Chương 21a

BK
Chapter 21: FUNDAMENTALS OF MACHINING p.556 TP.HCM
CONTENTS
1. Introduction p.556
2. Mechanics of Cutting p.558
3. Cutting Forces and Power p.568
4. Temperatures in Cutting p.571
5. Tool Life: Wear and Failure p.574
6. Surface Finish and Integrity p.581
7. Machinability p.583
Tran Anh Son
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. tason@hcmut.edu.vn
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Page 1
Chapter 21: FUNDAMENTALS OF MACHINING p.556 BK
TP.HCM
21.1 Introduction
- Introduce the fundamentals of the machining
processes.
- Discuss about the mechanics of chip formation

in machining and the model typically used for
orthogonal cutting operations
- Calculate cutting forces and power in

machining.
- Discuss about the rising of temperature in chip and cutting tool.
- Mechanisms of tool wear and failure follow, with flank Wear characterized
by the Taylor tool-life equation.
- Described about crater wear, nose wear, and other forms of wear.
Tran Anh Son
TP.HCM
21.1 Introduction
Cutting processes
remove material from
the surface of a
workpiece by
producing chips.
Tran Anh Son

TP.HCM
The Turning Operation
d depth of cut (mm)

f feed or feed rate (mm/rev)
n revolution of the workpiece (rev)
Tran Anh Son
TP.HCM
Two-Dimensional Cutting Process
Orthogonal Turning
Cutting Operation
Model
Chip Feed f
thickness
before cut
to
Width of cut Depth d
w
Cutting Cutting
speed v speed v
Tran Anh Son

TP.HCM
21.2 Mechanics of Cutting

Variables in the cutting process:
Variables
1.1. tool material and coatings

1.2. tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness
1.3. workpiece material and condition
1. Independent variables 1.4. cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut
1.5. cutting fluids
1.6. characteristics of the machine tool
1.7. work holding and fixturing.
2.1. type of chip produced

2.2. force and energy dissipated during cutting
2. Dependent variables 2.3. temperature rise in the workpiece, the tool, and the chip,
2.4. tool wear and failure
2.5. surface finish and surface integrity of the workpiece.
Tran Anh Son
TP.HCM
Factors
Influencing
Machining
Operations
Tran Anh Son

TP.HCM

When machining operations yield unacceptable results,
® What are normal troubleshooting?
® Solution: which of the independent variables should be changed

first, and to what extent.
(a) the surface finish of the workpiece being cut is unacceptable
(b) the cutting tool wears rapidly and becomes dull
(c) the workpiece becomes very hot
(d) the tool begins to vibrate and chatter.
In order to understand these phenomena and respond to the question

posed, let’s first study the mechanics of chip formation.
Tran Anh Son
TP.HCM
Orthogonal cutting
Cutting models
uses a wedge-shaped tool
in which the cutting edge
is perpendicular to the
direction of cutting speed
Orthogonal cutting model
- It is two dimensional and the forces involved are

perpendicular to each other.
- The cutting tool has a rake angle of a (positive) and a

relief or clearance angle .
Tran Anh Son
TP.HCM
Chip Formation
by Shearing
- Shearing takes place in a shear

zone (usually along a well-defined
plane referred to as the shear
plane ) at an angle F (called the
shear angle ).
- Below the shear plane, the workpiece remains undeformed
- Above the shear plane, the chip that is already formed moves up the rake face of the tool.
- The dimension d in the figure is highly exaggerated to show the mechanism involved. In reality,
this dimension is only on the order of 10 -2 to 10 -3 mm.
Tran Anh Son
TP.HCM
Chip Formation
by Shearing
Some materials (notably cast irons at low

speeds ) do not shear along a well defined
plane but instead shear in a zone
Tran Anh Son

TP.HCM
Mechanics of Cutting
tc the chip thickness - chiều dày phoi
to the depth of cut - chiều sâu cắt
a the rake angle - góc trước
g the shear strain - biến dạng trượt
f the shear angle - góc trượt
r the cutting ratio (or chip-thickness ratio) - hệ số
co rút phoi. r<1.
b the friction angle - góc ma sát
m the coefficient of friction - hệ số ma sát . m = tan b
Vc the velocity of the chip -tốc độ phoi
V the cutting speed - tốc độ cắt
(Merchant Equation)
Tran Anh Son

TP.HCM
LESSONS:
- The cutting ratio is an important and useful parameter for evaluating cutting
conditions. Since the undeformed chip thickness,to, is a machine setting and is
therefore known, the cutting ratio can be calculated easily by measuring the
chip thickness tc with a micrometer.
- The shear strains are associated with low shear angles or with low or
negative rake angles.
- The shear angle has great significance in the mechanics of cutting
operations. It influences force and power requirements, chip thickness, and
temperature.
- Merchant Equation (21.3) indicates that:

(a) as the rake angle decreases or the friction at the tool-chip interface (rake
face) increases, the shear angle decreasesand the chip becomes thicker.
(b) thicker chips mean more energy dissipationbecause the shear strain is
higher [see Eq. (21.2)].
(c) because work done during cutting is converted into heat, the temperature
rise is also higher. Tran Anh Son
TP.HCM
LESSONS:
Merchant Equation:
Merchant Equation
rake angle tool-chip friction shear plane angle
(1) increasing the rake angle (2) decreasing the friction angle
proper tool design using a lubricant cutting fluid
try to make the shear

plane angle
as large as possible
during machining.
Tran Anh Son

TP.HCM
21.2.1 Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
Primary shear
zones
Two shear
Plane Zone zones
Secondary
shear zones
The four main types are as follows:

° Continuous
° Built-up edge
° Serrated or segmented
° Discontinuous.
Tran Anh Son
TP.HCM
Chips Produced in Orthogonal Metal Cutting

Figure 21.5 Basic types of
chips produced in
orthogonal metal cutting,
their schematic
representation, and
photomicrographs of the
cutting zone: (a)
continuous chip with narrow,
straight, and primary shear
zone; (b) continuous chip
with secondary shear zone
at the cip-tool interface; (c)
built-up edge; (d)
segmented or
nonhomogeneous chip; and
(e) discontinuous chip.
Source: After M.C. Shaw,
P.K. Wright, and S.
Kalpakjian.
Tran Anh Son
TP.HCM
Types of chip
Discontinuous chip Continuous chip. Continuous chip with built-up edge. Serrated chips
• Brittle materials (e.g., cast • Ductile materials • Ductile materials • Most closely associated
irons) • At high speeds, high • At low to medium with certain difficult-to-
• At very low or very high cutting cutting speeds machine metals such as
rake angles and relatively
speeds • BUE forms and grows, titanium alloys, nickel-base
• Large depths of cut small feeds and depths.
• A sharp cutting edge then becomes unstable superalloys.
• Low rake angles.
• Lack of an effective cutting fluid. on the tool and low tool- and breaks off • Austenitic stainless steels
Low stiffness of the toolholder or chip friction encourage when they are machined at
the machine tool, thus allowing the formation of • Reduces the life of the higher cutting speeds.
vibration and chatter to occur.
continuous chips cutting tool. • Common work metals
• High tool-chip friction and large • Imbedded in the newly (e.g., steels) when they are
feed and depth of cut promote the created work surface,
formation of this chip type.
cut at high speeds.
causing the surface to
become rough.
Tran Anh Son
TP.HCM
Built-up Edge
Figure 21.6 (a) Hardness distribution with a built-up edge in the
cutting zone (material, 3115 steel). Note that some regions in the
built-up edge are as much as three times harder than the bulk metal
of the workpiece. (b) Surface finish produced in turning 5130 steel
with a built-up edge. (c) Surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling.
Magnifications: 15x. Source: Courtesy of Metcut Research
Associates, Inc.
The tendency for BUE formation can be

reduced by one or more of the following
means:
- Increase the cutting speeds
- Decrease the depth of cut
- Increase the rake angle
- Use a sharp tool
- Use an effective cutting fluid
- Use a cutting tool that has lower
chemical affinity for the workpiece
material.
Tran Anh Son
TP.HCM
In all cutting operations performed on metals, as well as nonmetallic

materials such as plastics and wood, chips develop a curvature ( chip curl)
The factors affecting the chip curl are the following:
- The distribution of stresses in the primary and secondary shear zones.
- Thermal effects.
- Work-hardening characteristics of the workpiece material.
- The geometry of the cutting tool.
- Cutting fluids.
Tran Anh Son

TP.HCM
Chip Breakers
Figure 21.7 (a) Schematic

illustration of the action of a chip
breaker. Note that the chip
breaker decreases the radius of
curvature of the chip and
eventually breaks it. (b) Chip
breaker clamped on the rake face
of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in
cutting tools acting as chip
breakers. Most cutting toold used
now are inserts with built-in chip
breaker features.
Tran Anh Son

TP.HCM
Chips Produced in Turning
Figure 21.8 Chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits
workpiece and breaks; (c) continuous chip moving radially away from workpiece;
and (d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off. Source: After G. Boothroyd.
Tran Anh Son

TP.HCM
Cutting with an Oblique Tool
Figure 21.9 (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. Note the
direction of chip movement. (b) Top view, showing the inclination angle, i,. (c)
Types of chips produced with tools at increasing inclination angles.
Tran Anh Son
TP.HCM
The effective rake angle
ac the chip flow angle

ai the normal rake angle
ae the effective rake angle
i the inclination angle
As i increases, the effective rake angle increases a e, the chip becomes

thinner and longer, and, as a consequence, the cutting force decreases.
Tran Anh Son

TP.HCM
Right-hand Cutting Tool and Insert
Figure 21.20 (a) Schematic illustration of right-hand cutting tool. The various angles on these
tools and their effects on machining are described in Section 23.3.1 Although these tools
traditionally have been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been replaced largely with
(b) inserts made of carbides and other materials of various shapes and sizes.
Tran Anh Son
BK
TP.HCM
Time Breaker
Page 25
TP.HCM
Knowledge of the cutting forces and power involved in machining

operations is important for the following reasons:
- Data on cutting forces is essential so that:
a. Machine tools can be properly designed to minimize distortion of
the machine components, maintain the desired dimensional accuracy
of the machined part, and help select appropriate tool holders and work-
holding devices.
b. The workpiece is capable of withstanding these forces without
excessive distortion.
- Power requirements must be known in order to enable the selection of

a machine tool with adequate electric power.
Tran Anh Son

TP.HCM
friction force F
normal force to
friction N
Forces in metal cutting
shear force Fs
FORCE RELATIONSHIPS normal force to

shear Fn
Merchant equation
Tran Anh Son

TP.HCM
The forces applied against

the chip by the tool can be
separated into two mutually
perpendicular components:
friction force and normal
force to friction
Coefficient of friction between the tool

there are two force
components applied and the chip
by the workpiece on the
chip: shear force and
normal force to shear
Shear stress (ứng suất trượt)

Friction angle
Tran Anh Son


Chương 21a

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chương 21a

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BK

Chapter 21: FUNDAMENTALS OF MACHINING p.556 TP.HCM

2. Mechanics of Cutting p.558

3. Cutting Forces and Power p.568

4. Temperatures in Cutting p.571

5. Tool Life: Wear and Failure p.574

6. Surface Finish and Integrity p.581

- Discuss about the mechanics of chip formation

- Calculate cutting forces and power in

Tran Anh Son

The Turning Operation

d depth of cut (mm)

Two-Dimensional Cutting Process

Tran Anh Son

21.2 Mechanics of Cutting

1.1. tool material and coatings

2.1. type of chip produced

21.2 Mechanics of Cutting

Tran Anh Son

21.2 Mechanics of Cutting

® What are normal troubleshooting?

® Solution: which of the independent variables should be changed

(b) the cutting tool wears rapidly and becomes dull

(c) the workpiece becomes very hot

(d) the tool begins to vibrate and chatter.

In order to understand these phenomena and respond to the question

Orthogonal cutting model

- It is two dimensional and the forces involved are

- The cutting tool has a rake angle of a (positive) and a

- Shearing takes place in a shear

- Below the shear plane, the workpiece remains undeformed

Some materials (notably cast irons at low

Tran Anh Son

Tran Anh Son

- Merchant Equation (21.3) indicates that:

rake angle tool-chip friction shear plane angle

proper tool design using a lubricant cutting fluid

try to make the shear

Tran Anh Son

21.2.1 Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

The four main types are as follows:

Chips Produced in Orthogonal Metal Cutting

The tendency for BUE formation can be

In all cutting operations performed on metals, as well as nonmetallic

The factors affecting the chip curl are the following:

- The distribution of stresses in the primary and secondary shear zones.

- Work-hardening characteristics of the workpiece material.

- The geometry of the cutting tool.

Tran Anh Son

Figure 21.7 (a) Schematic

Tran Anh Son

Chips Produced in Turning

Tran Anh Son

Cutting with an Oblique Tool

The effective rake angle

ac the chip flow angle

As i increases, the effective rake angle increases a e, the chip becomes

Tran Anh Son

Right-hand Cutting Tool and Insert

Knowledge of the cutting forces and power involved in machining

- Power requirements must be known in order to enable the selection of

Tran Anh Son

FORCE RELATIONSHIPS normal force to