forearc.
In addition, it has been suggested that siliceous high‐Mg basalts may
form by a petrogenetic process similar to that of high‐Mg norite
Non rad.
(Cadman et al., 1997; Hall and Hughes, 1987, 1990; Sun et al.,
40
Ar (%)
1989). However, most Archaean siliceous high‐Mg basalts are com-
23.0 monly considered to be derived from komatiites by a process of as-
45.8
similation‐fractional crystallization (Arndt and Jenner, 1986; Sun et
 N.X. Thanh et al. / Lithos 155 (2012) 81–93 89

Table 4
Calculations of the Al2O3 content and FeO/MgO ratio of parental melts in equilibrium with chromian spinel from the Shyok‐Nubra river confluence. Data from other mafic–ultramafic rocks
are also shown for comparison.

Boninite from Shyok-Nubra river confluence Al2O3 melt (wt.%) FeO/MgO melt (wt.%) References

9.01–10.73 0.67–1.31 This study

Oman (forearc) Auge (1987)

Chromitite 12.5–16.1 0.29–0.62
Cumulate gabbro 13.7–16.7
Harzburgite 11.9–16.3 0.62 ± 0.02
Boninites 10.6–14.4 0.7–1.4 Wilson (1989)
Song Ma serpentinite (forearc) 15.4–16.4 0.9–1.2 Thanh et al. (2011)
Forearc harzburgite (Mugla, SW Turkey) 8.0–15.9 0.3–1.1 Uysal et al. (2009)
Back-arc basin basalt (BABB) >16.0 Fryer et al. (1990)
BABB southern Mariana Trough 16.5 1.23 Gribble et al. (1996)
BABB East Scotia Sea 14.5–17.9 1.0–1.23 Saunders and Tarney (1979)
MORB 16 1.2–1.6 Wilson (1989)

al., 1989); notably no komatiites have been reported from the Shyok
suture zone. On the Ti/Sc vs. Ti/V diagram of Fig. 8b, the data plot in
the Phanerozoic boninite field, separate from other high‐Mg mafic
rocks, and they are compositionally similar to boninites in the
forearcs of IBM and Tonga.
7.2. Tectonic implications
7.2.1. Cretaceous double subduction in the NW Himalaya
Many tectonic models explain the genesis of boninite from forma-
tion in a forearc at the initiation of subduction (Bloomer et al., 1995;
Stern and Bloomer, 1992), to subduction of a spreading‐center
(Crawford et al., 1989), and interaction of an elevated thermal regime
associated with a back‐arc basin spreading center superimposed on
the high water flux of a forearc (Falloon and Crawford, 1991). Most
researchers today assume that boninites occur exclusively in a forearc
tectonic setting (Ahmed et al., 2012; Bloomer et al., 1995; Magganas,
2002; Pagé et al., 2009; Stern and Bloomer, 1992; Tamura and Arai,
2006), and this is most consistent with our data. As discussed
above, the meta‐volcanic data from the Shyok‐Nubra river confluence
are characteristic of supra-subduction magmas, and our spinel-
bearing rocks are most similar to high‐Ca boninites with composi-
tions similar to those of boninites in modern forearc tectonic settings
such as Izu–Bonin–Mariana, Troodos and Tonga. The spinel-free sam-
ples and the Chalt boninites are similar to high depletion basalts from
the Izu–Bonin–Mariana forearc, which are considered to be products
of mantle decompression during near‐trench spreading with little or
no mass transfer from the subducting plate in the early stage of a sub-
duction (Reagan et al., 2010). All the sample compositions are mark-
edly different from those of volcanic rocks in back-arc tectonic
settings (Figs. 5, 6 and 8). The occurrence of a forearc ophiolite in
the Shyok suture zone evidently indicates the prior existence of a sub-
duction zone along the southern margin of the Karakoram block. Ac-
cordingly, this subduction was most likely responsible for formation
of the mid-Cretaceous calc–alkaline (ca. 97–115 Ma) batholiths and
plutons that extend from North Pakistan through the Shyok‐Nubra
valley and the Pangong area in Ladakh to western Tibet (e.g. Fraser
et al., 2001; Ravikant, 2006; Searle et al., 1999; Thanh et al., 2010).
From their study of metamorphic rocks in the Pangong complex,
Thanh et al. (2011) suggested that subduction along the southern
margin of the Karakoram block had caused prograde metamorphism
of supracrustal rocks, giving rise to part of the Pangong complex
(Fig. 1). Deschamps et al. (2010) suggested that the ophiolites at
Spongtang and Nidar in the southern Ladakh arc formed in a forearc
setting relative to northward subduction of Neo‐Tethys beneath the
Eurasian continental plate, corresponding to the Ladakh‐Kohistan
arc (100–40 Ma). The presence of two forearc ophiolitic complexes,
corresponding to two magmatic arcs within the Ladakh‐Kohistan re-
gion (Thanh et al., 2010), evidently suggests that there were two
northward-dipping subduction zones in the northwestern Himalaya
in the Cretaceous (Fig. 9a). The northern one enabled closure of the
Shyok ocean giving rise to the Shyok forearc ophiolite, and shortly af-
terwards the southern one enabled the Indian plate to move north-
wards and collide with the Ladakh arc.

7.2.2. Shyok forearc ophiolitic complex

Fig. 8. (a) Y vs. Cr discriminant diagram showing fields for mafic rocks from various tec-
tonic settings (Metzger et al., 2002; Pearce et al., 1984). (b) Ti/Sc vs. Ti/V variation diagram
showing the high‐Mg volcanic rocks in comparison with siliceous high‐Mg basalts, Phan-
erozoic boninites, Archean basalts and komatiites, and Paleoproterozoic high‐Mg norites
and MORB. Trend A: MORB; trend B: IAB; trend C: High-Ca boninite; trend D: Low-Ca
boninite.
The Shyok suture zone extends from northern Kohistan to north-
eastern Ladakh (Rolland et al., 2002; Thakur and Rawat, 1992). The
ophiolitic mélange along the Shyok‐Nubra valley contains mafic–
ultramafic rocks that were metamorphosed at a low‐grade (e.g.
Ahmad et al., 2005; Rolland et al., 2000, 2002; Upadhyay and
Sinha, 1998). The occurrence boninitic rocks associated with
MORB-like basalts along the Shyok suture zone provides robust
90 N.X. Thanh et al. / Lithos 155 (2012) 81–93
Fig. 9. Models for the tectonic evolution of the northwestern Himalaya showing two northward-dipping subduction zones beneath the southern Ladakh–Kohistan arc and the
Karakoram block in the Early Cretaceous (a). The collision of the Ladakh arc and the Karakoram block occurred in the middle to late Cretaceous (b).
evidence in favor of a forearc tectonic setting for the Shyok ophiolitic
mélange. All our low-TiO2basic rocks are of supra‐subduction origin
and distinct from modern backarc, arc-tholeiite basalts (see Figs. 5, 7
and 8). This is consistent with and supports the work of Rolland et al.
(2000, 2002) who pointed out that the mafic–ultramafic rocks from
the Shyok suture zone in Ladakh have the chemical characteristics of
those in arc/forearc tectonic settings. Moreover, a dunite from Chang
La southeast of the Shyok‐Nubra river confluence (Fig. 1) has high‐Mg
olivine (Fo94) and orthopyroxene (En90) together with high Cr#
(0.86–0.87) spinels (Rolland et al., 2002), suggesting a forearc setting,
as in the Izu–Ogasawara–Mariana forearc (Arai, 1992; Ishii et al.,
1992). MORB‐like basalts, tholeiitic basalts, basaltic andesites and ba-
salts in the Shyok‐Nubra valley area have chemical arc signatures that
are comparable to those in the Mariana arc (Rolland et al., 2000). Also,
boninite‐like basalts have been reported from the Chalt Volcanics in
Kohistan (Bignold and Treloar, 2003; Bignold et al., 2006; Khan et al.,
1997; Petterson and Windley, 1991), which are comparable to those
in the IBM forearc (Figs. 5, 6, 7 and 8). This suggests that forearc
ophiolites were obducted along the whole Shyok suture zone from La-
dakh to Kohistan. During the incipient stages of subduction of a
downgoing slab, an extensional zone typically develops in front of the
trench (Stern and Bloomer, 1992), where mantle-derived magmas are
emplaced to form new oceanic crust in the forearc setting (Stern and
Bloomer, 1992). Such magmas give rise to lherzolites, harzburgites,
layered and isotropic gabbros, and volcanic rocks, which typically
show low‐K and a low degree of partial melting, and generally display
geochemical signatures that are distinct from MORB magmas (Dilek
and Polat, 2008).
Previous studies of basic rocks within the Shyok suture zone in Pa-
kistan and northwestern Ladakh have suggested the MORB-like tho-
leiitic basalts were products of the back-arc spreading by a
northward subduction zone associated with the southern Ladakh
arc (Fig. 1) (Bignold et al., 2006; Khan et al., 2007; Rolland et al.,
2002 and references therein). In this paper we argue alternatively
that such MORB-like basalts are part of a forearc complex, and that
they were the first lavas to erupt after the Shyok oceanic plate
began to subduct, like those in the IBM forearc (Reagan et al., 2010),
and they were followed by boninitic magmatism. These MORB-like
tholeiitic basalts have K–Ar ages of ca. 134 Ma (Khan et al., 2007).
In addition, Petterson and Windley (1991) and Burg et al. (1996)
suggested that the Kohistan–Ladakh arc was fully intra-oceanic, fur-
ther implying that the Shyok ocean was extensive in the Cretaceous.
Robertson and Collins (2002) pointed out that the back-arc interpre-
tations could not be easily applied to the whole Shyok ophiolite.
Therefore, the present-day Shyok ophiolite might be better explained
as a forearc ophiolite similar to that in Izu-Bonin-Mariana (Reagan et
al., 2010). These forearc rocks were finally emplaced in an ophiolitic
mélange after terminal collision between the Ladakh arc and the
Karakoram block (Fig. 9b).
7.3. Age of the Shyok suture
Two albite-rich samples (2903 and 2906) yield K–Ar ages of
65.4 ± 3.3 Ma and 104.4 ± 5.6 Ma. However, sample 2903 contains
fine‐grained inclusions of epidote, phengite and amphibole that likely
strongly affect its K–Ar age. The sample with pure albite porphyroblasts
(2906 with no inclusions) yields a K–Ar age of 104.4 ± 5.6 Ma, which
likely represents early exhumation, in turn suggesting that boninite for-
mation was older than ca.104 Ma. This isotopic age is within the age
range of ca. 108–92 Ma, which is based on the presence of Orbitoline fo-
raminifera in limestones from the Shyok suture zone in eastern Ladarkh
(Rolland et al., 2002), and it is much younger than the K–Ar age of ca.
134 Ma of MORB-like tholeiitic basalts from the Shyok suture zone
in Pakistan (Khan et al., 2007). As discussed above, the MORB-like
tholeiitic basalts within the Shyok suture zone were probably the
first lavas to erupt after the Shyok oceanic plate began to subduct
such as those from the IBM forearc (e.g. Reagan et al., 2010), and
they were followed by boninitic magmatism. The later northward
subduction of the oceanic plate generated continental arc magmatism
on the southern margin of the Karakoram block. This calc–alkaline
magmatism has a zircon SHRIMP U–Pb and K–Ar biotite age of
97–115 Ma (Fraser et al., 2001; Ravikant, 2006; Searle et al., 1998;
Thanh et al., 2010, 2011, 2012). These geochronological data are closely
comparable with our data and those of Khan et al. (2007) from basic
rocks of the Shyok ophiolite. Therefore, subduction initiation of the
Shyok plate beneath the Karakoram block probably took place in the pe-
riod ca. 115–134 Ma.
The timing of amalgamation of the Ladakh arc and the Karakoram
block is still controversial. At the Shyok‐Nubra river confluence, the
Tirit calc–alkaline granitoids were intruded into the Shyok ophiolitic
 N.X. Thanh et al. / Lithos 155 (2012) 81–93
mélange (Fig. 1), indicating that suturing of the Ladakh arc and the
Karakoram block took place prior to the emplacement of the main
calc–alkaline rocks and after the formation of youngest calc–alkaline
rocks in the Karakoram block. Weinberg et al. (2000) reported a zir-
con age of 68–74 Ma for the Tirit granitoids, clearly suggesting that
the amalgamation of the Ladakh arc to the Karakoram block occurred
between 74 Ma and 97 Ma (Fig. 9b).
8. Conclusions
The basic rocks from the Shyok-Nubra river confluence of the Shyok
suture belong to a typical magmatic complex of a supra-subduction
zone. Despite the fact that the rocks have undergone variable metamor-
phism, our geochemical and mineral compositional data suggest that
the basic rocks were generated beneath a magmatic arc. The ophiolite
evolved from primitive arc basalts, which have geochemical signatures
that are very different from those of MORB and backarc basalts, and they
were followed by high Ca-boninites. The geochemistry and mineral
chemistry of the rocks are consistent with formation in a modern
forearc where magma is generated in the initial stage of subduction.
Based on the K–Ar age of albites from an albite-rich mafic greenschist
(ca. 104 Ma) and the ca. 134 Ma K–Ar age of MORB-like tholeiitic ba-
salts (Khan et al., 2007) from the Shyok suture zone, together with
age variations of calc-alkaline rocks emplaced into the southern margin
of the Karakoram block, the initial stage of subduction took place at
115–134 Ma. An intra-oceanic forearc and arc of 140–110 Ma age has
been reported from the Indus suture zone and Ladakh batholith, respec-
tively. Thus the existence of two suture zones of contrasting tectonic
setting in Ladakh–Kohistan evidently indicates two northward-
dipping subduction zones in the northwestern Himalaya during the
Cretaceous. The northern one enabled closure of the Shyok ocean giving
rise to the Shyok forearc ophiolite (between 74 Ma and 97 Ma), and
shortly afterwards the southern one enabled the Indian plate to move
northwards and collide with the Ladakh arc (around 50–60 Ma).
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2012.08.016.
Acknowledgments
We express our sincere thanks to Prof. S. Kojima for his financial
support for the fieldwork in the Himalaya, to Prof. T. Ahmad for his
contributions and guidance on the geology in the field. We are grate-
ful to Dr. C.P. Dorjey and Siva Prabha for their help during the field-
work. We are also indebted to Dr. K. Yagi for his support with the
K–Ar analyses, and to Prof. Y. Rolland for kindly providing spinel
data from the Chang La dunite. We thank two anonymous reviewers
for their valuable comments and constructive suggestions which
helped to improve the quality of this manuscript. Ngo Xuan Thanh ac-
knowledges support from the Vietnam National Foundation for Sci-
ence and Technology Development (NAFOSTED) under grant number
105.01–2011.14.
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