Medieval History

Careerwill IAS MEDIEVAL HISTORY
CONTENTS
1. MAJOR DYNASTIES (EARLY  Education and Literature
MEDIEVAL INDIA 750-1200 (Cholas)
AD)  Art and Architecture
1.1 Major Dynasties of (Cholas)
North India (750-1200 AD)  The Cheras (9th to 12th
 Introduction Century)
 The Tripartite Struggle  The Yadavas (12th to 13th
 The Pratiharas (8th to Century)
10th Century)  Contact with South East
 The Palas (8th to 11th Asia
Century) 2. EARLY MUSLIM INVASIONS
 The Rashtrakutas (9th to 2.1 Early Muslim Invasions
10th Century)  The Arab Conquest of
 The Senas (11th to 12th Sindh
Century)  Mahmud of Ghazni
 The Rajaputa‘s Origin  Muhammad Ghori
 Chandellas 3. THE DELHI SULTANATE
 Chahamanas (1206-1526 AD)
 Gahadvalas 3.1 The Delhi Sultanate
 Indian Feudalism  Introduction
 Administration in  Slave/Mamluk Dynasty
Northern India between (Ilbari Turks) (1206-1526
8th to 12th Century AD)
 Nature of Society  The Khalji Dynasty (1290-
 Rise of Self-suffi cient 1320 AD)
Village Economies  The Tughlaq Dynasty
 Decline of Town and (1320-1414 AD)
Cities  The Sayyid Dynasty
 The Cholas  Lodi Dynasty
1.2 Cholas & Other South 3.2 Delhi Sultanate
Indian Kingdoms (Administration, Economy,
 Chola Administration & Society)
 Socio-Economic Life  Introduction
(Cholas)  Administration
 Economy
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Social Life  Economic and Social Life
Art & Culture  Growth of Trade
4. THE MUGHALS & SURS  Art and Culture
4.1 The Mughals 5. VIJAYNAGAR, BAHAMANI &
Babur OTHER REGIONAL
Humayun KINGDOMS
Sher Shah (Sur Dynasty) 5.1 Vijaynagar, Bahamani &
Akbar (1556-1605 AD) Other Regional Kingdoms
Jahangir (1605-1627 AD) Vijaynagar Kingdo
Shah Jahan (1627-1658  Bahmani Kingdom
AD)  Confl icts Between
 Aurangzeb (1658-1707) Vijaynagar and Bahamani
 Decline of the Mughals Kingdoms
 Causes for the Downfall of  Other Regional States
the Mughals  Social and Cultural
`4.2 Mughal Administration, Condition
Society & Culture  Economic Condition
 Military Organization  Military Organization
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Major Dynasties of North India (750-1200 AD)

Introduction
 The period between 750 AD and 1200 AD is referred to as
an early medieval period of Indian History.
 It was earlier treated by historians as a ‗dark phase‘
because during this time the whole country was divided
into numerous regional states which were busy fi ghting
with each other.
 But recent studies have indicated that, though politically
divided, India witnessed a growth of new and rich
cultural activities in the fi elds of art, literature and
language.
 In fact, some best specimens of temple architecture and
Indian literature belong to this period.
 Thus, far from being ‗dark‘ it may be treated as a bright
and vibrant phase of Indian history.
 There were Gurjara Pratiharas in North India, Palas in
Eastern India, and Rashtrakutas in South India. These
powers were constantly fi ghting with each other with an
aim to set up their control on Gangetic region in northern
India. (This armed confl ict among these three powers is
known as „Tripartite struggle‟.)
 Later on, the breakup of these powers resulted in the rise
of many smaller kingdoms all over the country.
The Tripartite Struggle
 The Tripartite struggle was a struggle for power and
control over the central Gangetic valley among three
major empires in India during the 8th Century.
 These three empires were the Pratiharas, the
Rastrakutas and the Palas.
 The Pratiharas were settled in western India in the
Avanti-Jalaor region.
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 The Rastrakutas who were essentially from the Deccan
region were interested in Kannauj due to the fact that it
formed an important center for trade and commerce.
 The Palas occupied the eastern parts of India (present
day Bengal) and were very strong contenders in this
struggle.
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The Pratiharas (8th to 10th Century)

Source:
 Prithvirajraso written by Chandbadrai is the first major
source for Rajput history.
 According to this book Rajputs were originated from a fire
sacrifice performed at Mt.Abu.
 Prithviraj Raso is considered as the one of first book in
Hindi language.
 Colnel James Todd wrote ―Annals of Rajputana‖ or ―
Rajasthan Kathavali‖,According to James Todd Rajputs
were descedents of HUNs
 Somadeva suri‘s ―Kathasaritha sagara‖ also gives details
of Rajputs
 Rashtrakuta poet Pampa also mention about Gujara in
his book.
Political history:
 They ruled Rajasthan and Gujrat region
 They claimed their origin from Laxman.
 Prathiharas acted as bulwarks against Islamic invaders
 Nagabhatta- 1 was most famous and prominent king , he
came into conflict with Rashtrakuta king Dhruva
(tripartiate warfare for Kannauj)
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 Nagabhtta was followed by Vatsaraja
 Vatsaraja defeated Dharmapala of Pala dynasty, but
lost to Dhruv of Rashtrakuta dynasty.
 Mihirbhoj was greatest among Prathiharas, he defeated
Narayanpala of Pala . He ruled long for 46 years.
 Mihirbhoj was mentioned by Arab travelers .Abu suleman
called him king Juzr, al-masudi called king Baura.
 Last king Rajyapala was defeated by Krishna 3 of
Rashtrakuta and Ghazni mohammed.
 From 1000 AD onwards Prathiharas became weak due to
internal conflicts and rise in feudal lords.
Architecture:
 There are notable examples of architecture from the
Gurjara-Pratihara era, including sculptures and carved
panels.
 They started Maru- Gujara style of architecture
 Examples:
1. Bateshwar Hindu temples complex, located near
Gwalior(MP) Dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti.
2. Baroli temple complex
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The Palas (8th to 11th Century)
The Pala dynasty ruled from 8th century to 12th century CE

in the regions comprising Bihar and Bengal.
 Sashanka, the Gauda ruler, believed to have ruled
between 590 and 625 CE, is considered the frst
prominent king of ancient Bengal. After the fall of the
Gauda kingdom, there was no central authority, which
led to recurring wars between petty chieftains.
So, in 750 CE, a group of chiefs met and decided on a
―Kshatriya chief ‖ named Gopala to be their ruler.
 Gopala I was succeeded by his son
Dharmapala (770–815 CE), he was the first to control
Kanyakubja.
 His title was uttarapatha swamin(master of northern
India)
 Dharmapala established vikramashila, Jagaddella,
 He patronised Harisbhadra, a Buddhist writer.
 Dharmapala‘s son Devapala extended Pala control
eastwards up to Kamarupa (Assam). He defeated
Amoghavarsha, the Rashtrakuta ruler.
 Devapala was succeeded by Vigramapala, Rajyapala,
Gopala III, Vigramapala II.
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 The fortunes of the dynasty, however, were revived by
Mahipala I, son of Vigramapala II. He checked the
advancement of Cholas beyond the Ganges.
 Abdul suleman visited Pala kingdom during his tenure.
 Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty who had become
powerful by then in northern Bengal expelled the last
ruler Madanapala (1130–1150 CE) from Bengal and
established his dynastic rule.
Important Rulers
 GOPALA
 DHARMAPALA
 MAHIPALA
Language
Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali
Religion
 The Palas were great patrons of Mahayana
Buddhism. The Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra was
the spiritual preceptor of Dharmapala.
Architecture
 Various mahaviharas,Stupas ,chaityas,temples and forts
were constructed. Most of the architecture was religious
with the first two hundred years dominated by Buddhist
art and the last two hundred years by Hindu art.
 Among the various mahaviharas, Nalanda,
vikramashila, somapura, Traikutaka, Devikota,
Pandita, Jagaddala vihara are notable. Planned
residential buildings for monks were made.
 A large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to
the Buddhist themes were written and illustrated with
the images of Buddhist deities at these centres which
also had workshops for the casting of bronze images.
 Somapura mahavihara at Paharpur, a creation of
Dharmapala is one of the largest Buddhist vihara in
Indian sub continent ,its architectural plan had
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influenced the architecture of countries like Myanmar
and Indonesia.
Painting
 The earliest examples of miniature painting in India exist

in the form of illustrations to the religious texts on
Buddhism executed under the Palas of the eastern India .
 There are two forms of painting manuscripts and wall
painting.
 Manuscripts were written on palm leaves. In these
paintings scenes of life of Buddha and several god and
goddess of Mahayana sects are depicted. The
impact of tantricism on these paintings are easily visible.
 Red,blue,black and white colours are used a primary
colours
 Pala painting is characterized by sinuous line, delicate
and nervous lines ,sensuous elegance, linear and
decorative accent and subdued tones of colour.
 It is naturalistic style which resembles the ideal forms of
contemporary bronze and stone sculpture and reflects
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some feeling of classical art of Ajanta with sensuous bias
of art of Eastern India.
 Wall painting has been found in Saradh and Sarai sthal
in Nalanda district. At the bottom of the platform made of
granite stone flowers of geometric shapes, images of
animals and humans are found.
Pala Sculpture
 The Gupta tradition of sculptural art attained a new

height under the patronage of Pala rulers .The art
incorporated lot of local characteristics in Bengal under
the Palas and it continued right up to the end of 12th
 The sculptures of stones and bronze were constructed in
large numbers mostly in monastic sites of nalanda,Bodh
Gaya etc
 Most of the sculptures drew their inspiration from
Buddhism. Apart from Buddha sculptures of gods and
goddess of Hindu Dharma like surya, Vishnu, Ganesh etc
were constructed
 Generally only frontal parts of the body have been shown
in the sculptures. The front as highly detailed and
decorated.
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 Bronze casting was an important feature of pala
sculptures.
 The pala style is marked by slim and graceful figures,
elaborate jewellery and conventional decoration
 The main features of pala sculptures is their free flowing
movement. Almost all figures are of similar sizes and
were carved out of grayish or white spotted sandstone.
Reasons for sudden ending
 The Pala art came to a sudden end after the destruction
of the Buddhist monasteries at the hands of Muslim
invaders in the first half of the 13th century.
 Some of the monks and artists escaped and fled to Nepal,
which helped in reinforcing the existing art traditions
there.
 Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler. After his death,
a rebellion broke out in Kamarupa during his son
Kumarapala‘s reign. So due to rebellions art was not
focussed much.
The Rashtrakutas (9th to 10th Century)
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Sources:
 Ellora and samugarh inscription.
 S Altekar has written book ―Rashtrakuta and their times”
Political history:
 The Rashtrakutas were originally known to be the
feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Vatapi.
 Thry ruled from Manyakheta in Karnataka.
 Dhantidurga was the founder of Rashtrakuta dynasty,
he defeated Chalukyas of Badami.
 Dhantidurga was succeeded by Krishna 1. He
constructed Kailasa temple in Ellora.
 He defeated Gangas of Mysore.
 Krishna was succedded by Govinda 2 followed by
DHRUVA
 Dhruva was greatest in Rashtrakuta dynasty, during his
reign Rashtrakuta power reached its Zenith.
1. He defeated Pallavas, Eastern Chalukyas, Palas and
Prathiharas.
2. By defeating Vatsaraja of Prathihara and Dharmapala
of pala dynasty he conquered Kannauj
3. He was the first Deccan king to control Kannauj.
 Govinda III succeeded Dhuva. Following his father‘s
legacy, GovindaIII also waged war against all the adjacent
kingdoms(Pallava, Gangas, Pala,Prathihara) and was
victorious.
1. During his reign Rashtrakuta empire extended from
Himalayas in north to kanyakumari in south and
Saurashtra in the west to west Bengal in the east.
Almost whole of India came under the influence of
Rashtrakutas.
2. His titles: Jaggattunga, srivallabha,
Tribhuvanadhavala.
 Amoghavarsha: Govinda III was succeeded by his
son Amoghavarsha (814–880 CE)
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1. Amoghavarsha was a patron of literature and he
patronised the famous Digambara acharya Jinasena,
Sanskrit grammarian Sakatayana and the
mathematician Mahaviracharya.
2. His cultural achievements are greater than his military
achievements.
3. He constructed Manyakheta city and made it as his
capital.
4. Amoghavarsha was himself a great poet and his
Kavirajamarga is the earliest Kannada work on
poetics.
5. Abu sulaiman , the Arab traveler visited his capital in
851CE. He says Rashtrakuta empire is one of the four
great empires of the world.
6. His titles: Nrupatunga, veeranarayan etc.
 Krishna III was the last greatest in Rashtrakuta dynasty.
1. He defeated Parantaka Chola in battle of Takkolam.
 Successors of Krishna III were too weak to save kingdom
from its decline.
 Kakra II was defeated by Tailapadeva.
 Tailapadeva started rule of kalyani chalukyas.
Religion:
 Rashtrakuta rulers had great quality of religious
tolerance.
 The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was popular during the
Rashtrakuta reign. The famous rock-cut Shiva temple at
Ellora was built by Krishna I.
 Jainism was patronized by laters rulers like
Amoghavarsha. He was also staunch devotee of Kolhapur
Mahalaxmi .
 Buddhism had declined and its only important centre
was at Kanheri.
Literature:
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 The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of learning.
Kannada and Sanskrit literature made great progress
during their reign.
 The three gems of ancient Kannada literature –Pampa,
Ranna, Ponna were patronised by Rashtrkuta kings.
They wrote following books in kannada
1. Pampa- Adipurana, vikramarjuna vijaya
2. Ranna- Gadhayudha
3. Ponna- Shantipurana
 Amoghvarsha wrote Kavirajamarga, first book on
poetics in kannada( few claim that this was originally
written by court port Srivijaya).
 Mahaveeracharya , a mathematician ,
wrote Ganithasarasangraha in sanskrit.
 Halayudha wrote Kavirahasya in Sanskrit.
 Overall ,Kannada language received great patronage and
golden age in this era.
Art and Architecture:
 The Rashtrakutas made splendid contributions to Indian
art.
 They built structural temple , cave temple and Basadis.
 Ellora, Ajantha and Elephanta are centres of their art.
Kailasa Temple:
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 As per the historical records, it was built by the 8th
century Rashtrakuta King Krishna I between the year
756 and 773 AD. Cave 16, known as the Kailasha temple,
is a particularly notable cave temple in India as a result
of its size, architecture and having been entirely carved
out of a single rock.
 It is modelled along similar lines to other Hindu
temples with
 a gateway,
 an assembly hall,
 a multi-storey main temple surrounded by numerous
shrines laid out according to the square principle,
 an integrated space for circumambulation,
 a garbha-grihya (sanctum sanctorum) wherein resides
the linga-yoni, and a spire-shaped like Mount Kailash –
all carved from one rock.
 Other shrines carved from the same rock are dedicated
to Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, the ten avatars of Vishnu,
Vedic gods and goddesses including Indra, Agni, Vayu,
Surya and Usha, as well as non-Vedic deities like
Ganesha, Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati),
Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu), Annapurna, Durga
and others.
 It has a three-tiered sikhara or tower resembling the
sikhara of the Mamallapuram rathas.
 In the interior of the temple there is a pillared hall which
has sixteen square pillars.
 The Kailasa temple is an architectural marvel with it
beautiful sculptures.
 The sculpture of the Goddess Durga is shown as slaying
the Buffalo demon.
 In another sculpture Ravana was making attempts to lift
Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva.
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 The scenes of Ramayana were also depicted on the walls.
 The general characteristics of the Kailasa temple are
more Dravidian.
Dasavathara cave:
Cave 15, Dashavatara Cave is one of the finest at Ellora.

The two storeyed temple contains mesmerising Shiva
Nataraja and a Shiva emerging from Lingam while Vishnu
and Brahma pay homage.
Features of Dashavatara Caves:
 It has cells and a layout plan that are similar to Buddhist
Caves.
 It also indicates presence of non-Buddhist features, such
as a Nrtya Mandapa at its entrance.
 Hindu temple housed in Cave 15 has an open court with
a free-standing monolithic mandapa at the middle and a
two-storeyed excavated temple at the rear.
 Large sculptural panels between the wall columns on the
upper floor illustrate a wide range of themes, including
the ten avatars of Vishnu.
 finest relief of this cave is the one depicting the death of
Hiranyakashipu, where Vishnu in man-lion (Narasimha)
form, emerges from a pillar to lay a fatal hand upon his
shoulder.
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 Other reliefs in Cave 15 include the Gangadhara,
marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Tripurantika of Shakti
tradition, Markendeya, Garuda, aspects of life, Nandi in
mandapa, dancing Shiva, Andhakasura,
Govardhanadhari, Gajendravarada and others.
 panels are arranged in dyads, which displays
―cooperative but also antagonistic energy‖ with a
mutuality of power transference.
Elephanta cave:
 Elephanta, which is an island 6 miles from Mumbai has

7 caves.The Portuguese after seeing the large elephant
named it elephant.
 The sculptural art of Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in
this place.
 The sculptures such as Nataraja and Sadashiva excel
even that of the Ellora sculptures in
beauty and crafsmanship.
 Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurti are the other
famous sculptures.
 The most imposing figure of this temple is Trimurthi It is
said to represent the three aspects of Shiva as creator,
preserver and destroyer.
The Senas (11th to 12th Century)
 The Sena dynasty ruled Bengal after the Palas and its
founder was Samantasena described as a
„Brahmakshatriya‟.
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 The title Brahmakshatriya shows that Samantasena was
a brahmin, but his successors called themselves
simply Kshatriyas.
 Samantasena‟s son Hemantasena took advantage of the
unstable political situation of Bengal and carved out an
independent principality.
 Vijayasena, son of Hemantasena, conquered nearly the
whole of Bengal.
 Vijayasena assumed several imperial titles like
Paramesvara, Paramabhattaraka, and
Maharajadhiraja.
 Vijayasena had two capitals, of which one was at
Vijaypuri of Bangladesh.
 Vijayasena was succeeded by his son, Ballalasena, who
was a great scholar.
 Lakshmanasena, who succeeded Ballalasena in 1179,
reign was remarkable for patronizing literature.
 Lakshmanasena‘s reign saw the decline of the Sena
power because of internal rebellions.
Facts to Know
 The famous poet Sriharasha composed the
‗ Vijayaprasasti‘ in memory of Vijayasena.
 Vijayasena‘ s son, Ballalasena, was a great scholar.
 Ballalasena wrote four works of which two are
extant. They are:
 Banasagara is an extensive work on omens and
portents
 Adbhutasagara on astronomy.
 Lakshmanasena was a devout Vaishnava and,
Jayadeva, the famous Vaishnava poet of Bengal and
author of the Gita Govinda lived at his court.
 The invasion of Bakhtiya Khalji gave it a crushing blow.

A detailed account of the invasion of Bakhtiyar Khalji has
been given in Tabakat-i-Nasiri.
The Rajaputa‟s Origin
Page 20
 The anarchy and confusion which followed Harsha‘s
death is the transitional period of Indian history.
 This period was marked by the rise of the Rajput clans
who began to play a signifi cant part in the history of
northern and western India from the 8th century AD
onwards.
 The Hunas, Gurjaras and the other allied tribes who
entered India during the 5th and 6th centuries
merged themselves with the Indians, just as their
predecessors, the Greeks, the Kushanas and the Sakas
had done.
 In the southern group, the principal clans were the
chandellas, Kalachuris or Haihayas and Gaharwars.
They apparently descended from the so called aboriginal
tribes like the Gonds, and the Bhars.
 The evidence of a close connection between the
Chandellas and the Gonds is particularly strong. The
Chandella Rajputs were originally Hinduised Bhars or
Gonds or both, who became Kshatriyas on attaining
political power.
 The Gaharwars were associated with the Bhars; the
Bundelas and the northern Rathors were offshoots of
the Gaharwars.
 As a general rule, Facts to Knowformed by the social
the Rajputs
 The term Rajput denotes a tribe or clan, the
promotion of aborigines were inimical to the Rajputs
members of which claimed themselves as
descended from foreigners.
Kshatriyas belonging to the ‗ solar or lunar‘
dynasties.
 According to some scholars the origin of the
Rajputs is connected with that of the Gurjaras. In
the early years of the 6th century AD, a tribe known
as the Khazars came to India along with the Hunas.
These Khazars were known as Gurjaras.
 According to the bardic tales, the Pratiharas
(Pariharas), the Chalukyas (Solankis), the Paramaras
(Pawars) and the Chahamanas (Chauhans) are ‗ fi re-
born‘ (Agnikula), originating from a sacrifi cial fi re-
pit at Mount Abu in southern Rajputana.
Page 21
Chandellas
 After the break-up of the Pratihara empire, the
Chandellas rose to the power and established their rule
over Bundelkhand.
 Like most medieval dynasties, the Chandellas claim
their descent from Chandratreya, a descendant of the
„Moon dynasty‟.
 The earliest capital of the Chandella kings was
Khajuraho, the splendor of which reached its zenith in
the 10th century.
 Yasovarman, also known as Lakshavarman was the
greatest of Chandella rulers.
 The decline of the Pratihara power made Yasovarman free
to defy the former and to launch the Chandellas to
aggressive militarism.
 The Khajuraho inscription describes with obvious
exaggeration the extensive conquests made by
Yasovarman.
 Though an element of doubt attaches to the
achievements of Yasovarman, there is no doubt that he
made extensive conquests in north India and made the
Chandellas a formidable power
 Yasovarman built a magnifi cent temple at
Khajuraho, identifi ed with the Chaturbhuja temple, in
which he installed the image of Vishnu.
Chahamanas
 There were several branches of the Chahamana dynasty
and the main branch ruled in Sakambhari, modern
Sambhar, in Jaipur and the others ruling in different
places, were collateral. (Some of these were the
feudatories of the Pratiharas.)
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 Vasudadeva founded the main line in the middle of the
6th century AD with Ahichchhatra as the seat of his
power.
 Taking advantage of the weakness of the Pratiharas
consequent to their struggle with the Rashtrakutas, the
next important ruler Vakpatiraja defi ed the authority
of the Pratiharas.
 During the reign of Vakpatiraja the Chahamana
acquired a distinctly higher status as is revealed by his
assumption of the title Maharaja. He built a Shiva
temple at Pushkara.
 Vakpati had three sons—Simharaja, Vatsaraja and
Lakshmana.
 Simharaja was the fi rst in the family who took the title
of Maharajadhiraja. (This indicates that he made himself
independent of the imperial Pratiharas.)
 Simharaja‘s son and successor Vigraharaja II was the
real founder of the future greatness of the Chahamanas.
He conquered Gujarat, forced the Chalukya Mularaja to
take refuge at Kanthakot in Kutch. He extended his
conquests as far south as the Narmada.
 Prithviraja I is reputed to have killed a body of 700
Chalukyas who had come to Pushkara to rob the
Brahmins.
Facts to Know
 Prithviraja III became the theme of two great poems,
viz:
 Prithvirajavijaya written by his court poets
Jayanaka
 Prithviraj Raso by Chanda (Chandbardai)
Prithviraja III
 Prithviraja III suppressed the revolt of his cousin,
Nagarjuna.
Page 23
 He invaded the Chandella kingdom and defeated its
King Paramardi.
 Thereafter, he invaded the Chalukya kingdom of
Gujarat and forced Chalukya, Bhima II to conclude a
treaty.
 Prithviraja III also entered into hostility with
Jayachandra, Gahadvala ruler of Kanauj. It is said that
Jayachandra organised a svayamvara ceremony for the
marriage of his beautiful daughter Samyukta. Prithviraja
was not invited. Prithviraja succeeded in carrying off the
Gahadvala princess by force.
 Muhammad Ghori invaded India in 1190. It was not till
the capture of the strong fort of Tabarhindah, identifi ed
with Sirhind, by Muhammad Ghori that Prithviraja
became conscious of the gravity of the situation.
 Prithviraja met the enemy at the fi eld of Tarain in
1190-91. The fi rst battle of Tarain was disastrous for
the Sultan Muhammad Ghori.
 Despite this victory, Prithviraja III did not take
adequate steps to guard the north-western frontier of
his empire and allowed himself to dissipate his energy in
fi ghting the Gahadvala king Jayachandra.
 Meanwhile, Muhammad Ghori came to Tarain in 1192
practically unopposed by passing through Multan and
Lahore. One lakh soldiers were killed in the battle,
including Govindaraja, chief of Delhi. Prithviraja was
taken prisoner and executed thereafter.
Gahadvalas
 The emergence of the Gahadvalas in Kanauj in the latter
part of the 11th century is so sudden that it is diffi cult
to determine their origin.
 The well-known theory of their connection with the
dynasties of the Sun and the Moon cannot be accepted as
Page 24
true, although traditions trace them back to an obscure
descendant of Yayati.
 The Gahadvala dynasty was founded by Yasovigraha.
 Yasovigraha‟s son Mahichandra, also called Mahindra
and Mahitala, was a ruler of some consequence who
ruled in some part of Uttar Pradesh.
 Mahichandra‟s son, Chandradeva, took hold of the
opportunity of the departure of Mahmud from northern
India and defeated upon the Rashtrakuta ruler, Gopala,
on the banks of the Yamuna.
 Chandradeva conquered all the territory from
Allahabad to Varanasi and made Varanasi the second
capital of the Gahadvalas.
 Chandradeva imposed a tax called turushkadanda
possibly to defray the expenses of war against Muslim
invasions or to make annual payments to the latter.
 Chandradeva was succeeded by his son
Madanachandra, also known as Madanapala.
Jayachandra
 Vijayachandra‟s son and successor, Jayachandra
ascended the throne in 1170.
 His career and achievements, known from his copper-
plates and the panegyrics of the Prithviraja Raso, are
illumined by the Muslim chronicles and other
independent sources.
 Jayachandra was the last great monarch of Kanauj
whose power and resources must have impressed the
Muslim historians.
 Jayachandra‘s peaceful reign was seriously menaced by
Muhammad Ghori, who, after conquering Delhi and
Ajmer from the Chahamanas, advanced with a large force
against Kanauj in 1193.
Page 25
 Jayachandra met him on the plain between Chandwar
and Etawah, and fell fi ghting. The defeat and death of
Jayachandra did not lead to the annexation of the
kingdom of Kanauj by the Muslims.
 Harishchandra, son of Jayachandra, was allowed to
rule as a vassal to Muhammad Ghori.
 Harishchandra‟s successor, was deprived of his
ancestral kingdom by Iltutmish which ended the glory
of imperial Kanauj after six centuries of political
domination in northern India.
Facts to Know
 Jayachandra‘ s is associated with the history of
Sanskrit literature for the liberal patronage
extended by him to Sriharsha.
 Sriharsha well-known works are:
 Naisadhacharita
 Khandana-khanda-khadya. (It i s one of t he
most famous and i mpor t ant of t hose Vedant a
t r eat i ses whi ch emphasi ze on t he negat i ve or
sk ept i cal si de of t he syst em.)
Indian Feudalism
 The period from 750 to 1200 in Indian history has
been termed as a period of „Indian Fedualism‟ by few
historians who believed that a number of changes took
place in Indian society.
 One signifi cant change was the growing power of a
class of people who were variously called Samantas,
Ranaks, Rauttas, etc.
 Their origins were very different. Some were government
offi cers who were defeated rajas who continued to
enjoy the revenue of limited areas.
Page 26
 Others were local hereditary chiefs or tribal leaders
who had carved out a sphere of authority with the help of
armed supporters. In course of time, these revenue-
bearing lands began to be considered hereditary and
monopoly of a few families.
 The hereditary chiefs began to assume many of the
functions of the government. They not only assessed
and collected land revenue but also assumed more and
more administrative power such as the right to grant
lands to their followers without the prior permission
of the rulers. This led to an increase in the number of
people who drew sustenance form the land without
working on it.
Salient Features of Indian Feudalism
 Emergence of hierarchical landed intermediaries:
Vassals and offi cers of state and other secular assignees
had military obligations and were called Samanta. Sub-
in-feudation (varying in different regions) by these donees
to get their land cultivated led to the growth of different
strata of intermediaries. It was a hierarchy of landed
aristocrats, tenants, share croppers and cultivators.
This hierarchy was also refl ected in the powers,
administrative structure, where a sort of lord vassal
relationship emerged. In other words, Indian feudalism
consisted of the unequal distribution of land and its
produce.
 Prevalence of forced labour: The right of extracting
forced labour (Vishti) is believed to have been exercised
by the Brahmanas and other grantees of land. (Forced
labour was originally a prerogative of the king or the
state.) It was transferred to the grantees, petty offi cials,
village authorities and other. As a result, a kind of
serfdom emerged, in which agricultural labourers were
reduced to the position of semi-serfs.
Page 27
 Curtailment of land rights of peasents: Due to the
growing claims over them by rulers and intermediaries,
peasants also suffered a curtailment of their land
rights. Many were reduced to the position of tenants
facing ever-growing threat of eviction. A number of
peasants were only share- croppers (ardhikas). The
strain on the peasantry was also caused by the burden of
taxation, coercion and increase in their indebtness.
 Extra economic coercion: Surplus was extracted
through various methods. Extra economic coercion was a
conspicuous method, new mechanisms of economic
subordination also evolved.
 Relatively Closed Village Economy: It was relatively a
closed village economy. The transfer of human resources
along with land to the benefi ciaries shows that in such
villages the peasants, craftsmen and artisans were
attached to the village and, hence, were mutually
dependent. Their attachment to land and to service
grants ensured control over them by the benefi ciaries.
Administration in Northern India between 8th to
12th Century
General Administration
 For administrative purposes, the kingdom was divided
into a central region, directly ruled by the king, and
many fi efs ruled by the feudal lords.
 The territories under Pala and Pratihara were divided
into bhukti (provinces) and mandala or visaya
(districts).
 The governor of a bhukti was called uparika and the
head of a district, visayapati.
 Samantas or bhogapatis were smaller chieftains, who
dominated over a number of villages.
Page 28
 In Pala and Pratihara empires, uparika to collected land
revenue and maintained law and order with the help of
the army.
 The administration of the fi efs also followed the same
pattern.
 The village self-government in north India weakened
during this period due to the domination of the feudal
chiefs, while at the same time it was at its best in south
India under the Cholas.
Military Administration
 The army consisted of royal retainers or the personal
army of the king and the contingents supplied by the
feudal lords.
 The lack of cohesion in the army was, in fact, responsible
for the lack of unity in the armies of the rulers of this
period.
 The army consisted of an infantry, cavalry and war-
elephants, but the cavalry was neither numerous nor
there were majority of horses of fi ne breed.
 Military service practically came to be the monopoly
of Rajputs. Consequently 90 percent of the people had
no opportunity of sharing in the defence of their land and
they did not put up any strong opposition to the
authority of any military usurper.
Revenue Administration
 Taxation during this period was heavier compared to
the ancient times. This was so because expenditure
over the royal household and the court continued to
increase.
 The military budget also continued to be infl ated
because of ceaseless fi ghting.
Judicial Administration
Page 29
 Provision for justice had been laid down as one of the
principal duties of the state in India, but the rulers
during this period did not pay adequate attention to it.
 In the bhuktis, there was a dandanayaka who seems to
have been in-charge of justice, police and prisons
simultaneously.
 There is no mention of any other offi cer who might have
been principally in charge of justice. So it seems that
most of the disputes were settled by arbitration through
the caste and village panchayats.
Different types of Feudal Chiefs
 Some feudal lords were government offi cers who were
increasingly paid not in cash but by assigning to them
revenue-bearing villages.
 Others were defeated kings and their supporters who
continued to enjoy the revenues of limited areas.
 Some others were local hereditary chiefs or military
adventurers who had carved out a sphere of infl uence
with the help of armed supporters.
 Still others were tribal or clan leaders.
 The actual position of these people varied. Some of them
were only village chiefs; some dominated a tract
comprising a number of villages, while others dominated
an entire region.
 Thus, there was a defi nite hierarchy among these chiefs
and they constantly contested against each other and
tried to enhance their position.
Nature of Society
 This society can be called as „feudal‟ society, because
the dominant position was held by those who drew their
sustenance from land without working on it.
Caste System
Page 30
 The caste system formed the basis of the society as in
earlier periods, but now the Kshatriyas and the
Brahmins were given more privileges, while more and
more social and religious disabilities were placed on
the Sudras and other lower castes than in the earlier
period.
 Contemporary writers mention a large number of sub-
castes such as potters, weavers, goldsmiths,
musicians, barbers, and fi shermen.
 Some of the castes were earlier guilds of workers which
now began to be classifi ed as castes (Jatis).
 It is signifi cant to note that the Smriti writers of the
period regarded handicrafts as low occupations. Thus,
most of the workers were also classifi ed as
untouchables.
Position of the Women
 The position of women gradually deteriorated. During
the period of the Smritis, women were bracketed with
the Sudras, and were denied the right to study the
Vedas, to utter Vedic mantras, and to perform Vedic
rites.
 During early medieval period, distruption in women‘s old
privilege of choosing a life of celibacy and asceticism.
 Since women and property are bracketed together in
several reference in the epics, Smritis and Puranas, there
is no doubt that woman herself was regarded as a sort
of property.
 Women could be given away or loaned as any item of
property.
 Manu and Yajnavalkya, for example, hold that a
woman is never independent. This was like the attitude
of a typical patriarchal society based on private
property. Because of this attitude, the Brahmanical law
did not allow any proprietary rights to women; the
Page 31
provision for stridhana is of a very limited character and
does not extend beyond the wife‘s rights to jewels,
ornaments and presents made to her.
 Manu declares that the wife, the son and the slave are
unpropertied, whatever they earn is the property of those
to whom they belongs to. This sort of social philosophy
took strong roots in the Gupta and post-Gupta periods,
although the institution of monogamous family and
private property had been developed much earlier.
Education & Learning
 The attitude of the learned classes of north India
became increasingly rigid during this period.
 They tended to repeat the past learning, instead of
putting forward and welcoming new ideas.
 They also tended to isolate themselves from the main
currents of scientifi c thought outside India. This is
refl ected in the writings of Al-Beruni, a noted scientist
and scholar from Central Asia who lived in India at
Mahmud Ghazni‘s court.
 Although a great admirer of Indian sciences and learning,
Al-Beruni noted the insular attitude of the learned
people of the country, viz., the Brahmins.
 The attitude of trying to confi ne knowledge among a very
narrow group, and of taking an arrogant attitude towards
new ideas, from whichever source they might come, was
largely responsible for making India backward.
Religious Developments
 Both Buddhism and Jainism continued to decline
during the period.
 It was during this period that Buddhism almost
disappeared from the land of its birth after the fall of
the Palas.
 There was a marked revival and expansion of
Hinduism. This took many forms, the most important
Page 32
being the growing popularity of Shiva and Vishnu. A
number of popular movements arose around the worship
of these gods, while at the intellectual level, the tenets of
Buddhism and Jainism were challenged.
 In due course, Shiva and Vishnu became the chief
gods, and the worship of the Sun, Brahma, etc. declined
in popularity.
 In eastern India, a new form of worship arose. This was
the worship of Shakti, or the worship of the female
principle as the cause of creation.
 Thus, the Hindus began to worship goddesses Durga,
Kali, etc. who were associated with Shiva, and the
Buddhists worshipped Taras as the consorts of the
Buddhas.
Rise of Self-suffi cient Village Economies
 A very important development of the period was the rise
of a self-suffi cient village economy where production
approximated local requirements, with little attempt
at producing a surplus to be used specifi cally for
trade or exchange.
 This existing system led to accepting the standard of
minimum production, since the incentive to improve
production was absent.
 As the pressure on the peasantry increased, production
stayed at a subsistence level only.
Decline of Trade
 The subsistence, economy of the village naturally led
to a decline in trade, since there was little surplus
production which could be traded or exchanged.
 Trade was further hampered by the emergence of a
wide range of local weights and measures, making long
distance trade more diffi cult.
Page 33
 Lack of trade led to a decline in the use of coins, and
this decline in turn led to a further decline in trade.
 The unstable political conditions and the ceaseless
internal fi ghting only helped this process of decline in
trade.
 An important external development which contributed to
this decline was the decline of the Roman and Sassanid
empires which caused a setback to the external
demand for Indian goods in the West.
Decline of Town and Cities
 The decline in trade in turn affected the growth of
towns.
 Those that had attained a certain economic momentum
continued, but the founding of new towns was less
frequent than before.
 The Arab geographers and writers of this period have
commented on the paucity of towns in India as
compared with China.
 But in the coastal areas and Bengal, towns were
prospering because they continued to trade with West
Asia and South-East Asia.
THE CHOLAS
 Known as Imperial Cholas of Tanjore.
 The founder of Chola dynasty was Vijayalaya who was
at first a feudatory of Pallavas.
 The greatest kings of Cholas were Rajaraja & his son
Rajendra I.
 The use of Agrahatta (Persian wheel) also facilitated the
already established smooth irrigation networks of
tanks, canals, wells and sluices.
Rajaraja I  Greatest Chola Ruler, who helped
(985- 1014 AD): raise chola empire as largest
dominion in South India.
Page 34
 He took titles – Mummidi Chola,
Jayankonda & Shivpadshekhara.
 He defeated Chera, Pandya &
conquered Maldives Islands.
 Naval expedition against the
Sailendra Empire (Malaya
Peninsula).
 Expanded trade with china.
 In 1010 CE, constructed the
Rajarajeshwara or Brihadeeswara
temple, dedicated to shiva at
Thanjavur.
 Rajarajeshwara or Brihadeeswara
temple is a part of ―Greatest Living
Chola Temples”, & entered the
UNESCO World Heritage site list in
1987. This temple is the finest
example of Dravidian architecture.
 Developed revenue system where
land was surveyed and then
revenue was assessed. So, he was
referred as Ulakalanada Perumal
(the great who measured the
earth).
Rajendra I  Son of Rajaraja I, defeated &
(1014 - 1044 AD) conquered whole Sri Lanka.
 Made Chola navy strongest in the
area and ‗Bay of Bengal‘ was
converted into a „Chola Lake‟.
 He assumed the title of
“Gangaikondachola” & built a city-
“Gangaikondacholapuram”.
 He was great patron of learning and
known as Pandita - chola.
 Encouraged local self-government
 Rajendra III was the last king. Later Pandya conquered

Chola empire.
Page 35
Cholas & Other South Indian Kingdoms
Chola Administration
 King was assisted by council of minister.
 Perundanam & serundanam were important officials.
 The Empire was divided into:
1. Mandalams (provinces) - Royal princes (in charge)
2. Valanadus - Perinattar
3. Nadus (district) - Nattar
4. Autonomous Villages – 30 wards (members selected
by lottery type)
 Local self-government was imp feature of Cholas rule.
Uttiramerur Inscriptions gives detailed account of the
village administration.
 Ur Nattam was residential portion of the city.
 Ur was general assembly of village & Sabha was
gathering of adult men in the Brahmana village –
Agrahara (rent free villages with autonomy).
 Main source of Income for Chola Empire was land
revenue, which was 1/6th of the produce.
 Dues were levied on ceremonial occasions like marriage.
Socio-Economic Life (Cholas)
 Divided on caste lines: Periyar (Untouchbles), Vellallas
(Farming groups).
 Emergence of supra caste dichotomy:
1. Idangai (left hand caste groupings): Consisted mainly
of artisanal and trading groups.
2. Valangai (right hand groupings): Consisted mainly of
agricultural groups.
 Women were head of some villages, as per some
inscriptions.
 Significant shift of royal patronage from gifts to
Brahmans to gifts to Temples.
Page 36
 Expansions in agrarian economy, use of Agrahatta
(Persian wheel) for smooth irrigations.
 Emergence of various crafts centers, i.e., Kanchipuram
as important weaving industry centre, Kudamukku was
center for betel nut & areca nut production.
 Emergence of trading caste: Garveras (Northern
merchants migrated southwards), Gaudas/ Gavundas
(originally cultivators).
 Shaivism & Vaishnavism flourished.
 Chola had trade relations with Java, Sumatra, Arabia &
China.
 Inscriptions at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal &
Thirubuvanai gives details of education system &
colleges.
Education and Literature (Cholas)
 Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and
Kundalakesi belonged to 10th century.
 The Ramayana composed by Kamban and the
Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are
the two master-pieces of this age.
 Telugu version of Mahabharata was started by Nanniah
& completed by Tikkana.
 Jayankondar's Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga
war fought by Kulotunga I.
 The Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of
three Chola kings.
 The Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi.
 The works on Tamil grammar like Kalladam by
Kalladanar, Yapperungalamby Amirthasagarar, a Jain,
Nannul by Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra
were written during Chola rule.
 Pampa, Ponna, & Ranna known are considered 3 gems
of Kannada literature lived in the 10th century.
Page 37
Art and Architecture (Cholas)
 Dravidian type of temple architecture reached its
climax under the cholas.
 Chola king built lofty temples & inscribed long
inscriptions on the wall narrating their achievements.
They also depict the socio-economic conditions of that
period.
 Kailasanath Temple of Kanchipuram was built in 8th
century. Airavatesvara temple & temple at
Gangaicholapuram, Nataraja temple at Chidambaram
are famous.
 Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore was built by Rajaraja
which was dedicated to Shiva.
 The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures
and bronzes. The best example of this can be seen in
Dancing figure of Nataraja.
 Bharatanatyam & kathakali are two types of dances
performed during the Chola period.
The Cheras (9th to 12th Century)
 The Chera dynasty was one of the most significant
dynasties of the Sangam period in regions of Tamil Nadu
and the present-day state of Kerala.
 In the early centuries of the Common Era, the early
Cheras was known as one of the three major powers of
ancient Tamilakam, alongside the Cholas of Uraiyur and
the Pandyas of Madurai.
 They were also referred to as 'Keraputras,' and their
kingdom was located to the west and north of the Pandya
kingdom.
 The Cheras' history has been marked by constant conflict
with the Cholas and the Pandyas.
 Uthiyan Cheralathan is regarded as the earliest known
ruler of the Chera line as per Tamil scriptures.
Page 38
 His ruling base was in Kuzhumur in Kuttanad, Kerala.
 Whereas, Kulasekhara Alwar was the first king of the
later Chera kingdom, which later evolved into the
Kulasekhara dynasty.
 For more than five centuries, there was no trace of a
Chera monarch, but Kulasekhara Alwar appeared on the
scene, claiming to be a descendant of the Chera.
 Most likely he ruled around 800 AD
from Tiruvanchikkulam in the present state of Kerala
and he ruled for more than 20 years.
 Then throne was held by Ramavarma; Kulasekhara
Perumal, Ramar Tiruvati, or Kulasekhara
Koyiladhikarikal was his name.
 His tenure was marked by political turmoil and
insecurity.
 He was the last ruler of the Later Chera dynasty.
Important Rulers of Cheras
Uthiyan Cheralathan (1st to 3rd century AD)
 Uthiyan Cheralatan, also known as Udiyanjeral was
the first Chera ruler of ancient South India during the
Sangam period.
 He established his capital in Kuzhumur, Kuttanad
(Kerala), and expanded his kingdom northward and
eastward from his birthplace.
 His life span is estimated to be between the first and
third centuries AD.
 His elephant and cavalry units are acclaimed.
 At Kuzhumur, he is supposed to have had his
famed royal kitchen. He is also said to have fed the
Kauravas and Pandavas armies during the Mahabharata
war.
Page 39
 In a battle named ‗Battle of Venni‟ his back was injured
while commanding the army with Karikala Chola and he
died.
Kulashekhara Alwar (800 AD)
 Maharaja Kulasekhara Alwar also known as
Kulasekhara Varman or Kulasekhara Nayanar was
born into the Travancore royal family (Kerala).
 As a king of the later Chera Dynasty, his reign is said to
have lasted from 800 to 820 AD.
 Maharaja Kulasekhara Varman became a well-
established ruler who not only ruled Chera land but also
invaded and ruled the neighbouring Chola and
Pandya lands.
 He quickly rose to prominence as one of South India's
great kings. His kingdom consists of the lands
of Uraiyur, Madurai and Kongu.
 His administration was flawless, the people were happy
and lived in peace, in his kingdom.
 He later transformed into a saint by the preachings of
Vaishnava saints.
 In his final days, he visited the various shrine at
Tirunagari, near present-day Tinivelli.
 He died there, most likely at the age of 67.
Rama Varma Kulasekhara (1090–1102 AD)
 Ramavarma Kulasekhara was the last ruler of medieval
Kerala's Chera Perumal dynasty.
 He lived during the reigns of Chola
monarchs Kulottunga I (1070–1120) and Vikrama Chola
(1118–35 AD).
 A considerably more deadly phase of the long struggle
between Cholas and Cheras begins.
Page 40
 He overcomes the Cholas, but due to his hostility with
the local Brahmins, he is unable to reclaim his already-
fractured empire.
 Internal strife undermines the state even more, and
Rama Varma abdicates the crown and dies soon after.
 Administration
Administration of Cheras
 The Chera kingdom's most important political institution
was the monarchy. The king's personality was linked
with a great deal of pomp and ceremony.
 The royal Queen also held an extremely high and
privileged position, and she sat with the king at all
religious events.
 The Shilappadikaram mentions the 'king's council' and
the other 'five assemblies' in the administration of the
Chera Dynasty.
 The Chera king's council consists of the most powerful
noblemen, rajas of the districts such as the 'ruler of
Alumbil,'
 The council was not only the highest advisory body, but
also the final judicial tribunal which used to help the
Chera king when he held his daily durbar in order to
hear petitions and deliver judgments.
 The Chera kingdom was divided into four divisions, the
northernmost division was Cannanore and the
southernmost was near Trivandrum.
 The Chief Minister in the Chera dynasty served in the
same manner as the powerful dewans who, until the
twentieth century, administered the states of Travancore
and Cochin on behalf of the native princes.
 The chief priest, who served as the Nair war goddess and
chief astrologer, wielded great power in determining
policy.
Page 41
 Another important institution was the “Manram” which
operated in each village of the Chera kingdom.
 Its meetings were frequently held under a banyan tree by
village elders, and they assisted in resolving local issues.
 The ancient Chera state had an elaborate executive
structure in addition to collective bodies that influence
royal policy and rendered legal judgments.
Society of Cheras
 The majority of the Chera people practised
native Dravidian religions.
 Religious practices may have primarily consisted of
performing sacrifices to various gods, such as the
supreme god Murugan.
 Extensive offerings of meat and toddy were made to the
war goddess Kottava.
 Kottava is thought to have been assimilated into the
current form of the goddess Durga.
 The first wave of Brahmin migration to Chera territory is
thought to have occurred around the third century BCE,
alongside or behind Jain and Buddhist missionaries.
 While the vast majority of the population adhered to
native Dravidian practises, a small percentage of the
population, primarily migrants, adhered to Jainism,
Buddhism, and Brahmanism. Jewish and Christian
populations were also known to have existed in Kerala.
 Early Tamil texts do make several references to social
stratification, as indicated by the use of the word kudi
("group") to denote "caste."
 The high status accorded to women was a striking
feature of Cheras society.
 In Cheras society, the primary occupation of people
was agriculture and pastoralism.
Economy of Cheras
Page 42
 The early Chera economy was primarily based on
"pastoral-cum-agrarian" activities and trade in the
Indian Ocean.
 The emphasis on agriculture grew over time, and it
served as the foundation for larger economic change.
 Exchange relations with Graeco-Roman merchants, the
"Yavanas," and with north India provided significant
economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom.
 Spice trade with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean
(Graeco-Roman) navigators dates back before the
Common Era.
 The Periplus Maris Erythraei depicts the "trade" in
Keprobotras' territory in great detail. According to the
Periplus, Muziris was the most important centre on
the Malabar Coast.
 The Chera country "exported" bulk spices, ivory, timber,
pearls, and gems to Middle Eastern and Mediterranean
kingdoms.
 The Romans brought large amounts of gold in exchange
for black pepper. The discovery of Roman coin hoards in
various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu attests to this.
 The Chera dynasty was known for producing the finest
quality of steel in the world.
 They produce Seric Iron for the Romans, Egyptians,
Chinese, and Arabs.
 The steel was exported in the form of steely iron cakes
known as "Wootz." Wootz steel from India contained a
high level of carbon.
Art and Architecture of Cheras
 Cheras architecture is known as Dravidian
architecture, and their temples are mostly octagonal or
rectangular in shape, built with sandstones or granite.
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Their temples are divided into four sections: vimanam,
mandapams, gopurams, and garbhagriha.
 The gopurams, an imposing tower over the entrance,
were the tallest structures in the villages and towns
where they were built.
 The temple was more than just a place of worship. It was
a place for socialising, education, and celebration, not
just of the king's battle victories, but also of local
functions and ceremonies such as marriages.
 The temple was also used as a sort of emergency storage
facility, and many temples also housed hospitals.
 It was a place where art such as music, dance, drama,
and handicrafts, was encouraged and flourished.
Some important temples of Cheras are:-
Thiruvanchikulam Shiva Temple
 It was built in Kerala-style architecture during the
Chera period when Lord Shiva was worshipped by
Umadevi.
 This temple falls under India's archaeology, and it is one
of the oldest Shiva temples in South India, built in the
Thrissur district of Kodungallur.
Bhagavathi Amman Temple
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 This temple located in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, is
also known as Bhadrakali Amman temple and it is one
of the 52 Shakthi Peetam temples.
 According to legend, Lord Shiva failed to keep his
promise to marry her, and as a result, she turned into a
demon.
 The Navarathri, Kalabhavan, and Vaisakha festivals are
all grandly celebrated here.
Mahavishnu Temple
 It is located in Thrikkodithanam, Kottayam, Kerala, and
represents five ancient shrines connected
to Mahabharatham.
 Kazhivetti Kallur, a strange form of art, is displayed
between the pond and the eastern entrance.
 It is kept as a reminder that the king bribed the caretaker
and gained access to the temple, where he soon became
ill and died.
Literature of Cheras
 The Sangam texts are a large body of Tamil works that
describe a number of Chera rulers along with Pandya
and Chola rulers.
 The Pathitrupathu, Akananuru, and Purananuru are
the most important literatures of the Cheras.
 Silapathikaram was written during their reign, when
Tamil poets, Paranar, and Kongar ruled.
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 Some other literary works of Sangam time which are
common for the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas
are Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pathinenkilkanakku, and
two epics named Silappathikaram and Manimegalai.
 Tolkappiyam, written by Tolkappiyar, is considered the
first Tamil literary work. Though it is a work on Tamil
grammar, it also provides insights into the time's political
and socioeconomic conditions.
 Pathinenkilkanakku is a collection of eighteen works on
ethics and morals. The most important of these works
is Tirukkural, written by Thiruvalluvar, a great Tamil
poet and philosopher.
Decline of Cheras
 Rashtrakutas conquered the Cheras in 805 AD, and
ruled over them for a brief period between 855 and 865
AD.
 During the reign of Bhaskara Ravi Varman I, the Chola
Chera war ("Hundred Years War") began.
 By the end of Raja Raja Chola's reign, the Cholas had
annexed the entire southern Travancore south
of Kuzhithara from the Cheras.
 These prolonged wars had significantly weakened the
Chera power and taking advantage of this chaotic
opportunity several chiefs of Cheras asserted their
independence.
 Later, the Cholas consolidated control over a vast area of
the Chera kingdom.
 Rama Varma Kulasekhara, the newly crowned King, was
confronted with an unprecedented and chaotic crisis.
 He turned a large portion of his army into suicide
squads (dubbed "the Chavers") and fought heroically.
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 In the absence of central power at Mahodayapuram, the
Later Chera kingdom's divisions quickly emerged as
principalities led by separate chieftains.
 The post-Chera period saw the gradual decline of
Nambudiri Brahmins and the rise of the Nairs.
The Yadavas (12th to 13th Century)
 The earliest historical ruler of the Seuna/Yadava dynasty
can be traced back to the mid-9th century but little is
known about their early history, their 12th-century court
poet Hemadri records the names of the family's early
rulers.
 The territory of the early Yadava rulers was in present-
day Maharashtra, and several scholars have claimed that
the dynasty had a "Maratha" origin.
 During this time, the Marathi language emerged as the
dominant language in the dynasty's inscriptions. Prior to
this, the primary languages of their inscriptions were
Kannada and Sanskrit.
 Hemadri's traditional genealogy of the Yadavas traces
their descent from Visnu, the Creator and Yadu were his
later descendants.
 The dynasty's first historically attested ruler
is Dridhaprahara (860-880 AD), who is credited with
founding the city of Chandradityapura (modern
Chandor). He was a feudatory of Chalukyas.
 Bhillama ( 1175-1191 CE) was the first sovereign ruler of
the Yadava dynasty in the Deccan region.
 Bhillama forced Ballala to retreat around 1187,
conquered the former Chalukya capital Kalyani, and
declared himself a sovereign ruler.
 He then founded the city of Devagiri, which became the
new Yadava capital.
Rulers of Yadavas
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Bhillama (1173 - 1191 AD)
 Bhillama ( 1175-1191 CE) was the first sovereign ruler of
India's Yadava (Seuna) dynasty in the Deccan region.
 Bhillama‘s father was Karna and grandfather was the
Yadava ruler Mallugi.
 Around 1175 CE, he seized the Yadava throne, deposing
his uncle's descendants and a usurper.
 He ruled as a nominal vassal of the Chalukyas of
Kalyani for the next decade, raiding Gujarat's Chalukya
and Paramara territories.
 After the Chalukya power fell, he declared sovereignty
around 1187 CE and fought with the Hoysala king
Ballala II for control of the former Chalukya territory in
present-day Karnataka.
 He defeated Ballala in a battle at Soratur around 1189
CE, but Ballala defeated him two years later.
 In 1190, he took over the Chalukya capital of Kalyani
and established Devagiri (now Daulatabad) as the
Yadava dynasty's capital.
 Bhillama was referred to as "Chakravartin Yadava" in
the Mutugi inscription from 1189-90 CE (1111 Shaka)
records.
 He patronised the scholar Bhaskara, who was
Nagarjuna's teacher.
Singhana II (1200-1246 AD)
 Singhana II (1200-1246 AD) was the most powerful ruler
of the Yadavas.
 Singhana II was born in Sinnar in 1186.
 His mother was Bhagirathibai and his father
was Jaitugidev.
 He was crowned as his father's heir in 1200, and later he
was crowned again in 1210 to commemorate his
conquest of the Hoysala territories.
 During his reign, the Yadava empire reached its pinnacle.
Neither the Hoysalas, nor the Kakatiyas, nor the
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Paramaras and Calukyas dared to challenge his Deccan
dominance.
 Singhana attacked and defeated each of these powers.
 Sarangadeva, the author of Sangita Ratnakar, worked as
an accountant in Singhana II's court.
 Sangeet Ratnakara is widely regarded as one of the most
important works on Hindustani and Classical music.
 Two famous astrologers, Cangadeva (established an
astrological college) and Anantadeva (wrote
commentaries on Brahmagupta's
Brahmasphutasiddhanta and Varahamihira's
Brhajjataka), flourished in Sinhana‘s court.
 Singhana II was succeeded by his grandson Krishna.
Raja Ramchandrahbl (1291-1309 AD)
 Ramachandra was the Yadava ruler Krishna's son.
 Ramachandra was presumably quite young at the time of
Krishna's death in 1260 CE, therefore his uncle
(Krishna's brother) Mahadeva ascended the throne.
 After conducting a coup in the capital Devagiri, he
usurped the throne from his cousin Ammana and
became the next monarch around 1270 CE.
 Ramachandra appears to have engaged in battles with
his north-western neighbours, the Vaghelas of Gurjara,
during the northern war against the Paramaras.
 He enlarged his empire by fighting the Paramaras,
Hoysalas, Vaghelas and Kakatiyas, all of whom were
Hindus.
 He faced a Muslim invasion from the Delhi Sultanate in
1296 AD, and made peace by promising to pay an annual
tribute to Alauddin Khalji.
 In 1308 AD, Alauddin Khalji dispatched a force to
Ramachandra, led by his general Malik Kafur. Kafur's
army overpowered Ramchandra‘s army and imprisoned
him in Delhi.
 Ramachandra was a famous Shiva (maha-maheshvara)
devotee who anointed eight Shiva images "with the milk
of his glory."
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Early Muslim Invasions
The Arab Conquest of Sindh
 Sindh is a region in present-day Pakistan's south-eastern
zone. This region of the Indian subcontinent's western
coast has a long history. It has been a centre of trade and
commerce since ancient times.
 Arab merchants engaged in active trade with their Indian
and Southeast Asian counterparts. They were well-
known along the sea routes leading to India's west coast.
 These merchants sailed from the Persian Gulf ports of
Siraf and Hormuz to the mouth of the Indus, then to
Sapera and Cambay, and finally to Calicut and other
Malabar coast ports.
 They returned to Arabia with news of Indian wealth and
luxury goods such as gold, diamonds, jewelled idols, and
so on.
 As a result, because India had long been known for its
riches, the Arabs desired to conquer it.
 Following their "Islamization," they developed a zeal for
proselytising that drove them to conquer many regions in
the Middle East, Europe, Africa, and Asia.
 The Arabs first arrived in the coastal towns of Sindh in
the Indian subcontinent in 636 CE, during the reign of
Caliph Umar, the Prophet's second successor.
 The pillaging expeditions, such as the one in Thane (near
Bombay) in 637 CE, lasted a long time. However, such
expeditions were only plundering raids, not conquests.
 The first systematic Arab conquest occurred in 712 CE,
during the reign of the Umayyad caliph al-Walid. Sindh
was incorporated into the Muslim empire at that time.
Reasons for Conquest by Arabs
 The Arabs' desire to spread Islam drove their conquest of
Sindh. However, the immediate cause was Sindhi pirates
who had looted some Arab ships near the coasts of
Dabol/Daybul or Karachi.
 According to historical evidence, these ships carried gifts
sent by the King of Ceylon for the Caliph of Baghdad, as
well as al-Hajjaj, the governor of Iraq. This was sent to
establish friendly relations with Hajjaj.
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 However, the ship was looted by pirates near the mouth
of the Indus River, and the Arabs were detained at the
port of Dabol.
 A restitution demand was made to Dahar, the king of
Sindh, to compensate for the outrage and punish the
perpetrators. He, however, refused.
 As a reason for his refusal, he cited his inability to
control the pirates. Nonetheless, he was not trusted and
was accused of protecting pirates by Baghdad.
 As a result, Hajjaj obtained permission from Caliph Walid
to invade Sindh. Three military expeditions were then led
against the king, one after the other.
 Dahar was defeated and killed during the third
expedition led by Muhammad Bin Qasim in Debal.
 As a result, all of the nearby towns of Nirun, Rewar,
Brahmanabad, Alor, and Multan were also conquered.
The Arabs eventually conquered Sindh in 712 CE in this
manner.
Effects of the Conquest
Religious Effects
 Sind and Multan were the first to embrace Islam. The
attempt failed in north because the Rajputs held a strong
position in the north.
 Initially, the Khalifah were shaken by Muhammad bin
Qasim's death, and Islamic propagation was slowed.
Muhammad Bin Qasim's alliances proved fruitful in later
invasions of Islamic rulers.
 Because Arabs were not cruel, people's attitudes toward
Islam shifted.
 No additional taxes were levied on Hindus for practising
Hinduism, which won their hearts and won them over to
the Arabs.
Political and Social Effects
 The poor management of the Hindu rulers, as well as
their weak army forces, were exposed to the world and it
piqued the interest of Arabs in occupying all of India.
 The Arabs paved the way for communication with other
Islamic regions, and thus direct trade and commerce
with Islamic countries began.
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 Sind, which was considered tribal prior to the Arab
invasion, became economically strong and civilised. The
Arabs' law and order altered the region's social status.
 The Arabs were excellent politicians. Rather than
acquiring land, they believed in winning people's hearts.
 During this time, social reforms took place as peaceful
administration was established, whereas other parts of
India were highly disturbed.
 The disunity of Hindu Rajas proved to be the bigger
spring bolt that brought about change in the area. The
common people were fed up with internal feuds and had
little regard for the Rajput empire.
Economic and Cultural Effects
 The Arabs adopted a policy of tolerance, allowing Hindus
to practise their faith.
 The Arabs adopted the rich rituals of the Brahmins and
gained knowledge in Astrology, Medicine, and
Arthashastra.
 Many Sanskrit words were incorporated into Arab
dictionaries.
 The small areas were transformed into cities.
 The Arabs planned towns and businesses based on the
crops grown in that area. This improved the Sind
Region's economic situation.
 Horses and camels were brought from other areas for
trade, and they eventually became a means of
transporting goods from Sind to other countries.
Settlement of Arabs
 Many Arab soldiers married Sindhi women and settled in
Sind. The region's population grew as a result.
 The Arabs began to regard Sind as their own land and
attempted to develop it in all aspects.
 Good city planning and construction had a significant
impact on Indian culture, which was reflected later on.
 They believed in the development of new languages,
which gave birth to the Sindhi language (a mixture of
Arab and Sanskrit language).
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 Sindhi poetry is still popular today. It has given birth to a
plethora of famous poets. The great Quran has been
translated into Arabian.
Mahmud of Ghazni
 Following the Arab invasion of Sindh, it was the Turks
who made inroads into India in the 11th century. The
Turks are credited with establishing Muslim rule in
India.
 In 963, Alptigin, a Trukish slave of Samanid king Amir-
Abu-Bakr Lawik, established the Ghaznivid dynasty. He
conquered the kingdom of Jabul, with Ghazni as its
capital.
 His son-in-law, Subuktigin, a capable and ambitious
ruler, took his place. He was successful in capturing all
of the territories between Lamghan and Peshawar from
Hindushahi ruler Jayapala.
 As a result, the Hindushahi kingdom was unable to
contain the Ghaznavids' growing power to the east. His
raids, however, had no long-term impact.
 Subuktigin was succeeded by his son Ismail, who was
deposed by his brother Mahmud in 998. He is best
known in history as Mahmud Ghazni.
Mahmud of Ghazni‟s Character Estimation
 Mahmud of Ghazni was Asia's greatest Muslim leader.
 He was a great fan of art and literature, as well as
scholars such as Firdausi and Alberuni.
 Some remember him as an Islamic hero, while others
remember him as a desecrator of Hindu, Jain, and
Buddhist shrines (this legacy may have contributed to
the destruction of ancient Buddhist shrines by the
taliban in Afghanistan in 2001, although other Muslims
opposed this destruction).
 By establishing Muslim rule over a large portion of the
Indian Subcontinent, he permanently altered the nature
of subcontinental politics, religion, and culture.
Famous Poets Patronized by Mahmud of Ghazni
 Firdausi - Wrote Shahnamah
 Alberuni - Wrote Kitab-i-Hind
Motive Behind Mahmud‟s Invasion
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 He was drawn to India's enormous wealth.
 As a result, he raided India on a regular basis.
 He also included a religious component to his invasion of
India.
 He earned the moniker Idol Breaker by destroying the
temples of Somnath, Kangra, Mathura, and Jwalamukhi.
Attack on Somnath Temple
 In 1025, Mahmud raided Gujarat, looting the Somnath
temple and breaking its jyotirlinga. He took 2 million
dinars in booty.
 Following the conquest of Somnath, a punitive invasion
of Anhilwara occurred.
 According to some historians, there are records of
pilgrimages to the temple in 1038 that do not mention
temple damage.
 However, powerful legends with intricate detail had
developed regarding Mahmud's raid in the Turko-Persian
literature, which "electrified" the Muslim world according
to scholar Meenakshi Jain.
End of Ghazni‟s Rule in India
 In 1030, Ghazni died and Muhammad Ghori appeared
 Sultan Mahmud died on April 30, 1030, in Ghazni, at the
age of 58. Sultan Mahmud had contracted malaria
during his previous invasion. Malaria complications had
resulted in lethal tuberculosis.
 For 157 years, his successors ruled the Ghaznavid
Empire. The Seljuk empire absorbed the majority of
Ghaznavid territory in the west.
 The Ghorids took Ghazni in 1150, and Mu'izz al-Din (also
known as Muhammad of Ghori) took Lahore, the last
Ghaznavid stronghold, in 1187.
 Despite his genius as a military commander, Mahmmud
was unable to consolidate his empire's conquests with
subtle authority.
 During his reign, Mahmmud also lacked capable
administration and was unable to establish long-lasting
institutions in his state.
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Muhammad Ghori
 Following Mahmud's death, Ghori ascended to the
Ghazni throne.
 In 1186, he attacked Punjab and captured it from
"Khusro Malik," annexing it to his dominions.
 Recognizing the gravity of the situation, North Indian
Hindu princes formed a confederacy under the command
of Prithvi Raj Chauhan.
 In 1191, Prithvi Raj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori
in the Battle of Tarain near Delhi.
 Again, Muhammad Ghori gathered a massive army and
sent a message to Prithviraj Chauhan, urging him to
become a Muslim and accept his supremacy, but
Chauhan refused.
 Prithvi Raj Chauhan was captured and killed in the 2nd
battle of Tarain in 1192, establishing the first Muslim
kingdom rule over Ajmer in India.
 Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni, leaving his
general Qutubuddin Aibak to continue his conquests in
India. In 1193, Aibak captured Delhi and Meerut.
 Ghori invaded and annexed Jayachandra "Ruler of
Kannauj" in the battle of Chandwar or Ghardawala,
establishing Turkish rule in North India.
First Battle of Tarain (1191 AD)
 Muhammad Ghori captured the fortress of Bhatinda in
East Punjab in 1191, which was on the border of
Prithiviraj Chauhan's domains.
 Prithviraj marched on to Bhatinda, where he met his foe
at Tarain (also known as Taraori), near the ancient town
of Thanesar.
 The Ghurid army begins the battle by launching cavalry
arrows at the Rajput centre. Prithviraj's forces counter-
attack from three sides and dominate the battle, forcing
the Ghurid army to withdraw.
 Meanwhile, Muhammad Ghori has been wounded in a
fight with Prithviraj's brother, Govind Tai.
 In the first battle of Tarain, Prithviraj was successful in
stopping the Ghurid advance towards Hindustan.
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 He chose to retake the fortress of Bhatinda rather than
pursue Ghori's army, either because he did not want to
invade hostile territory or because he misjudged Ghori's
ambition.
Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD)
 Prithviraj's gesture was repaid by Ghori, who re-attack
Prithviraj had called his banners but was hoping to buy
time because his banners (other Rajputs under him or
his allies) had not arrived.
 Ghori learned of this and deceptively sent a letter to
Prithviraj requesting a truce, and as we expected, had
requested that Ghauri's brother be turned over to Ghori.
 Before the next day, Ghori attacked the Rajput army
before dawn. Rajputs were known for fighting from
sunrise to sunset.
 Despite their ability to quickly form formations, they were
defeated by a surprise attack before sunrise. The Rajput
army was eventually defeated, and Prithviraj was
captured and executed.
Rajput Uprising
 Between 1193 and 1198 A.D., there were numerous
Rajput mutinies, which Qutb-ud-din-Aibak defeated and
brought many regions under his control.
 North India experienced the disunity between Rajput
states in the 12th century that was evident during the
Ghaznavid raids in the 11th century.
 The Cahmanas or Chauhans were a powerful state
during this period. It attempted to expand its territory to
include Delhi, Mathura, Gujarat, Rajputana, and other
areas.
 In 1151 CE, the Chauhan king Vigraharaj conquered
Chittor and also Delhi from the Tomar monarchs, and
attempted to annex the area between Delhi and Hansi,
which was a disputed zone between the Tomars and the
Ghaznavids.
 The Chauhans had to deal with Ghaznavid raids.
 Muhammad of Ghori established Delhi as the capital.
Battle of Chandawar (1194 AD)
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 In 1194, Muhammad of Ghor fought against Jaichand of
Kannauj of the Gahadavala dynasty in the Battle of
Chandawar.
 It was held in Chandawar (modern Chandawal near
Firozabad on the Yamuna River near Agra).
 With the victory in this battle, Muhammad gained control
of much of northern India.
 The battle was fiercely fought until Jaichand was killed
and his army was routed.
Conquest of Bengal and Bihar
 Qutab-ud-Din Aibak assassinated Gujarati King
Bhindev. He was defeated at first, but in the next battle,
he defeated Bhimdev and conquered Gujarat.
 His next target was Bundelkhand, which was ruled by
the Chandel Rajputs.
 He also defeated them and seized control of
Bundelkhand.
 In 1197, Muhammad Khilji, a slave of Muhammad Ghori,
launched attacks on Bihar and Bengal.
 Ghori seized control of Bengal and Bihar, and Khilji was
appointed viceroy.
Ghurid Forces and Later Campaigns
 One of the greatest features of the Ghurid forces was
their central command under an able leader. Since
Central and West Asian warriors descended from
nomadic steppe tribes whose survival depended on how
fast they could ride to hunt down their prey, they were
always ready for battle and could move large forces
quickly.
 Their Central Asian horses were also superior, allowing
their cavalry to launch sudden attacks, crush the enemy,
and withdraw in a flash; a highly effective battle tactic.
 In comparison to the Rajput army, their equipment was
lighter, and the chain of command was more efficiently
organised. Their well-prepared army could move quickly
and invade without allowing the enemy time to prepare.
 The Second Battle of Tarain established the Ghurid rule
in India with the chief Rajput ruler Prithviraj being
Page 58
beaten and Delhi captured for further incursions into the
Indian subcontinent.
 Soon after, Turkic Ghurid forces conquered much of
Northern India, including important cities such as
Meerut and Ajmer. Muhammad Ghori returned to his
Afghan stronghold to assist his brother in consolidating
the west.
 He left Delhi in the hands of his slave general Aibak,
while another of his generals, Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar
Khalji, continued east and captured Bengal and its
surrounding regions.
 In 1194 CE, Ghurid forces under the command of Aibak
also defeated Jayachand of Kannauj, the last
independent king of the famous Gahadavala Dynasty
which ruled parts of present-day Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar.
 In the meantime, Mohammad Ghori was busy with
several campaigns against the Khwarazm Empire. His
elder brother died in 1202 CE, leaving him to return to
Ghor immediately where he was crowned sultan by the
nobles. After his ascension to the throne, he continued
facing several assaults from the Khwarazm Empire
rulers.
Coin of Muhammad Ghori

Death of Muhammad Ghori
 Muhammad Ghori lived through constant warfare, and
after ascending to the throne in 1202 CE, Ghor itself was
threatened by the Khwarazm Empire.
 In 1203/1204 CE, a severe defeat encouraged some of
his Indian counterparts to rise in revolt.
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 In 1206 CE, he brutally suppressed a revolt from the
Ghakkars or Khokkars, a martial community of Punjab,
and left Indian affairs under the able leadership of his
slave general Aibak.
 While returning to Afghanistan, somewhere in the Punjab
region, in his camp, he was supposedly murdered by this
same Khokkar community, though, it has also been
conjectured that he might have been assassinated by a
rival Islamic sect.
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The Delhi Sultanate
Introduction
The Delhi Sultanate was a 320-year-long Islamic empire
based in Delhi that ruled over large parts of South Asia.
Following the Ghurid dynasty's invasion of the
subcontinent, the Delhi Sultanate was ruled by five
dynasties in succession: the Mamluk dynasty (1206–
1290), the Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), the Tughlaq
dynasty (1320–1414), the Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451),
and the Lodi dynasty (1451-1526). It occupied large
areas of modern-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, as
well as parts of southern Nepal. In this article, we will
discuss The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 AD) which will
be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.
Slave/Mamluk Dynasty (Ilbari Turks) (1206-1526
AD)
Mamluk Dynasty Boundary Extent

 Mamluk means "owned" and refers to a prominent
military aristocracy that developed in the Islamic Empire
of the Abbasid Caliphate in the 9th century AD.
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 Despite the fact that they are slaves, their masters place
a high value on them.
 The three major Sultans of the time were Qutb-ud-din
Aibak, Shams-ud-din Iltutmush, and Ghiyas-ud-din
Balban.
 Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the first ruler of the Slave dynasty,
reigned from 1206 to 1210.
 Iltumish was the next capable ruler who ruled from
1211 to 1236.
 The slave dynasty was able to acquire a good foothold
and establish itself as an important kingdom under his
powerful leadership.
 Ghiyasuddin Balban was the slave dynasty's last
effective emperor who ruled from 1266 to 1286.
 He paid close attention to governance in his kingdom.
The army was well-trained in the use of armaments, and
manufacturing of guns and other war weapons.
Important Rulers of the Mamluk Dynasty
Qutb-ud-Din Aibak (1206-1210 AD)
 Qutubuddin Aibak was an Indian general in the Ghurid
army who lived between 1150 and 1210 CE.
 When Muhammad Ghori died in 1206, Aibak fought for
control of Ghurid territories in northwestern India with
another former slave-general, Taj al-Din Yildiz.
 Aibak had to deal with numerous revolts by Rajputs and
other Indian chiefs.
 Aibak was succeeded by Aram Shah, and then by his
son-in-law Iltutmish, who transformed India's loosely
held Ghurid territories into the powerful Delhi
Sultanate.
 Aibak is best known for commissioning the Delhi Qutb
Minar and the Ajmer Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra.
Iltutmish (1211 - 1236 AD)
 Iltutmish was a slave of the Sultan of Delhi,
Qutubuddin Aibak.
 He was eventually purchased at a phenomenal price by
Qutubuddin Aibek in Delhi.
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 Within a decade, he rose to become amir-e-shikar and
son-in-law of his master.
 Soon, he became governor of the iqtas of Gwalior and
Baran (Bulandshahar).
 In 1206, he was one of Aibek's most dependable
lieutenants, commanding Badaun.
 The Turkish nobility of Delhi did not support Aram
Shah's hereditary succession as he was an inept and
unpopular ruler.
 They invited Iltutmish of Badaun to succeed them as
Sultan.
 Aram Shah refused to abdicate but was defeated and
dethroned in 1211 by Iltutmish.
 He finished the Qutb Minar, which Qutb al-din
Aibak had begun.
 In 1231, he erected the Sultan Ghari funerary
monument in memory of his eldest son Nasiruddin, who
died two years earlier
 His tomb was situated in Mehrauli's Qutub complex.
Razia Sultana
 Razia was born to a Turkic slave, Delhi Sultan
Shamsuddin Iltutmish. She was Iltutmish's daughter
and most likely his firstborn child.
 She was named as Raziyyat-ud-din, Razia Begum or
Sultana Razia. She was the first and the last woman
among the Muslims as well as the Hindus to occupy the
throne of Delhi.
 Razia was known as a good archer and horse rider when
she turned 13 due to her father's training, and she
frequently accompanied her father in his military
endeavors.
 When Iltutmish was gone in the assault on Gwalior, he
gave Razia control of Delhi, and when he returned, he
was so impressed with Razia's performance that he
chose Razia as his successor.
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban
 Balban, like his master Iltutmish, was born into a
Turkish family.
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 He was abducted by the Mongols when he was young
and sold to Khwaja Jamal-ud-din, a slave dealer.
 Iltutmish was so pleased by Balban's knowledge and
talent that he enrolled him in the legendary army of
the forty slaves during his stay in Delhi.
 Balban was raised to the position of Amir-i-Shikar (Lord
of the Hunt) under the reign of Raziya Sultana.
 In the beginning, he was devoted to Raziya. Later, he
teamed up with the nobles and successfully removed
Raziya Sultana from the throne of Delhi.
 The succeeding Sultan, Bahram Shah, rewarded him
with the Jagir of Rewari and Hansi in exchange for his
loyalty.
 He was a kingmaker and he played a role in the
deposition of Masud and the ascension of Nasir-ud-din
Mahmud to the throne of Delhi.
Administration of Mamluk Dynasty
 Mamluk inherited their administrative system from
the Ayyubid kingdom and largely remained unchanged.
 The sultan was the head of state, with powers and
responsibilities that included issuing and enforcing
specific legal orders and general rules.
 He can declare war, levy taxes for military campaigns,
and ensure the proportionate distribution of food
supplies throughout the sultanate.
 The Mamluk dynasty followed the Iqta System.
 It was a land distribution and administrative
system developed during the Iltutmish time.
 Instead of paying soldiers with cash and food, Iltutmish
began granting lands to army officials in order to meet
the Iqta requirement.
 The ustadar was the Sultan's chief of staff, in charge of
planning the royal court's daily operations, and
managing the Sultan's personal budget.
Mamluk Dynasty - Decline
 Muiz-ud-din Muhammad Qaiqabad, the final sultan of
the Slave dynasty and the grandson of Balban ruled
from 1287 to 1290.
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 When he ascended to the throne, he was only eighteen
years old. His wazir had entirely taken over his mind.
 He neglected all state affairs because he was still young
at the time and the state's government became
disorganized.
 He suffered a paralytic stroke after four years and was
later slain by a Khalji chief in 1290.
 Mongol invasions regularly harmed the Mamluk
dynasty. These invasions weaken the Mamluks.
 The other reasons for the decline were the internal strife
among the Mamluk dynasty's members which harmed
the sultanate's long-term stability.
 Many of the rulers were too weak to lead the kingdom for
lengthy periods of time.
 As a result, the slave dynasty came to an end with the
death of Qaiqabad. The Khilji dynasty succeeded the
slave dynasty.
The Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD)
 Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji was the first Sultan of the Khilji
dynasty and ruled for six years from 1290 to 1296.
 At the age of 70, he assassinated the last descendant of
the Slave Dynasty and declared himself Sultan of Delhi
Sultanate.
 He was slain by his nephew Alauddin Khalji and
ascended the throne.
 Following Alauddin Khilji's death, Malik Kafur installed
his 6-year-old son Shihabuddin on the throne of the
Delhi Sultanate.
 Later on, Malik Kafur was also slain by the nobles.
 Mubarak Shah, another son of Alauddin, was the acting
regent over his younger brother. He toppled the young
prince and took the kingdom for himself.
 Mubarak, a 17-year-old boy, was a slave to his own
passions and orgies.
 All of his father's market reforms crumbled and
widespread corruption spread throughout Delhi.
 After him, Nasir-ud-Din Khusrau Shah came and he
ended the Khilji dynasty
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Important Rulers of Khalji Dynasty
Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji (1290-1296 AD)
 Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji was the founder of the Khilji
Dynasty.
 He was also known by the name of Malik Firuz.
 He began his career as a Mamluk dynasty officer and
rose to prominence under Sultan Muizzuddin
Qaiqabad.
 He was recognised as a mild-mannered, humble, and
friendly monarch by the common people.
 To avoid clashes with the old Turkic nobles of the
imperial capital Delhi, he reigned from Kilokhri (near
Delhi) for the first year of his reign.
 Except for a dervish Sidi Maula, who was murdered for
supposedly plotting to depose him, he was generous with
the rebels.
 Jalal-ud-din was slain by his nephew Ali Gurshasp, who
became Alauddin Khalji and ascended the throne.
Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316 AD)
 Alauddin Khilji was the nephew and son-in-law of his
predecessor Jalaluddin Khilji.
 After Jalaluddin deposed the Mamluks and became
Sultan of Delhi, Alauddin was awarded the title of Amir-
i-Tuzuk.
 Following Firoz Khilji's death in 1296 AD, Ali
Gurshap declared himself sultan of Manikpur under the
name Allaudin Khilji.
 He solidified his dominance in Delhi after executing
Jalaluddin's sons in Multan.
 He defeated the Mongols near the Ravi riverbed in 1306,
and thereafter ransacked the Mongol territory in
modern-day Afghanistan.
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 Allauddin Khilji extended the Delhi Sultanate's
territory to the extreme of north and south.
 His empire stretched from the Indus to Bengal, and from
the Himalayas to the Vindhyas.
 During his south expedition, he reached up to
Rameshwaram and defeated most of the Southern
kingdoms.
 Yamin-ul-Khilafat, Nasir-e-amir-ul-momini, and
Sikander-e sani were among his many titles.
Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah Khilji (1316-1319 AD)
 Mubarak ascended the throne as Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak
Shah, after Alauddin Khilji.
 Mubarak Shah was the son of Alauddin, who became
acting regent over his younger brother.
 To gain cheap publicity, he released 17 thousands of
inmates and removed all of his father's taxes and fines
as soon as he became Sultan.
 He had loose morals, immoral behaviour, and a
sensuous lifestyle that made him unpopular with the
people.
 He gave the soldiers a six-month pay advance and
dispersed the awards randomly.
 As a result, wine began to flow in Delhi, despite his
father's prohibition.
 All of his father's market reforms crumbled like a
building, and widespread corruption spread throughout
Delhi.
Nasir-ud-Din Khusrau Shah
 Nasir-ud-Din Khusrau Shah was raised to the status of
a minister by Mubarak and became the new ruler.
 He was a Hindu converted to Islam but he took off
his religious garb, and unfollowed the principles of the
Quran.
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 He also ignored the women in the royal court and
murdered the children.
 He took revenge for his forceful conversion by
eliminating the whole of the Khalji dynasty.
Reforms During Khalji Dynasty
 Various administrative, market, military and revenue
reforms took place during this time and most of them
were done by Alauddin Khilji.
 The sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages and
intoxicants were made illegal in and around Delhi.
 Alauddin seized a large number of jagirs and estates and
stopped all pensions and allowances. The state canceled
all religious endowments and land grants (waqf and
inam).
 He believed in the divine right theory and distinguished
between religion and politics.
 He took a number of steps to avoid rebellions, including
limiting matrimonial alliances among nobles, appointing
spies to keep an eye on them, preventing secret
gatherings and parties, and prohibiting ulemas from
interfering with administration.
 Alauddin Khilji started the system of paying warriors in
cash.
 He established an intricate intelligence network to collect
information on black-marketing and hoarding in order to
limit the cost of critical commodities.
 He kept a large and powerful standing army.
 He instituted a system of horse branding (dagh) and
the keeping of a complete military registration.
 He devised a scientific method for measuring land and
calculating land revenue.
 Non-muslims were forced to pay jaziya.
Art and Architecture During Khalji Dynasty
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 Early Indo-Mohammedan architecture was introduced
by Alauddin Khalji in India, a style and construction
effort that flourished during the Tughlaq dynasty.
 The Alai Darwaza, the southern doorway of the Qutb
complex enclosure, the Idgah at Rapri, and the Jamat
Khana Masjid in Delhi are among the constructions
completed during the Khalji era.
 The Alai Darwaza, which was finished in 1311, was
added to the Qutb Minar
 Monumental inscriptions in Perso-Arabic date back to
the Khalji period.
 Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlvi both present in
the court of Alauddin Khilji.
End of Khalji Dynasty
 The Khalji dynasty came to an end in 1320, when the
last Khalji emperor, Qutub-ud-din Omar, was
assassinated by his own general Khusraw Khan, after
only four years of reign.
 The Amirs did not want Khusraw Khan to become the
Sultan's successor.
 With the help of another general, Ghazi Malik, Khusraw
Khan was caught and beheaded.
 Ghazi Malik became the next Sultan and changed his
name to Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq.
 The beginning of the third dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate
began with the accession of power as the new sultan.
The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD)
 The Tughlaq Dynasty was of Turkish origin, and the
family religion was Muslim. Ghazi Tughlaq succeeded to
the throne in 1321 and was given the title Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq.
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 The Tughlaqs were able to maintain their rule for a long
time because they had strong allies such as Turks,
Afghans, and South Asian Muslim warriors.
 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq founded the Tughlaq dynasty in
India. The Tughlaq Dynasty was marked by torture,
cruelty, and rebellions, which resulted in the dynasty's
territorial reach rapidly disintegrating after 1335 AD.
 The dynasty reached its pinnacle between 1330 and
1335 AD, during a military campaign led by Muhammad
Bin Tughlaq.
Tughlaq Empire
Rulers of Tughlaq Dynasty
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik (1320-1325
AD)
 He established the Tughlaq dynasty. His father was a
Turk, and his mother was a Punjabi Jat woman.
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 He fortified the defences of the North-Western frontier to
counter Mongol invasions.
 His son, Fakhr-ud-din Muhammad Jauna Khan,
defeated Prataparudra-Deva II, the Kakatiya ruler of
Warangal.
 He established the city of Tughlaqabad.
 He put down Ghiyasuddin Bahadur's rebellion in
Bengal. In 1325, while returning from Bengal, he died as
a result of the collapse of a wooden pavilion.
 According to some historians, he died as a result of a
plot hatched by his son Jauna Khan because the
pavilion was built by the royal architect Mir Imard
Ahmad.
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-1361 AD)
 In AD 1325, Jauna Khan succeeded his father as
Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
 He was one of the most knowledgeable scholars of his
time. He spoke Arabic and Persian and was well-versed
in philosophy, astronomy, logic, mathematics, and
physical science.
 The Sultan maintained good relations with foreigners,
and the Chinese ruler sent an envoy to him.
 Toghan Timur (AD 1341) came to seek permission to
rebuild Buddhist monasteries destroyed during the
critical expedition in the Himalayan region.
 In 1347, the sultan granted permission and dispatched
Ibn Batutah to the court of the Chinese emperor.
 Ibn Batutah was a Moroccan traveller. In 1333, he
arrived in India and was appointed as the chief Qazi of
Delhi by Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
Firoz Tughlaq (1351-1388 AD)
 He was born in 1309 and succeeded his cousin
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq as Sultan of Delhi.
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 From 1320 to 1412 AD, he was the third ruler of the
Tughlaq dynasty that ruled over Delhi. He ruled from
1351 to 1388 AD.
 He used to pay his army in kind, i.e. land, rather than
cash.
 The British dubbed him the "Father of the Irrigation
Department" because of the numerous gardens and
canals he built, such as the Canal connecting Yamuna
to Hissar, the Canal connecting Sutlej to Ghaggar, and
the Canal connecting Ghaggar to Firozabad.
 Taxes imposed under Firoz Shah Tughlaq were Kharaj,
Zakat, Kham, Jaziya.
Later Tughlaqs
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq Shah II
 Firuz Tughlaq was succeeded by one of his grandsons,
Tughlaq Shah, who took the title Ghiasuddin Tughluq II
(1388-89 A.D.).
 He was beheaded within a year of his accession due to
court intrigue.
 During the next five years, three Sultans-Abu Bakr,
Muhammad Shah, and Humayun titled Alauddin
Sikander Shah-ascended to the throne.
Abu Bakr Shah (1389-90 AD)
 After the assassination of Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq II (who
had succeeded Sultan Feroze Shah Tughluq), Abu Bakr
became ruler of the Tughlaq empire.
 However, his uncle, Muhammad Shah, wanted to be
ruler as well and fought Abu Bakr for control of the
throne.
 In August 1390, Abu Bakr was defeated, and
Muhammad Shah succeeded him as king, reigning from
1390 to 1394.
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 Abu Bakr was imprisoned in Meerut fort after his defeat
and died soon after.
Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Tughlaq (1390-94 AD)
 Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad ruled for about four years,
from 1390 to 1394. His first mission was to crush Abu
Bakr and his followers.
 When the Hindus of Etawah, led by Narsing,
Sarvadharan, and Bir Bhan, rose up in revolt in 1392,
Islam Khan was dispatched to crush them.
 Nasiruddin Mahmud bestowed the title of Malik-us-
Sharq on Malik Sarvar. In Jaunpur, Sarvar established
the Sharqi dynasty.
 When Sultan Abu Bakr Shah Tughluq ascended to the
throne of the Tughlaq Empire, Muhammad Shah, his
uncle, was opposed to him and fought Abu Bakr for
control of the throne.
 Abu Bakr was eventually defeated, and Muhammad
Shah succeeded him as king, reigning from 1390 to
1394.
End of Tughlaq Dynasty
 Muhammad Bin Tughlaq ruled India for 26 years. He
was known for his daring projects.
 Many believe he was born ahead of his time because
most of his ventures were based on innovative ideas but
failed due to lack of cooperation from people.
 Some of his significant ventures included the relocation
of the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, the introduction
of token currency, invasions of Khurasan and parts of
China, and so on.
 During his tenure, the state's revenue plummeted. In
1351, he was succeeded by his nephew Feroz Shah
Tughlaq, whose successful reign lasted the next 37
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years. He not only dismissed but also executed the
majority of the nobles close to his predecessor.
 Following his death in 1388, the dynasty was unable to
produce a competent ruler. His favourite grandson,
whom he had groomed to be his heir, died while he was
still alive.
 Civil war broke out even in Feroz Shah's final years and
lasted through the regimes of his successors Ghiyath-
ud-din Tughluq Shah, Abu Bakr Shah, Muhammad
Shah, Mahmud Tughlaq, and Nusrat Shah.
 During Amir Taimur's invasion of 1398, the dynasty's
rule was at its lowest point.
 However, the dynasty's ultimate demise occurred in
1413, when Khizar Khan, the former governor of Multan,
became Sultan of Delhi and inaugurated the Sayyid
Dynasty.
The Sayyid Dynasty
 The Sayyid dynasty succeeded the Tughlaq dynasty as
the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and governed
the Sultanate until the Lodhi dynasty displaced them.
 The rulers of the Sayyid dynasty claimed descent from
the prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatima
and son-in-law Ali. This claim is supported by Tarikh-i-
Mubarak shahi written by Yahya Sirhindi.
 From 1414 to 1451, they reigned the country for 37
years. This dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan who
served as Governor of Multan under Firuz Shah
Tughlaq.
 With the death of Mubarak Shah, the second ruler of the
dynasty, a decline of the Sayyid dynasty was fostered.
 Muhammad Shah and Alauddin Alam Shah were weak
monarchs who ultimately were replaced by Bahlol
Lodhi.
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 Bahlul Lodhi invaded Delhi and Hamid Khan, the
Sayyid wazir, had joined hands with Lodhi and helped
end the Sayyid dynasty by putting him on the throne of
the Delhi Sultanate.
Lodi Dynasty
 The Lodi dynasty was an Afghan dynasty that ruled
the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 to 1526.
 It was the fifth and final dynasty of the Delhi
Sultanate, founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi.
 Bahlol Lodi acted wisely and took advantage of Sayyed
ruler's weak position by further capturing Punjab before
entering Delhi.
 In 1451, he seized control of India from the throne of
Delhi, assuming the title "Bahlol Shah Ghazi." His
accession ended the Sharqi dynasty.
 On July 15, 1489, Bahlol Lodhi was succeeded by his
second son Sikander Lodhi, who was engaged in a power
struggle with his elder brother Barbak Shah.
 Sikandar Lodhi was a fanatical Sunni ruler who
destroyed Indian temples in Mathura and Naga Port. He
imposed Jaziya on Hindus in order to demonstrate
Islam's supremacy.
 Sikandar Lodi attempted to conquer Gwalior fort five
times but was defeated each time by Raja Man Singh.
 After a succession war with his elder brother Jalal-ud-
Din, he died in 1517 and was succeeded by his son,
Ibrahim Khan Lodi. They were constantly at odds.
Delhi Sultanate (Administration, Economy,
& Society)
Administration
 During the Sultanate of Delhi, all administrative
decisions were made in accordance with Muslim laws,
also known as Shariat or Islamic laws.
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 The Sultanate was divided into lqtas (regions). The
leader of iqtas is known by several names,
including Muqti, Wali, and Nazim.
 The provinces were divided into six sections, each led by
a shiqdar, with the main function of maintaining law
and order and protecting people from zamindar
oppression, as well as performing military duties.
 The shiqs were further subdivided into parganas, each
with its own set of officials.
 The state got five main types of revenue, according to the
Shariyat, these were Uchar, Kharaj, Jaziya, Jakaq,
Khamas.
 The Sultan used to convene at least twice a week to
hear complaints about state officials. Qazi-i-
Mumalik used to consult with the Sultan on legal
matters.
 The central administration of the Delhi Sultanate
followed a very systematic and well-planned
administration procedure. Some important posts during
the Delhi sultanate were:
 Sultan - was the head of state and had unrestricted
power in all areas of state activity.
 Naib - held a position comparable to that of the Sultan.
 Wazir - state's Prime Minister and oversaw the financial
department.
 Diwan-i- Risalat – Department of Religious Affairs.
 Ariz-i-Mumalik oversaw the army. Each soldier's
descriptive role was kept in his office.
 The Iqtadari were a distinct type of land distribution and
administrative system that developed during the
Sultanate of Iltutmish.
 The entire empire was divided into several large and
small tracts of land called Iqtas under this system.
Economy
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 During the Delhi Sultanate, trade expanded
dramatically. There was a currency system that was
based on the silver tanka.
 Roads were constructed to connect Delhi, Lahore, and
Sonargaon in Bengal.
 A communication system also emerged, with a post relay
system created, with horse riders carrying the post.
 New industries such as metal work, paper making, and
textile were developed in Delhi, Lahore, Multan, and
Lakhnauti.
 Textile trade was conducted with China and West Asia,
where horses, ivory, and spices were substituted for
textiles.
 The state's main source of revenue was land revenue
known as Kharaj. This referred to all non-Muslim taxes,
including Jaziya.
 Alauddin Khilji increased the land tax from one-sixth to
one-half of the gross produce. This was a type of
capitation tax imposed on all Hindus.
 Zakat is the name given to the tax collected from
wealthy Muslims in order to assist poor Muslims, known
as Khams or Ghaninah.
 During this time, the cotton textile and silk industries
flourished.
 During the reign of the Delhi Sultans, paper-making
technology developed by the Chinese and learned by the
Arabs was introduced to India.
Social Life
 Society was in transition during the Delhi Sultanate.
People were divided into Hindus and Muslims based on
their religion. Muslims were divided once more into two
groups: nobility and chiefs.
 Nobles lived luxurious and lavish life due to their
position and financial situation. Warrior nobles
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gradually transformed into cultural patrons. Political ties
between Turkish rulers and Hindu Rajputs were
common at the time.
 Qazis and Mujiis were judicial functionaries who
assisted the nobles. Mehtasib used to monitor Muslims'
adherence to Shariah law.
 There was no discernible change in the Hindu society
structure. During the Delhi Sultanate, the Purdah
system spread. Women were hidden in the upper
classes, but they had more freedom in the lower classes.
 Customs such as sati and the prohibition on widow
remarriage was established at the time. The only
advantage was that widows could inherit their
husbands' property.
 There were still disparities in social and cultural ideas
and beliefs. This created a tense environment, resulting
in decreased mutual understanding and cultural
adjustments.
Art & Culture
 The Turks introduced the use of arch and the dome on a
large scale in their architecture.
 The arch and dome eliminated the need for a large
number of pillars to support the roof, allowing the
construction of large halls with good visibility.
 They combined geometrical and floral designs with
panels of inscriptions containing Quranic verses. The
combination of these decorative elements was known
as Arabesque.
 Qutub Minar was built by Qutub-ud-Din Aibak and
completed by Iltutmish. It is a 73-meter-high tower
which was built in the memory of Sufi Saint Qutub-ud-
Din Aibak.
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Qutub Minar
 The Qutub Minar complex includes the Quwat-us-Islam
Mosque, a 7-meter-high iron pillar, Iltutmish's tomb,
Alai-Darwaza, and the Alai Minar.
 Alauddin Khilji constructed a new fort and the imperial
township of Siri. He built the Mahal Hazar Satun, the
palace of a thousand pillars, the Hauz-i-Illahi, a water
tank, and the Jamait Khana mosque at the Dargah of
Nizamuddin Auliya in Siri.
 Lodhi Garden in Delhi is one of the finest examples of
Indo-Islamic architecture containing the Tomb of
Sikandar Lodi, Shisha Gumbad and Bara Gumbad.
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The Mughals
 The Mughals emanated in Central Asia and were
descended from the Mongol ruler Changez Khan and
Timur (Tamburlaine), the great conquistador of Asia.
They were exceedingly proud of their pedigree, and it
was the remembrance of Timur's raids on India in the
fourteenth century that prompted Babur to invade.
 The Mughal dynasty constructed a magnificent empire
in India. It was an illustrious period of Indian history.
This dynasty was integrated and governed India for more
than 300 years. 'Mughal's the Persian inscription for the
'Mongols.
 The Mughal dynasty yielded a rare sequence of proficient
rulers. The dynasty was notable for its effective control
over much of India, for its administrative organization,
and for the potential of its rulers who retained a record
of unusual talent, through seven generations.
 There were some distinctions that set this dynasty
different from the rest of the others. One such was the
endeavour of the Mughals to integrate Hindus and
Muslims into a united Indian empire.
Babur
 Reckoned as one of the exceptional Mughal
commanders, Babur succeeded in ensuring the
dynasty's position in Delhi after a string of sultanates
failed to strengthen their seats and his regime went on
to rule for over 300 years in India.
 In 1526, Babur attained victory in the Battle of Panipat
against Ibrahim Lodhi. The Battle of Panipat featured
the foundation of the Mughal hegemony of India. He
seized Delhi and founded the greatest regime in north
India—The Mughal Dynasty.
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 The Mughal Empire was founded by Timurid prince
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur. He was the heir of
Timur from his father's side and Genghis Khan from his
mother's side. He took over Fargana at a very young age.
He confronted several wars and was so savage on the
battlefield that he was labelled as a 'tiger'.
 Daulat Khan, the most significant noble of Punjab, who
was dissatisfied with Ibrahim Lodhi, invited Babur to
capture India and expel Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle
of Panipat in 1526.
 He embarked on four expeditions to India to conquer it
between the years 1519 and 1523.
 Babur was the champion of a highly developed system of
warfare which was the outcome of a scientific synthesis
of the tactics of the assorted Central Asian people.
Babur overly used gunpowder in wars and on the other
side, Ibrahim fought with traditional methods ignorant
of modern ways.
 Babur invaded Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize
Agra.
 Babur called himself ―Emperor of Hindustan‖.
 On December 26, 1530, Babur died at Agra aged 40. His
body was first laid at Arambagh in Agra but was later
taken to Kabul, where it was laid to rest.
Babur‟s Military Conquests
 Babur, the early Mughal emperor, was born in present-
day Uzbekistan and became commander of Kabul in
Afghanistan. From there, he seized the kingdom of the
Lodi Afghans in northern India in 1526 and founded a
dynasty that was to rule for three centuries. Babur was
a passive and down-to-earth man whose memoirs, the
Baburnama, make intriguing reading
 From 1504, Babur was the emperor of Kabul which is
now a part of Afghanistan. He quelled Kabul which was
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an important citadel in Central Asia. It took him 12
years to progress into the heart of India. He was
captivated by India for its enormous wealth. During that
period, Ibrahim Lodi (the Sultan on the Delhi throne)
was shunned. There was no political stability.
 While the battle of Panipat marked the defeated titular
Sultan of Delhi, the Battle of Kanhwa resulted in the
defeat of the powerful Rajput confederacy.
 All of them yearned that Babur would leave India after
defeating Ibrahim Lodi and ravaging the country.
 His motives were somewhat different. Babur turned to
India to appease his appetite for overpowering. Also, he
regarded India as his territory since it had been
trounced by his ancestor, Timur.
Rana Sangha and Babur
 Babur was summoned by Rana Sangha, the ruler of
Mewar, Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, and
Alam Khan, Ibrahim's uncle, to defeat Ibrahim Lodi and
terminate the Great Delhi Sultanate.
 Babur faced sturdy resistance to his expansion plans
from the Rajput king Rana Sangha. Rana Sangha, along
with rulers of Marwar, Amber, Gwalior, Ajmer, and
Chanderi, as also Sultan Mahmood Lodi, whom Rana
Sangha had acknowledged as ruler of Delhi, met Babur
in a decisive contest at Kanhwa, a village near Agra, on
March 16, 1527.
 The purpose was to contain the imposition of another
foreign yoke on India. Babur accomplished victory over
them by using similar plots as in Panipat. Another
crucial reason for the setback of Indian forces was the
non-joining of assorted Afghan chiefs.
Personal Account of Babur
 He was a notable scholar in Arabic and Persian.
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 His mother tongue was Chaghatai Turkic
 Babur was an incredible statesman and a man of solid
achievements.
 He was also an outstanding scholar in Arabic and
Persian languages.
 Turki was his mother tongue and he wrote his memoirs,
Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki language.
 He candidly concedes his failures without suppressing
any facts.
 He was also a naturalist and described the flora and
fauna of India.
Humayun
Humayun: Beginnings, Defeat from Sher Khan,
and Exile
 After just six months of his succession, he seized the
Kalinjar fortress in Bundelkhand.
 He also benefited from his great victory over Afghans.
 In addition to this, he removed Sultan Mahmood Lodhi
from his place at Jaunpur.
 Also, Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was defeated by him.
 Humayun had three brothers Kamran, Askari and
Hindal.
 Humayun thought of dividing his kingdom amongst his
brothers which was a good step but turned into a
disaster for him.
 This created a lot of trouble for him. It was as if a big
blunder which he made, and it hurt his interests and
position.
 Kandahar and Kabul were given to Kamran by Humayun.
 Sambhal was given to Askari and Alwar was given to
Hindal.
 It was then that Humayun defeated Bahadur Shah and
captured Gujarat.
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 For this region, he appointed Askari as the Governor.
However, soon Bahadur Shah took back Gujarat from
Askari, and Askari had fled from that region.
 In the Eastern part, Sher Khan was turning to be more
powerful.
 Humayun thus went there to defeat Sher Khan in the
Battle of Chausa (1539), Khan destroyed the Mughal
army in that battle.
 It was due to this defeat that Humayun had to escape
from there.
 Next, Humayun reached Agra to have a discussion and
negotiation with his brothers.
 In 1540, the Battle of Kanauj, also known as the Battle of
Bilgram or Ganges, took place where Humayun was
defeated by Sher Khan again and had to flee to save his
life..
 It was due to this that Humayun lost his kingdom and
was put to exile for the next 15 years.
Humayun: Life in Exile, Marriage, and his later
life as a Ruler
 During Humayun's wanderings in the deserts of Sindh,
he married Hamida Banu Begum, who was the daughter
of Sheikh Ali Amber Jaini.
 Jaini was the preceptor of Hindal who was Humayun's
younger brother.
 It was on November 23rd, 1542 that Humayun's wife
gave birth to his son, Akbar.
 Amarkot's Hindu Chief who was named Rana Prasad had
made a promise with Humayun to help him to capture
Thatta.
 However, the truth is that Humayun could not capture
Bhakker and therefore left India and began living under
Shah Tahmashp of Persia.
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 Shah of Persia stated that he would help Humayun and
lend him a military power of 14,000 soldiers. However,
there was a condition to it, and that was that Humayun
would confirm himself to Shia creed. Besides, he should
proclaim Shah's name in Khutba. Also, Humayun should
give his Kandhar to Shah on his success.
 In 1545, with the help of the Shah, Humayun captured
Kabul and Kandahar. But he did not cede Kandhar to
Shah.
 Humayun took the help of the Safavid ruler.
 After this, he defeated his younger brothers Askari and
Kamran.
 In 1555 Afghans were conquered by Humayun and the
Mughal empire was recovered by him.
 However, after six months, Humayun died in 1556
because he fell from the stairs of the library.
 Humayun was generous and kind.
 He also wrote poems in the Persian language and loved
paintings.
Humayun and Afghans - Causes of Conflict
 Babur had taken Delhi's throne from the Afghans. As a
result, they were hostile to Humayun.
 Sher Shah Suri was an Afghan as well.
 Sher Shah cemented his authority in Bihar while
Humayun was busy battling Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
 Sher Shah was the proud owner of Chunar's stronghold
and had united the majority of the Afghan nobles under
his banner.
 He assaulted Bengal twice and demanded a large sum of
money from the ruler.
 Humayun knew that subduing Sher Shah was required.
Humayun - Afghan Struggle
 Humayun and Sher Shah met with each other three
times, in Chunar, Chausa, and Kannauj.
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Siege of Chunar (1532)
 Humayun was frightened by Sher Shah's success
in Bengal and Bihar.
 Instead of heading straight to Bengal, where he could
have enlisted the support of Bengal's monarch, Humayun
spent six months besieging the fort of Chunar in Bihar,
which was under Sher Shah's control.
 Sher Shah made a fully voluntary submission after
seeing his weakness, and Humayun captured the fort of
Chunar.
Battle of Chausa (1539)
 For approximately six years, there appeared to be no
major confrontations between Sher Shah and Humayun.
Sher Shah's position grew significantly during this time.
 Humayun travelled to Bengal on the behest of the ruler of
Bengal and spent around eight months there in 1538.
 Sher Shah conquered a number of cities over these eight
months, including Banaras, Sambhal, and others.
Meanwhile, Hindal, Humayun's brother, declared himself
Emperor of Delhi.
 Humayun chose to return from Bengal to Agra. Sher
Shah, however, blocked his way at Chausa, the Bihar-
Uttar Pradesh border.
 For three months, the two armies stood facing each
other. This created tension between both
armies. Mughals were tricked.
 Sher Shah devised a strategy at this point. He stated that
he was going up against a tribal chief who had been
disobeying him.
 In the early hours of June 26, 1539, after marching a few
miles in that direction, he returned unexpectedly in the
night and attacked Humayun's army from three
sides. Humayun was wounded and lost the battle.
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 To save his life, he threw his horse into a river and was
saved from drowning by a water carrier. As a result, Sher
Shah Suri declared himself a Sultan and captured West
Bengal.
Battle of Kannauj (1540)
 Humayun arrived in Agra after his defeat at Chausa and
sought support from his brothers. All of the brothers,
however, were unable to unite.
 Humayun gathered a large army, primarily made up of
young recruits, and marched towards Kannauj.
 Sher Shah has already set up camp in Kannauj and won
this battle. The success of Sher Shah was crucial.
 Humayun escaped and pushed his way to Agra.
 As a result, Humayun had to spend roughly fifteen years
in exile after his defeat at Kannauj, from 1540 to 1554.
 Causes of Defeat
Causes of Defeat of Humayun and Sher Shah‟s
Success
 Humayun's inability to realize the essence
of Afghan authority and lack of organizational skills.
 His brothers were unhelpful and Humayun was unable
to maintain consistent effort.
 Sher Shah's diplomatic capitulation and Humayun's
release of Chunar.
 Humayun wasted most of the time in celebration and
procrastination.
 Sher Shah launched an unexpected attack against
Humayun's troops in Kannauj.
 Humayun's army lacked command cohesion.
Early Activities of Humayun
 At the age of 23, Humayun succeeded Babur in
December 1530. He had to deal with a number of issues
left by Babur.
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 When Humayun ascended to the throne in Agra, the
empire included Kabul and Qandahar, as well
as Badakhshan beyond the Hindukush mountains.
 He had to deal with political insecurity because his vast
empire was not consolidated.
 The treasury was empty because land revenue was not
collected in a systematic manner.
 Kamran, Humayun's younger brother, was in charge of
Kabul and Qandahar and took Punjab forcibly.
 Humayun, who was preoccupied elsewhere and didn't
want to start a civil war, had no choice but to agree.
 Humayun's suzerainty was accepted by Kamran.
 In 1532, he defeated the Afghan forces that had
conquered Bihar and overrun Jaunpur in eastern Uttar
Pradesh at Daurah.
 Humayun besieged Chunar after this victory.
 This fort commanded the land and river route between
Agra and the east, and it was known as the gateway to
eastern India.
 Bahadur Shah of Gujarat's rapid rise to power, as well as
his activities in the areas bordering Agra, had alarmed
him.
Humayun‟s Tussle with Bahadur Shah
 Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, who was the same age
as Humayun, had grown strong enough to threaten him
in the north.
 Bahadur Shah, who ascended to the throne in 1526,
overran and conquered Malwa before moving on to
Rajasthan and besieging Chittor, where he quickly
abridged the Rajput defenders.
 Karanwati, the Rajamata of Mewar, sent Humayun a
rakhi and asked for his help as a brother.
 Humayun went to Chittor, but later changed his mind
and did not attack Bahadur Shah.
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 Chittor was captured by Bahadur Shah after ten days
and freely looted for three days.
 Humayun then proceeded to Mandasor, 60 miles from
Chittor, and checked the route of Bahadur Shah's return.
 Humayun kept his army out of range of Bahadur Shah's
artillery and cut off his supplies.
 Bahadur Shah fled without a fight on the night of April
25, 1535 AD and sought refuge in the fort of Mandu.
 Bahadur Shah fled from Mandu to Champaner, then to
Cambay, and finally to Diu.
 Humayun pursued Bahadur Shah up to Cambay before
returning to besiege the Champaner fort, leaving the
task of pursuing Bahadur Shah to his nobles.
 Humayun appointed his brother Askari as governor of
Gujarat and then returned to Mandu.
 However, Askari failed to manage the affairs of Gujarat
and decided to retire to the Champaner fort and then
to Agra.
 Bahadur Shah took full advantage of the situation and
conquered Gujarat.
 The Mughals lost both Malwa and Gujarat within a year.
The primary reasons for the Mughuls' defeat were
Askari's incompetence and Humayun's neglect of
personal attention to the affairs of Gujarat and Malwa.
 The loss of these two territories lowered Humayun's
prestige.
Sher Shah (Sur Dynasty)
Sher Shah Suri - Background
 At the age of 54, Sher Shah ascended to the throne of
Delhi. Farid was his first name, and his father was a
small Jagirdar in Jaunpur.
 Farid gained valuable administrative expertise when he
was in charge of his father's jagir. Following Ibrahim
Lodi's loss and death, as well as the chaos in Afghan
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affairs, he rose to become one of the most powerful
Afghan Sardar.
 His patron, Bahar Khan, awarded the title of Sher
Khan to him for killing a tiger for services rendered. Sher
Shah was the monarch of the most powerful empire in
north India since Muhammad Bin Tughlaq's reign.
 His reign stretched from Bengal to the Indus, although it
did not include Kashmir.
 His last campaign was against Kalinjar, a powerful fort
that controlled Bundelkhand.
 During the siege, a cannon went off, injuring Sher Shah
severely. After hearing that the fort had been conquered,
he died in 1545.
 Islam Shah, Sher Shah's second son, succeeded him. His
death at a young age, however, sparked a civil war among
his successors.
 This gave Humayun the chance to reclaim the kingdom
in India that he had been looking for.
 In 1555, he fought the Afghans in two bloody wars and
reclaimed Delhi and Agra.
Contribution of Sher Shah Suri
 The term rupee began to be used as the name for
a silver coin with a uniform weight of 178 grains.
 Shah's re-establishment of Sher's law and order
throughout his realm was one of his most significant
efforts.
 He was tough on robbers and dacoits, as well as
zamindars who refused to pay land revenue or violated
government instructions.
 Sher Shah prioritized the promotion of trade and
commerce, as well as the improvement of communication
in his reign.
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 Sher Shah constructed the Grand Trunk Road, which
ran from the Indus River in the west to Sonargaon in
Bengal.
 He also constructed a road from Agra to Jodhpur and
Chittor, which presumably connected to the road leading
to the Gujarat seaports.
 For the convenience of travellers, Sher Shah built a Sarai
at a distance of every two kos (about eight km) on these
roads. The Sarai was a fortified lodging or inn where
travellers could pass the night and also keep their goods
in safe custody.
 The news service, or dak-chowki, was also staged in the
Sarais.
 Sher Shah kept himself updated on the happenings in
his enormous empire through these.
 Goods manufactured in Bengal or imported from outside
paid customs duty at the boundary of Bengal and Bihar
at Sikrigali, and goods arriving from West and Central
Asia paid customs duty at the Indus.
 No one was allowed to levy customs on any other
highways, ferries, or towns.
 Sher Shah held the local village headmen (muqaddams)
and zamindars liable for any losses incurred by the
merchant on the roadways.
 Sher Shah was particularly concerned with the land
revenue system, the army, and the justice system. Sher
Shah built a powerful army to rule his large dominion.
 Every soldier's description record (Chehra) was kept, and
his horse was branded with the imperial sign to prevent
inferior horses from being substituted.
 During his lifetime, he erected a mausoleum for himself
at Sasaram, which is considered a masterpiece of
architecture.
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 Sher Shah also established a new city near Delhi on the
Yamuna's bank.
 The Old Fort (Purana Qila) and the beautiful mosque
within it are the only survivors.
 Sher Shah was also a benefactor of intellectual persons.
 During his reign, some of the finest Hindi masterpieces,
such as Malik Muhammad Jaisi's Padmavat, were
completed.
Akbar (1556-1605 AD)
Administration of Akbar - History
 During the decade following the conquest of Gujarat,
Akbar took the time to examine the empire's
administrative problems.
 After Islam Shah's death, the administration system
devised by Sher Shah had become disorganised. As a
result, Akbar had to begin again.
 The system of land revenue administration was one of the
most serious issues that faced Akbar.
 Sher Shah had established a system in which the
cultivated area was measured and a crop rate (ray) was
calculated, determining the peasant's dues crop by crop
on the basis of land productivity.
 Every year, this schedule was converted into a
centralised pricing schedule. Akbar adopted Sher Shah's
administration.
 However, it was soon discovered that fixing a central
schedule of prices frequently resulted in significant
delays and great hardships for the peasantry because the
prices fixed were generally those prevailing at the
imperial court and were higher than those in the
countryside.
 As a result, peasants had to give up a larger portion of
their harvest.
Mansabdari System
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 The Mansabdar was a military unit established by Akbar
as part of the Mughal Empire's administrative system.
Mansab is an Arabic word that means rank or position.
 The system determined a government official's and
military general's rank and status. Every civil and
military officer received a mansab, which determined
their pay and allowances.
 A manasabadar is someone who has a mansab. (which
denotes a role) Mansabdars were military commanders,
high civil and military officers, and provincial governors
in Akbar's mansabdari system.
 Amir denoted mansabdars with a rank of 1,000 or lower,
while Amir-al Kabir (Great Amir) denoted those with a
rank of 1,000 or higher.
 Some great Amirs with more than 5,000 followers were
also given the title of Amir-al Umara (Amir of Amirs).
Organization of Government
 Akbar's major administrative units were the Subhah, the
Pargana, and the Sarkar.
 Subhah was the highest administrative unit, which was
further subdivided into Sarkar. Sarkar (equivalent to
district) was made up of a number of parganas, and a
pargana was the collective administrative unit of a few
villages.
 Subedar was the chief officer of Subhah.
 The faujdar and amalguzar were the sarkar's top
officers. The faujdar was in charge of law and
order, while the amalguzar was in charge of assessing
and collecting land revenue.
 The empire's territories were divided into three
groups: jagir, khalsa, and inam. The income from
khalsa villages went directly to the royal exchequer. The
Inam lands were the properties given to learned and
religious men.
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 The Jagir lands were distributed to nobles and members
of the Royal family, including the queens.
 The Amalguzar was tasked with exercising general
supervision over all types of lands for the purposes of
imperial rules and regulations, as well as the uniform
assessment and collection of land revenue.
 Akbar reorganised the central administrative machinery
around the division of power among various
departments.
Land Revenue System
 The primary source of income for the government was
land revenue. As a result, Akbar paid special attention to
the organisation of the land revenue administration.
 With the assistance of his Diwan (Revenue
Minister), Raja Todar Mal, Akbar implemented
numerous reforms in his revenue department.
 First, the land was measured in 'bighas,' and then all
cultivated land was classified into four divisions: Polaj,
Parauti, Chachar, and Banjar.
 The Polaj land was always cultivated and was never
allowed to fallow;
 The Parauti land was allowed to fallow for a year or
two to recover its strength;
 The Chachar land had to be left fallow for three or four
years; and
 The Banjar land had to be left fallow for five years or
more.
 Then, the total yield of each land was calculated
separately. Fourth, the state's share was set at one-third
of total output.
 Land revenue could be paid in cash or in kind, but cash
was preferred. Loans with low interest rates were made
available to cultivators.
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 In the event of a famine, drought, or other unexpected
disaster, remission was granted, and loans were
advanced to purchase seeds and animals.
 The revenue collectors were instructed to be friendly to
the cultivators and not to oppress them in any way.
 As a result of these measures, the state's revenue
increased significantly, cultivators improved, and the
country prospered.
 The abundance of food also made the common man's life
better and happier than before.
Dahsala System
 Raja Todar Mal established the Dahsala System. Raja
Todar Mal was a successful Diwan who made significant
changes to the revenue system, earning him accolades.
 Seeing his qualities, Akbar appointed him Diwan in
Gujarat in AD 1573, where he measured the entire area
of cultivable land, classified land according to quality,
and fixed the state revenue after extensive calculation
and detailed survey.
 Akbar was very pleased with Raja Todar Mal's success in
Gujarat and ordered that the entire empire be surveyed
in order to fix the state revenue.
 Raja Todar Mal's labour and vast knowledge of the
revenue system brought him fame and name, and the
Dahsala system was implemented in 1580 AD.
Army of Akbar
 Babur's empire did not last long, and the mughal empire
collapsed with Humayun's expulsion, and Akbar's
mughal empire, founded in 1556, proved more stable and
enduring.
 Akbar reorganised the army and instituted a new system
known as the mansabdari system. As a result, the basic
structure of the Mughal army began with Akbar's reign.
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 The Mughal emperors kept a small standing army. They
were only in the thousands. Instead, many of the troops
were supplied by officers known as mansabdars.
 Akbar devised this one-of-a-kind system known as the
Mansabdari system. There was no regimental structure
in the Mughal army.
 In this system, the government employed a military
officer who was in charge of recruiting and maintaining
his quota of horsemen.
Relation with Rajputs - Background
 Akbar's relations with the Rajputs must be viewed
against the backdrop of Mughal policy toward the
country's powerful rajas and zamindars.
 When Humayun returned to India, he pursued a
deliberate policy of attempting to win over these
elements.
 According to Abul Fazl, he entered into matrimonial
relations with them to "soothe the minds of the
zamindars."
 When Jamal Khan Mewati, the cousin of Hasan Khan
Mewati, 'one of the great zamindars of India,' submitted
to Humayun, he married one of his beautiful daughters
himself and married the younger sister to Bairam Khan.
 Over time, Akbar expanded and refined this policy.
 Bhara Mal, the ruler of Amber, had arrived at Akbar's
court in Agra shortly after his accession.
 He had made a good impression on the young king,
because when everyone else was fleeing from a maddened
elephant, the Rajputs under Bhara Mal stood firm.
 When Akbar was on his way to Ajmer in 1562, he learned
that the local Mughal governor was harassing Bhara Mal.
 Bhara Mal paid personal homage to Akbar and sealed the
alliance by marrying his younger daughter, Harkha Bai,
to Akbar.
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Akbar‟s Approach Towards Rajputs
 Babur and Humayun had strained relations with
Rajputs. Only Akbar correctly stated that the Rajput were
a valiant and courageous people who could not be easily
crushed by warfare.
 As a result, he set himself the task of conquering
Rajputs. He entered into a matrimonial alliance with the
Rajputs.
 He began to elevate Rajputs in Mughal service and
treated them on par with Mughal nobility. He granted the
Rajputs religious and political freedom.
 Those who allied with Akbar were largely left in charge of
their kingdoms. When conciliation failed, he returned to
warfare. His carrot-and-stick policy won over the Rajput,
and they became a part of the Mughul empire.
 The Raiputs ruled India prior to the establishment of
Muslim rule. Despite the fact that the Turks and Afghans
established control over a large portion of India, the
Rajputs continued to oppose the Muslims because they
wished to establish a Hindu Empire in India.
 Babur, Akbar's great grandfather, had to wage a bloody
war against the Rajputs in order to establish his
dominance in India.
 It demonstrates that their spirit of independence was still
strong, and that more than three hundred years of
Muslim rule could not dampen their spirit of
independence.
 The first two emperors, Babur and Humayun, were
unable to implement a specific policy against the Raiputs
due to a lack of time or their precarious position.
 But Akbar, a great politician and foresighted ruler,
focused his attention on the Rajputs. He knew that no
one could establish a permanent empire in lndia without
the active support and cooperation of the Raiputs.
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 Akbar's success in India was based not only on his
military prowess, but also on his tolerant policies. Prior
to Akbar, conquering rulers plundered, insulted, and
assassinated the vanquished; but Akbar changed his
policy.
 He decided to treat Hindus and Muslims equally and
adopted the policy of peace and consolation. He refused
to dismiss Hindus as illiterate because they worshipped
idols.
 He fought some fierce battles against the Rajputs, but as
soon as they surrendered or accepted the Mughal
Empire's suzerainty, he gladly established cordial
relations with them and befriended almost all of the
vanquished Rajput rulers.
Rajput Policy of Mughals
Tolerance towards Hindu Religion
 Akbar went to great lengths to gain the Hindus' trust. He
abolished the non-Muslim jizya (poll tax) and the tax on
Hindu pilgrims.
 Sati, the practise of Hindu widows, was also prohibited.
Matrimonial Alliance
 The practise of enslaving war prisoners was also
abandoned. His conciliatory Rajput policy included
matrimonial alliances with Rajput princely families and,
according to Rajput nobles, high positions in the Mughal
court.
 A tolerant religious policy ensured people's cultural and
emotional integration. Before Akbar, many Muslim kings
had married Rajput princesses.
 However, Akbar's broadmindedness was instrumental in
these matrimonial alliances becoming a synthesising
force between two different cultures as he maintained
close relations with the families.
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 In popular accounts, Akbar married Harkha Bhai (also
known as Jodha), the daughter of Raja Bhar Mal (also
known as Bihari Mal) of Amber. He also married Bikaner
and Jaisalmer Rajput princesses.
 Prince Salim, the son of Harkha Bhai, married Raja
Bhagwan Das's daughter. Raja Man Singh, the son of
Bhagwan Das, became Akbar's trusted general.
 Even Rajputs who refused to form matrimonial alliances
received high honours at Akbar's court.
Rajputs Appointed as Officials
 His Rajput policy ensured the empire's services of great
warriors and administrators.
 Raja Todar Mal was a revenue expert who rose to the
position of Diwan. Birbal was Akbar's companion. The
Rajput kingdoms of Mewar and Marwar stood up to the
Mughal empire.
 Rana Udai Singh's son, Rana Pratap Singh, refused to
recognise Akbar's suzerainty and fought against the
Mughals until his death in 1597.
 The last battle between Mughal forces and Rana Pratap
Singh took place in 1576 at Haldighati.
 In Marwar (Jodhpur), the ruler Chandra Sen, son of
Maldeo Rathore, fought against the Mughals until his
death in 1581, despite the fact that his brother fought for
the Mughals.
 Akbar appointed Udai Singh, Chandra Sen's brother, as
ruler of Jodhpur.
 In the beginning, Akbar's capital was in Agra but later on
Akbar's capital was Fatehpur Sikri, which he rebuilt.
 This city is now deserted, but it contains a beautiful
mosque, a magnificent Buland Darwaza, and numerous
other structures.
Akbar‟s Rajput Policy Followed by Successors
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 Akbar's Rajput policy was carried on by his successors,
Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Jahangir, whose mother was
a Rajput princess, married both a Kacchawaha princess
and a Jodhpur princess.
 He also married princesses from the Jaisalmer and
Bikaner families. Jahangir elevated the rulers of each of
these houses to positions of honour.
 The main achievement of Jahangir, however, was the
resolution of the outstanding dispute with Mewar. Rana
Pratap was succeeded by his son, Amar Singh.
 Akbar had sent a series of expeditions against Amar
Singh in order to force him to accept his terms. Jahangir
was sent against him twice, but he had little success.
Jahangir took up the issue vigorously after his accession
in 1605.
 Three campaigns were launched in quick succession, but
they were unable to break the rana's will. Jahangir
himself arrived in Ajmer in 1613 to direct the campaign.
 Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan) was tasked with
invading the mountainous areas of Mewar with a large
army.
 The Mughal army's heavy pressure, the country's
depopulation, and agricultural ruination eventually had
their effect. Some sardars defected to the Mughals, while
many more pressed the rana for peace.
 The rana's son, Karan Singh, who was sent to Jahangir's
court, was warmly welcomed. Jahangir rose from his
throne, embraced him in the darbar, and showered him
with gifts.
 Jahangir did not insist on the rana paying personal
homage to him or entering the royal service in order to
preserve the rana's prestige.
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 Prince Karan was given the rank of 5000, which had
previously been given to the rulers of Jodhpur, Bikaner,
and Amber.
 With a contingent of 1500 sawars, he was to serve the
Mughal emperor. All of Mewar's territories, including
Chittor, were reclaimed.
 However, because of Chittor's strategic importance, it
was agreed that its fortifications would not be repaired.
 Thus, Jahangir completed Akbar's task and strengthened
his alliance with the Rajputs.
Rebellions and Further Expansion - Features
 During this time, the most serious rebellion occurred in
Bengal and Bihar, which extended all the way to
Jaunpur.
 The main cause of the rebellion was the strict
implementation of the dagh system, or branding of the
jagirdars' horses, as well as strict accounting of their
income.
 Some religious divines were dissatisfied with Akbar's
liberal views and his policy of resuming large revenue-
free grants of land that they had obtained, sometimes
illegally.
 Mirza Hakim, the ruler of Kabul and Akbar's half-
brother, also aided the rebellion by threatening to invade
Punjab at a suitable time to assist.
 A large number of Afghans in the east were depressed
over the loss of Afghan power and were ready to join a
rebellion.
 For nearly two years (1580-81), the empire was distracted
by the rebellion, and Akbar found himself in a difficult
and delicate situation.
 Due to local officials' mishandling of the situation, Bengal
and nearly the entire state of Bihar fell into the hands of
the rebels, who proclaimed Mirza Hakim as their ruler.
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 They even persuaded a religious divine to issue a fatwa,
exhorting the faithful to fight against Akbar.
Territorial Expansion
 Akbar began a policy of expanding Mughal territories
after overcoming initial problems and consolidating his
hold on the throne.
 Any expansionist policy meant clashes with various
political powers dispersed across the country.
 The Rajputs, though distributed throughout the
country as autonomous chiefs and kings, had a
significant concentration in Rajputana.
 The Afghans dominated politics primarily in Gujarat,
Bihar, and Bengal. Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur,
Golkonda, and other southern kingdoms were the
major states in the Deccan and South India.
 Despite being held by Mughal factions, Kabul and
Qandahar were opposed to Akbar.
 Akbar began the task of expanding his Empire with a
systematic policy. During Akbar's reign, the Mughal
Empire grew significantly.
 Very little was added to the territory during the reigns of
his successors (Jahangir, Shahjahan, and Aurangzeb).
 The majority of the later additions were made during
Aurangzeb's reign in South and North-East India
(Assam).
Conquest of North and Central India
 In 1559-60, an expedition was sent to capture Gwalior
and Jaunpur. Ram Shah surrendered the Gwalior fort
after a brief conflict.
 Khan Zaman was dispatched to Jaunpur, which was
ruled by Afghans and was easily defeated, and it was
annexed to the Mughal Empire.
 Baz Bahadur was the ruler of Malwa in central
India. The expedition was led by Adham Khan and
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others against Malwa. After being defeated, Baz Bahadur
fled to Burhanpur.
 Following that, in 1564, Garh Katanga or Gondwana, an
independent state in central India ruled by Rani
Durgawati, Dalpat Shah's widow, was conquered. Later,
in 1567, Akbar gave the kingdom to Chandra Shah,
Dalpat Shah's brother.
 During this time, Akbar faced a series of revolts in
central India. The revolt's leader was Abdulah Khan
Uzbeg. He was joined by a group of Uzbeks.
 Khan Zaman and Asaf Khan also rebelled. Akbar was
able to suppress them and consolidate his position with
the help of Munim Khan.
 A long conflict with the nobility, which had begun with
the dismissal of Bairam Khan (1560), had now come to
an end.
 Akbar dealt with the serious crisis using his diplomatic
skills, organisational abilities, and the assistance of some
trusted friends.
Conquest of Western India
Conquest of Rajputana
 Akbar realised that in order to have a stable Empire, he
needed to subjugate the vast tracts of land ruled by
Rajput kings in the neighbouring region of Rajputana.
 A calculated strategy was devised not only to conquer
these areas, but also to convert their rulers into allies.
 With the exception of Chittor's Rana Pratap, Akbar was
able to gain the support of all the Rajput kingdoms.
 Many of them became Mughal nobility and assisted
Akbar in expanding and consolidating the Mughal
Empire.
Conquest of Gujarat
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 After consolidating his position in Central India and
Rajputana, Akbar turned his attention to Gujarat in
1572.
 Gujarat was no longer a unified kingdom after
Humayun's withdrawal.
 Gujarat, in addition to being a fertile region, had a large
number of busy ports and thriving commercial centres.
 Sultan Muzaffer Shah-III was the nominal ruler,
claiming authority over seven warring principalities.
I'timad Khan had invited Akbar to come and conquer it.
 Akbar personally marched to Ahmedabad. The town was
taken without much resistance.
 Surat, which had a strong fortress, provided some
resistance but was also taken. Most of Gujarat's
principalities were subdued in a short period of time.
 Akbar organised Gujarat into a province and assigned it
to Mirza Aziz Koka before returning to the capital.
 Within six months, various insurgent factions banded
together and revolted against Mughal rule.
 Ikhtiyarul Mulk and Mohammad Husain Mirza led the
rebellion. A number of territories had to be ceded by the
Mughal governor.
 When Akbar learned of the rebellion in Agra, he set out
for Ahmedabad.
 This march is regarded as one of Akbar's most
outstanding achievements. Traveling at 50 miles per day,
Akbar and a small force arrived in Gujarat in 10 days
and put down the rebellion.
 Gujarat had been at peace for nearly a decade.
Meanwhile, Muzaffar III escaped and sought refuge in
Junagadh. He attempted to organise a few rebellions
after 1583.
Conquest of Eastern India
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 Since Humayun's defeat at the hands of Sher Shah,
Afghans have ruled Bengal and Bihar.
 Sulaiman Karrani, governor of Bihar, brought Bengal
under his control in 1564. Sulaiman, realising Akbar's
growing power, acknowledged the Mughals' overlordship.
He used to send gifts to Akbar.
 After his death in 1572, which was followed by some
infighting, his younger son Daud ascended to the throne.
 Daud refused to recognise Mughal suzerainty and
became involved in a conflict with the Mughal governor of
Jaunpur.
 In 1574, Akbar marched towards Bihar with Munim
Khan Khan-i Khanan. Hajipur and Patna were quickly
captured, and Daud fled to Garhi. Akbar returned after a
brief stay.
 Munim Khan and Raja Todar Mal pursued Daud, who
eventually surrendered to the Mughals.
 After a short time, he rebelled again and was eventually
killed by Mughal forces led by Khan-i Khanan and Gaur
(Bengal) was captured.
 This effectively ended Bengal's independent rule in 1576,
which had lasted nearly two centuries with few
interruptions.
 Parts of Orissa were still ruled by Afghan kings.
Mansingh brought the entire state of Orissa under
Mughal control around 1592.
Conquest of North-West
Supression of the Roshanias
 The Roshanai movement was the first to catch Akbar's
attention. Roshanai was a sect founded in the frontier
region by a solider known as Pir Roshanai. He had a
sizable fan base.
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 After his death, his son Jalala took over as sect leader.
The Roshanais revolted against the Mughals, cutting the
road connecting Kabul and Hindustan.
 Akbar tasked Zain Khan with leading a large force
against the Roshanais and establishing Mughal control in
the region.
 Separate forces were also sent to assist Zain Khan by
Sayid Khan Gakhar and Raja Birbal. Birbal and the
majority of his forces were killed in one of the operations.
 As a result, Zain Khan was defeated, but he managed to
reach Akbar at the fort of Atak.
 The death of Birbal, one of Akbar's favourite companions,
shocked him greatly.
 Raja Todar Mal was sent by Akbar with a large force to
capture the region. Raja Man Singh was also requested to
assist with the task. The Roshanais were defeated as a
result of their combined efforts.
Conquest of Kashmir
 For a long time, Akbar had his sights set on conquering
Kashmir. While camping in Atak, he decided to send an
army to Kashmir under the command of Raja Bhagwan
Das and Shah Quli Mahram.
 Yusuf Khan, the king of Kashmir, was defeated and
accepted Mughal suzerainty. Akbar was dissatisfied with
the treaty because he wanted to annex Kashmir.
 Yusuf's son Yaqub, along with a few other amirs, also
decided to fight the Mughals. However, some
disagreements arose among the Kashmiri forces.
 Finally, the Mughals won, and Kashmir was annexed by
the Mughal Empire in 1586.
Conquest of Thatta
 Thatta in Sindh was another independent region in the
North-West.
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 In 1590, Akbar appointed Khan-i-Khanan as governor of
Multan and tasked him with conquering Sindh and
subduing Bilochis.
 Thatta was annexed and made a sarkar in that suba
under the governor of Multan.
 The Mughal forces continued to suppress Bilochis in the
surrounding areas.
 Finally, by 1595, the Mughals had established complete
dominance over the North-West region.
Conquest of Deccan and South
 After conquering Gujarat and Malwa, Akbar became
interested in the Deccan states of Ahmednagar, Bijapur,
and Golkonda. Earlier contacts were limited to
emissaries' visits or casual contacts.
 After 1590, Akbar launched a deliberate Deccan policy to
subjugate these states to Mughal rule. The Deccan states
were experiencing internal strife and frequent conflicts at
this time.
 Akbar sent a few missions to the Deccan states in 1591,
requesting that they accept Mughal sovereignty.
 Khwaja Aminuddin was sent to Ahmednagar, Mir
Mohammad Amin Mashadi was sent to Bijapur, and
Mirza Ma'sud was sent to Golkonda.
 By 1593, all of the missions had returned empty-handed.
According to reports, only Raja Ali Khan, the ruler of
Khandesh, was sympathetic to the Mughals. Akbar had
now decided to pursue a more aggressive policy.
 The first expedition was sent to Ahmednagar under the
command of Prince Murad and Abdul Rahim Khan
Khanan. Ahmednagar was besieged by Mughal forces in
1595.
 Its ruler, Chand Bibi, faced the Mughals with a large
army. She sought assistance from Ibrahim Ali Shah of
Bijapur and Qutub Shah of Golkonda but was
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unsuccessful. Chand Bibi stood firm against the Mughal
Army.
 After heavy losses on both sides, a treaty was drafted.
According to this treaty, Chand Bibi gave up Berar.
 After some time, Chand Bibi attacked Berar to reclaim it.
Nizamshahi, Qutabshahi, and Adilshahi troops presented
a united front this time.
 The Mughals suffered heavy losses but were able to keep
the field. Meanwhile, significant disagreements between
Murad and Khan Khanan weakened the Mughal position.
 As a result, Akbar dispatched Abul Fazl to Deccan and
summoned Khan Khanan.
 Following the death of Prince Murad in 1598, Prince
Daniyal and Khan Khanan were dispatched to Deccan.
Akbar also joined them. Ahmednagar was taken first.
 Meanwhile, Chand Bibi passed away. The Mughals then
conquered Asirgarh and the surrounding regions (1600
AD). Adil Shah of Bijapur also pledged allegiance and
proposed marriage to Prince Daniyal.
 Asirgarh, Burhanpur, Ahmednagar, and Berar were now
Mughal territories in the Deccan.
Integration of Social Reforms - Features
 Akbar instituted a number of social and educational
reforms. He prohibited sati (the burning of a widow)
unless she expressly desired it of her own free will.
 Furthermore, Akbar made it a strict rule that widows of
childbearing age who had not shared the bed with their
husbands were not to be burned at all. Widow
remarriage was also legalised by Akbar.
 Akbar was opposed to second marriage (having two wives
at the same time) unless the first wife was barren.
 Akbar raised the marriage age to 14 for girls and 16 for
boys.
 Akbar prohibited the sale of wine and spirits.
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 Akbar revised the educational curriculum, focusing more
on moral education and mathematics, as well as secular
subjects like agriculture, geometry, astronomy,
government rules, logic, history, and so on.
 As his court was infused with famous and scholar people,
more popularly known as the 'navaratna,' Akbar gave
patronage to artists, poets, painters, and musicians.
 According to many historians, Akbar's empire was
essentially secular, liberal, and proponent of cultural
integration. It was enlightened on social and cultural
issues.
Abolition of Tax
 Akbar was hunting near Mathura in 1563. He noticed
that a tax was being collected from the pilgrims who had
gathered there.
 Akbar had no idea about the tax collected from Hindu
pilgrims from all over the world. When Akbar inquired, he
was told that it had been the custom of every Muslim
ruler to collect pilgrim tax from Hindus at every Hindu
pilgrimage site.
 The tax was not set in stone. It was determined
arbitrarily based on the pilgrim's rank and wealth.
 The pilgrim tax, according to Akbar, was morally wrong
because it was imposed on people who came "in search of
the light of God" and because it was not uniform but
arbitrary, variable according to the whim of the tax
collector.
 Throughout his empire, he abolished the pilgrim tax.
 Akbar also abolished jizya, the poll tax levied on non-
Muslims, because its imposition, in his opinion,
hampered the emotional integration of his subjects into
one united brotherhood.
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 An influential section of the court was strongly opposed
to the repeal of this tax on religious and financial
grounds. But Akbar stayed true to his word.
Child Marriage
 Akbar was opposed to child marriage, which was
common among both Hindus and Muslims.
 Akbar issued orders prohibiting marriage before the age
of 12 and between cousins, despite the fact that such
marriage is permitted under Muslim law.
 Later, the minimum marriage age was raised to 16 for
boys and 14 for girls. Akbar appeared to have a very
modern mind.
 Before marriage could take place, the parents of the boy
and girl, as well as their mutual consent, was required. A
nominal marriage tax with varying rates was
implemented.
Emphasis on Secular Studies
 It should be noted that Akbar's emphasis on secular
studies was not well received by the orthodox school of
thought, but Akbar had no intention of destroying Arabic
literature.
 In fact, the Imperial Library housed a large number of
Arabic works. Akbar not only broadened the curriculum
of studies, but also opened the doors to educational
institutions that had previously been exclusively reserved
for Muslims.
 For the first time, Hindu and Muslim children sat side by
side in the same educational institutions under his
leadership. During his time, Sialkot was a well-known
centre of learning.
 Because of Akbar's devotion to education, Abul Fazl
wrote in praise, "All civilised nations have schools for the
education of youths, but Hindustan is particularly
famous for its seminaries."
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 A large college, the likes of which few travellers can
recall, was established on the hill at Fathepur."
 Agra had a number of Madrasas, the most famous of
which was in Gujarat. There were many private schools
in addition to the Madrasas and educational institutions
established by Akbar and the nobles.
 Education for women was also promoted. Muslim nobility
sent their daughters to school as was customary.
 Princess Gul Badan contributed the famous Humayun-
Nama to Abul Fazl's Akbarnama.
 Salima Sultana was a well-known Persian poet, and
Maham Anaga, Akbar's chief nurse, was also a well-
educated lady.
Practice of Sati
 One of Akbar's most memorable reforms was his
opposition to the inhuman Sati practise.
 Jajman, Raja Bhagawan Das' cousin, died too soon. His
widow was reluctant to become a Suttee, that is, to burn
herself in the funeral pyre of her late husband, but her
step son Udai Singh and other relatives almost forced her
to agree.
 As soon as the news reached Akbar, he rushed to the
scene and, risking being misunderstood by his Rajput
relations, intervened and had those who were forcing the
widow to become a Satee arrested (Akbarnama).
 In another case, Akbar intervened to persuade Birbhadra
of Panna's young widow not to immolate herself in her
husband's pyre.
 Although Akbar did not issue a formal decree prohibiting
the practise of Sati, he strongly discouraged it.
Slavery
 In 1562, Akbar outlawed the age-old practise of enslaving
prisoners of war, selling their wives and children, and so
on.
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 This pernicious practise that had been practised for
centuries was abolished, saving many innocent
unfortunate people from slavery.
Prohibition of Sale of Wine
 Akbar recognised the social evils of intoxicants, whether
they were drinks or not, but he also recognised that total
prohibition would be impossible to enforce, so he made a
compromise.
 He only allowed wine to be consumed by those who had
doctors' approval. Excessive drinking, disorderly
behaviour after drinking, and the use of booze were all
made illegal.
 When purchasing wine, the names of the purchasers had
to be recorded in the shop.
Foreign Policy of Mughals - Background
 Mughal foreign policy refers to the steps taken by
successive Mughal rulers to secure India's western
borders.
 The natural defence for India was the Khyber Pass along
the Kabul-Qandhar route, and their foreign policy
revolved around securing these outposts while also
balancing the rise of powerful empires in the region.
 During the Timurid empire's disintegration in the 15th
century, the Ottomans in Turkey, the Safavids in Persia,
and the Uzbeks in Central Asia emerged as new power
contenders. While the Safavids were Shia Muslims, the
Ottomans, Uzbeks, and Mughals were Sunnis.
 The Uzbeks were the Mughals' natural adversaries,
forcing Babur and other Timurid princes to flee
Khurasan and Samarqand.
 The powerful Uzbeks who ruled central India sought an
alliance of Sunni powers to defeat Shia-ruled Persia, but
the Mughals were too broadminded to be swayed by
sectarian strife.
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 The Mughal rulers, particularly Akbar, were eager to
establish strong ties with Persia in order to
counterbalance the warring Uzbeks.
 Thus, the Mughals' foreign policy was centred on
strengthening ties with Persia while maintaining the
regional balance of power by keeping an eye on the
evolution of a united Uzbek empire.
Foreign Policy of Mughals - Objectives
 To protect India from foreign invasions.
 To keep the balance of power between the Uzbeks,
Safavids, and Turks (Ottoman empire).
 To increase international trade and commerce.
 To reclaim their ancestral homeland in Central Asia,
where Babur had been exiled.
 To check the power of Afghan tribes living in the
mountains between Punjab and Kabul.
Akbar and the Uzbeks
 When the Uzbek chief, Shaibani Khan, was defeated by
the Safavids in 1510, Babur was able to take control of
Samarqand for a short time. But the Uzbeks quickly
retaliated by defeating the Safavids, and Babur lost
control.
 During this time, he received assistance from the
Safavids, establishing a tradition of mutual friendship
between the two empires.
 When Sher Shah Suri ousted Humayun from India, he
was given refuge by Shah Tahmasp of Persia.
 In 1572, Abdullah Khan Uzbek captured Balkh and sent
an embassy to Akbar's court, seeking a Sunni-Sunni
alliance against Persia.
 However, Akbar chastised him and told him that
sectarianism was not a justifiable reason for conquest.
 Meanwhile, despite the fact that Uzbeks had captured
Balkh, which had been ruled by Timurids until 1585, he
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had no desire to engage in a conflict with them until they
threatened Mughal positions in Kabul and Qandhar.
Mughal Relations with Iran and the Question of
Qandahar
 Despite the Uzbek attempt to incite anti-Shia sentiments
against Iran and the Mughal dislike of the Safavid rulers'
intolerant policies, the dread of Uzbek power was the
most powerful factor that brought the Safavids and the
Mughals together.
 The only point of contention between the two was
Qandhar, which was claimed by both on strategic and
economic grounds, as well as sentimental and prestige
grounds.
 Qandhar was a province of the Timurid empire and was
ruled by Babur's cousins, the rulers of Herat, until they
were deposed by the Uzbeks in 1507.
 Qandhar was critical to Kabul's defence. The fort of
Qandhar was regarded as one of the strongest in the
region, and it was well supplied with water.
 Qandhar, located at the crossroads leading to Kabul and
Herat, dominated the entire southern Afghanistan and
occupied a position of enormous strategic importance.
 The Kabul-Ghazni-Qandhar line represented a strategic
and logical frontier; beyond Kabul and Khyber, there was
no natural line of defence.
 Furthermore, having control of Qandahar made it easier
to control the Afghan and Baluch tribes.
Shah Jahan‟s Balkh Campaign
 After the death of Abdullah Khan Uzbeg in 1598, the
Uzbeks were unable to threaten the Mughal position in
the North-West for a long time, until a new Uzbek ruler,
Nazr Muhammad, captured Balkh and Bokhara.
 Nazr Muhammad and his son Abdul Aziz were both
ambitious, and their control of Balkh and Bokhara
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hinted at a future attempt to threaten the Mughals in
Kabul.
 Later, Abdul Aziz rebelled against his father, and Nazr
Muhammad was only able to control Balkh, which was
also threatened by his son's activities.
 Threatened by his rebel son, Nazr Muhammad sought the
assistance of Shah Jahan, who was eager to assist
because he desired a friendly ruler in Bokhara.
 Shah Jahan directed Prince Murad Baksh to march
toward Balkh and assist Nazr Muhammad in retaining
control of his empire as well as in capturing Samarqand
and Bokhara.
 Prince Murad marched as ordered, but made the mistake
of not waiting for Nazr Muhammad's order and rushed to
Balkh.
 He also ordered his army to march into the fortress of
Balkh, where Nazr Muhammad was seeking refuge.
Mughal-Persian Relations - The Last Phase
 The defeat in the Balkh region in 1649 rekindled Uzbek
hostility in Kabul, and Afghan tribal unrest in the
Khyber-Ghazni region emboldened the Persians to attack
and conquer Qandhar.
 All of this posed a significant threat to Shah Jahan, so he
launched three major campaigns led by princes (of blood)
to reclaim Qandhar.
 Aurangzeb (known as the Balkh hero) launched the first
attack with a 50,000-men army. Despite defeating the
Persians outside the fort, the Mughals were unable to
conquer it due to determined Persian opposition.
 Aurangzeb tried again three years later, but failed
again. Dara Shikoh, Shah Jahan's favourite son, made
the most grandiloquent attempt in 1653.
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 Dara Shikoh had made a valiant effort and even
maintained his dominant position, but it was ultimately
futile.
 Mughals lost much more than Qandhar as a whole as a
result of repeated attacks and subsequent failures.
Failure also harmed the Mughals' reputation.
 In 1680, the Ottoman (Turkish) sultan sent an embassy
to Aurangzeb's court, requesting assistance.
 Aurangzeb decided not to repeat the futile contest over
the Qandhar issue this time, and thus agreed to
establish diplomatic relations with Iran.
Akbar‟s Diplomatic Mission
 Akbar launched a diplomatic offensive in 1591. He
dispatched envoys to all Deccani states, 'inviting' them to
accept Mughal suzerainty.
 As might be expected, none of the states accepted this
demand, with the exception of Khandesh, which was too
close to and vulnerable to the Mughals to resist.
 The ruler of Ahmednagar, Burhan Nizam Shah, was rude
to the Mughal envoy; the others only made friendly
promises. Akbar appeared to be on the verge of making a
decisive move in the Deccan.
 When factional fighting erupted among the Nizam Shahi
nobles following the death of Burhan in 1595, he was
given the opportunity he needed.
 There were four candidates for the throne, each
supported by a different political party. The strongest
claim was made by Bahadur, the deceased ruler's son.
Bijapur's ruler, Ibrahim Adil Shah II, was sympathetic
to Bahadur's claim.
 Chand Bibi was Burhan's sister and the widow of
Ibrahim Adil Shah's uncle, the former ruler of Bijapur.
She was a remarkable woman who had ruled Bijapur for
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nearly ten years while Ibrahim Adil Shah was still a
minor.
 She had gone to Ahmednagar to mourn the death of her
brother Burhan, but she stayed to fight for her nephew,
Bahadur, who was a minor.
 Against this backdrop, the leaders of the opposing party,
the Deccanis, invited the Mughals to intervene.
 The struggle that had now begun was primarily between
Bijapur and the Mughals for control of Ahmednagar
state.
Mughal Invasion
 The Mughal invasion was led by the governor of
Gujarat, Prince Murad, and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-
Khanan. Khandesh's ruler was asked to cooperate.
 The Mughals met little resistance until they reached the
capital, Ahmednagar, due to factional fighting among the
Ahmednagar nobles.
 Chand Bibi barricaded herself in the fort with Bahadur,
the minor king. After a four-month siege in which Chand
Bibi played a heroic role, the two sides reached an
agreement.
 They agreed to cede Berar to the Mughals in exchange for
recognition of Bahadur's claim. Mughal suzerainty was
also acknowledged. This occurred in 1596.
Mughal Annexation of Berar and Ahmednagar
 The Deccani states were concerned by the Mughal
annexation of Berar. They believed, not without reason,
that Berar would provide the Mughals with a permanent
foothold in the Deccan, which could be expanded at any
time.
 As a result, they sided with Ahmednagar and obstructed
the Mughals' takeover of Berar.
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 Soon after, a combined force of Bijapur, Golconda, and
Ahmednagar led by a Bijapur commander invaded Berar
in force.
 In a hard-fought battle in 1597, the Mughals defeated a
Deccani force three times their size.
 The Bijapuri and Golconda forces withdrew, leaving
Chand Bibi alone to deal with the situation. Despite her
support for the treaty of 1596, Chand Bibi was powerless
to stop her nobles' harassing attacks on the Mughals in
Berar.
 As a result, Ahmednagar was subjected to a second
Mughal siege. In the absence of assistance from any
source, Chand Bibi began negotiations with the Mughals.
A hostile faction, however, accused her of treachery and
murdered her.
 Thus ended the life of one of Deccani politics' most
romantic figures. Ahmednagar was now attacked and
captured by the Mughals.
 Bahadur, the minor king, was sent to the fortress of
Gwalior. Balaghat was also incorporated into the empire,
and a Mughal garrison was stationed in Ahmednagar in
the year 1600.
Annexation of Khandesh
 The fall of the fort and city of Ahmednagar, as well as the
capture of Bahadur Nizam Shah, did not end Akbar's
problems in the Deccan. There was no longer a Nizam
Shahi prince or noble with enough clout to negotiate
with.
 At the same time, the Mughals were not eager to advance
beyond Ahmednagar or seize all of the state's remaining
territories. The situation was exacerbated by constant
wrangling among Mughal commanders.
 Akbar advanced into Malwa and then into Khandesh to
assess the situation on the ground.
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 He was told there that the new ruler of Khandesh had not
shown prince Daniyal proper respect when he passed
through his territory on his way to Ahmednagar.
 Akbar was also eager to secure Asirgarh Fort in
Khandesh, which was reputed to be the strongest fort in
the Deccan.
 After a tight siege and a pestilence in the fort, the ruler
came out and surrendered in 1601. Khandesh was
absorbed into the Mughal empire.
Agreement
 Meanwhile, Prince Daniyal, Akbar's youngest son, who
had been given command of Mughal armies in the
Deccan, reached an agreement with Murtaza Nizam Shah
II, who had been proclaimed ruler by a group of Nizam
Shahi nobles following the fall of Ahmednagar.
 The Mughals were given Ahmednagar, Balaghat, and
parts of Telengana in exchange for Murtaza Nizam Shah's
loyalty and promise not to rebel. This occurred in 1601.
 Following the capture of Asirgarh, Akbar returned to the
north to deal with his son, Salim's rebellion.
Fall of Ahmednagar and Asirgarh
 The fall of Ahmednagar and Asirgarh alarmed the
remaining Deccani rulers. The rulers of Bijapur,
Golkonda, and Bidar sent envoys to Akbar, who received
them graciously. Akbar dispatched envoys to them as
well.
 Khan Khana, one of Akbar's closest confidants, was
assigned to oversee Deccan affairs. The Nizam Shahi
nobles rallied around Malik Ambar after Akbar left the
Deccan for Agra in 1601.
 Following the fall of Ahmednagar, Malik Ambar
enthroned Murtaza, the grandson of Burhan Nizam
Shah-I, and became his peshwa.
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 He established Khirki as the new state capital and used
guerilla tactics to combat the Mughal forces.
 The challenge posed by Malik Ambar and Raju Deccani,
as well as mutual bickering and rivalry among Mughal
generals and the prevailing situation in the North,
persuaded Akbar to rely on diplomatic manoeuvring
rather than military might to consolidate Mughal
authority in the Deccan.
Jahangir (1605-1627 AD)
 After the death of the Mughal emperor Akbar, prince
Salim succeeded the throne with the title, ‗Jahangir‘
which means ‗Conqueror of the World.‘
 Jahangir, just two years after the succession of the
throne, had assassinated his father‘s all-time adviser and
closest friend, Abu-al-Fazl.
 Jahangir was the most preferred choice for the
succession of the throne because the rest two of his
brothers were habituated to drinking and had almost
killed themselves, so there arose no competition for the
succession of the throne.
 Jahangir had defeated his own son, Khushrau Mirza, and
also imprisoned him as he was the supporter of the Sikh
guru.
 Jahangir also beheaded the 5th Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun
as he was one of the supporters of his son, Khushrau
Mirza.
 In the year 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa, who
was also called Nur Jahan which means ‗Light of the
World.‘
 After their marriage, Nur Jahan‘s brother was appointed
at a post that is reserved for the nobles i.e. ‗ Khan-i-
Saman‘
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 Asaf Khan‘s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum who was
later called Mumtaj had married Jahangir‘s 3rd son
Prince Khurram who was later called Shah Jahan.
Shah Jahan (1627-1658 AD)
 Under the rule of Shah Jahan, the Mughal campaigns
were at an all-time high in the Deccan.
 The noble king of Afghan, Khan Lodi tried rebellion
against Shah Jahan but was defeated.
 Shah Jahan defeated and seized the forces of
Ahmadnagar.
 There was a treaty signed by the cities of Bijapur and
Golconda with the Emperor.
 Shah Jahan had carved four provinces under the
Mughals in the Deccan regions which were– Berar,
Telangana, Daulatabad, and Khandesh.
 Shah Jahan‘s last years were bitter as his four sons had
an ugly war for the succession of the throne.
 Shah Jahan is remembered as a builder of his decade as
he had carved many of the famous constructions of all
time. Out of all the constructions, the Taj Mahal stands
even today which he built in the memory of his 3rd wife
who died while giving birth to the couple‘s 14th child.
Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
 Aurangazeb was considered to be one of the most capable
Emperors of the Mughal Empire.
 Aurangazeb had gained the title – Alamgir, which meant
‗World Conqueror.‘
 In the initial years of his rule, for about 10 years, his
campaigns for the Military had proven to be a great
benefit and success. After which his legacies proved to
have failed and faced serious difficulties.
 Due to his harsh religious and sentimental policies,
many groups such as the– Jats and Satnamis began
revolting against him.
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 As the Governor of Deccan, Aurangazeb had formulated
various aggressive policies.
 Aurangazeb had pushed the territories of the Mughal
Empire to the southern border of his Deccan region and
all the way to Tanjore.
 In the first 25 years of his rule, Aurangazeb concentrated
in the northwest fronts, and it was during this time, the
Maratha Ruler Shivaji started carving a separate
independent kingdom known as Marathas.
 Aurangazeb had successfully seized various territories of
the Maratha kingdom by defeating Shah Sikandar of
Bijapur and also imprisoned the Maratha ruler Shivaji.
 However, Shivaji had successfully escaped from the
prison and after his escape, Shivaji declared himself as
an independent leader and King and began his fight
against the Mughals.
 Aurangazeb had faced rebellions from his son Akbar II,
who had his support with the help of Marathas and the
Sikhs.
 Aurangazeb also had to face various rebellions in the
north from the Sikhs, Jats, and Satnamis because of his
strict Islamic policies of destructing Hindu temples and
various taxes on non-Islamic crowds.
 Aurangazeb had faced rebellions as he was a serious
leader with aggressive policies, some of the most strict
policies he implemented were heavy taxes on agricultural
products, and religious tensions amongst his provinces.
 Aurangazeb is assumed to be held responsible for the
decline of the Mughal Empire in the nation due to
various rebellions against him and his harsh policies.
 Aurangazeb died in 1707 leaving behind the Empire fully
intact, but the policies that he had implemented
gradually started to see a steep downfall of the Mughals
and the breakup of the Empire.
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Religious Policies Followed by Aurangazeb
 Aurangazeb wanted to transform the whole nation into
an Islamic state.
 Drinking alcohol was prohibited under the rule of
Aurangazeb.
 Music was forbidden in the courts of the Mughals.
 The practice of Jharokha Darshan was discontinued
under Aurangazeb‘s rule. Jharokha Darshan was a daily
practice of addressing the general public from the
balconies or galleries of the palaces and the forts during
the medieval period.
 He started the policies of destroying Hindu temples in
various territories.
 Muharram celebration in the states of the Mughal rule
was barred.
 Aurangazeb was also against the Sikhs in the nation and
had also killed the 9th Sikh Guru, Teg Bahadur.
 Due to his harsh policies against various communities in
the nation, the Marathas, the Sikhs, and the Rajputs
turned out enemies of the Mughals in the nation. The
Jats of the Mathura and the Satnamis of the Mewar had
also turned rebellions against the Mughals.
Character and Personality of Aurangazeb
 Aurangazeb led a simple life with high moral values, he
had kept himself from the vices, and the pleasures.
 Aurangazeb was dutiful towards his religion and was a
God-fearing man.
 He had dismissed the musicians and the dancers from
the court of the rule due to his simple and low standards
of living.
 Aurangazeb is considered to be a disciplined and strict
ruler who wouldn‘t even spare his sons in the case of
wrongdoings.
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 Even in between the war, Aurangazeb would set aside
and kneel to offer the prayers when it was the time.
 Aurangazeb had always offered prayers 5 times a day
without missing a single day.
 Aurangazeb also followed the fasting period during the
Ramzan month and fasted for the whole month.
 Aurangazeb earned his earnings by selling copies of the
Holy book– Quran that he wrote himself.
Causes for the Downfall of the Mughals
 After the death of Aurangazeb, the Mughal Empire saw a
rapid downfall. Exploiting the situation in 1739, Nadir
Shah captured the Mughal Emperor and plundered
Delhi. The prime cause for the decline of the Mughals
was the policies that were established by Aurangazeb.
 After Aurangazeb, the Mughals saw the rule of weak
emperors which led to the downfall further.
 After Aurangazeb, the Mughals had faced the challenge of
corruption in the nobility, which means, even if the
Emperor had proved himself to be capable for the throne
of the Empire, he was corrupt and had no loyalty towards
the Empire.
 The later Mughals had carved out separate territories for
their rule and had divided.
 There were continuous wars which then led to the
financial crisis among the Mughals leading to a weaker
army which led to the downfall of the Empire.
 After the death of the Emperor, a war of succession led to
the division and further difficulties amongst themselves,
resulting in loss of financial ability, property, and army.
 There had been constant attacks from the Marathas
which weakened the Mughals and eventually led to the
downfall of the empire.
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Mughal Administration, Society & Culture
Military Organization
Army of Mughal Empire – Background
 The Mughal Empire's Army was the force with which the
Mughal emperors established their empire in the 15th
century and expanded it to its greatest extent at the
beginning of the 18th century.
 Although its origins were in the cavalry-based armies of
Central Asia, its essential form and structure were
established by the empire's third emperor, Akbar.
 The army had no regimental structure, and the soldiers
were not directly recruited by the emperor.
 Individuals, such as nobles or local leaders, would
instead recruit their own troops, known as a mansab,
and contribute them to the army.
Army of Mughal Empire – Mansabdars
 This one-of-a-kind system was devised by Akbar. The
Mughal army lacked a regimental structure.
 In this system, a military officer worked for the
government and was in charge of recruiting and
maintaining his quota of horsemen.
 His rank was determined by the number of horsemen he
provided, which ranged from 10 (the lowest) to 5000. A
prince had a rank of 25000. This was known as the zat
and sowar system.
 An officer was required to maintain a man-to-horse ratio
of 1:2. Arabian horses were preferred because they had to
be carefully verified and branded.
 In addition to foot soldiers and artillery, the officer had to
keep his quota of horses, elephants, and cots for
transportation.
 Soldiers were given the option of receiving
monthly/annual payments or jagir, with many opting for
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the latter. The emperor also allotted jagir for the upkeep
of the mansabs.
Army - Organization and Troops
Ahadi Soldiers
 They were the emperor's personal soldiers. Diwan and
Bakhshi oversaw their appointment, training, and
discipline on the emperor's behalf. They were well
compensated by the imperial treasury.
 An ordinary horseman was paid only twelve to fifteen
rupees per month, whereas an Ahadi was paid up to five
hundred rupees per month. It was unclear how much
Ahadis a King would recruit.
 Akbar increased their number to twelve thousand
because they were completely loyal to the emperor.
Dakhili Soldiers
 They were also recruited on behalf of the emperor but
were kept under the command of Mansabdars and served
in the Mughal army.
 The Mughal emperors commanded a powerful permanent
army. The army of Akbar had 25,000 soldiers, but this
appears to be a hypothesis, and the truth must be far
from it.
 The armies of Jahangir and Shahjahan numbered
around three lakh, so Akbar's army could never be
smaller than that of his successors.
 If we count the entire Mughal army, including the army
of Mansabdars and feudatories, it would be no less than
forty four lakh men.
 The following were significant units of the Mughal army
that worked effectively and brought honour to Mughal
emperors by extending their territory.
Elephants
 The Mughal emperors also kept a number of war
elephants. They numbered around a thousand during
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Akbar's reign, but in the entire Mughal empire, they
numbered around fifty thousand.
 Elephants were used for a variety of purposes. Aside from
fighting, these elephants were also used as cargo
carriers.
Army of Mughal Empire – Branches
Cavalry
 During the Mughal period, the cavalry was divided into
two groups: Bargis and Silehdar.
 The Bargirs were soldiers who received their arms entry
dresses from the state, while the Siledars owned their
own weapons and horses.
 The horses used by the cavalry belonged to Turki, Tazi,
Arbi, Farsi, and others.
 Because the cavalry was the best part of the army, it
received special attention.
Infantry
 All Mughal emperors were concerned with the proper
upkeep of the infantry. The foot soldiers were divided into
two groups: Banduqchi (riflemen) and Shamshirbaz
(swordmen).
 In addition to rifle and sword, the soldiers were skilled
with bows and arrows, javelins, and other weapons.
 Apart from soldiers, the infantry included all workers
associated with the army, such as slaves and water
carriers.
Artillery
 Artillery was also an important part of the Mughal army.
'Babur was the first Mughal ruler to use gunpowder.'
 Later on, his successors strengthened artillery. The
officer in charge of this branch was Min-l-Atish.
 During Akbar's reign, artillery was greatly improved. He
had the big guns ready in addition to the small guns.
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 Small guns could be carried on elephants or camels and
used very effectively on the battlefield because their
direction could be changed quickly and easily, but larger
guns had to be wheeled or carried on large wooden
platforms.
 Except for the Turkish artillery, Akbar's was second to
none in Asia, for in Akbar's time it had reached the
pinnacle of efficiency.
 His artillery included approximately 12,000 mounted
musketeers and a large number of matchlockmen,
making it even more effective during the war.
Navy of Mughal Empire
 Before Akbar took control of Gujrat, the Mughals paid no
attention to the development of naval forces.
 Meanwhile, the Portuguese established their dominance
over the Indian Ocean, and they disagreed with those
who devoted themselves to the advancement of the navy.
 Akbar and his successors possessed formidable land
forces. They kept only a few small fleets of boats and
could not be considered a powerful navy.
 Mir Bahr was the officer in charge of these boats. His
primary responsibility was to prepare ferries and bridges
for the passage of troops and local residents.
 Without a doubt, Akbar and his officers were capable of
maintaining a powerful navy in the European style, but
because they did not suspect any danger from the sea
route, they were negligent in their efforts to form a
powerful navy.
 The Mughals entrusted the protection of the western
coast to the Janjira sides only because they lacked an
efficient navy.
 During Akbar's reign, there was a Dag Mahali
department whose main function was to keep a Huliya
register for each soldier.
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 He was also in charge of branding the horses and
elephants. Aside from the Mansabdar mark, the animal
also bore an emperor-specific mark.
 It was done correctly to avoid Mansabdar's cheating. The
emperor used to inspect each Mansabdar's army
annually or every three years.
Economic and Social Life
 Indian society was largely organised around a feudal
structure during the medieval period, which persisted
even during Mughal rule. The king was at his most
powerful. His court was a hotbed of wealth and power.
 The Mughal empire had reached its territorial apex by the
end of the 17th century. It had to deal with a number of
political and administrative issues at the time.
 The period from the advent of Akbar to the end of the
seventeenth century may be treated as one in the
economic and social spheres because there were no
fundamental changes.
 During the Mughal era, society was divided into three
major sections: rich, middle, and poor. There were
significant differences between these three classes.
 The wealthy were at the top of the socioeconomic ladder.
This class possessed all of the advantages and lived in
exceptional luxury with ample resources.
 The middle class was a relatively new development, and it
eventually became a vital force in Mughal India.
 Next to the middle class was the poor class. They were
frequently regarded as the most neglected segment of
society.
 In terms of living standards, there were significant
differences between the two preceding classes.
 The Indian cultivator was not as conservative and
resistant to change as he has been portrayed.
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 Despite the lack of new agricultural techniques, Indian
agriculture was efficient and played a significant role in
the growth of the manufacturing sector and trade during
the period.
Growth of Trade
Organization of Trade and Commerce
 The Mughals prioritised roads and sarais, which
facilitated communication. At the point of entry into the
empire, goods were subject to a uniform tax.
 Rahdari (a transit duty, a toll) or Road cesses was
declared illegal, though some local rajas continued to
collect it (kings).
 The Mughals introduced high-purity silver rupees, which
became a standard coin in India and abroad, aiding in
the growth of India's trade.
 Mughals also implemented policies that aided in the
commercialization of the economy and the development
of a money economy.
 During the Mughal era, the salaries of the standing army
and many administrative personnel (except the nobles)
were paid in cash. Furthermore, the land revenue was
assessed and required to be paid in cash under the zabti
system.
 Small townships grew in popularity as rural grain
markets expanded (or qasbas). Nobles' demand for all
types of luxury goods resulted in the expansion of
handicraft production as well as the growth of towns.
 When Ralph Fitch visited India during Akbar's reign, he
stated that Agra and Fatehpur Sikri were both larger
than London.
 Monserrate stated that Lahore was superior to no other
city in Europe or Asia. According to Bernier, Delhi was
not much smaller than Paris, and Agra was larger than
Delhi.
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 Ahmadabad was also a large town, roughly the size of
London and its suburbs. Dacca, Rajmahal, Multan, and
Burhanpur were major cities, while Patna, Bihar, had a
population of 2 lakh people.
Foreign Trade and the European Traders
 India had maintained trade relations with other
countries for centuries. Over time, the patterns of trade
and commodities changed.
 India had a thriving trade with a large number of
foreign countries during the 16th and 17th centuries.
 The arrival of the Europeans is a significant aspect of
foreign trade during this period and it significantly
increased India's foreign trade. The majority of this trade
was in the form of Indian exports.
 India not only supplied food items such as sugar, rice,
and so on to many Southeast and West Asian countries,
but Indian textiles also played an important role in
regional trade.
 'From Aden to Achin, from head to foot, everyone was
clothed in Indian textiles,' an English agent observed.
This is what made India the Asian world's virtual factory
(excluding China).
 The only items that India needed to import were certain
metals such as tin and copper, which were in short
supply (tin was used to make bronze), certain spices for
food and medicine, war horses, and luxury items (such
as ivory).
 The positive trade balance was met by gold and silver
imports.
 The import of silver and gold into India increased during
the seventeenth century as a result of the expansion of
India's foreign trade.
 India and China were more successful due to the size of
their economies and their ability to be self-sufficient.
 The Europeans attempted to acquire empires in India
and its environs in order to pay for goods exported to
Europe with revenues from these territories.
 The Dutch were successful in conquering Java and
Sumatra. The key, however, was India.
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 Both the English and the French attempted to conquer
India, but they were unable to do so as long as India
remained strong and united, first under Mughal rule and
then under capable provincial governors.
 They could only succeed if internal and external factors
weakened these states as well.
Painting of Mughal Empire
 Miniature painting has been developing in many places
since the 10th century, and it flourished in numerous
regional courts throughout the Sultanate of Delhi.
 When Humayun, the second Mughal emperor, returned
from exile, he took two renowned Persian artists – Mir
Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad – with him.
 These artists were Persian and they created several
notable paintings, the 'Khamsa of Nizami,' based on
Humayun's commands is one such.
 These paintings varied from the traditional style of
Persian art, and so a new art form known as 'Mughal
Painting' was established.
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Mughal Paintings During Akbar
 Akbar encouraged and supported art since he had
learned the complexities of arts and paintings under Abd
as-Samad.
 The Mughal painting progressed and developed at a
remarkable speed throughout his reign.
 He commissioned a large number of paintings and paid
special attention to the ultimate results of all of them.
 In his court, he had a large number of artists.
 He commissioned a series of large-scale paintings to work
between 1560 and 1577.
 'Tutinama,' which literally translates to 'Tales of a
Parrot,' was one of the first paintings of works
commissioned by Akbar. It is a 52-part Persian narrative
told in episodic form.
 Two Iranian artists, Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid
Ali were tasked with finishing the project, and it took
them nearly five years to complete 'Tutinama.'
 'Tutinama' is currently on display at the Cleveland
Museum of Art in Ohio.
 Another major project commissioned by Akbar
was „Hamzanama,‟ which narrated the story of Amir
Hamza.
 As Akbar had admired these stories as a child, he
commissioned the re-creation of 'Hamzanama,' which
comprised 1400 Mughal miniature paintings that were
extremely large for miniatures.
 'Gulistan,' 'Darab Nama,' 'Khamsa of Nizami,'
'Baharistan,' are other renowned paintings
commissioned by Akbar.
 At Fatehpur Sikri, Saadi Shirazi composed his
masterpiece, 'Gulistan.'
 From 1570 through 1585, Akbar employed over a
hundred painters in his court to create Mughal artwork.
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Mughal Paintings During Jahangir

 Jahangir, like his father, showed an interest in the arts,
particularly in paintings. During his reign, the Mughal
painting flourished.
 Jahangir was heavily influenced by European painting
so, he instructed his painters to utilise the European
painter's technique of single-point perspective.
 The Mughal painting was given a whole new viewpoint as
a result of this.
 Jahangir even instructed his painters to copy the
European painting‘s depiction of kings and queens.
 As a result, the majority of Jahangir's Mughal paintings
had finer brush strokes and softer colours.
 The Jahangirnama was one of the great works he
commissioned.
 It was Jahangir's autobiography, and it included various
paintings which depicted unique themes such as spider
wars.
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 He also commissioned several paintings of birds,
animals, and flowers that were realistically depicted.
 Artists began to use vibrant colours like peacock blue
and red and were able to provide three-dimensional
effects to paintings
 Overall, during Jahangir's reign, Mughal painting
flourished and evolved.
Mughal Paintings During Shah Jahan

 During Shah Jahan's reign, Mughal painting continued
to flourish, but they were increasingly strict and formal.
 He did, however, commission a huge number of paintings
for his own collection.
 These paintings were inspired by themes such as gardens
and photos that provided a great deal of aesthetic
enjoyment.
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 He also commissioned a number of pieces depicting
lovers in intimate situations.
 The 'Padshanama' was one of the most important works
produced during his reign.
 With ample amounts of gold plating, this work was meant
to appear luxurious.
 The 'Padshanama,' which detailed the King's
accomplishments, also included drawings of the courtiers
and servants.
 The monarch and other significant dignitaries were
depicted by strictly adhering to the norms of strict
metamodeling.
 Though, the servants and courtiers were depicted
utilising the frontal view technique.
 Shahjahan‘s eldest son preferred depicting natural
elements like plants and animals in his painting.
Page 138
Page 139
Vijaynagar, Bahamani & Other Regional
Kingdoms Vijaynagar Kingdo
Vijaynagar Kingdom
 It was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka (with
the blessings of Guru Vidyaranya) of the Sangama
dynasty who originally served under the Kakatiya rulers
of Warangal.
 They later proclaimed their independence and founded a
new city on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River
named it ―Vijayanagar” (City of Victory)
 Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers of Saivism.
Virupaksha was their family God. Later they came under
the influence of Vaishnavism. However, Siva continued to
be worshipped.
 There was constant conflict between Vijayanagar
Empire and Bahamani kingdom over Raichur doab
(fertile region between Krishna and Tungabhadra),
Tungabhadra doab (fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari
delta) & Marathwada.
 In the south its main rivals were the Sultans of Madurai.
 During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of
Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him
at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565 which marked an
end of the Vijayanagar Empire.
 The last ruler of Vijayanagar was Sri Ranga III
 Four Dynasties ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 TO
1672:
DYNASTY DESCRIPTION
Sangama Sangama was the first dynasty to rule over
(1336-1485) the Vijaynagara empire. The founders of
the empire, Harihar I and Bukka belonged
to this dynasty. It ruled from 1334 AD to
1485 AD.
Saluva Saluva dynasty, founded by Narasimha,
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(1485-1505) succeeded Sangama dynasty as the second
dynasty of the empire. It ruled from 1485
to 1505 AD. They ruled over
almost the whole South India.
Tuluva Tuluva, founded by Vir Narsimha, was the
(1505-1570) third dynasty, which ruled Vijayanagar
Empire. It ruled from Tuluva dynasty. The
most famous king of Vijayanagar Empire,
Krishna Deva Raya belonged to this
dynasty.
Aravidu Aravidu, founded by Tirumala, was the
(1570-1650) fourth and last Hindu dynasty to rule
Vijayanagar kingdom in South India.
 IMPORTANT RULERS
Praudhadevaraya  The most famous king from

(Devaraya II) Sangama dynasty.
 Titles: ‗Elephant Hunter‘,
‗Dakshinapathada Chakravarthi‘.
 Extended Vijayanagara from
Gulbarga to Sri Lanka &
Telangana to Kerala.
 His commander: Lakkanna
Dandesha.
Krishna Devaraya  The most famous king
(1509-1529 AD) Vijayanagara Empire (from
Tuluva dynasty).
 He is also known as Andhra
Bhoja
 Waged war against Bahamani
kingdom & kept them under
check.
 Liberated Mohammad Shah &
assumed the title “Yavanarjya
Prathishtapanacharya”.
 The author of Manu Charitramu
was the greatest among
Ashtadiggajas.
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 His empire extended from the
river Krishna in the north to River
Cauvery in the south; the Arabian
Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal
in the east.
 He had a cordial relationship
with Portuguese.
 He authored ―Amuktamalyada”
(Telgu work on polity) and
―Jambavati Kalyanam” (Sanskrit
drama).
 Krishna Deva Raya was a great
builder as well. He built the
Hazara Rama temple and the
Vittalaswami temple.
 Patronized Telugu, Kannada,
Sanskrit, and Tamil scholars &
poets.
 He had 8 eminent scholars
‗Ashtadiggajas‟ at his royal court.
 He built a new city called
Nagalapuram in memory of his
queen Nagaladevi.
“ASHTADIGGAJAS” A group of eight scholars adorned
of Krishna Krishnadevaraya‘s court and they
Devaraya were:
a. Allasani Peddanna – the author of
Manucharitram, he was also
known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha
b. Nandi Thimmana – the author of
Parijathapaharanam
c. Madayagari Mallana
d. Dhurjati
e. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu
f. Pingali Surana
g. RamarajaBhushana
h. Tenali Ramakrishna
Page 142
ADMINISTRATION:
 The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial
& legislative matters.
 The succession to the throne was hereditary.
 Administrative units divided as: Mandalams, Nadus,
Sthalas and finally into Gramas.
 Mandaleshwar or Nayaka was the governor of
Mandalam.
 He had considerable autonomy- had right to issue coins
of small denominations & right to impose new tax or
remit old one.
 Sources of income: land revenue, tributes, and gifts
from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs at ports, & taxes
on various professions.
 The army consisted of cavalry, infantry, artillery and
elephants.
 Nayankar System - The top-grade officers of the army
were known as Nayaks/Poligars.
 They were granted land in lieu of their services which
were called Amaram.
 Manyams were tax free lands.
 A body of 12 functionaries known as Ayangars,
conducted village affairs.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS:
 The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and
Virupaksha was their family deity.
 The chief gold coin was the varaha or pagoda. The Perta
was half a Varaha. Fanam was one tenth a pertha.
 Tar was a silver coin. Jittal was a copper coin.
 The chief items of export were cotton, silk, spices, rice,
saltpeter and sugar.
 The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral
etc.
 The art of shipbuilding had developed.
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POSITION OF WOMEN:
 Women occupied a high position and took an active
part in the political, social and literary life of the empire.
 Women even went to battles.
 It was the only empire in Medieval India which
employed women in state services.
 Widow re-marriage was promoted.
CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS:
 The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture
were the construction of tall Raya Gopurams or
gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved
pillars in the temple premises.
 The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive
features.
 The horse was the most common animal found in these
pillars.
 The most important temples built: Vittalaswamy and
Hazara Ramaswamy temples, the Stone chariot at
Hampi.
 The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at
Kanchipuram.
 Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada
and Tamil flourished in the regions.
Bahmani Kingdom
 The Bahmani Sultanate was a Persianised Muslim state
of the Deccan in South India and one of the major
medieval Indian kingdoms.
 Though the region was ruled by a Muslim it was not a
'Muslim State' . Hindus were also part of it.
 The nobles of Bahmani kingdom were categorized in two
categories: Afaquis and Deccanis. Deccanis were nobles
of native origin while Afaquis had foreign origin.
Page 144
 It was founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (in
1347), also known as Hasan Gangu, revolting against the
Delhi Sultanate of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
 Bahamani kingdom acted as a cultural link between
the South & the North.
 The Kingdom stretched from north to south from the
Wainganga river to Krishna and east to west from
Bhongir to Daulatabad.
 There was total 14 Bahaman Sultans.
 The Bahmani Empire was always at war with
Vijayanagara Empire for control over Deccan. Firoz shah
invaded Vijaynagar and defeated Krishna Deva Raya I.
 Ahmad Shah Wali later shifted Capital from Gulbarga to
Bidar.
 Muhammad Shah III became the sultan at the age of 9
after death of his brother Nizam Shah and Mahmud
Gawan served as Prime Minister.
 Bahmani Empire reached its zenith during the time of
Mahmud Gawan.
 Kalimullah was the last king of the Bahmani dynasty.
Mahmud Gawan:  He was Iranian by birth and was a
trader. He was granted title of
Malik-ul-Tujjar (Chiefs of
Merchants) by Humayun Shah.
 For almost 20 years he dominated
the state affairs of the Bahamani.
Under his leadership Bahamani
kingdom saw resurgence.
 He divided the kingdom into eight
provinces called Tarafs. Each Taraf
was governed by the Tarafdar. The
salary was paid in cash or
assigning a Jagir.
 A tract of land called Khalisa was
set apart for expenses of the
Sultan.
Page 145
 Introduced use of Gunpowder in
war against Vijaynagar Kings.
 He built a college at Bidar in
Persian Style architecture.
 Executed in 1481 by Muhammad
Shah, Deccan nobles plotted
against him.
After Gawan‟s Execution, Bahmani kingdom
disintegrated into Five Kingdoms (Known as Deccan
Sultanates):
Nizam Shahis of  Founder - Ahmad Nizam

Ahmednagar Shah.
(1490-1633 AD):  It was conquered & annexed
by Shah Jahan in 1633.
Adil Shahis of Bijapur  Founder - Yusuf Adil Shah
(1490-1686 AD)  Famous Gol Gumbaz was
built by Muhammad Adil
Shah.
 Bijapur was conquered &
annexed by Aurangzeb in
1687.

Qutub Shahis of  Founder – Muhammad Quli
Golconda Qutub shah.
(1518- 1687 AD):  He built famous Golconda
fort and made it capital.
 Muhammad Quli Qutub
Shah founded the city
Hyderabad (originally
 known as Bhagyanagar) and
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also built Charminar.
 It was annexed by
Aurangzeb in 1687.
Imad Shahis of Berar  Founder – Fatullah khan
(1490- 1574 AD) Imad ul Mulk.
 Capital – Daulatabad
 Annexed by rulers of
Ahmednagar.
Barid Shahis of Bidar  Founder – Ali Barid
(1528- 1619 AD) :  Annexed by Bijapur rulers.
ART & ARCHITECTURE:

 The architecture was highly influenced by Persian
architecture. They invited architects from Persia, Turkey
and Arabia.
 The Gulbarga fort & Jama Masjid in Gulbarga, Bidar
Fort and Madrasa by Mahmud Gawan in Bidar, are the
major architectural contributions.
 Gol Ghumaz was built by Muhammad Adil Shah; it is
famous for so called ―Whispering Gallery‖
 Ibrahum Adil Shah introduced ‗Dakhini‘ in place of
Persian as court language.
Page 147

Medieval History

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Medieval History

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Careerwill IAS MEDIEVAL HISTORY

Major Dynasties of North India (750-1200 AD)

The Pratiharas (8th to 10th Century)

The Pala dynasty ruled from 8th century to 12th century CE

 The earliest examples of miniature painting in India exist

 The Gupta tradition of sculptural art attained a new

Cave 15, Dashavatara Cave is one of the finest at Ellora.

 Elephanta, which is an island 6 miles from Mumbai has

 The invasion of Bakhtiya Khalji gave it a crushing blow.

 Rajendra III was the last king. Later Pandya conquered

Bhagavathi Amman Temple

Coin of Muhammad Ghori

Mamluk Dynasty Boundary Extent

Mughal Paintings During Jahangir

Mughal Paintings During Shah Jahan

Praudhadevaraya  The most famous king from

Nizam Shahis of  Founder - Ahmad Nizam

ART & ARCHITECTURE:

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