Physics

CHAPTER
3 Gravitation
G ravitation is the weakest force
in nature. It is negligible in the interactions of tiny particles, and thus plays no role in molecules, atoms, and
nuclei. The gravitational attraction between objects of ordinary size, such as the gravitational force exerted by
a building on a car, is too small to be noticed. When we consider very large objects, such as stars, planets, and
satellites (moons), gravitation is of primary importance. The gravitational force exerted by the earth on us and on
the objects around us is a fundamental part of our experience. It is gravitation that binds us to the earth and
keeps the earth and the other planets on course within the solar system. The gravitational force plays an
important role in the life history of stars and in the behaviour of galaxies.

3.1 The Newtonian gravitation

Sir Isaac Newton did not discover gravitation, its effects have been known throughout human existence. But he
was the first one to understand the broader significance of gravitation. Newton discovered that ‘gravitation is
universal, it is not restricted to earth only’, as other physicists of his time assumed.
Newton’s universal law of gravitation
‘Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force which is proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The force is along the line joining
the centres of two objects’.
Let us consider two masses m1 and m2 lying at a separation distance r. Let the force of attraction between two
objects be F. According to the universal law of gravitation,
F12 F21
F m1 m2 m2
m1
1
F
r2
m1 m2
Combining both, we get, F
r2
Gm1m2 r
or F
r2 Fig.1 Newton's law of gravitation
Where, G is the constant of proportionality and is called the universal gravitation constant.
Universal gravitation constant is the magnitude of the force (in newton) between a pair of 1 kg masses that are
kept 1 meter apart.
Unit of universal gravitation constant : According to the universal law of gravitation,
Gm1 m2 Fr 2
F or G
r2 m1 m2
Newton (meter)2 Nm 2
Thus, S.I. unit of G Nm2 kg –2 F
kg kg kg2
Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Physics\05_Gravitation (th).p65

The value of the constant G is so small that it could not be determined by

Newton or his contemporary experimentalists. It was determined by Henry
Cavendish for the first time (1798) about 100 years later. Its accepted value
today is 6.673 × 10–11 Nm2kg –2. It is because of the smallness of G that the
gravitational force due to ordinary objects is not felt by us. O r
Characteristics of gravitational force : Fig.2 Dependence of
(1) It is a universal force of attraction. gravitational force (F)
on separation distance (r).
(2) It acts along the line joining the centres of each mass.
(3) It acts equally on each mass, i.e., it obeys Newton’s third law i.e., F12 = –F21

(4) It is weaker if the masses are further apart. It acts in an inverse square manner, i.e., F 1 , where 'r' is thee
r2
distance between the centres of the masses.
(5) It depends directly on the mass of each body involved, i.e., F m1 and F m2 .
(6) It is a long range force i.e., its influence is extending to very large distances.

51
 Class IX
(7) It does not depend on the medium present between the two masses.
(8) The Newton’s universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena which were believed to
be unconnected :
(i) The force that binds us to the earth. (ii) The motion of the moon around the earth.
(iii) The motion of planets around the Sun. (iv) The tides due to the moon and the Sun.
Why moon does not fall on earth directly ?
Moon
The motion of moon is just like the motion of an object in circular motion. The
velocity of the moon is directed tangent to the circle at every point along its
path. The acceleration of moon is directed towards the center of the circle i.e.,
towards the earth (the central body) around which it is orbiting. This acceleration
is caused by a centripetal force which is supplied by the gravitational force
between the earth and the moon. If this force were absent, the moon in motion
would continue in motion at the same speed and in a direction tangential to the
Earth
circular path and would have escaped away from the earth. If the moon had
no tangential velocity, it would have fallen on earth due to gravitation. Thus, it
is the tangential velocity and the gravitational force that are perpendicular to
each other and keep the moon to fall around the earth without actually falling
Fig.3 The Earth-Moon system
into it.

1.1NUMERICAL CHALLENGE 3.1

Find the distance between a 0.300 kg billiard ball and a 0.400 kg billiard ball if the magnitude of the gravitational
force between them is 8.80 × 10–11 N. Take, G = 6.6 × 10–11 Nm2kg –2.
Solution
Given, m1 = 0.3 kg ; m2 = 0.4 kg ; F = 8.80 × 10–11 N ; r = ?
Gm1 m2
According to Newton’s law of gravitation, F
r2
Gm1 m2 (6.6 10–11 )(0.3)(0.4)
or r 2 = 0.09
F 8.8 10 –11
or r = 0.3 m

3.2 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

Law of orbits : All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Semi-minor axis Semi-major axis
Sun situated at one of the foci of the ellipse (see fig.4). The closest
point is P called the perihelion and the farthest point is A called Minor axis
the aphelion. The semimajor axis (R) is half the distance AP. P A
Law of areas : The line that joins any planet to the sun sweeps F1 F2
(see fig.5) equal areas in equal intervals of time i.e.,
Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Physics\05_Gravitation (th).p65

A
constant . This means, the planet moves faster when it is
t
nearer to the Sun and it moves slower when it is farther from the Major axis
Sun i.e, (v 1/r). Fig.4 Law of orbits

vA rP
For example, . Since rA > rP, vA < vP .
vP rA
P A
Law of periods : The square of the time period of revolution of F2
F1
a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis (mean
distance) of the ellipse traced out by the planet i.e.,
2 3 R
T2 T1 R1 Fig.5 Law of areas
T 2
R 3
or =constant . Also,
R3 T2 R2

52
 Physics

3.3 Acceleration due to gravity

The constant acceleration of a freely falling body is called the acceleration due
m
to gravity. It is the acceleration of an object in free fall that results from the
influence of Earth’s gravity. Its magnitude is denoted with the letter g. Fg
R
Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of earth
Let us consider an object of mass m placed on the surface of Earth. Let the
mass of Earth be M and radius of earth be R. The gravitational force on the
object due to Earth is given by,
M
GmM ...(1)
Fg Fig.6 Acceleration due to gravity
R2
Let this force produces an acceleration ‘a’ in the object, then,
Fg = ma ...(2)
From eq.(1) and eq.(2), we get,
GmM
ma =
R2
GM
or a
R2
This acceleration is called acceleration due to gravity and it is denoted by g i.e., a = g.
GM
g
R2
The acceleration due to gravity g for any planet is (i) directly proportional to the mass of the planet
(ii) inversely proportional to the square of the radius of the planet.
Acceleration due to gravity (g) on earth is 9.8 ms–2. In Cgs system, value of g is 980 cm/s2. In fps system, value of
g is 32 ft/s2.
Among the planets, value of 'g' is maximum for Jupiter, gjupiter = 26 m/s2.
g2 M 2 R12
For two planets 1 and 2, ratio of their acceleration due to gravity,
g1 M1 R 2 2

1.1NUMERICAL CHALLENGE 3.2

The radius of the Earth shrinks by 10 %. By how much percent the acceleration due to gravity on the Earth's
surface would (mass remaining constant) change ?
Solution
Initial radius = r ; mass of Earth remains constant = M
10 90
Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Physics\05_Gravitation (th).p65

New radius, r ' r– r r 0.9r

100 100
GM
Initial value of acceleration due to gravity, g
r2
GM GM 1 GM 1
New value of acceleration due to gravity, g ' 2 2
g
(r ') (0.9r) 0.81 r 2 0.81
Percentage change in the value of acceleration due to gravity is given by,

g' g (1 / 0.81)g – g
100 100
g g
1 0.19
–1 100 100 = +23.45 % Positive sign shows that there is an increase in the value of
0.81 0.81

g. The value of g increases by 23.45%.

53
Class IX

3.4 Factors affecting acceleration due to gravity

Shape of Earth
Our earth is not perfectly spherical. The radius of earth at poles (RP) is slightly smaller than the radius of earth at
equator (R E).
GM GM
gP --- (1) and gE --- (2)
RP2 RE2
(1) g P GM / R P 2 gP R E2
or --- (3)
(2) g E GM / R E 2 gE RP 2
Earth
Since, RE > R P , therefore, gP > g E.
Fig.7 Shape of the Earth is
Rotation of Earth not perfectly spherical, RP > RE
Rotation of earth also affects the value of acceleration due to gravity at
place on the surface of earth. Because of rotation, an object experiences
a centrifugal force acting away from the axis of rotation which varies m
from place to place on the Earth. This centrifugal force is maximum at
FCentrifugal
equator and minimum (zero) at the poles. As a result, value of g at
equator is minimum and value of g at poles is maximum. Thus, because Fgravity
of rotation, g P > g E.
As we move from a place on equator to a place on pole, value of g
increases. In other words, if latitude angle increases from 0° (equator)
Axis of
to 90° (poles), g also increases.
rotation
If rotation of earth stops, value of g will increase at the equator while Fig.8 Rotation of Earth affects
acceleration due to gravity
it will remain unchanged at the poles.
Considering the shape of the Earth and its rotation, we can conclude A
that acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth is maximum at h
the poles and minimum at the equator.
R d
Height above the surface of earth B
GM gR 2
gA 2 (see fig.9)
(R h) (R h)2
For h << R, i.e., a point very near the surface,

2h Fig.9 Effect of height(or depth)

gA g 1– above (or below) the surface of Earth
R

Depth below the surface of earth

Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Physics\05_Gravitation (th).p65

g
d
gB g 1– (see fig.9)
R

At the centre of Earth, d = R thus, value of g at the centre is,

O R r
R
gCentre g 1– g(1 – 1) 0 Centre Surface
R of earth of earth
Fig.10 Variation g with distance
Acceleration due to gravity on the moon is one sixth of the acceleration
from the centre of Earth
due to gravity on the earth i.e.,
gm 1
ge 6
Thus, weight of the object on the moon = (1/6) × its weight on the earth.
54
 Physics

3.5 Gravitational potential energy

Gravitational potential energy between two masses m 1 and m2 having distance r between them is,
Gm1m2
U –
r
Gravitational potential energy is always negative, the negative sign shows its attractive nature.
Gravitational potential energy of a system of n particles can be written as m1
mim j r12
U –G
rij r13
i j
All pairs

For example, for a three particle system (see fig.11), m2 r23 m3

Fig.11 Gravitational potential
Gm1 m2 Gm2 m3 Gm1m3 energy of three particle system
U – – –
r12 r23 r13
Gravitational potential energy of an object located at a height h above the surface of Earth is given by,
GMm
U – Where, M = mass of Earth ; m = mass of object ; R = radius of earth.
(R h)
Gravitational potential energy of a particle located on the surface of earth,
GMm
U –
R

3.6 Orbital velocity

The speed of a satellite, spacecraft, or other body travelling in an orbit around the earth is called
orbi tal velocity.

GM gR 2 Satellite
vO (see fig.12) vO
(R h) (R h)
h
For a satellite orbiting quite near to the earth,

GM R
vO gR 8 km/s
R
Time period of a satellite orbiting around the earth
in a circular path,
Earth
3 3
(R h) (R h)
T 2 2
GM gR 2
Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Physics\05_Gravitation (th).p65

Fig.12 Orbital velocity of a satellite

Time period of a satellite orbiting very near to the surface
of earth in a circular path,

R3 R
T 2 2 85 minutes
GM g

Geostationary orbit
It is an orbit of the earth made by an artificial satellite with a period exactly equal to the earth’s period of rotation
on its axis, i.e., 24 hours. If the orbit lies in the equatorial plane and is circular, the satellite will appear to be
stationary. This is called a stationary orbit (or geostationary orbit) and it occurs at an altitude of 35800 km. Most
communication satellites are in stationary orbits, with three or more spaced round the orbit to give worldwide
coverage. Such satellites are called geostationary satellites.

55
Class IX
Polar satellites
These are low altitude satellites (h is nearly 500 to 800 km), but they go around the poles of the earth in a
north-south direction whereas the earth rotates around its axis in an east-west direction. Their time period is
around 100 minutes and they cross any latitude many times a day.

3.7 Escape speed (or velocity)

The minimum speed needed by an object like space vehicle, rocket, etc., to escape from the gravitational field
of the earth, moon, or other celestial body is called escape speed or velocity (ve).

2GM
ve 2gR
R

Some important points related to escape velocity are :

(1) Escape velocity is independent of the mass of the object projected from the Earth. For example, a spacecraft
has the same escape speed as a molecule.
(2) Escape velocity is independent of the direction of the velocity.
(3) Escape velocity for earth is about 11.2 km/s. Escape velocity for moon is about 2.3 km/s, nearly five times
smaller than that of earth. Among the planets, escape velocity is maximum for Jupiter, it is 59.5 km/s.

Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Physics\05_Gravitation (th).p65

56