Materials Research Express

PAPER

Hadfield manganese austenitic steel: a review of manufacturing

processes and properties
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 Mater. Res. Express 6 (2019) 1065c2 https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab3ee3

PAPER

Hadfield manganese austenitic steel: a review of manufacturing

RECEIVED
18 July 2019
processes and properties
REVISED
17 August 2019
ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION
Masoud Sabzi1 and Mansour Farzam2
28 August 2019 1
Young Researchers and Elite Club, Dezful Branch, Islamic Azad University, Dezful, Iran
2
PUBLISHED Department of Technical Inspection Engineering, Petroleum University of Technology, Abadan, Iran
6 September 2019
E-mail: mas.metallurg88@gmail.com

Keywords: hadfield manganese steel, microstructure, welding, casting

Abstract
In this paper, manufacturing processes and properties of Hadfield manganese steel was studied. Due
to good flexibility and excellent resistance to wear, the high strength steel is widely used in various
industries such as cement, mining, road construction and railroads. Induction furnace is suitable for
melting of Hadfield steel. Typically, silica, olivine and chromite sand are used to make mold in the
casting process of Hadfield steel. This steel is in standard state, an alloy of Fe, C and Mn. But in certain
applications, other elements such as Cr, Ti, Al, Mo, B, V, etc are added. Mn is used as the most
important austenite stabilizer in Hadfield steel and its role is to delay the austenite to martensite
transformation. Mn is a carbide forming element and forms Mn3C and (Fe, Mn)3C in Hadfield steel.
The optimal structure for the Hadfield steels is the fully austenite structure and the single-phase. In
non-heat-treated castings, the structure of the unit consists of austenitic and grain boundary carbide
phase. To provide optimum toughness, the structure of the Hadfield steel should be austenitic single-
phase. Twin strain has a great contribution to plastic deformation of this steel. Two phenomena of
dislocation accumulation and the formation of twins during plastic deformation of these steels are the
main reason of the strain hardness of this steel. The high rate of work hardening in Hadfield steel is due
to strain induced transformation of γ to α or ε martensite, mechanical twinning, dynamic strain aging,
and the confrontation between dislocations with stacking faults. In the early stages of wear and slow
wear conditions, the wear resistance of Hadfield steel is low. In conditions of slow wear, the surface is
not sufficiently work hardening and thus the wear resistance of this steel is low. But with the work
hardening of the surface, wear resistance rises sharply. The welding and weldability of this steel are
strongly influenced by the heat input. In any case, the formation of carbide phases in the weld metal is
acceptable, and often the weld metal has higher strength and lower toughness than the base metal.
Carbides deposited in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of welded Hadfield steel, usually are Mn7C3 and
Mn23C6.

1. Introduction

The steel constitutes a non-magnetic alloy made of iron, 1–1.4 wt% carbon and 10–14 wt% carbon, which has a
considerable resistance to abrasion. The first manganese austenitic steel, containing about 1.2 wt% carbon and
12 wt% manganese, was produced by Robert Hadfield in 1882. This high strength steel with good elasticity and
excellent abrasion resistance is widely used in various industries such as cement, mining, road construction and
railways [1–3]. This family of steel was named after Hadfield in honor of him. Having repeated experiments,
Robert Hadfield demonstrated that a certain type of austenitic steels, in addition to high abrasion resistance,
could have an excellent toughness. Following Robert Hadfield, Veladimir Lipsin pursued his research on the
effect of manganese on this steel. The first factory to casting this steel began in 1892 in the United States. This
steel, known as manganese austenitic steel or Hadfield steel, has been developed widely in the turn of the
twentieth century due to its high abrasion resistance, good casting capability and high work hardening

© 2019 IOP Publishing Ltd

Mater. Res. Express 6 (2019) 1065c2 M Sabzi and M Farzam

coefficients [4–6]. Although, at the present, there are state- of-the-art materials that can be used as a replacement
for this steel, manganese austenitic steels are unique in their own right because of having an appropriate
combination of toughness, flexibility, and hardiness and abrasion resistance. Due to properties such as high
toughness, good abrasion resistance and good work hardening coefficient, they have been recognized as a very
useful engineering material. Hadfield steels are still widespread (albeit with minor changes and modifications to
their compositions and heat treatment operations), mainly in various fields such as mining, oil well drilling, steel
making industry, railway, wood industry and the cement industry are widely used. These steels are also used in
equipment for the handling and processing of minerals such as crushers (jaw crushers and gritters), mills,
mechanical shovels, and pumps for the displacement of debris and rocks [5–8]. Among other applications, these
steels can be used in the automotive industry, recycling industries and military industries. The reason this steel is
the best choice for using in the cement industry or in the mining industry is not because of its resistance to
abrasion resistance. In addition, it is possible to produce many castings and steels that at first glance have
toughness and wear resistance, and even have more strength than this steel. What gives an advantage to this steel
is that it contains auxiliary manganese steel aided by solid-state abrasives, with a good abrasion resistance as well
as much more toughness and more flexible [9–11].
It is also economically feasible to produce and use it. However, there are many efforts made by researchers to
improve the properties of these steels, only a few have been successful. The researchers have tried to improve the
properties by changing the percentage of carbon or manganese and adding alloying elements such as chrome,
aluminum, vanadium, titanium and others. Meanwhile, it has been observed that the mechanical properties of
these steels can dramatically be changed when the contents of carbon and manganese are changed [12–14].
Therefore, it can be said with certainty that any change in the type of raw materials and even the conditions of the
production process can effect on microstructure [15–17], phase equilibrium [18, 19], mechanical properties
[20–22] the abrasive behavior [23–25], corrosion behavior [26–31] and, in general, all metallurgical properties of
the strategic engineering components[32–36].
Considering the importance of using the Hadfield manganese austenite steel in the industry and also the
strategic role of this steel in various industries, this paper aims to investigate the foundations of casting, heat
treatment and welding as well as metallurgical properties (including microstructure and phase equilibrium)
Hadfield manganese austenitic steel.

2. Casting

The induction furnace is suitable for melting the Hudfield manganese austenitic steel. Manganese and alumina
refractories can be used to prevent a severe reaction between manganese and manganese oxide with silica in silica
sand. Hadfield manganese austenitic steel returns, iron scrap with ferroalloy material such as ferromanganese
and carbon can be used as a charging furnace for the casting of this steel. The melting temperature of this steel is
of particular importance [37, 38]. Hadfield manganese austenitic steel fluidity is more than that of carbon steel.
Deoxygenation the Hadfield manganese steel austenite produced in an induction furnace is one of the most
important points. If scrap melting is used solely for casting, the amount of nitrogen of steel is much higher than
the steel produced by the arc furnace, and if aluminum is used as deoxygenation, there is a risk of inter-granular
cracks due to the presence of aluminum nitride (AlN). It is, therefore, better to lower the amount of aluminum
that is used for deoxygenation and reduce the oxygen content of others, such as silicon, calcium or zirconium is
used [38–40].
Depending on the type of material used during charging, one of the following methods for the production of
Hadfield manganese austenitic steel is used:

(a) Melting with oxidation-reduction method.

(b) Melting using a reduction method.

Different methods are being used today, and each company adopts a method that, according to design
engineers, the casting process is the best method. Only a few Hadfield manganese austenitic steel manufacturers
use some of the standard smelting methods. It should be noted that the melting method in any way is the most
important problem in melting the prevention of oxidation of manganese by the formation of reduction slag
[39–41]. It is empirically shown that in case the manganese oxide in slag exceeds the nominal amount of
manganese steel beyond the range of 10 to 14 percent, that is, the percentage of the manganese slag goes above
the manganese existing in the melt, manganese oxide in melt will be solved. Then the separation and subsequent
reduction of this oxide becomes difficult.
One of the most important parameters in the quality of casting parts is the degradation of temperature. The
melting temperature should be chosen relative to the shape and thickness of the component. For example, thin

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Figure 1. A schematic of the Effect of melting temperature (MT) on the size of austenite grains in different thicknesses of Hadfield
parts.

parts should be poured at a higher temperature to prevent molding defects. In other words, thick parts are
melted in simple forms at temperatures of about 1440 to 1500 °C [39, 42]. The melting temperature affects the
grain size to a large extent, and subsequently the impact strength characteristics are also affected by the size of the
austenite grains. The importance of the melting temperature in the final structure and the microstructure of
Hadfield casting parts cannot be overlooked. The casting of these parts with lower melting temperatures and
close to the solidification point may create many nucleations on the mold contact surface and, as a result, the
growth time of the grains is reduced. In the event of an increase in melting, the actual solidification time is
increased and the aerial distance width decreased. And for a given alloy, not only the amplitude of the column
growth is increased but also in this case the porosity too. In contrast, the reduction of melting temperature
increases the co-axial growth [43–45]. Figure 1 exhibits the effect of melting temperature on the size of austenite
grains in different thicknesses of the Hadfield piece. As is seen, the size of the austenite grains is decreased with
the decrease melting temperature and the decrease of the thickness of the Hadfield piece. With this evidence it
can be stated that as the melting temperature rises, the austenite grains become larger and the seeds tend to grow
in the column and subsequently the strength will be decreased. Also, gas bubbles will have the time to join each
other and form larger macros [40, 44, 46]. Experiments have shown that the increase in melting temperature
increases the percentage of secondary phase and creates separation in the structure, which is also for flexibility
and harmful to the wear and tear strength of manganese steel.
Typically silica, olivine and chromite sands are used to make mold in the casting process of Hadfield
manganese austenitic steel. Many reports have expressed that the olivine and chromite sandstone are the most
suitable material for the mold casting of the Hadfield manganese austenitic steel. It is generally accepted that the
olivine sand is suitable for the molding of lightweight and lightweight Hadfield parts, as well as chromite sand for
heavy and thick pieces. In case, the production of silhouetted molded austenitic steel Hadfield, in the region of
the common melt, an early melting molding form is made in the form of SiO2, MnO2 which remains solid on the
mold surface without any significant dependence, causing severe sand smoke damage. Due to the low heat
transfer of silica sand, in this case, the size of austenite grains is reduced and the formation of destructive carbides
in the casted microstructure grain boundaries of the molding reaches its maximum value, and subsequently the
mechanical properties of the casting segment drop sharply [47, 48].

3. Effect of base and alloy elements

The Hadfield manganese steel is an alloy of iron, carbon and manganese, which, in its particular application,
adds another alloying element to this steel. In the following, the effect of some important elements in the target
steel is studied.
Manganese is used as austenite phase stabilizer in Hadfield manganese austenitic steel and its role is to delay
the austenite transformation at 700 °C for 15 s. If in a steel with 13% manganese, it needs a transformation at
370 °C for 48 h. Reduction of Mn from 13 to 10 wt%, practically increases the relative length to half of its normal
value. Lee and Choi [49] showed that with the increase of manganese in Fe-Mn alloys, the martensitic starvation
temperature would be greatly reduced, so that in high manganese alloys a completely austenitic can be seen.
Manganese is a carbide forming element and forms the Mn3C and (Fe, Mn)3C carbides in the Hadfield
manganese austenitic steel. Therefore, with increasing manganese from 10 to 14%, the amount of Mn3C and (Fe,

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Figure 2. A schematic of the effect of manganese content on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Hadfield manganese
austenitic steel.

Mn)3C in the microstructure of Hadfield manganese austenitic steel increased and this leads to increased
hardness and abrasion resistance in these alloys. Of course, when Mn3C and (Fe, Mn)3C are used as useful
components in the microstructure of Hadfield manganese austenitic steel, they are distributed as a sedimentary
dispersion in the austenite matrix. But if these particles are accumulated continuously in the grain boundaries
(this usually happens after the casting), then they will be able to provide a Susceptibility to brittle fracture in this
steel [44–47]. The effect of manganese content on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Hadfield
manganese austenite steel is shown in figure 2.
The amount of carbon in Hadfield manganese austenitic steel determines the yield strength and resistance to
wear. With increasing carbon from 1 to 1.4 wt%, the yield strength and stiffness increase in these steels, while
toughness and flexibility are greatly reduced. This is due to the formation of carbide deposits (especially Mn3C
and (Fe, Mn)3C carbides) in austenite boundaries with increasing carbon content. In any case, because an
increase in carbon up to 1.4 wt% increases the resistance to abrasion, it is often preferred to use the same amount
of carbon. It is very difficult to obtain the austenitic structure of the carbide phase network in steels with carbon
content of more than 1.4 wt%. Therefore, the increase in carbon over 1.4 wt% is rarely done. As shown in
figure 2, due to the high carbon content, the carbide deposits in the austenite boundaries are clearly visible in the
Hadfield manganese austenitic steel [44–49]. When the carbon content reaches above 1.2 wt%, the amount of
carbide deposits in the boundaries or austenite increases, so that the coarse deposits created in the austenite
boundary create problems after casting and heat treatment. Because unsolved carbides in austenite after heat
treatment reduce the toughness of this steel. It can, therefore, be said with certainty that the presence of carbide
and ceramic compounds can greatly affect the properties of alloys and engineering components [24, 50, 51]. In
general, carbon element has a definite effect on the mechanical properties of Hadfield manganese austenitic
steel. These impacts include: increasing the yield strength, increasing wear resistance, increasing tensile strength
and increasing the relative length to a certain range of carbon and then reducing them with increasing carbon. In
figure 3, the effect of carbon on mechanical properties of Hadfield steel has been shown.
The chromium element is added in the range of 1.5 to 2.5 wt% by weight to increase the strength of the sink
to Hadfield steel. Chromium uptake results in the formation of complex carbides of (Fe, Mn, Cr)23C6 in the
grains and will greatly reduce the toughness of these steels. Basically, chromium is added to the Hadfield
manganese austenitic steel to improve wear resistance. Since chromium is a strong carbide forming element, it
produces a hardening in Hadfield steel by making carbides of the complex (Fe, Mn, Cr)23C6. It is because
carbides are those particles that contribute to increase hardness in steels [24, 52]. Due to the role of chromium in
the abrasion behavior of Hadfield manganese austenitic steel, a great deal of research has been devoted on the
effect of this element on the wear behavior of Hadfield steel. Agunsoye et al [52] compared the properties and the
structure of the auxiliary manganese austenitic steel and high-chromium iron alloys, and their results indicate
that in the heat treatment, Hadfield steel strength is higher than that of iron-chromium alloys. Mahallawi et al
[53] investigated the effect of 1.7 to 2.3 weight percent chromium on the hardness and abrasion behavior of the
Hadfield manganese austenitic steel. These researchers have reported that with increasing chromium content
from 1.7 to 2.3 wt%, hardness and wear resistance increased but toughness decreased. As shown in figure 4,
studies on the effect of chromium on the mechanical properties of Hadfield manganese austenite steel show that
with increasing chromium, the hardening strength and hardness of Hadfield steel are increased. But in excess of
1.8–2 wt% of chromium, tensile strength and elongation will be decreased. This is due to the formation of
complex carbides of (Fe, Mn, Cr)23C6.

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Figure 3. A schematic of effect of carbon content on mechanical properties of Hadfield steel.

Figure 4. A schematic of effect of chromium content on mechanical properties of Hadfield steel.

The use of titanium element to neutralize the effect of phosphorus in steel making has been considered. This
element reduces the amount of austenite-soluble carbon by making stable carbides, and thus the mechanical
properties of steel greatly affects. The presence of titanium improves the structure of the piece after solidification
(due to its usefulness, the structure is fine-grained). By creating resistance to brittleness (in amounts less than
0.1% by weight of titanium), the sensitivity to the heat treatment cycle in the piece is reduced and thus the piece
protects the risk of cracking during the heat treatment. The use of titanium element for fine-grained structure
and increase of hardness in this steel has been very efficient [54, 55]. In the other studies by Srivastava and Das
[54], it is reported that the Hadfield steel wear resistance can be improved by designing composites including
Hadfield steel and titanium carbide reinforcing particles. It has been observed in various reports that the main
reason for increasing the hardness in containing titanium steels is solid TiC particles. In figure 5, it is observed
that the presence of titanium in the Hadfield manganese austenite steel increases the yield strength and
hardening, but due to the formation of carbide and nitride deposits, it reduces the toughness and flexibility of
Hadfield steel.
The element of vanadium is very strong carbide forming. Therefore, this element is added to Hadfield steel to
increase the yield strength and hardness. Moghadam et al [56] studied the wear properties of Hadfield steel.
Moghaddam and his colleagues showed that adding vanadium to manganese steels increases the hardness of the
manganese austenite steel. The researchers used the XRD analysis to investigate the cause of the incident, which
is the result of their review of the formation of the V8C7 carbide. Moghadam and his colleagues have reported the
hardness superiority of vanadium-containing manganese steels to Hadfield manganese steel because of
formation of vanadium carbide particles (V8C7).
One of the main reasons for the use of aluminum in steels is the effect of deoxidation of this element. For this
reason, the researchers studied the effect of aluminum on the properties and microstructure of Hadfield
manganese steel. The researchers found that the addition of aluminum to Hadfield manganese steel resulted in a
reduction in the amount of grain- boundary carbides in the casting structure and the morphology of the carbides

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Figure 5. A schematic of the effect of Ti content on the mechanical properties of Hadfield steel.

from the continuous state and into a discontinuous form. Also, the addition of aluminum to Hadfield steel leads
to an increase in the solubility of carbon in the austenite crystal network and the grain size of austenite, which
does not change significantly with annealing heat treatment cycle [57]. Tian and Zhan [58] showed that
increasing the amount of aluminum in manganese steels increased the driving force required for austenite
transformation to martensite in these steels, and it also reduces the formation temperature of martensite (Ms).
As a result, aluminum will stabilize the austenite phase compared to martensitic in manganese austenitic steels.
Research has been conducted to improve the wear resistance of Hadfield steel, showing that carbon increase
in Hadfield steel can increase wear resistance. But the increase in carbon in this steel is associated with the
problem of the formation of more manganese carbides in the austenite grain-boundaries. Therefore, the rate of
carbon increase is somewhat possible, which does not lead to the deposition of these carbides during quenching
from high temperatures [24, 49–51]. One of the ways to increase carbon content in the chemical composition of
Hadfield manganese steel is to increase its solubility in the austenite phase. To increase the effective solubility of
carbon in austenite in Hadfield manganese austenitic steels, a solid soluble element should increase the solubility
of carbon in the austenite network. But this element should not react with carbon and should not lead to the
formation of carbide. Also, it must not react with iron and manganese and produce intermetallic compounds. It
should not reduce the casting ability of steel, and economic aspects should be considered when adding it to steel.
Research on the effect of alloying elements on carbon dioxide activity showed that aluminum can achieve all of
these [59, 60].
Silicon is a carbide forming element and is usually added to steel to increase its hardness and wear resistance.
In Hadfield manganese steels containing 1 wt% silicon, there is no needle-shaped carbide, but if the amount of
silicon is 0.5 wt%, then needle-shaped carbides are observed. But in general, the amount of 0.8 wt% silicon gives
the best fluidity and casting properties to manganese steels. If the amount of silicon is exceeded, a percentage of
the weight of the piece will tend to be brittle. In various standards, the use of Hadfield steel parts, the amount of
silicon and other alloying elements is determined and depending on the manufacturer’s and customer’s
agreement, they may have a different range. For example, the amount of silicon for the centerpiece of the needle
rail should not exceed 1 wt%, and it is recommended in the Hadfield parts in the cement industry that the
amount of silicon is less than 1% by weight [61, 62]. Figure 6 shows the effect of the amount of silicon on the
mechanical properties of the Hadfield manganese austenite steel. As seen from this figure, up to 1 wt% by weight
of silicon, tensile strength, yield strength and hardness increased, but due to the formation of SiC particles in the
microstructure, the flexibility of the Hadfield manganese austenite steel decreases.

4. Microstructure of Hadfield steel

For Hadfield manganese austenitic steels (with the exception of families containing vanadium, chromium and
molybdenum), the optimal structure is a fully austenitic structure and single-phase. In the casting parts that are
not heat treated, the microscopic structure of the unit consists of austenite and carbide phase. The carbide phase
is caused by the release of carbon from the austenite phase during cooling. Carbides are commonly found in
grain boundaries and within austenite grains. To provide optimum toughness, the Hadfield manganese
austenitic steel structure should be quite austenitic. To achieve such a structure, the casting parts are subjected to
austenitic heat treatment. As a result of heat treatment, the highest amount of carbon is obtained as a solid
solution, and a completely austenitic structure is created [4, 57]. However, the casting parts that are actually

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Figure 6. A schematic of effect of silicon content on mechanical properties of Hadfield steel.

produced have carbide phase values in the grain-boundaries (especially in high-thickness parts), which is normal
due to the high carbon content of the Hadfield steel. If the heat treatment of Hadfield steel is not done properly,
the structure will not ultimately be favorable for toughness and resistance to impact. These steels have a highly
sensitive microstructure to the cross-sectional thickness. The austenite single-phase microstructure is austenitic
under heat treatment, and then quenched in water. However, in parts with a thick cross-section, which is not
common in this class due to relatively low thermal conductivity, this category of steels has a low quench velocity,
which results in the deposition of the carbide and even inside the grain It becomes. In the thick section of this
phenomenon, this phenomenon is associated with the high separation of alloy elements such as manganese in
these regions, and the result is a decrease in the mechanical properties of these components [2, 8, 11].
Except for the compounds containing vanadium, which are hardened sediment classes and molybdenum-
containing compounds, which are a dispersed hard class of Hadfield manganese austenite steels, the remaining
groups of this steel have a single-phase austenite microstructure. In casting, the microstructure consists of the
austenite matrix and the carbide deposits, which are formed by the reaction of carbon with carbide forming
elements such as iron, manganese, chromium. These carbides, especially in the grain-boundaries, can be formed
and are often used to reduce the amount of these sediments from heat treatment at temperatures above 1000 °C.
The Hadfield manganese austenitic steels obtain their toughness by heat treatment. Therefore, the dissolution
temperature should be so high that the carbides are dissolved in austenite, so that with the subsequent
quenching, the austenite single-phase structure with the least amount of carbide sediment is obtained. In
practice, the structure is not completely austenite, and a percentage of the carbides in the grain-boundaries,
especially in parts with a thick cross section, can be found [1, 45]. A schematic diagram of the microstructure of
Hadfield manganese austenite steel is shown in figure 7.

5. Work hardening in Hadfield steel

The mechanical properties of the Hadfield manganese austenitic steels change with mechanical work. Prior to
1960, the fast hardening strain of Hadfield manganese austenite steel was attributed to austenite degeneration to
martensite [63, 64]. Later, studies on the properties of manganese steel in carbon and manganese percent less
than Hadfield manganese austenitic steel reveal new details that can hardly be true. Recent studies over the past
four decades on samples from this steel emphasize the fact that two phenomena of dislocation accumulation and
the formation of twins during plastic deformation of these steels are the main determinant of the hardening
strain of this steel [64, 65]. In this connection, Yan and his colleagues [64] tried to increase the hardness of the
surface of the Hadfield manganese austenite steel by performing mechanical work. These researchers used the
shot-peening to work hard on the surface. And reported that increasing the time of shot peening operation
increases the hardness of surface.
In figure 8, an example of the effect of the shot peening operation on the hardness of the Hadfield steel
surface is shown. In this figure it can be seen that by increasing the shot peening time, the hardness of the surface
of this steel increases. Also, Yan and colleagues [64] reported in part of their results that, although the surface
hardening performed by the shot peening process, but as the distance from the surface approaches the sample
core, hardness also decreases. This phenomenon is due to the presence of a soft core (austenitic matrix) in the
Hadfield manganese austenitic steels. In figure 9, an example of the effect of distance from the work hardened
surface is shown on the hardness. Over the past few years, many studies have been carried out to find out that the

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Figure 7. A schematic of the microstructure of Hadfield manganese austenitic steel.

Figure 8. An example of the effect of shot peening operations on the hardness of the Hadfield steel surface.

Figure 9. An example of the effect of distance from the work hardened surface on the hardness of the Hadfield steel sample core.

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mechanisms of plastic deformation and hardness of these steels, which for many years were unclear and
ambiguous, were well understood. In some cases, it has been observed that there are errors and contradictions in
the introduced mechanisms. Including Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP). It is expected that metals
with a face centered cubic (FCC) structure will have more slip-in devices and less twins, but studies have shown
that in alloys with a FCC structure and low-power defects energy, twin due to plastic deformation arises. Such a
phenomenon is called Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP). New research on single crystals by transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) has determined that twin strain has a large contribution to the plastic deformation
of Hadfield steel [65–67]. The mechanical properties of the Hadfield steels vary with mechanical work. The
maximum hardness in Hadfield steels depends on a variety of factors:

– Work hardening conditions

– Work hardening way
– Chemical composition of steel
– Type of heat treatment.

6. Heat treatment of Hadfield steel

Undoubtedly, the heat treatment process applied to the steels has a great influence on their mechanical
properties and corrosion. Investigations on the high-manganese austenitic steels show that the temperature of
the annealing has a great influence on the mechanical properties of these alloys. In general, this steel goes
through a casting process, then the austenitizing heat treatment and direct quenching in water. The final
structure of Hadfield steel is austenite structure with different amounts of carbide. Hadfield manganese
austenitic steel due to its high carbon content, its structure in casting conditions, includes austenite grains and
grain boundary carbide sediments. In this case, Hadfield steels are brittle and unusable. In order to solve this
problem, Sabzi et al [37] showed that if after casting, this steel goes under direct quenching in the water, the grain
boundary carbides would be removed and the undesirable effects of carbide particles on the mechanical
properties of this steel are prevented. In this regard, it has been reported that if after the austenitic heat treatment,
Hadfield steel is quenched in a bath of salt water, it is possible to prevent the formation of carbide particles in this
steel. As the amount of salt in the quench solution increases, the cooling intensity of this solution increases and
prevents the formation of a large amount of carbides. In a part of their studies, a number of researchers also
investigated the effect of thermal and thermal solution annealing temperature, and showed that with increasing
the solution annealing temperature and time, the amount of sediments in the microstructure of these steels
decreases. The proposed temperatures for the Hadfield manganese austenitic steel heat treatment are at a
temperature range of 900 °C–1150 °C, which considering the thickness of the component and the alloying
elements present in it, the different times for this heat treatment should be taken into account [12, 37]. The rapid
cooling of parts in the turbulent water bath creates a structure consisting of austenitic matrix with dispersed
particles and microstructures in it. Such steel has higher yield strength, higher hardness and less flexibility than
conventional Hadfield steel. The speed of cooling the austenitic parts in the turbid water bath in order to provide
the desired structure is very important, but it should be noted that this speed cannot be increased from the heat
transfer rate of hot metal to turbulent water. As a result, the parts with higher thickness have less mechanical
properties in the core than in the surface. But in molten or nickel-free manganese austenitic steels, there is the
probability of sedimentation of Fe3C or the presence of some perlite along with austenite after quenching,
especially in thick sections. Therefore, in this type of steels, the cooling rate is somewhat high and even an
appropriate water-based system is used to prevent the temperature from rising.
Due to the fact that the thermal expansion coefficient of Hadfield steel is about 3% and is approximately 1.5
times that more than simple carbon steel and also due to the fact that the thermal conductivity of this steel is less
than ordinary carbon steel, so rapid heating in the furnace can cause cracking in the parts. The austenitizing
temperature should be proportional to the percentage of carbon, and the initial temperature of the furnaces
where the Hadfield manganese austenitic steel is supposed to be austenite should be less than 250 °C. And in no
way should the unit be subjected to heat treatment in furnaces with a heat exceeding this temperature. The rate
of rise in the furnace temperature should be less than 100 °C / hr. Therefore, to make a piece of this alloy warm
up to the austenitization temperature (1100 °C), about 11 to 12 h is required [12, 37].
In figure 10, the range of austenite and carbide stability is shown with respect to temperature and carbon
content. According to this figure, it can be concluded that for standard austenite steel with a carbon content of
about 1.2 wt%, the best temperature for austenitizing is about 950 °C–1000 °C. In this case, the carbides formed

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Mater. Res. Express 6 (2019) 1065c2 M Sabzi and M Farzam

Figure 10. Austenite and carbide stability range with respect to temperature and carbon content for Hadfield steel.

after casting in the matrix of austenite are somewhat dissolved and the undesirable effects of carbide particles on
the toughness and flexibility of the Hadfield austenitic steel are reduced.

7. Wear behavior of Hadfield steel

The main application of Hadfield steel in the industry is in areas where it is wearing (such as railways, jaw
crusher, drill bits, gears, etc). Therefore, the wear behavior of this steel is very important. Many studies have been
done to improve the abrasion resistance of this steel and a group of researchers have been able to improve this
feature in Hadfield steel by adding some alloying elements to chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, etc
[68–70]. Improving the efficiency of steel in the industry has always been the subject of research by researchers.
Recently, the most challenging researches have been done on the development of new materials with
extraordinary properties such as high strength, hardness, toughness and wear resistance. Austenitic high-
manganese steels have attracted the attention of the researchers due to their desirable properties such as
toughness, flexibility, hardness and abrasion resistance, and in a wide range of industries such as automobiles,
mines, drill bits, oil drilling, steelmaking, railways, shipbuilding, wood industry and rock crushing equipment.
The important thing about these steels is the low initial hardness and about 18 HRC after the annealing heat
treatment. This is the reason for the weak abrasion resistance at the beginning of the Hadfield steel working
period [7–9]. In this regard, and in view of the applications mentioned, various researches have been done to
improve the properties and performance of these steels.
The main weakness of the Hadfield steel is the low strength of submission and hardness after the heat
treatment of annealing and quenching in the water bath. This weakness causes the wear resistance of the piece to
be low in the early stages of wear. Or the piece, due to the initial mechanical forces, will give a plastic deformation
that will sometimes be destructive. Under the conditions of abrasion, the surface is not sufficiently work
hardened and, as a result, the wear resistance of the Hadfield steel is low. In fact, the high hardness rate of this
steel has led to its unique behavior in severe impact and wear. Therefore, the abrasive and tribologic behavior of
Hadfield steel is a function of the mechanical and physical conditions of wear. Therefore, under all conditions of
the Hadfield steel working, first of all, it must first recognize the severe wear and tear zone. That is, it determines
in which range of abrasives, wear or extreme abrasion. This recognition helps designers and users of Hadfield
steel make the terms of use of these steels more durable. Past research has shown that the high rate of work
hardening in Hadfield steel is due to mechanical stress, dynamic strain aging, and the confrontation between
dislocations with accumulation defects, for reasons such as strain induced transformation of γ to α or ε
martensite [70–73]. According to the study, the main mechanism of plastic deformation in Hadfield steel is to
create a mechanical twist and slip. But this mechanism alone is not a factor in the high rate of work hardening. In
fact, the dynamic strain aging, coupled with the formation of carbon-manganese pairs in the deformed region, is
the main factor in the high rate of work hardening in Hadfield steel. The study of the Hadfield steel abrasion
behavior has shown that, due to the high degree of hardness of Hadfield steels, abrasion is first enhanced by the
shear and severe plastic deformation. And then, with the hardening of the surface, fatigue wear occurs, so that
the amount of weight loss due to abrasion is high at the initial stages of wear and then the wear rate is reduced and
fixed [72–74].

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Mater. Res. Express 6 (2019) 1065c2 M Sabzi and M Farzam

8. Hadfield steel welding

In many applications, Hadfield manganese austenitic steel requires welding, and this is done to connect two
pieces of Hadfield or carbon steel to Hadfield steel or repair parts. The most important issue in the Hadfield
manganese austenitic steel welding is to heat the piece or work pieces during or prior to the welding, which
should be at its minimum to prevent the formation of carbide particles. However, the creation of carbide phases
in the weld region is acceptable and often the weld metal has higher strength and toughness than the base metal
[75, 76]. Due to the sensitivity of the Hadfield manganese austenite steel to the heat, it must be welded carefully.
The best method for welding this steel is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), and suitable electrodes are
commercially available for welding these steels. The electrodes offered in the market for welding these steels all
have lower carbon content than the Hadfield manganese austenite steel to prevent the carbide deposition at
welding during. Although the chemical composition of the electrodes is selected for this purpose, the welding
method must be selected in any case to prevent this phenomenon. The high-manganese electrodes contain a
small amount of alloying elements, but it is generally advisable to use these electrodes to fill the burnout, since
these compounds have less toughness than the more alloyed electrodes. During the welding process of this steel,
carbon, manganese and silicon are burnt and their amount is reduced. Therefore, some electrodes
manufacturers determine the chemical composition of the electrode according to the amount of combustion of
the elements. Welding, regardless of its scientific and practical basis, and the use of long arc and etc causes
excessive burning of these elements, and as a result, the weld region is very weak and undesirable [75, 77]. During
the rebuilding of the casted parts, the worn-out areas, which are likely to be hardened, should be removed and
discharged and then welded. This is recommended to prevent cracking. Low heat transfer and high thermal
expansion of manganese steel during welding give rise to extreme thermal tensions and excessive stresses.
Due to the sensitivity of the Hadfield manganese austenite steel to heat, a lot of research has been done on the
weldability and welding of this steel with different electrodes. Curiel-Reyna et al [77] examined the effect of
cooling rate on the structure and severity of the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) area. These researchers reported that
by decreasing the cooling rate, the micro-hardness of HAZ increases. These researchers also showed that
reducing the cooling rate after welding (cooling in the air) increases the size of the cavities and does the amount
of precipitated carbides in the HAZ. In other studies concerning the Hadfield manganese austenitic steel
welding, researchers [78] have shown that precipitated carbides in HAZ of this manganese steel are Mn7C3 and
Mn23C6. Therefore, any change in the manufacturing process can severely affect the properties of engineering
components. This has been clearly reported in the various manufacturing processes [79, 80].

9. Conclusion

In this research, the processes of casting, heat treatment and welding as well as metallurgical properties
(including microstructure and phase equilibrium) of Hadfield manganese steel were studied. The results of this
research are as follows:

(a) Hadfield steel is a non-magnetic alloy made up of iron, 1–1.4 wt% carbon and 10–14 wt% manganese,
which has a very good resistance to abrasion. The first austenitic manganese steel, containing about 1.2 wt%
carbon and 12 wt% manganese, was produced by Robert Hadfield in 1882. This high strength steel, good
flexibility and excellent abrasion resistance are widely used in various industries such as cement, mining,
road construction and railways.
(b) Induction furnace suitable for melting of Hadfield manganese austenitic steel. Manganese and alumina
refractories can be used to prevent a severe reaction between manganese and manganese oxide with silica in
silica sand. Typically silica, olivine and chromite sands are used to make mold in the casting process of
Hadfield manganese austenitic steel. Many reports have expressed that the olivine and chromite sandstone
are the most suitable material for the mold casting of the Hadfield manganese austenitic steel. It is generally
accepted that the olivine sand is suitable for the molding of lightweight and lightweight Hadfield parts, as
well as chromite sand for heavy and thick pieces. In case, the production of silhouetted molded austenitic
steel Hadfield, in the region of the common melt, an early melting molding form is made in the form of
SiO2, MnO2 which remains solid on the mold surface without any significant dependence, causing severe
sand smoke damage. It remains, causing severe sand smoke damage.
(c) Mn is used as austenite phase stabilizer in Hadfield manganese austenite steel and its role is to delay the
austenite degradation at 700 °C for 15 s. Mn a the element is carbide forming and produces carbides Mn3C
and (Fe, Mn)3C in the molded austenitic steel.

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Mater. Res. Express 6 (2019) 1065c2 M Sabzi and M Farzam

(d) The amount of carbon in the Hadfield manganese austenite steel determines the yield stress and the wear
resistance. With increasing carbon from 1 to 1.4 wt%, the yield strength and hardmess are increased in these
steels, while toughness and flexibility are greatly reduced. This is due to the formation of carbide deposits
(especially Mn3C and (Fe, Mn)3C carbides) in austenite grain-boundaries with increasing carbon content.
(e) The chromium element is added in the range of 1.5 to 2.5 wt% in order to increase the strength of the sink to
Hadfield steel. Chromium uptake contributes to the formation of complex carbides of (Fe, Mn, Cr)23C6 in
the grains and will greatly reduce the toughness of these steels. Basically, chromium is added to the Hadfield
manganese austenitic steel to improve wear resistance.
(f) The use of titanium element for reducing the size of austenite grains and increasing the hardness in Hadfield
steel has been considered. This element reduces the amount of austenite-soluble carbon by making stable
carbides, and thus the mechanical properties of steel greatly are affected.
(g) Adding aluminum to Hadfield manganese steel results in a reduction in the amount of grain-boundary
carbides in the casting structure and the morphology of the carbides from the continuous state and into a
discontinuous form. Also, the addition of aluminum to Hadfield steel leads to an increase in the solubility of
carbon in the austenite crystal network and the grain size of austenite, which does not change significantly
with annealing cycle. Aluminum is used to increase the carbon solubility in austenite in Hadfield steels.
(h) There is no needle-shaped carbide in Hadfield manganese steels containing 1 wt% silicon, but if the amount
of silicon is 0.5 wt%, then needle-shaped carbides are observed. But in general, the amount of 0.8 wt% of
silicon gives the best fluidity and casting properties to manganese steels.
(i) For Hadfield steels, the optimal structure is a fully austenitic structure and a single-phase. In the casting
parts that are not heat treated, the microscopic structure of the unit consists of austenite and carbide phase.
The carbide phase is caused by the release of carbon from the austenite phase during cooling. Carbides are
commonly found in grain boundaries and inside the austenitic grains. To provide optimum toughness, the
structure of the Hadfield steel should be quite austenitic.
(j) Twin strain has a large contribution to the plastic deformation of Hadfield steel. Two phenomena of
dislocation accumulation and the formation of twins during plastic deformation of these steels are the main
cause of the hardening strain of this steel. The high rate of work hardening in Hadfield steel is due to strain
induced transformation of γ to α or ε martensite, mechanical twinning, dynamic strain aging, and the
confrontation between dislocations with stacking faults.
(k) Hadfield steel due to its high carbon content, its structure in casting mode, including austenite grains and
grain-boundary carbide sediments. In this case, Hadfield steels are brittle and unusable. If, after casting, this
steel goes under direct quenching in the water, the grain boundary carbides would be removed and the
undesirable effects of carbide particles on the mechanical properties of this steel are prevented.
(l) The main weakness of the Hadfield steel is the low strength of submission and hardness after the heat
treatment of annealing and quenching in the water bath. This weakness causes the wear resistance of the
piece to be low in the early stages of wear. Or the piece, due to the initial mechanical forces, will give a plastic
deformation that will sometimes be destructive. Under the conditions of abrasion, the surface is not
sufficiently work hardened and, as a result, the wear resistance of the Hadfield steel is low.
(m) The most important and basic issue in the Hadfield steel welding is to heat the piece or work pieces during
or prior to welding, which should be at its minimum to prevent the formation of carbide particles. In any
case, the creation of carbide phases in the weld region is acceptable and often the weld metal has higher
strength and toughness than the base metal. The precipitated carbides are in the region HAZ of the
manganese steel of type Mn7C3 and Mn23C6. As the cooling rate decreases, the HAZ micro-hardness
increases. Also, by reducing the cooling rate after welding (cooling in the air) increases the size of the cavities
and increases the amount of deposited carbides in the HAZ.

ORCID iDs

Masoud Sabzi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9601-871X

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[78] Curiel-Reyna E et al 2007 Effect of carbide precipitation on the structure and hardness in the heat-affected zone of Hadfield steel after
post-cooling treatments Mater. Manuf. Process. 23 14–20
[79] Mersagh Dezfuli S and Sabzi M 2019 Deposition of self-healing thin films by the sol–gel method: a review of layer-deposition
mechanisms and activation of self-healing mechanisms Appl. Phys. A 125 1–8
[80] Mersagh Dezfuli S and Sabzi M 2019 Deposition of ceramic nanocomposite coatings by electroplating process: a review of layer-
deposition mechanisms and effective parameters on the formation of the coating Ceram. Int. Accepted (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ceramint.2019.07.190)

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