International Journal of Water Resources Development

ISSN: 0790-0627 (Print) 1360-0648 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cijw20

Technological enablers and confidence building

in end-users for effective non-domestic water
demand management

Harry Seah & Nina Lee

To cite this article: Harry Seah & Nina Lee (2020): Technological enablers and confidence building
in end-users for effective non-domestic water demand management, International Journal of Water
Resources Development, DOI: 10.1080/07900627.2019.1695587

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2019.1695587

Published online: 13 Mar 2020.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2019.1695587

Technological enablers and confidence building in end-users

for effective non-domestic water demand management
Harry Seah and Nina Lee
PUB, Singapore’s National Water Agency, Singapore

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

By 2060, 70% of Singapore’s total water demand will be used for Received 24 July 2019
non-domestic purposes. Effective management of this demand will Accepted 15 November 2019
allow the national water agency, PUB, to achieve significant lever- KEYWORDS
age and take strides in water sustainability as land use nears capa- Non-domestic sector; water
city limits in Singapore. Uptake of water conservation projects was demand management;
sluggish in the initial years due to the high upfront capital and industrial engagement;
manpower resources required for implementation, and perceived water recycling; low-
incremental benefit to business margins. Through policy reform, temperature desalination;
technological innovation and a rigorous industrial engagement Singapore
strategy, PUB has since completed 45 water conservation projects
and is set to achieve 14.3 million gallons per day in non-domestic
water savings by the end of 2020.

In Singapore, the dominant sources of water supplied by PUB, the national water agency,
for non-domestic usage are NEWater, potable water and industrial water. NEWater is
produced by subjecting municipal wastewater to an activated sludge process followed by
tertiary treatment involving ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis, while industrial water is a
lower-grade product generated from municipal or industrial wastewater subjected to
enhanced secondary treatment involving a membrane bioreactor (MBR) process.

Non-domestic demand management: a strategic priority

Industry accounts for the lion’s share of water use in Singapore. Within 50 years, Singapore
capitalized on its geographical leverage to become a global trading hub through intensive
investment in the manufacturing and energy sectors, which now contribute about 20% of
its gross domestic product (GDP). Despite the absence of oil and mineral resources, the
country is the world’s fifth-largest oil refinery export centre (BP, 2019) and among the top 10
global chemical hubs by export volume (World Trade Organization, 2019).
Digital technologies beckon the next wave of growth as the ageing city-state innovates to
remain competitive and resilient. Investment in advanced manufacturing and precision engi-
neering is increasing, with demand for internet-of-things infrastructure and advanced robotics
set to further drive the growth of the electronics sector, which now accounts for 11% of global
market share in semiconductor wafer foundry output. Singapore is also the fourth-largest
global exporter of high-tech products (World Bank Group, 2018).

CONTACT Harry Seah harry_seah@pub.gov.sg

© 2020 PUB, Singapore’s national water agency. Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 H. SEAH AND N. LEE

Against this backdrop, non-domestic water consumption, which currently accounts for
55% of the nation’s 430 million gallons per day (MGD) water demand, is expected at an
assumed 2.7% GDP growth to increase disproportionately to 70% by 2060, when total
demand will hit 800 MGD – double today’s consumption.
Managing non-domestic water demand will therefore be vital to keep Singapore’s water
supply sustainable and affordable. Through PUB, its national water agency, Singapore has
enhanced its policy and industrial engagement frameworks over the last decade to drive
technology adoption in wastewater recycling and alternative water solutions.

Drivers that shaped non-domestic water demand management in Singapore

Over the past decade, Singapore has developed a water demand management policy
targeting large water users, especially those that consume more than 10,000 m3 per
month. The policy considers the companies’ operational processes, land and infrastruc-
tural constraints, technical feasibility of industrial water solutions, and a range of eco-
nomic factors. These were studied extensively through a series of surveys and industry
consultations carried out in 2012 and 2013 as part of PUB’s initial investigations into the
non-domestic water landscape.

The petrochemicals and electronics sectors as key targets for non-domestic water
conservation
Singapore’s non-domestic demand in 2012 was about 200 MGD, with the manufacturing
sector accounting for more than 40%. The petrochemicals and electronics sub-sectors
constituted 75% of the manufacturing sector (Figure 1).
The top 20 water users were further shown to belong to the petrochemical and
electronics sub-sectors (Figure 2). Although private utilities were ranked among these
users, they were excluded from PUB’s list of target groups in the final analysis since the
utilities were ultimately serving the petrochemicals and electronics sub-sectors. These top
20 users alone accounted for about 45 MGD, or 11% of total daily consumption, and
became the focus of PUB’s engagement efforts.
Singapore’s petrochemical hub is on Jurong Island, an artificial isle with over 100
petrochemical, specialty chemicals and supporting industries on its 32 km2 of reclaimed
space. These companies, with fixed asset investments over S$42 billion at the time of the
study in 2012, were consuming 42 MGD of potable water, NEWater and industrial water in
total. The study showed that almost none of this was reclaimed or reused: an estimated
94% of water used in industrial processes was either discharged to the sea after primary
treatment or evaporated in cooling towers. The detailed water balance for Jurong Island is
shown in Figure A1 in the Appendix.
The way forward was clear: PUB would aim to close the water loop on Jurong Island
and ramp up water conservation efforts across the nation’s four wafer fabrication parks.
For Jurong Island, the studies revealed a high potential for companies to utilize localized
water resources (e.g. seawater and treated effluent from on-site sewage treatment plants)
and captive solutions (e.g. in-house water recycling and seawater cooling), which would
set the stage for long-term benefits, given that Jurong Island’s water demand was
projected to triple by 2060.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 3

Figure 1. Top: Non-domestic water demand by industrial sector in 2012 (IW = industrial water;
NW = NEWater; PW = potable water). Bottom: Sectors of the manufacturing industry in 2012.

Infrastructural constraints on Jurong Island limit feasibility of traditional supply

options
Relying solely on mainland water supplies to meet the future demand on Jurong
Island was assessed as unviable. Not only would this entail competing with existing
4 H. SEAH AND N. LEE

Figure 2. The top 20 industrial water users in 2012.

and future developments for space, but also the construction of costly subsea
pipelines would be required, in view of the congestion of services along the
Jurong Island Highway. Furthermore, implementing centralized wastewater treatment
facilities in the more established demand centres on Jurong Island (e.g. Sakra and
Seraya) would be highly disruptive to businesses, because extensive drain redirection
projects would be required.

Deferring or reducing the need for future capital projects through demand
management
Capital projects to enhance water supply could be potentially deferred through
water conservation and recycling. Effectively, a cubic metre of NEWater saved
through recycling potentially defers the installation of a cubic metre of NEWater
capacity. This also means that there would be another cubic metre of NEWater
capacity for indirect potable use, which in turn potentially defers additional desalina-
tion capacity. Therefore, the benefit of conserving a cubic metre of NEWater is
equivalent to the benefit of deferring a cubic metre of fixed cost of either NEWater
or desalination capacity.
System-level cost estimates indicated that seawater cooling systems or in-house
recycling projects (whether carried out by individual companies or aggregated as a
centralized system) would, in the most conservative scenario, be 16% more cost-
effective than increasing NEWater pipeline capacity and mainland water supply in the
long term. Furthermore, the cost of supplying NEWater to Jurong Island
might continue to be subject to upward pressure from rising energy and pipeline
asset costs.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 5

Feasibility of implementing large-scale water conservation and recycling projects

Seawater cooling
Freshwater sources like NEWater have traditionally been used as makeup water in cooling
towers, where waste heat from industrial processes is transferred to the cooling medium
in heat exchangers. It is estimated that the water consumption of the cooling systems
alone is more than 30 MGD (PUB, 2017).
In 2014, a feasibility study by MWH Consultants found that seawater cooling is technically
feasible and economically viable for seafront companies (PUB, 2014). While the infrastruc-
tural, chemical and maintenance costs of seawater cooling are higher than those of NEWater
cooling, the overall cost of seawater cooling was shown to be more economical over a 30-
year period (Figure 3), due largely to the free accessibility of seawater.
Sensitivity analysis of the price of titanium (which is used to improve the reliability of
cooling systems against seawater corrosion) showed that NEWater cooling would only be
more economical than seawater cooling in the unlikely scenario that the price of titanium
increased by a factor of 20. Thus, it was concluded that seafront companies with high heat
rejection (>200 MW) and/or large cooling needs (water consumption over 1 MGD) stood
to benefit economically from seawater cooling.

Water recycling and recovery

In the same study, piloting opportunities were identified for various technologies which
could be used in treating industrial wastewater for non-potable reuse, or to reduce
evaporative losses in cooling processes. Treatment technologies like membrane bioreac-
tor and reverse osmosis (RO), which were already being applied in municipal wastewater
treatment processes, were among those identified with potential for demonstration in
industrial wastewater recycling. To improve cooling tower efficiency, readily available
technologies such as high-efficiency drift eliminators, anti-splash louvres and splash mats
were identified as candidates for system optimization.

Present Value

Figure 3. Seawater cooling was shown to be more economical than freshwater cooling over a 30-year
period when the cost of source water was considered. Figures are reflective of market prices in 2014.
6 H. SEAH AND N. LEE

Seawater desalination
The energy–water nexus prevalent in industrial processes indicated potential hotspots for
water conservation. For instance, low-grade waste heat produced by petrochemical
processes, power generation or incineration could be tapped to drive the desalination
of seawater for an alternative water source for non-potable reuse.

Challenges facing non-domestic water demand management in Singapore

The preceding section described how water conservation and recycling solutions were
determined to be technically feasible, economically viable and vitally beneficial towards
water sustainability in Singapore. But major challenges remained, and a policy is only
successful insofar as it is implemented.

End-user challenges
The primary reason that industries are reluctant to adopt water-saving measures is quite
simply that it is not required of them from a business point of view. Because the average
water bill is less than 5% of total operating costs, the potential monetary savings seem
insignificant. And in the context of the resources required for implementation, or weighed
against other projects providing greater return on investment, this apparent margin
narrows further, and the project is often disqualified as a business case.
A case in point can be seen in the modest response to PUB’s Water Efficiency Fund
(WEF) in its formative years. Under the original scheme, the WEF could be used by
companies to recover S$0.10 per cubic metre of NEWater saved or S$0.40 per cubic
metre of potable water saved for a period not exceeding seven years. But the fund’s
utilization rate was lacklustre, prompting PUB to increase both quanta by S$0.20 during a
review exercise to encourage uptake. Feedback from the industry indicated that water
conservation projects under the original quanta were unattractive, if not unviable, as the
payback period would typically exceed three years given the high upfront costs.
It was further shown that project costs would typically be in the S$5–12 million range for
large users (with consumption over 5000 m3 per month). The higher cost could be attrib-
uted to the sheer scale of the project, but this in turn generates performance uncertainties
that incur R&D risks, given that industrial applications of water technologies at such a scale
tend to be unprecedented. Alternatively, the technology itself may be developmentally
novel, and thus require further optimization and validation. In either case, R&D risks must be
sufficiently accounted for in the budget. In view of these high upfront costs, and given that
the WEF is capped at S$1 million per project, end users found the implementation of large-
scale water conservation projects under the WEF largely untenable.

Challenges faced by technology and solution providers

Industrial processes are highly variable across and even within sectors. In fact, two
companies producing the same output can generate wastewater streams of substan-
tially distinct quantities and qualities. It is therefore difficult for solution providers to
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 7

develop one-size-fits-all solutions and thus to achieve economies of scale. The need
for bespoke solutions, which require more time and resources to develop, also means
that the market matures more slowly, resulting in fewer supply-chain efficiencies.
The non-segregation of wastewater streams in industrial processes presents
another challenge. Of the different wastewater streams generated, cleaner streams
have greater recycling value, but legacy industrial systems are rarely designed with
the segregation of wastewater streams in mind. To solve this, either more advanced
treatment is needed to purify the mixed stream, or process reengineering is
required to achieve segregation. In both cases greater technical complexity and
costs are involved.
The third major challenge is space, which comes at a premium in land-scarce Singapore.
Because companies rarely have the extra land for major unplanned installations, solution
providers must develop water conservation or recycling solutions that are efficient yet lean,
necessitating a high level of technological innovation.

Challenges faced by regulators

As a trade-dependent economy with scarce resources, Singapore faces the perennial
issue of balancing short-term pro-business policies with the need for long-term
resource sustainability. This is the challenge faced when determining the right
pricing for NEWater, industrial water and potable water to encourage responsible
non-domestic consumption.
In Singapore, water is priced to reflect its scarcity and to encourage consumers to
use it wisely. This means that water tariffs are set not only to recover the costs of a
particular mode of production and supply but also to reflect, by way of a Water
Conservation Tax, the cost of water produced through costlier means (e.g. desalina-
tion). The Water Conservation Tax constitutes a percentage of the baseline tariff that
is then included in the total price of water (Table 1). This promotes conservation
among users and ensures that the production of water supplies will remain viable
even in the event of a scarcity crisis, when Singapore’s reliance on more advanced
technologies to treat non-conventional sources of water would increase significantly.
In non-domestic applications, differential pricing is another way to influence how
water is consumed. PUB maintains a price gap between NEWater and potable water

Table 1. Breakdown of prices (effective 2018 onwards) for the different sources of water supplied by
PUB to the non-domestic sector.
Price (S$/m3)
NEWater Industrial water Potable water
Tariff 1.28 0.66 1.21
Water Conservation Tax (% of tariff) 0.13 (10%) n/a 0.61 (50%)
Waterborne fee 0.92 0.92 0.92
Total price 2.33 1.58 2.74
8 H. SEAH AND N. LEE

to provide an economic incentive for companies to use the former for non-potable
consumption. Thus, critical sources reserved for potable use are safeguarded.
Water pricing is and will remain a multifaceted and complex issue, and finding a
balance that rightly reflects water as both a basic commodity and a scarce resource
will continue to be a matter of debate. That said, the prevailing policies stand to
reason in light of global census that shows water tariffs in Singapore to be more
affordable than those in Copenhagen, London and Paris, for example (Ministry of
the Environment and Water Resources, 2017), despite its status as a top water-
stressed country (World Resources Institute, 2015). Indeed, the general apathy
towards water conservation among local industrial users is consistent with a low
cost of water.

Developing an effective policy and strategy framework to drive non-

domestic water conservation and recycling efforts
Challenges to collective action are among the toughest societal issues facing policy
makers (Andrews, 2018). Where public policies have failed, the cause is often a superficial
or inadequate grasp of complex issues at hand (PwC, 2017).
The sluggish uptake of water conservation measures among Singaporean companies in
the initial years – despite its known benefits and the availability of financial incentives like the
WEF – suggests that deeper considerations were at play. To remove or at least sufficiently
lower barriers to participation, PUB sought to uncover these nuances and strengthen the
policy and strategy framework.

Understanding end-user processes and thinking

Mandating the submission of Water Efficiency Management Plans
The Water Efficiency Management Plan (WEMP) was introduced by PUB in 2010 as a
voluntary tool to help non-domestic customers understand their water consumption
patterns. In facilitating basic analyses of water usage, the WEMP helps end users identify
potential areas for conservation and encourages timely action through the design of an
implementation plan. End users can then apply for financial support through the WEF to
carry out the identified water-saving measures.
The submission of the WEMP was mandated for large users (over 5000 m3/month)
in 2015 and mid-sized users (over 3000 m3/month) in 2016, with the requirement
coming into effect for smaller users (over 1000 m3/month) by 2020. During the
submission process, PUB provides administrative and technical assistance to compa-
nies, and in so doing obtains a quantitative, process-specific breakdown of the end
user’s water consumption. This allows PUB engineers to appreciate the range of
process variables at play and obtain insight on the operability of water conservation
solutions on the ground.

Jurong Island Water Conservation Study

A large-scale water audit was carried out on Jurong Island in an 18-month con-
sultancy study in 2013 to better understand the water usage patterns of the
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 9

petroleum and petrochemical industry. PUB and its consultant, Black & Veatch,
interfaced with 42 companies, which together accounted for 90% of the island’s
water demand.
Water consumption patterns on Jurong Island were observed to be diverse and complex.
The technical issues faced by companies were found to be highly specific yet variable under
different operating conditions. Nonetheless, it was estimated that on the whole, 70% of
trade effluent could be recovered for non-potable reuse; more than 80% of steam could be
condensed and reused; and demand for one-pass seawater cooling was significant, at about
2700 MGD. Even so, the water recycling rate and use of alternative water sources on Jurong
Island was effectively zero.
The industry’s thinking on recycling and water conservation was revealed and clarified
through a systems-thinking exercise that employed the MARS framework (Figure A2 in the
Appendix). Key feedback from end users revealed significant gaps.

● The provision of utilities was ultimately seen as the government’s responsibility.

Companies preferred to focus their efforts on core business priorities.
● That said, companies were willing to explore water conservation initiatives if ade-
quate funding provision and government assistance (administrative and technical
support) were made available.
● A three-year payback period was considered by most companies the upper bound
for economic viability of water conservation projects.
● Companies had doubts regarding the operational reliability of large-scale water
recycling solutions.
● Companies preferred more optionality in the provision of water supplies to reduce
operational costs. Lower-grade water was acceptable for a fair number of process
applications.

Reconsidering existing policy frameworks

Armed with a better understanding of the industries’ operations and mindset, PUB
proceeded to review its funding and industrial engagement approach to address these
gaps.
In addition to the WEF, PUB was co-administering the Technology Pioneer
(TechPioneer) Scheme (in 2016 renamed Living Lab (Water)) with the Economic
Development Board. The fund, which was financed by the National Research
Foundation under the Science and Technology 2010 plan and from 2015 onwards
under the Research, Innovation and Enterprise plan, was designed to support high-
budget projects which involved the development and testing of novel water technologies.
In spite of these options, a review of the WEF and TechPioneer funding schemes showed
that financial support for the demonstration of proven technologies in large-scale water
conservation projects was lacking (Figure 4). While projects in this category could be
supported by broad-based funding schemes such as the Incentive for Research and
Innovation Scheme (IRIS) programme (in 2016 renamed Competitive Research
Programme (Water)), such schemes operated on periodic grant calls which would restrict
projects, sometimes impracticably, to specific time windows.
10 H. SEAH AND N. LEE

Funding
quantum

FUNDING GAP

TechPioneer Up to S$19 mil, 30%

Renamed in 2016 as of CAPEX
“Living Lab (Water)”

Up to S$1 mil,
WEF v1.0 50% of CAPEX

Technology
readiness
• R&D of novel • New technology • Proven technology • Proven technology
technologies available available available
• Not implemented • Not implemented • Not widely • Widely
in Singapore in Singapore implemented in implemented in
Singapore Singapore

Figure 4. Schematic of the dominant beneficiaries of the Water Efficiency Fund (WEF) and
TechPioneer funding mechanisms. The WEF funding cap of S$1 million limits its support to
small-scale demonstrations of proven technologies. TechPioneer’s significantly larger budget and
R&D criterion favours large-scale projects with significant technological novelty. Thus, before
2013 there was a ‘middle ground’ funding gap for the large-scale demonstration of proven
industrial water solutions.

PUB was motivated by two drivers to fill this gap. First, it would more effectively
encourage high-leverage targets (i.e. end users with a consumption of at least 10,000 m3
a month) to board the conservation bandwagon; and second, with less stringent project
requirements for technological novelty, these large users can capitalize on ready solutions
to accelerate the process. In short, this new fund was conceived to quickly achieve large
reductions in non-domestic consumption.

Inception of the Industrial Water Solutions Demonstration Fund and office

In 2013, the Industrial Water Solutions Demonstration Fund (IWSDF) was launched by PUB
as a subset of the WEF to bridge the funding gap. Large users can receive up to S$4 million
in funding support to demonstrate proven technologies in large-scale industrial applica-
tions, although additional funding can be sought from the Living Lab (Water) fund if
emerging technologies are also involved.
Together, the three funds (Figure 5) holistically support a broad range of projects
to drive conservation efforts across the non-domestic sector, from the development
of emerging technologies in the applied R&D stage, to real-world demonstration of
operationally ready technologies at varying levels of scale. For cases where more
novel technologies are involved, projects funded by the IWSDF serve to bridge R&D
and real-world application, accelerating the commercialization of science and
technology.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 11

Figure 5. Summary of funding schemes that operate a continuous intake process to provide ongoing
support for water conservation projects in the non-domestic sector.

PUB’s strategy was to actively target end users with a minimum consumption of
10,000 m3 per day to maximize the impact of the fund, build uptake momentum
and raise industrial conservation norms. From a sustainability point of view, it was
expected that the knowledge and experience gained by solution providers as the
fund matures would result in lower plant engineering costs due to economies of
scale, replication of plans and reduction of overdesign factors. By then, it was
conceived that the WEF would be well-placed to incentivize continued adoption.
To administer the IWSDF, the Industrial Water Solutions Project Unit (IWSPU) was set up
within PUB’s Technology Department in 2013. IWSPU engineers operate an industrial
engagement framework that was conceptualized based on the feedback received during
the Jurong Island consultation study, working closely with industrial counterparts to
manage water conservation projects and provide ground support.

Fortifying PUB’s multi-pronged approach to demand management through the

FTA framework
PUB employs three levers to promote water conservation among industries: water pricing;
legislation and mandatory schemes; and the provision of facilitative mechanisms. This
multi-pronged approach aims to maximize industry participation in water conservation
efforts while ensuring that it remains economically sustainable for end users.
Legal and regulatory levers are used to serve specific objectives that are deemed critical to
the success of Singapore’s water policies. These objectives, if met, either work to directly
reduce water consumption by industry (e.g. mandatory installation of water fittings for all
new developments and existing premises undergoing renovation from 2009 onwards), or
indirectly through enhancing self-awareness on consumption patterns and excesses (e.g. the
mandating of WEMP submission for large users in 2015, mid-sized users in 2016, and smaller
users by 2020).
The insights gained through the MARS exercise were instructive regarding how the facil-
itative lever in particular could be enhanced for more effective industrial engagement. End-
user inertia in water conservation could effectively be narrowed down to a lack of awareness of
available technologies, or (in cases where ignorance was not the issue) the perception that
12 H. SEAH AND N. LEE

water conservation and recycling projects were technically unfeasible or too resource-inten-
sive. This understanding helped PUB develop a more nuanced approach to industrial engage-
ment, emphasizing targeted facilitation, technology development, and award and recognition
schemes. These strategies were collectively described as the FTA framework (facilitation,
technology, and awards).

Facilitation
In addition to the financial schemes mentioned earlier, a holistic, follow-through engagement
approach was conceived to bolster technical support to water conservation projects across
their life cycle. From the outset, IWSPU engineers facilitate the process by matching end users
with suitable solution providers and assisting with the proposal submission process, soliciting
additional funding from other financial schemes if required. The team then closely oversees
the development of the technology from the design stage through to commissioning, and
then monitors the plant for at least seven years to ensure continuous operations.

Technology development and validation

Water recycling solutions must meet a wide range of product water requirements from a
diverse range of wastewater streams. This entails continuous innovation and capability
development despite the availability of commercial technologies, since off-the-shelf
products must be customized to suit the unique operating conditions and reuse goals
of each end user. It was therefore conceived that R&D would play a pivotal role in driving
water recycling in Singapore.
With the petrochemicals and electronics sectors established as key target groups, PUB
focused its technology development efforts on increasing water recycling through the
implementation of industrial wastewater treatment; minimizing water losses through
cooling processes; and developing decentralized water supplies by leveraging the
energy–water–waste nexus. However, given the heterogeneity of the industrial water
landscape, it would be impractical to approach these goals broadly. PUB therefore set out
to match end users with suitable solution providers through a one-to-one facilitation
process to identify water-saving opportunities and their corresponding technological
solutions. In cases where solutions had to be tailored to specific needs, R&D was carried
out to test, validate and optimize the technology to render it fit for purpose. An example
of this is the adoption of membrane bioreactor technology by the petroleum refining
industry to treat and convert effluent discharge into a source of reusable process water.
While membrane bioreactor technology is widely applied in the municipal sector, its
application in the petroleum refining industry requires more intensive process integration
as well as investigations into potential repercussions on other process units.
To tap opportunities beyond PUB’s network, two industry-wide grant calls with a total
budget of S$35 million were made in 2013 and 2018 under the IRIS programme. Many of
the solutions developed through these projects are now operational.

Awards and recognition

To reward companies that have successfully implemented water conservation projects, PUB
makes various water awards (Table 2) and publicizes these case studies in major events with
media coverage. This also encourages other users to undertake similar initiatives to better
benchmark against industrial best practices and corporate social responsibility norms.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 13

Table 2. Summary of national awards and recognition schemes used by PUB to reward and promote
water efficiency among non-domestic users.
Award/recognition No. of
Scheme Criteria Recipients
Water Efficiency Award ● Top 10% in water efficiency performance 27 as of June
2019
Watermark Award ● Recipients of the Water Efficiency Award who sustain a two-year 65 as of June
reduction in their overall recycling rate or Water Efficiency Index 2019
● Community advocacy for water conservation
● Innovativeness of implemented water-saving solutions
Water Efficient Building ● Implementation of water-efficient fittings 2962 as of
Certification (Basic) ● Adoption of water-efficient flow rates / flush volume December
● Valid for three years 2018

Through the provision of incentives and close ground support, the implementation of
the FTA framework is aimed at making non-domestic water conservation and recycling a
success in Singapore from the very outset. These first-mover, high-impact demonstrations
show, upfront and indisputably, that water conservation and recycling solutions are not
only feasible but manifestly beneficial, and act as a harbinger of change in the prevailing
mindset to initiate a ripple-out effect.

Non-domestic water conservation and recycling projects in Singapore: five

case studies
Since the launch of the IWSDF in 2014, 10 high-impact projects have been developed
under the fund, three of which have been completed and are currently achieving an
average of 5932 m3 in water savings per day. A total of S$10.9 million in IWSDF has been
committed to these 10 projects, with the three-year fund currently operating out of its
third extension.
Under the four funding schemes available – IWSDF, WEF, Living Lab (Water) and
Competitive Research Programme (Water) – a total of 45 projects have been completed,
and 13 recycling plants are currently under construction, generating 14.3 MGD of water
savings by the end of 2020. PUB aims to add 3 MGD of water savings year-on-year through
financial incentives and the continued implementation of its industrial engagement
strategy. Case studies of five water conservation projects are highlighted below.

Singapore Refining Company Private Limited

Project 1: Effluent treatment recycling plant to produce 2500 m3/day of NEWater-grade water
for non-potable reuse
Singapore Refining Company (SRC), a joint venture between Singapore Petroleum Company
and Chevron, is one of three refineries operating in Singapore and processes an average of
290,000 barrels of crude oil a day. A 2500 m3/day recycling plant was developed to treat final
effluent from SRC’s effluent treatment plant to NEWater standards for process reuse. Feed
water is first treated by continuous microfiltration using ceramic membranes developed by
Meidensha Corporation, and then subject to RO at 65–70% recovery using Trisep membranes
(Figure 6). Both membranes were selected for their high resistance to organic fouling. Upon
14 H. SEAH AND N. LEE

From ETP Microfiltration MF Filtrate Reverse Product NEWater

Clarifiers (ceramic) Tank Osmosis Water Tank Header

Figure 6. Effluent treatment process involving oil-resistant microfiltration–reverse osmosis technologies

at SRC’s 2500 m3/day recycling plant. (Singapore Refining Company, personal communication, 2019).

commissioning in 2016, SRC’s in-house recycling rate was effectively raised from 18% to 41%.
This plant was constructed with 50% funding support from the IWSDF.

Project 2: Desalination plant using low-grade heat to produce 1100 m3/day of NEWater-grade
water for non-potable reuse
SRC’s second project involved the development of a 1100 m3/day seawater desalination plant
which uses recovered low-grade heat to produce NEWater-grade water for non-potable uses.
The technology used, low-temperature distillation (Figure 7), was then still an emerging
technology which required significant engineering development and scaling up to meet
SRC’s recycling needs. An earlier decision to consolidate the refinery’s waste heat into a single
source increased the feasibility of the project, helped further by the management’s willingness
to share the risks of implementing a novel technology. The plant, which also received 50%
IWSDF funding support, is expected to be commissioned by 2020.

Hot Water Out

Reheating HEX

Hot Water In HEX

Vapour
Evaporator E1 Condenser C1

Evaporator E2 Condenser C2
HEX 2
Evaporator E3 Condenser C3

Evaporator E4 Condenser C4 To safe location

Evaporator E5 Condenser C5

Evaporator E6 Condenser C6
Conc

Product
HEX 3 Filter Seawater
Water

Seawater Return

Figure 7. Process diagram of low-temperature distillation (Singapore Refining Company, personal

communication, 2019).
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 15

Process Primary Treatment Biological Treatment Secondary Treatment Treated Industrial

Buffer Tanks
Wastewater (Oil Removal) (Organics Removal) (Suspended Solids Removal) Wastewater

Wastewater treatment plant

Demineralisation Activated Carbon Reverse Osmosis Microfiltration

Unit Filter (ACF) (RO) (MF)

Recycling plant

Figure 8. Process diagram of the inlet, outlet and treatment process of PCS’s 1200 m3/day recycling
plant (Petrochemical Corporation of Singapore, personal communication, 2019).

Petrochemical Corporation of Singapore Private Limited

Project 3: Recycling plant to treat 1200 m3/day of petrochemical wastewater for reuse as
boiler feed water
Petrochemical Corporation of Singapore (Private) Limited (PCS) is the upstream company
of the S$5.4 billion Singapore Petrochemical Complex on Jurong Island. PCS produces
more than 1.8 million tonnes per year of ethylene and propylene. Other by-products are
butadiene, 1-butene, MTBE, benzene, toluene and xylene.
PCS implemented a water recycling demonstration plant treating industrial waste-
water for process use (Figure 8). A pilot study was undertaken to test the performance of
two possible treatment processes: the ultrafiltration-RO using polyvinylidene fluoride
membranes, and the microfiltration-RO using polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membranes.
The microfiltration-RO configuration fared better based on pilot test results and was
implemented in the demonstration plant.
The demonstration plant, which received 70% funding from the IRIS scheme, was
commissioned in January 2019.

Wyeth Nutrition

Project 4: Wyeth effluent recycling plant for reuse of 300 m3/day in cooling-tower applications
Wyeth Nutritionals (Singapore) Private Limited (Wyeth Nutrition), a subsidiary of Nestlé S.A.,
develops nutritional products targeted at infants and young children, as well as expecting
and lactating mothers. It is in Singapore’s Tuas industrial estate.
Due to product licensing constraints, the use of reclaimed water in the food and
nutraceutical industry is rare. Nonetheless, PUB worked closely with Wyeth Nutrition to
identify areas outside of the main production process where recycled water could be used,
eventually selecting cooling-tower makeup water as the target application. But challenges
remained. Wastewater from food and nutraceutical industries tends to have high levels of
oil and grease, COD, and total suspended solids (TSS). The limited space available, coupled
with challenging feed wastewater conditions and stringent treated-water quality standards,
required solutions to be highly customized and therefore substantial R&D.
A S$1.28 million fund was secured from the IRIS scheme to cover 70% of the S$1.83
million budget for the development of a 300 m3/day recycling plant. To achieve the target
treated-water quality (TSS < 1 ppm, total dissolved solids < 100 ppm, oil and grease < 1
16 H. SEAH AND N. LEE

Figure 9. Process design of the Wyeth Effluent Recycling Plant. The HERO (high efficiency reverse
osmosis) process consists of a softening stage, degasifier (to remover dissolved CO2 and alkalinity so
that the downstream RO process can be operated at high pH) and brackish water RO (Wyeth Nutrition,
personal communication, 2019).

ppm), Boustead Salcon, the system integrator selected to lead the project, developed and
trialled a treatment design involving clarification (for phosphate and bulk total dissolved
solids removal), ultrafiltration (for TSS and TOC removal), oil filtration, and finally a
proprietary RO process called HERO, for high efficiency reverse osmosis (Figure 9). HERO
is designed to treat challenging wastewater feed while maintaining a high resistance to
membrane fouling, allowing better recovery, permeate quality and flux performance
compared to conventional RO.
Since the commissioning of the recycling plant in April 2018, Wyeth Nutrition’s water
consumption from the grid has been reduced by 20%.

Asia Pacific Breweries (Singapore) Private Limited

Project 5: Recycling plant for 300 m3/day for non-potable reuse

Occupying 9 ha of space in the Tuas industrial estate, APB Singapore is a leading brewer of
premium beers and ciders in Singapore, including the world-acclaimed Tiger Beer, which is
available in more than 50 countries around the world. APB Singapore’s wider range of
portfolio includes ABC Stout, Anchor Beer, Baron’s Strong Brew, Erdinger, Guinness,
Heineken, Strongbow and the range of Archipelago craft beers.
System integrator Witco Environtech developed a 300 m3/day recycling plant to treat
wastewater effluent from APB Singapore’s brewing process, which involves milling,
fermentation and filtration. The reclaimed water is then reused for cooling-tower makeup,
general washing and irrigation. To meet stringent treated-water quality standards,
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 17

Upflow anaerobic
Oxic Membrane
Influent Fine screen EQ tank sludge blanket bioreactor
(UASB) digestion Tank
(MBR)

MBR
Cartridge Permeate Distribution
filtrate 2-stage RO UV
filter tank network
tank

Figure 10. Treatment process in Asia Pacific Breweries (Singapore)’s water reuse treatment plant. The
stages include a 3 mm screening process, an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor process to
reduce chemical and biological oxygen demand, a membrane bioreactor stage incorporating ceramic
ultrafiltration (UF) membranes to reduce turbidity, single-pass, two-stage reverse osmosis (RO) to
reduce total dissolved solids, and an ultraviolet (UV)-based sterilizing stage (APB, personal commu-
nication, 2019).

including significant reductions in COD, biological oxygen demand, turbidity and total
dissolved solids, the treatment process illustrated in Figure 10 was implemented.
The plant was commissioned in July 2018. The S$2.38 million project received 83%
funding (S$1.98 million) from the IRIS scheme.

Fostering confidence in non-domestic water conservation and recycling

solutions
As the national water agency, PUB has a mandate to drive the development and imple-
mentation of water conservation and recycling in Singapore. That said, for efforts to be
sustainable over the long term, such initiatives must be self-propagating. This can only be
achieved through a strong ecosystem of market players where synergistic benefits from
water technologies can be gained. It was imperative that PUB’s outreach platforms serve
this end.
One platform that facilitates this process is the Industrial Water Solutions Forum (IWSF).
Since its inception in 2012, the IWSF has been a regular event for key stakeholders to keep
abreast of the non-domestic water landscape and its needs and opportunities. A strong
network of over 730 stakeholder groups has been forged through the eight IWSFs and
three associated technical events held since 2012. To maximize the effectiveness of these
programmes, the emphasis is on creating meaningful opportunities for networking,
showcasing and capability development in the following ways:

● Bringing key stakeholders together. Stakeholder groups that are involved in the
different stages of the project life cycle – funding agencies, private financiers,
solution providers, and regulators – are well represented in the IWSFs so that key
project milestones can be surfaced and clarified. At the same time, these stakeholder
groups are able to understand the complex problem statements of end users,
allowing financing schemes, regulatory policies and technological solutions to be
fine-tuned to better cater to end user needs. These interactions foster mutual under-
standing and uncover opportunities for implementation.
18 H. SEAH AND N. LEE

● Directed interaction for meaningful engagement. To broker focused discussions on solving

real-world water problems, interactive sessions ranging from facilitated breakout sessions
to one-to-one meetings are a regular feature of the IWSF programme.
● Dedicated technical tracks for in-depth discourse on pertinent topics. In conjunction
with the main IWSF series, events with a specific technical focus are organized to
build capability in key areas of application where significant leverage can be
achieved. Areas that have been covered include wastewater recycling for reuse in
cooling towers, and low-temperature seawater desalination for seafront companies.
For example, a technical event on low-temperature thermal desalination was orga-
nized by PUB in 2014 to raise awareness of a technology which provides both a
supplementary source of purified process water and a method of removing
unwanted process heat. This was followed by two events in 2015, one dedicated
to industrial wastewater treatment solutions, where applications of ceramic mem-
branes, polymeric membranes and centralized treatment were discussed, the other
focusing on water system optimization and pinch analysis.
● Leveraging convinced end users as ambassadors for the cause. Case studies of success-
ful projects are persuasive for end users who have yet to board the bandwagon.
Project showcases are therefore integral to the IWSF series and technical events.
More than that, these case studies are usually presented by end users themselves,
who can more effectively instil confidence in their sectoral counterparts and in so
doing become ambassadors for the cause.
● Leveraging the strengths of global partners to expand horizons. Partners like Global
Water Intelligence, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development and the
International Water Association have global oversight on important developments in
non-domestic water conservation and recycling. These solutions and case studies are
regularly featured in the IWSF programmes to help build industry confidence in
adopting suitable solutions.

The other major platform is Singapore International Water Week, Singapore’s flagship
water conference, regarded internationally as a premier event of its kind. Historically, non-
domestic water conservation and recycling was featured as a sub-segment of the wider
Water Week programme which typically has an overarching municipal focus. In light of
the increasing importance of non-domestic demand management, the 2019 Water Week
Spotlight event was dedicated entirely to industrial water solutions for the first time. More
than 250 delegates from leading local and international water companies and large
industrial users gathered to hear from distinguished speakers on the latest water tech-
nologies and discuss best practices, ranging from lobbying senior management buy-in to
developing frameworks for the institutionalization of water management practices.

Conclusion
By 2060, 70% of Singapore’s total water demand will be used for non-domestic purposes.
Effective management of this demand will therefore give PUB significant leverage, and
concurrently improve water sustainability, as land use nears capacity limits in Singapore.
This is the impetus for an effective industrial water strategy.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 19

Implementation was challenged by industry’s perception of water conservation pro-

jects, which have traditionally been dismissed as costly, laborious and not essential to
core business goals. PUB’s task was therefore to improve this perception and reduce key
implementation risks. Financial schemes were carefully formulated to offer a clear eco-
nomic payback, and a dedicated team of PUB engineers was commissioned to provide
ground support in project management and administration.
PUB took a long-term view from the outset by ensuring that its engagement approach
was sustainable through the creation of synergies. High-impact projects were strategically
prioritized so that compelling demonstrations of the technologies could be made to
dispel feasibility concerns upfront. These first-mover projects were then publicized
through the media and industrial forums to propagate confidence and encourage adop-
tion across the sector.
Policy innovation and a pragmatic strategy has enabled PUB to set a 3 MGD year-on-year
savings target for the non-domestic sector. But PUB is also pursuing other industrial water
solutions to diversify its portfolio for enhanced optionality. In addition to wastewater recycling
and low-temperature desalination systems, discussions are underway to develop two seawater
cooling facilities on Jurong Island. In the further term, PUB’s Groundwater Unit is looking to
operationalize Jurong Island’s subsurface aquifer system, which would allow companies to
harness yet another alternative water source, groundwater, for non-potable use.
In the past 50 years, Singapore has developed a diversified and robust water supply
through the Four National Taps: water captured from local catchments, water imported
from Malaysia, NEWater and desalinated water. Yet, for this small, highly urbanized island,
water security continues to be an existential threat, and the use of water must remain
judicious, especially among major users in the non-domestic sector. Efforts to manage
water demand should therefore remain unceasing and ever more vigilant to ensure that
Singapore’s growing economy never consumes beyond its means.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

References
Andrews, M. (2018). Public policy failure: ‘How often?’ And ‘What is failure, anyway?’ A study of World
Bank project performance. Center for International Development, Harvard University. Retrieved
from https://bsc.cid.harvard.edu/files/bsc/files/public_policy_failure_cidwp344.pdf
BP. (2019). Oil trade in 2017 and 2018. Statistical review of world energy. Retrieved from https://www.
bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-
review/bp-stats-review-2019-full-report.pdf
Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources. (2017). Water price revisions 2017. Annex D:
Comparison of water prices. Retrieved from https://www.pub.gov.sg/sites/assets/
PressReleaseDocuments/WPR2017-AnnexD.pdf
PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2017). Are public projects doomed to failure from the start? Retrieved from
https://www.pwc.ch/en/publications/2017/pmi-are-public-projects-doomed-to-failure-en-2017.pdf
PUB. (2014). Jurong Island water master plan. Internal document.
PUB. (2017). Preface. Technical reference for water conservation in cooling towers. Retrieved from https://
www.pub.gov.sg/Documents/TechnicalReference_WaterConservation_CoolingTowers.pdf
20 H. SEAH AND N. LEE

World Bank Group. (2018). High-technology exports. Comtrade database through the WITS platform.
Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/tx.val.tech.cd?most_recent_value_desc=true
World Resources Institute. (2015). Ranking the world’s most water-stressed countries in 2040. Retrieved
from https://www.wri.org/blog/2015/08/ranking-world-s-most-water-stressed-countries–2040
World trade organization. (2019). Table A.19: Top 10 exporters and importers of chemicals, 2018.
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wts2019_e/wts2019_e.pdf
Appendix

24.1

SURVEYED 16.4
1.5
WATER USERS

1.8
(39.7)
Discharged
3.3 to sea

0.8
5.6
5.3
21.3

HGIW

Steam

Demin
Process
PW 2.8

wastewater
1.6

Tertiary treatment
PRIVATE Discharged
PUB (42) IW 17.2 1.4
UTILITIES to sewers
(13.5) 0.9 1.6

NW 23.0

0.1
3.2
0.7
Released to

Process

Demin
HGIW

Steam
wastewater
atmosphere
25.0
OTHER WATER
USERS 0.1
(5.5)

Wastewater stream that is discharged to sea Demin = demineralised water

Wastewater stream that is discharged to sewers
HGIW = high-grade industrial water
Wastewater stream that is lost to the atmosphere
NW = NEWater
Potable water supplied by PUB
Industrial water supplied by PUB PW = potable water
NEWater supplied by PUB
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

Water supplied by private utilities

Figure A1. Jurong Island water balance, (2012). As part of the Jurong Island Water Consultation Study of 2012, PUB undertook a high-level water system analysis to
understand water consumption patterns on Jurong Island. It found that much of the water supplied to users (50%, or 24 million gallons per day) was lost to
21

evaporation, steam and process losses. Around 21 million gallons of wastewater per day was discharged from users to sewage treatment plants and eventually to the
sea. Thus, 94% of the water supplied to Jurong Island is ultimately lost to the environment. (The survey represents 90% of the total water use on the island.) Numbers
in the schematic represent volumes in millions of gallons per day.
 Motivational Role
Ability Limits Perceptions
Limits
22

Not worth the Too risky to Not my Not my

effort recycle problem business
Don’t know Don’t know
the system the solution
H. SEAH AND N. LEE

Savings is too No recognition ROI of

small for the efforts project not
Not enough PUB will supply attractive
resources the water
Water is relatively May impact
affordable process
Analysis
Possible solutions
• Funding • Engagement
• Water tariff Technology • Outsourcing to • Policy
• Tiered pricing validation service providers Funding

Water • Solution providers

Aware & audit • Technology
recognition development

• Funding
• Consultants

Figure A2. The motivation, ability, role perceptions and situational factors (MARS) framework is used by corporate organizations to study the influence of the
aforementioned factors on voluntary individual behaviour and performance. During the Jurong Island Water Consultation Study, the MARS framework was carried
out to understand the reasons underpinning the low take-up of water conservation/recycling projects by companies, and from there to identify how to address
these reasons. End-user inertia in water conservation could effectively be narrowed down to a lack of awareness of available technologies, or – in cases where
ignorance was not the issue – the perception that industrial water solutions were technically infeasible or too resource-intensive.