Tectonics - 1999 - Searle - The Tectonic Evolution of The Kohistan Karakoram Collision Belt Along The Karakoram Highway

TECTONICS, VOL. 18, NO.
6, PAGES 929-949 DECEMBER 1999
The tectonic evolution of the Kohistan-Karakoram

collision belt along the Karakoram Highway
transect, north Pakistan
M.P. Searle,M. Asif Khan,1J.E.Fraser,andS.J.Gough
Departmentof EarthSciences,OxfordUniversity,OxfordEngland,UnitedKingdom
M. Qasim Jan
Centerfor Excellencein Geology,PeshawarUniversity,Peshawar,
North-WestFrontierProvince,Pakistan
Abstract. The Kohistan arc terrane comprises an intra- actually pre-India-Asia collision and may have resulted from
oceanic island arc of Cretaceousage separatingthe Indian the earlier Kohistancollision. Localized and sporadiccrustal
plate to the south •om the Karakoram(Asian) plate to the melting episodesacrossnorthernKohistan(Indus confluence
north within the Indus suture zone of north Pakistan. The and Parri granitesheets)and the southernKarakoram(Hunza
intra-oceanicarc volcanics(Chalt, Dras Group)were built on dikesand Sumayarand Mango Gusar leucogranites)occurred
a foundationof dominantlymid-oceanridgebasalt (MORB)- •om 51 to 9 Ma and culminated in the huge Baltoro
relatedamphibolites of the Kamila Group. The subarcmagma monzogranite-leucograniteintrusion 25-21 Myr ago. A vast
chamberis representedby multiple intrusions of a huge network of leucogranitic and pegmatitite dikes containing
gabbro-norite complex (Chilas complex), which includes gemqualityaquamarine+ muscoviteñ tourmalineñ garnetñ
someultramaficassemblages of residual mantle harzburgite biotitequartzare youngerthan 5 Ma and formthe final phase
and dunite,layeredcumulates,and hornblenditescut by late of intrusion in the Haramoshareaand parts of the southern
stage dikes of hornblende + plagioclase pegmatites.The Karakoram area.
Chilas complexnorites intrude the Gilgit metasediments of
lower amphibolite and greenschist facies in northern
Kohistan, which also formxenolithic roof pendantswithin
the top of the Chilas complex.Along the southernmarginof 1. Introduction
Kohistan, Jijal and Sapat complex ultramafics(dunites,
harzburgitesand websterites)formremnantsuprasubduction
The Kohistan arc terrane in north Pakistan is widely
zone ophiolitic mantlerocks along the hanging wall of the
regardedas one of the mostcompleteexposedsectionsfrom
Main Mantle Thrust,the Cretaceousobduction plane along
the deep root to the volcanic edifice of an island arc
which Kohistan was emplacedonto Indian plate rocks.
[Tahirkheli et al., 1979; Tahirkheli, 1982; Bard, 1983;
Garnetgranulitesof the Jijal complex,formedat 12-14 kbars,
Coward et al., 1987; Kazmi and Jan, 1997]. The Kohistan
representoriginal magmaticlower crustal rocks subductedto
archasbeentrappedwithinthe Tethyansuturezones(Shyok
depths of at least 45 km and metamorphosed during high-
sutureto the north and Indus sutureto the south) between
pressure and high-temperaturesubduction of earlier arc-
India and Asia during the Himalayan collision (Figure 1).
relatedrocks.Obductionof the Sapatophiolite and Kohistan
arc occurred between---75 and 55 Ma.
The Kohistan arc has been deformed,tilted to the north,
uplifted, and eroded following collision, providing an
The closureof the Shyok suturezone separatingKohistan
informativewindow into the deeper levels of the arc crust
from the Karakoramplate musthave occurredprior to 75 Ma,
[Tahirkheli and Jan, 1979; Searle and Asif Khan, 1996].
the age of the Jutal basic dikes which crosscutthe closure-
Not only is the Kohistanarc superblywell exposedfrom base
related fabrics,mainly late north directed backthrustingin
to top, but it also reveals the magmaticand structural
the lower Hunza valley. Andean-type granitoid (gabbro-
evolution of the arcfroman intra-oceanic,Marianas-typearc
diorite-granodiorite-granite) emplacement along the
Kohistan-Ladakh batholith ended at the time of India-Asia systemto an evolved Andean-type magmaticarc following
accretionto the Asian (=Karakoramterrane)plateto the north
collision, -• 60-50 Myr ago. Postcollisional crustal
[Coward et al., 1987; Khan et al., 1989, 1993; Treloar et al.,
thickening along the Karakoramled to multiple episodes of
1996].
metamorphismfrom latest Cretaceousand throughout the
The Karakoramterranein north Pakistanis equivalentto
Tertiary. Sillimanite grade metamorphismin Hunza was
the LhasaBlock of southTibet, and togetherthey formedthe
southernmarginof the Asian plate prior to the collision of
first Kohistanduringthe Late Cretaceousand then India a•r
•Nowat Centerfor Excellence in Geology, Peshawar University,the early Eocene.Although the Karakoramand the Tibetan
Peshawar,North-WestFrontier Province,Pakistan
...
plateau have a similar averageelevation of around 5.2 km

abovemeansealevel (Msl), the geologicalexposuresare very
Copyright1999by theAmericanGeophysical Union
different[Searle,1991].Tibet is a high,relativelyfiat uplifted
IPapernumber 1999TC900042. plateauwhich has not beendeeply erodedand only reveals
0278-7407/99/1999TC900042512.00 upper crustal sediments and volcanics, whereas the
929
19449194, 1999, 6, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/1999TC900042 by INASP/HINARI - PAKISTAN, Wiley Online Library on [06/06/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
930 SEARLE ET AL.: KOHISTAN-KARAKORAM COLLISION, NORTH PAKISTAN
I I
36--
KOHISTAN
VVVV
NORTH TIBET
SPU
Islamat••
' .
-- 32
'•"••oN•o,
QIANTANG TERRANE
32--
PAKISTAN •"•" • LHASATERRANE

S.TIBET
//
Tibet /4/ou•E •,• DLhasa
N. HIMALAYAN DOMES
[] Delhi
INDIA
76 80 84 88 92
Figure 1. Map of the Himalaya,Karakoram,and Tibet regions, showing major faults, suture zones, and
terranes.KF, Karakoram Fault; ISZ, Indus suture zone; MMT, Main Mantle Thrust; MCT, Main Central
Thrust;MBT, Main BoundaryThrust. Himalayan sectorsare abbreviatedas follows: NP, Nanga Parbat; K,
Kashmir;A, Annapurna;M, Manaslu; SP, ShishaPangma;E, Everest; C, Chomolhari;KK, Khula Kangri.
SPU is the Siachenplutonic unit offsetequivalent of the Baltoro plutonic unit (BPU). SSZ is the Shyok
suturezone and MKT is the Main KarakoramThrust. Inset shows the location of the western Himalaya in
southAsia. MKT, Main KarakoramThrust;NCTL, NyenchenTangglarange;ISZ, Indussuturezone.
Karakoramhas large topographicdifferences(7000-8700 m geochemistry,isotope chemistry,and geochronology from

mountaintops to 2500-3000 m valleys) and has suffered Kohistanand the Karakoramhas emergedin the last 10 years,
enormous amountsof deformationanderosion(up to 35 km of and we attempthere to compilethis new data and use it to
erosionsince35 Myr ago; [Searle, 1991; Searle and Tirrul, proposea tectonicevolutionarymodelfor the Kohistanarc in
1991]. Collision processesaffectingthe deep crust of Asia a strict senseand the collisionprocess,both in the Kohistan
thereforecannot be studied in the surfacegeology of Tibet arc terraneand in the KarakoramAsian terrane. This paper
but can be well studied and documented in the Karakoram. reviewsthe geologyof the sectionthroughKohistan and the
The Karakoram Highway (KKH) from Rawalpindi in Hunza Karakoramalong the KKH route [Tahirkheli and Jan,
Pakistanto Kashgarin Xinjiang is one of only three roads 1979; Searle and AsifKhan, 1996] and attemptsto correlate
which cross the entire Himalayan belt from the Indian the timings of metamorphism,magmatism,and structural
forelandto the LhasaBlock (the othersbeing the Friendship historyof the India- Kohistanarc- Karakoramcollision belt.
Highway from Kathmandu to Lhasa and the Darjeeling- Figure 3 is a Late Cretaceous- Tertiary time chartwhich plots
Sikkim to Tibet road) and the only one which crossesthe all the reliable geochronological data for the Pakistan
entire Karakoram mountains. The KKH traverses the western Himalaya,Kohistan,andKarakoram(bothHunzaand Baltoro
Himalaya, the Kohistanarc terrane,and the Hunza Karakoram regions) terranes, as well as our inferred timings of
and is surely the most spectacularsection across the deformation(D1, D2, etc.) and metamorphism (M1, M2, etc.).
youngest and highest orogenic belt on Earth. The KKH The Himalayan terranesouth of Kohistan is not included in
follows the Indus river north to its confluence with the this review, but readers are referred to Treloar et al.
Gilgit river thenascends
the Gilgit andHunza valleysto the [1989,a,b,c], DiPietro [1991], DiPietro et al. [1993] and
Khunjerabpass,the maincontinental divide(Figure2). Kazmi and Jan [1997], and referencestherein, for details-of
A large volumeof new field structural data combinedwith the Pakistani Himalaya.
931
SEARLEET AL.' KOHISTAN-KARAKORAM
COLLISION,
NORTHPAKISTAN
Darkot pass
72i 75i Khunjerab
pass 77i N
Wakhan
/ Aghil
Range
/
TIBET
'J• Kamila
iAmphibolites
I ] 35i
Rawalpindi
e ß ß ß ß ß ß ß ß
ß. Potwarplateauß. ' '

ß ß ß ß ß ß ß
ß ß
ß ß
ß ß ß . . • • ß
ß ß ß ß ß ß ß ß ß
ß ß ß ß ß ß ß ß ß ß
ASIAN PLATE INDIAN PLATE
F•-++.•
Karakoram
Batholith • Zanskar
Shelf
I I ZanskarShear Zone (normalfault)
•--• S.Karakoram
metamorphic
complex ZSZ I
MKT • Main Karakoram Thrust HighHimalaya

metamorphic
rocks+ leucogranite
•-• Kohistan
-- Ladakh
Batholith
and
volcanics MCT ß ß ß Main Central Thrust
"•b
_-,•Chilas
Complex • Lesser
Himalaya
•-'-• Kamila
amphibolites MBT ß ß A Main BoundaryThrust
b'•_•
I•;.x\'•.|Jijal+ Sapat
complex
MMT • Main Mantle Thrust
MFT-•- -•- -•- Main FrontalThrust
Figure
2. Geological
mapofthewestern
Himalaya,
Kohistan,
andKarakoram.
SF,Stak
Fault;
RF,Raikot
Fault;
Sp,Spontang
ophiolite
inLadakh;
TMC,
TsoMorari
complex;
ZSZ,
Zanskar
shear
zone;
MCT,Main
Central
Thrust;
MBT,MainBoundary
Thrust;
MFT,MainFrontal
Thrust.
Thicklineshows
theroute
ofthe
KarakoramHighway(KKH).
HIMALAYA
•)3•- KOHISTAH KARAKORAM
Ma W.Paklstan
1 Nanga
Parbat HUNZA BALTORO
Quaternary
Pllocene
Metamorphism
+ Exhumation
(•x gneiss
Dassu sillimanite
x Sumayar
leucogranite
.9 I Staurolite-Grt Schist r-• Masherbrum

leucogranite
x (• Metamorphism
Staurolite
grade
+Parri
aplite
Jaglot granite -o
Baltoro
•
granite
Latok
Contact
o
Metamorphism
-I MangøI
Gusar x
HT/LP
-- E
kyanite gneiss
I
._
• I
x Hunza dikes Set 2
!
-1 I
.•, Sillimanite
0
o
o [ M2 )grade KY
anite-
• 4, • -o o
x"-•Metamorphism SIIIimanite
o • HT/MP etamorphism;
HT/MP
Besal
eclogite I
x Hunza dikes Set 1
I
[• Gilgit
granite I
Utror andesire I
ß Shamran !
!
o 60- • Gindai granite
andesite•
,
r• Kuk granite
65-
!
x sillimanite
70-
gneiss
•)
75- Jutal basic dike
Muztagh Tower
80- Shangla blueschists

SSZ closure
Santonian85-
Coniacian Chilas norite
Turonian Koz Sar granite

90-
Cenomanian
95-
x Hunza granodiorite
100-
<•Jijal
granulite
Mature
Das
lO5- Hunza granodiorite
granite
110-
x U-Pb Darkot pass granite

• Sm/Nd K2 gneiss
•0 At/At
Rb/Sr Yasin
Gp
limestones
• Andalusite
grade
Garnet
+
Metamorphtsm
HT/LP
Figure
3. Cretaceous-Tertiary
time
Chart
showing
allreliable
radiometric
agesforthePakistan
Himalaya
including
Nanga
Parbat,
Kohistan,
and
theHunza
and
BaltoroKarakoram.
Sources
ofdataforNanga
Parbat
are
Zeitler
[1985],
Zeitler
andChamberlain
[1991],
Zeitler
etal.[1993],
Smithetal.[1992,
1994],
and
Winslow
etaL[1996];
sources
ofdata
fortheShangla
blueschists
within
theMMTzone:
areMaluski
and
Matte
[1984],
and .4nczkiewicz
etaL[1998];
Sources
ofdata
forthePakistan
Himalaya
areTreloar
etal.
[1999a],
and Treloar
andRex[1990];
Sources
ofdataforKohistan
areZeitler
andChamberlain[1991],
Petterson
andIKindley
[1995],
Treloar
etaL[1999a],
GeorgeetaL[1995],
Tonarini
etaL[1993],and
Yamamoto
and Nakamura
[1996];
sources
ofdatafortheHunza
Karakoram
are
LeFort
etal.[1983],
Debon
[1995],
and Fraser
etaL[1999];
and
sources
ofdatafortheBaltoro
Karakoram
areSearle
etal.[1989,
1990a],
Parrish
andTirrul
[1989],
Searle
andTirrul
[1991],
Searle
[1991,
1996]
andFraser
etal.[1999].
SEARLE ET AL.: KOHISTAN-KARAKORAM COLLISION, NORTH PAKISTAN 933
2. Tectonic Overview complexwhich hasbeenobductedonto the Indian plate to

the southalongthe MMT and subsequentlydeformed, partly
metamorphosed, and intrudedby Andean-typegranodioritic
The India-Asia collision which resulted in the Himalaya plutons of the Transhimalayan batholith. Much of western
and the upliRedplateauof Tibet is complicatedin the western and central Kohistan remains unmapped,but pioneering
part of the orogenby the largeKohistanarc-microplatewhich mapping,mostlyalongand aroundthe KarakoramHighway
has been trapped within the suture zone between India and sectionwas carriedout by Tahirkheli [1982], Tahirkheli et
Asia (FiguresI and 2). The intra-oceanicKohistan island arc al. [1979] and Bard [1983]. The most recentreviews were
was a Cretaceousvolcanic are within Tethys which first writtenby Treloar et al. [1996], Kazmi and dan [1997] and
collidedwith Asia alongthe Shyoksuturezone (SSZ) during Khan et al. [1997].
the latestCretaceousand later collided with India along the
Indus suture zone (ISZ), or Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) as it
is called in Pakistan,during the early to mid-Eocene[Searle
et al., 1987]. The Kohistan are terraneevolved froman intra- 3.1. Main Mantle Thrust Zone
oceanic volcanic are into an Andean-type magmaticarc,
dominatedby intrusion of large-scalegranodioritic magmas
The Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) is a zone of southward
with time following collision with Asia [Petterson and
Winalley,1985, 1991]. The Kohistan are is widest and best
directedshearingalong which the Kohistan arc terranewas
developed in north Pakistan, but it does continue east into emplacedover the Indian plate. The MMT is definedas the
Cretaceous subduction zone above which the Kohistan
Ladakh (India) where the are is known as the Dras volcanic
island arc formed, and the Late Cretaceous - earliest
are [Searleet al., 1988; Reuber, 1989]. It dies out rapidly to
Paleoceneobduction thrust at the base of Kohistan, during
the eastand is not presentat all to the eastof westernLadakh
collision with India. The MMT was subsequently folded
(Figure 1).
The crustalstructureof the Asian plate margin is also very
aroundsmall culminationsin the underlyingHimalayanslab,
such as the Beshamfold [Treloar et al., 1989b] and much
differentalong the strike of the orogen.Prior to collision of
Kohistan, the southern margin of Asia included the largeronessuchas the Nanga Parbat- Haramoshsyntaxial
Karakoram terrane in the west and the Lhasa Block to the anticline(Figure2). Late stagereactivationalongthe traceof
east.The precollisional geology of both the Karakoramand the MMT hasresultedin the developmentof the Raikot Fault
Tibet was dominatedby subaerialredbedsedimentation,talc- along the west margin and the Stak Fault along the east
alkalinevolcanismand intrusion of long linear talc-alkaline marginof the Nanga Parbat - Haramoshmassif.Both faults
batholiths, similar to the Andes [Searle et al., 1989]. The result from the rapid phase of uplift of the Nanga Parbat -
postcollisional structure,however, is very different. Tibet Haramoshmassif(NPH)during the Neogene, when extreme
exhumation rates in the NPH massif contrast with the low
formsan upliftedplateauwheremiddleanddeepcrustalrocks
erosion and exhumation rates in the Kohistan and Ladakh
are never seenat the surface.The Karakoramis dominantly
composed of mid crustaland deepcrustalmetamorphic rocks, terraneseithersideof it [Zeitler, 1985]. Compressionaround
migmatites,andcrustalmelt leucograniteswhich show up to the NPH syntaxis has resulted in localized westward
35 km of exhumationsince35 Myr ago [Searle, 1991; Searle directedthrusting(Liachar Thrust) [Butler and Prior, 1988]
et al., 1992]. Searle and Tirrul [1991] proposedfour major along the trace of the earlier MMT in the Raikot bridge area
phases of metamorphism and deformationin the southern (Figure 4).
Karakoram, an early (?Jurassic - Early Cretaceous) The Cretaceousobductionplane alongthe MMT is marked
precollisionalM1 associatedwith widespreadgranodiorite by a zone of serpentinite melange or ophiolitic melange
intrusions,the major postcollision M2 regional Barrovian- which includes the Shangla, Mingora, and Charbagh
type metamorphism, and a youngerM3 contactmetamorphic melanges[Kazmi and dan, 1997]. These melangescontain
aureole around the 25-21 Ma Baltoro granite batholith. high-presureassemblagessuch as the Shanglablueschists,
Recent geochronology studies in both the Hunza and which have a crossitc,glaucophane+ epidote + phengite
Baltoro regions of north Pakistan have shed considerable paragenesis, typical of transitional blueschist- greenschist
new light on the timings of metamorphism, magmatism, and facies.Maluski and Matte [1984] dated the glaucophane
deformationalong the Karakoramplate [Fraser et al. 1999]. schistat 80 Ma using4øAr/39Ar
stepheating.
RecentRb/Sr
We now discuss the Kohistan and Karakoram terranes in datingof amphibole/phengite pairsgaveagesof 77 ñ 0.4 and
detailbeforepresentinga tectonicmodelwhich accountsfor 79.7 ñ 0.4 Ma [.dnczkiewiczet al., 1998]. At Mingora,
all the data summarized here. emeraldsoccurwithin talc + magnesite+ fuchsiteand quartz
+ carbonatelithologies, resulting probably from infiltration
of CO2 - rich fluids during metasomatism of a serpentinized
3. Kohistan Terrane ultramaficrock [.drif et al., 1996]. Immediately south of the
MMT a sequenceof greenschistfacies,phyllites, psammites,
and marbles (Saidu schist) has been interpreted as
The Kohistan terrane(Figure 4) is sandwichedbetween representing the drowningof the Indian shelf,precedingand
the Indian plate (Himalaya)to the south along the ISZ or during obduction of Kohistan along the MMT [DiPietro et
MMT, and the Asian plate (Karakoramterrane)to the north al., 1993]. These low-grade, deep marine sedimentsmay be
along the Shyok suturezone SSZ. It is widely regardedas lateral equivalents of the Lamayuru complex in the Indus
representinga large-scaleCretaceousintra-oceanicisland arc suturezone of Ladakh [Searleet al., 1988].
934 SEARLE ET AL.' KOHISTAN-KARAKORAM COLLISION, NORTH PAKISTAN
J7•' J73
• J74'
KARAKORAMPLATE
KOHISTAN
V V V V V V V Chair
V V V
+ + + • v v v
+ + + + + + + +
Mature Dasv ,
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Jmosh
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4-
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Ja•lot
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +Raikot
+ + +
Nansa N
Chilas
Parbat
t
35ø--- Babusar
xxxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxx
•apat
Gati..[----•
. Chitas
complex KamitaAmphiboliteBelt
/
/ ToraTiga
Dir
Group
A,•,i rocks •-• diodtic
volcanic
sedimentsmetabasalts
with
andbasic,
granitic intrusive rocks
Jijal and Sapat
Yasin
ChaltSedimentary
Volcanic Group
Group i• complexes:
layeredgabbros
I.,I
50 km
I I I
INDIAN
PLATE ,..• Gilgit
paragneisses
as _i•'-
•
Kohistan
count.
BathoUth
q/rocks
ultramafic
rocks
Indus
Suture
melange
Figure 4. Geologicalmapof Kohistan,[afterTahirkheliand dan, 1979; Searle and Asif Khan, 1996; Khan
et al., 1997]. KKH is the routeof the KarakoramHighway.
3.2. Sapat and Jijai Complexes The Jijal complex represents the deepest part of the
Kohistanarc terranein southernKohistan. It is composedof
two main units, a lower mainly ultramaficunit of dunites,
The southernmarginof Kohistanis markedby a numberof
harzburgites,websterites,and clinopyroxenitesand an upper
ultramafic-gabbroic,probableophiolitic,assemblages (Figure
unit consistingpredominantlyof garnet granulites [Jan and
4). Theseincludethe Tora Tiga, part of the Shangla,lower
Howie, 1980, 1981; Miller et aL, 1991]. The Jijal complex
Jijal,andthe Sapatand Babusarcomplexes[Jan et al., 1993;
appearsto be restrictedto the area either side of the KKH
Khan et al., 1993]. All of these upper mantle and lower
near Jijal and Patan; however, similar garnet granulites at
oceaniccrustalrocksareat the samestructuralhorizonalong
Kwazakhela in the lower Swat valley are probably lateral
the hanging wall of the MMT and probably represent
equivalents.The granulites are composedof the following
remnantTethyanophiolites,or part of ophiolites, that were
main mineral assemblages:
formedin the forearcto the developingKohistanarc(Figure
5, modelA). The ultramaficpart of theseophiolitesis mainly grt+ opx+ cpx+ pl + qtz+ ilm+scp+ mag
harzburgite(olivine + orthopyroxene + chromespinel)and grt-+ cpx+ pl +scp+ rt + qtz+ ilm + mag;and
dunite(olivine + chromespinel) which has beenpartly or grt+ cpx+ hbl+ pl +scp+ rt + qtz+ Jim+ mag
wholly replacedby serpentinization.Presentassemblages
includeserpentine
mineralssuchas antigoriteand chrysotile, These pyroxene granulite facies rocks have definite
talc,asbestos,
andrarerodingite(Ca-metasomatized gabbro). metamorphic,granoblastictextures although original
The Sapat complexcontains thin-layered pyroxenites, igneoustexturesand layering,with alternatingmoremafic
dunites,gabbros,
andanorthosites [Janet al., 1993],which andmorefelsiclayers,arealsorecognized, andtheserocks
couldbeinterpreted
asa cumulateseries,overlainby layered sometimes exhibita cumulustexture.Previous
interpretations
gabbros andanorthosites. includea metamorphicoriginfor the garnetgranulites[Jan
93 5
SEARLEET AL.' KOHISTAN-KARAKORAM COLLISION, NORTH PAKISTAN
and Howie, 1981] or a magmaticorigin [Ringuette et aL, the mylonites [Arbaret et aL, 1998]. Deformation began
1999]. Experimentaldata show that if the garnets were during the latest phase of igneous activity representedby
magmatic,pressures wouldhaveto havebeenaround20 MPa intrusion of the gabbro-norites and continued during
[Green, 1976]. Ringuette et al. [1999] showed that most northward subduction and SW thrusting of Kohistan along
garnetsin the Jijal complexare zoned with an increasein the proto-MMT. A localized, younger phaseof north to N E
grossulariteand decreasein almandineand pyrope contents directed normal shearing along the MMT zone was
toward the rims, suggesting isobaric cooling. superimposedon the earlier thrust-related structures and
Thermobarometry, basedon the grt -cpx exchangereaction probably relates to uplift and thrusting in the Himalayan
and the grt - qtz - cpx - plag net transferreaction give rocksto the southof the MMT [Burg et at., 1996; Vince and
pressure-temperature
(P-T) conditionsof 750ø - 1150øCand Treloar, 1996]. The Patan fault is still recently active as
12- 19 MPa [Miller et at., 1991; Ringuette et at., 1999]. evidencedby the December1974 earthquake,the epicenterof
TheseP-T conditionssuggestpostmagmaticmetamorphism at which was located at Patan itself [Jackson and Yielding,
very high pressuregranulite facies,which we interpret as 1998].
beingthe resultof the subduction of earlier lower crustalarc-
related rocks to depths of at least 45 km along the MMT
under conditions of high- temperatureas well as high- 3.4 Garnet + Muscovite + Tourmaline Leucogranites
pressuresubduction.Hydration of the dry granulite facies
rocks during obduction-relatedexhumationis evidencedby
Two intrusions of garnet + muscovite + tourmaline
the development of amphibolite and greenschist facies
leucogranitepegmatitesinto the Kamila amphibolitesoccur
retrogrademetamorphism.
along the Karakoram Highway section. One leucogranite
sheet, 5 km north of Patan, is a coarse-grainedpegmatite
consistingof ms+ grt + tur + Kfs + qtz + pl + apatite. The
3.3. Kamila Amphibolites
sheetis both concordantto the foliation in the amphibolites
and locally crosscutingit. Another heterogeneousgranitic
The Kamilaamphibolitebelt is 10-40 km wide, extending sheetcrops out along the KKH -• 3 km south of Kamila and
all acrosssouthernKohistan,andis composed of amphibolite consistsof ms + grt + Kfs + qtz without tourmaline.Both of
faciesmetavolcanic andmetaplutonicoceanicrocks,in which these intrusions resemble High Himalayan-type
igneouslayeringis locally preserved.Gabbros,hornblende leucogranites or pegmatites and are very unusual in
diorites,norites,and amphibolites(hbl + plag ñ grt) have Kohistan. Their origin is probably from melted pelitic
beenintrudedin placesby pegmatite dikesconsistingalmost metasediments, possibly even from underthrust Himalayan
entirely of coarse-grainedhornblendeand feldspar.The gneissesbeneaththe MMT.
Kamila amphibolitebelt separatesthe high-pressurerocks
along the hanging wall of the MMT (blueschists and
granulites) and ophiolites to the south, from the Chilas 3.5. Chilas Complex
complex gabbro - norites to the north (Figure 4). The Chilas complex is a very large mafic intrusion,
Amphibolites derived from matic to intermediatevolcanic dominantlycomprisedof gabbro-noritewith minorintrusive
rocks show an E-type mid-oceanridge basalt (MORB) bodiesof ultramaficrocksincludingdunites,harzburgites,
geochemical
signatureand are interpretedas representing troctolites, hornblende gabbros, pyroxenites, and
metamorphosedoceanfloor basalts,probablyformingthe anorthosites[Khan et al., 1989, 1993]. The main gabbro-
oceaniccrust on top of which the Kohistan arc volcanics norites are massive,occasionally layered plutonic rocks
were subsequentlybuilt [Khan et al., 1989, 1993]. consistingof the following assemblage: plag + opx + cpx +
Amphibolites
derivedfromplutonicrocksaregeochemically mag+ ilm ñ hbl ñ qtz ñ Kfs ñ bt ñscp. The later intrusive
very similarto the Chilas complexgabbro-norites, and the ultramaficrocks include chromespinel + olivine dunites,
two probablyhavea similarorigin[Khanet al., 1989, 1997]. which show spectaculargravity-settling layered textures,
Theserocksshow a depletionin the high field strength Mg-rich orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene, and someunusual
elementsandmayhavea moresubduction - relatedsignature. intrusive rocks composedalmost entirely of hornblende.
Structuraldata [Cowardet al., 1987] and 4øAr/39Ar Theseultramaficrocks have been emplacedinto the base of
hornblendecooling agesof 83-80 Ma [Treloar et at., 1989a] the main gabbro-norite mag7nachamberbelow the main
show that much of the deformationand metamorphism Kohistan island arc. Geochemically, the gabbro-norites
occurredprior to the collision of India to the south and definea calc-alkalinetrend typical of island arc rocks [Khan
suturingalong the MMT. The Kamila shearzone [Treloar et et al., 1989, 1993]. P-T conditions of formationhave been
al., 1990] is a wide zone characterizedby intense ductile estimatedat 750ø-850øCand 5-6.5 kbars [Jan and Howie,
shearfabrics,formedat temperatures above500øC,showing 1980], conditionscompatiblewith origin in a subarcmagma
south to SW vergenceand thrusting. More detailed work chamberat the baseof the crust.Most of the Chilascomplexi s
along the KKH section has distinguished the Patan shear undeformed,and the margins show intrusive contacts with
zone, a 3 km wide high-strainzone aroundthe village of the surroundingamphibolitesof the Kamila complexand the
Patan [Zeilinger et at., 1998; •4rbaret et at., 1998]. greenschistfacies metasedimentsof the Gilgit complex.
Numerousanastomosingshear zones show pervasive SW Rai•ersof the latter are enclosed as large xenolithic blocks
directedthrust shears,somecontainingleucocraticgarnet- within the Chilas complex at the structural top of the
bearingveins,interpreted
as resultingfrompartialmeltingof sequence.
The enormoussizeof the Chilascomplex(- 300 x 20-40 km region, and the MORB-related Kamila metavolcanics
in area)suggests that it could never have been one representingthe back arc basin (Figure 5, modelB). In their
continuous magmachambermolten at the same time. Even model, later collision of Kohistan with the Karakoram led to
mid-oceanridge magmachamberswith high rates of magma the initiation of northward directed subduction along the
supply are thought to have very thin but variable length southern margin of Kohistan leading eventually to the
magma chambers. In suprasubduction zone ophiolite collisionwith India during the early Eocene.
complexes, such as the well-known Oman ophiolite, magma Paleocene volcanism is represented by the Shamran
chambers are thought to be narrow and segmentedrelated to volcanics along northern Kohistan and the Dir-Utror
batches of magmaponded above the cumulate series and volcanics along southwestern Kohistan, both groups
feedingmagmaupwardthrough the sheeteddikes at different consistingof basalticandesites,rhyolites, pyroelasticflows,
timesalong the ridge axis [e.g.; Pearce et al., 1981; Searle ignimbrites,
andvolcanic
breccias.
An 4øAr/39Ar
ageof58 +
and Cox, 1999]. It is probablylikely that the Chilas complex 1 Ma froma Shamranhornblende-bearingbasaltic andesitc
norites had severalpulses of magmaover time, but detailed [Sullivanet al., 1993] showsthat the Kohistanare continued
mapping of this country would be both difficult and producinglarge volumesof lavasthroughoutthe Paleocene,
dangerous. a•er suturing of Kohistan to Asia (Figure 3). This suggests
The ageof the Chilascomplexgabbro-noriteis given by a that active oceanicsubductionmusthave occurredalong the
U-Pb zirconage of 84 + 0.5 Ma fromupper Swat [Zeitler and southernboundaryof Kohistan during this time, similar to
Chamberlain, 1991]. Khan et al. [1989, 1993] interpret the the situation in modelA of Figure 5. Deposition of the late
Chilas gabbro-noritesas representingthe magmachamberat PaleoceneBaraul Banda slateshas been interpretedas rapid
the baseof the Kohistan arc or as an intrusion during intra- subsidenceassociatedwith the collapse of the Kohistan
arc rit•ing in a back arc basin.Treloar et al. [1996] concluded continentalmargin.Rare interbeddedlimestoneswithin the
that the Chilas complex was intruded after suturing of Baraul Banda slates, south of Dir in southwesternKohistan
Kohistanwith the Karakoramplate to the north. The precise (Figure 4)have yielded late Paleocene(60.2 -54.9 Ma)
age of closureof the Shyok suture zone (SSZ) can only be marine faunas, the youngest marine faunas in Kohistan
bracketedbetween95 and 75 Ma. Ninety-Five Ma is the U- [Sullivan
etal., 1993].An 4øAr/39Ar
ageof55+ 2 Ma froman
Pb monaziteage of the pre-collision granodiorites in the Utror basaltic andesitc shows that Paleocene volcanism
Hunza plutonic unit in the Karakoram(see section 5.2), and occurredall acrossthe Kohistan are terrane, which was later
75 Ma is the4øAr?9Ar
hornblende
plateauageof the Jutal intrudedby granitesof the Kohistanbatholith.The Dir-Utror
basicdikes, a swarm of undeformeddikes which crosscut the voltanits are largely subaerialwith thick silicic lavas and
SSZ-relatedfabricsin the Chalt region of the lower Hunza pyroelasticflows. The Kohistan volcanic are reachedits
valley [Pettersonand Winalley,1985]. maximum growth duringthe Paleocene,immediatelyprior to
the collision of India and closure of the Indus suture - MMT
3.6. Kohistan Arc Voicanics
[Searleet al., 1987,1988;Becket al., 1995].
The volcanicevolution of the Kohistanarc is long and

complicated,
beginningas an intra-oceanic,
suprasubduction 3.7. Kohistan Batholith
zone island are and evolving a•er collision with India into
an Andean-type volcanic are with abundant granitic
intrusions. The earliest are voltanits are the Cretaceous Chalt The granitic rocks of the Kohistan batholith intrude the
Volcanic Group, including the type locality in the lower early islandare voltanits (Dras and Chalt Groups) as well as
Hunzavalley alongthe KKH [Searleand Asif Khan, 1996]. metasediments of the Gilgit complex,which are greenschist
In the Hunza valley the Chalt voltanits have a bimodal facies slates, phyllites, and psammites[Khan et al., 1993;
distribution from basaltic and andesitic to rhyolitic Searle and Asif Khan, 1996]. Abundant intercalations of
compositions and are strongly deformed,showing stretched pillow lavas and flows suggest that they formedin an arc-
pillows [Pudsey,1986, Petterson et al., 1990]. They are related basin of Cretaceousage and are not related to the
continuouswestwardwith the "Western volcanicgroup"of metamorphicrocks of the southern Karakoram.These rocks,
Sullivan et al. [1993] which are also basaltic andesitesand which show a static, low-pressurethermalmetamorphism are
rhyolites and probably correlate eastwardwith the Dras the sameas the Jaglotschistbelt of Treloar et al. [1996]. The
Volcanic Group in western Ladakh [Searle et al., 1988; Kohistangranitesare a calc-alkalinesuite of gabbro-diorites,
Reuber, 1989]. These arc-related volcanic rocks have granodiorites,and granites with hornblendeand biotite as
previously been thought to have formed above a north the dominant mariephases.Petterson and Windley [1985]
dippingsubductionzone, relatedto the early initiationof the and Petterson et al. [1990] defined three main stages of
Kohistan island are (Figure 5, model A). However, the graniteemplacement, basedon regionalmapping,petrology,
presence of boninitesor high-Mg andesiteswith high large- and Rb/Sr dating. Stage 1 granites are the early bimodal
ion lithophile element(LILE) high field strength element sequenceof gabbro-diorites(hbl + bi + pl + qtz) and
(HFSE) ratios and negativeNb anomalies[Petterson et al., trondhjemite-tonalites(pl + hbl + bt + qtz) which are
1990], usually typically sited in forearcregions,along the deformedby a Late Cretaceousdeformationepisode,such as
northernside of Kohistan led Khan et al. [1997] to suggest the Matum Das pluton, north of Gilgit, which has a poorly
that early south directed subduction existed north of constrainedRb/Sr isochronage of 102 + 12 Ma [Petterson
Kohistan,with the Chalt boninitesalongthe northernforearc and Windley, 1985]. Disrupted basic dikes form a minor
componentof this phase.No U-Pb zircon or monaziteages The main intra-oceanicphaseof arc volcanismduring the
havebeenreportedfromKohistan granites,although two U- mid-Cretaceousto Late Cretaceous is representedby the
Pb zirconagesof 101 + 2 and 103 + 2 Ma have been reported thick calc-alkaline andesites and rhyolites of the Chalt
firnn the western Ladakh sector of the Trans-Himalayan Volcanic Group. The Chalt volcanics occur along the
batholith [Honeggeret at., 1982; Schareret at., 1984]. northernmarginof Kohistan(Figure 4), and the factthat they
Stage 2 intrusions are more acidic granodioritesand contain boninitic volcanic rocks, normally associatedwith
granites,two plutonsof whichhaveRb/Sr agesof 54 + 4 Ma forearcregions,suggeststhat subductionpolarity may have
(Gilgit granite)and 40 + 6 Ma Shirotgranodiorite[Petterson dipped south from the Shyok Ocean north of Kohistan
and Windtey,1985]. The Shirot pluton has a late-stagegrt + (Figure5, modelB). This is the modelsuggestedby Khan et
ms+ qtz + fsp leucogranitephase,which doesnot appearto at. [1997] based on geochemicaland isotopic constraints.
be presentelsewherein Kohistan. A suite of undeformed They also demonstrated the involvement of enriched
hornblende+ plagioclasebasic dikes, the Jutal dikes, cuts (DUPAL)-type mantle,suggestingthat Kohistanformedat or
acrossearlierdeformedgranodiorites,suchas the Matum Das south of the presentequator during the mid-Cretaceous to
pluton and the Albian-Aptian Chalt volcanics.The Jutal late Cretaceous.Argumentsin favor of a northward dipping
dikeshavea hornblende
4øAr/39Ar
ageof 75 + I Ma [Tretoar subductionzone beneathKohistan (Figure 5, model A) are
et at., 1989a] which constrains the youngest timing of the presenceof Late Cretaceoushigh-pressureblueschists
closureof the SSZ. Stage 3 intrusions are characterizedby (Shang-laand western Ladakh) and garnet granulites(Jijal
swarmsof leucogranite dikes, the Indus confluencedikes, complex)alongthe southernmarginof Kohistan. Limestones
which have a poorly definedRb/Sr age of 34 + 14 Ma, and of the Yasin Group containing radiolariaand Orbitolina sp.
layered aplite-pegmatites,such as the Parri aplite sheet, foraminiferaof Albian-Aptian age are associatedwith the
which hasa Rb/Sr isochronage of 29 + 8 Ma [Petterson and Chalt volcanics[Pudseyet at., 1985]. Theselavas are lateral
Windtey,1985]or 26.2 + 1.2 Ma [Georgeet at., 1993]. These equivalentsof the Western volcanicsin northwestKohistan
Rb/Sr ages,however, are unreliable intrusion ages of the [Sullivan et al., 1993] and the Dras I volcanics in Ladakh,
granites,becauseRb and Sr are unlikely to have remaineda east of Nanga Parbat [Searle et at., 1988; Reuber, 1989].
closedsystemduring subsequentdeformation. Early granite plutons of the Kohistan batholith were
The Kohistan batholith records both precollision intrudedinto the volcanic and metasedimentaryedifaceof the
(Kohistan - Karakoram collision) stage 1 granitoids, early islandarc.
intruded during the oceanic island arc phase, and
4.2. Late Cretaceous
postcollisionstage2 granitoidsafterKohistan had become
suturedto the Karakoramplate and evolved into an Andean-
type continental margin. Stage 3 leucogranite dikes and Thick calc-alkaline volcanismcontinued throughoutthe
aplite-pegmatite sheets are probably related more to Late Cretaceousup until the collision of Kohistan with the
continentalcrustal melting as a result of crustal thickening Karakoram plate and closure of the SSZ around the
following collision. Santonian-Campanian (Figure 3). The Chilas gabbro-norites
were intruded into the base of the island arc sequence,
intrudingKamila metavolcanicamphibolitesalong the south
and Gilgit metasedimentsalong the northern contact.
4. Tectonic Evolution of Kohistan Southwardthrusting along southern Kohistan during this
time is apparentfromthe ductile shearzones of the Kamila
and Patan shear zones. Subduction along the southern
4.1. Mid-Cretaceous
margin of Kohistan is evident from high-pressure
metamorphism of the Shang-lablueschistsandthe Jijal garnet
The tectonicevolutionof Kohistancanbestbe interpreted granulites along the MMT. Emplacementof the Sapat
with reference
to the time chart (Figure 3) and the tectonic ultramafic (possibly ophiolitic) rocks east of the KKH
section also occurred around this time.
reconstructions (Figure 6). Field relations and
geochronologyshow that the oldest componentof the Along northern Kohistan a major phase of deformation
Kohistanarc terraneis the Kamilaamphibolitegroup.These occurredaroundCampaniantime associatedwith the closure
high-Ti metabasaltsare transitionalN-type MORB and E- of the SSZ (Figure 6). Early gabbro-diorites and
type MORB and are interpretedas tholeiitic oceanic crustal trondhjemite-tonalites,
such as the Matum Das pluton along
rocks on which the main arc was built. The Kamila the KKH, were deformed,and the Dras I volcanics in Ladakh
metavolcanicamphiboliteswere intrudedby severalgabbro- were also affected by shearing [Reuber, 1989]. The
undeformed 75 Ma Jutal basic dikes cut across the
dioriteintrusionswhich showa subductioncomponent trace
elementgeochemistry [Khanet at., 1993, 1997]. Theserocks deformationfabricsin the stage 1 Kohistan plutons and the
mayindicatethetimingof the initiation of subductionalong Chalt volcanics, suggesting that closure of the SSZ was
the southernmarginof Kohistan sometime during the mid- completedbefore75 Ma.
Cretaceous(Figure 6). The high-pressureJijal complex,
consistingof both upper mantle ultramaficrocks and lower 4.3. Paleocene
crustal granulites,may representpart of the early arc of
Kohistanwhich was later subductedto depthsof around4 5 Collision of Kohistan and the Karakoramwas completed
km andsubjected to high-pressure metamorphism. before the Paleocene, although calc'alkaline volcanism
SEARLEET AL.' KOHISTAN-KARAKORAM COLLISION,NORTH PAKISTAN 939
Early
Arc Oceanic
Crust Chalt-Dras
island arc
Yasin Gap
VVVVVVl•
•.•••••••.••.•
•-•--•••••.,
........... ... ........ ,•v,v v v vv vvivv vv vvv vv vv v! ....... Ivv vvvv vvv vv vv vv v/T +
• ....
'•••••••••...
..........
-
ß ,'.•-•••"••
..,•'•••••••v v v v• v vvv vvv •A• vvvvvvv vv v•
'-,,,...• I • ++++•
Mature Das
granite
105-95 Ma
Initiation of oceanic noah directed subduction

Su•uction and HT/HP metamorphism of the early arc (Jijal)
Eruptionof the mainCretaceousvolcanicarc (Chalt-Dras)
Intrusionof early tonalites of Nodh Kohistan(Matum Das)
MMT Kohistan Shyok

Kamila Shear zone island arc suture
zone
Kohistan•
granites
ß Obduction of the subducted remnant arc (Jijal)

ß Southward thrusting of Kamila Shear zone
ß Formationand intrusionof Chilasgabbro-noritemagmachamber
ß ClosureofShyoksuturezone(pre-75Ma Jutaldykes)
Saidu MMT ultra- Jijal Kamila Dir-Utror

schist ! mafics
granulites
amphibolites andesites
+ + + + + + +
++
Indian crust++ ++ + •..•.'w.
+ +continental
+ +Hn+ent+al+cru+st++
........
+ + + + +•+•+•+•+'+'+'+'+'+'+.+"/•'x + + I + + +•
+ + + + +'+-+ + +_+ + + + + + +.+'•,,..
[ __
I
ß Collisionof India + Kohistan;closure of Indus suture B
esal
ecl
ogites
ß Subductionof Indianplate to 50 km (Besaleclogites)
ß Intrusionof Andean-typegranites(Kohistanbatholith)
ß Eruption
ofcalc-alkaline
andesires,
rhyolites
(Dir,Utror,
Shamran
volcanics)
Figure6. Modelfor thetectonicevolutionof Kohistan(seetextfor discussion).

continuedall acrossnorthernKohistanup to 55 Ma (Figures Following the India-Kohistan collision a•er the earliest
3 and 4). The Shamranvoltanits along northern Kohistan Eocene (circa 54-50 Ma; [Garzanti and van Haver, 1988;
and the Dir-Utror voltanits along southwestern Kohistan Searle et. at., 1990b], crustal thickening and metamorphism
were intruded by later, stage 2 plutons of the Kohistan occurredin the Indian plate rocks to the south of the MMT
batholith.This phaseof the batholithis the mostwidespread and peakedpre-40-Ma [Treloar et at., 1989a]. Deformation
all along the Kohistan-Ladakh-Gangdesesectors of the in Kohistanwas restrictedto localized north vergent normal
Trans-Himalayanbatholith and can be compared in size, shearingalongthe MMT zone [Burg et al., 1996; Vince and
dimension,and geochemistryto the Andean batholiths in Treloar, 1996]. Post-collisionalmagmatismis representedby
northern Chile and Peru. Paleocene marine sediments, the the leucogranitedikes (Indus confluencedikes) and aplite-
Baraul Banda slateswith rare intercalatedlimestone beds, are pegmatite sheets in localized areas of Kohistan. Post-
the youngest marine sediments in the Kohistan plate Paleocene deformation in Kohistan is relatively
[Sullivanet at., 1993]. Early Eoceneforaminiferallimestones insignificant, whereas large-scale crustal thickening,
are the youngest marine sediments,both within the Indus metamorphism, andmagmatismoccurred,both along the High
suturezone and alongthe northIndian continentalmarginin Himalayanzone to the southand the Karakoramto the north
Ladakh [Searle et at., 1988]. The collision of India and [Searle and Tirrul, 1991]. The youngest phase of
Kohistanmay have been as early as 60 Ma in the far west in metamorphism (10-4 Ma) andmagmatism(7.5-1 Ma) occursin
Waziristan [Becket al., 1995]; along the Indian and south the Nanga Parbat - Haramoshmassif(northwesternextent of
Tibet sectors, India-Asia (Lhasa Block) collision is the High Himalayanzone) and probablypartsof the southern
reasonablywell constrained at 54 - 50 Ma [Garzanti and van Karakoram.U-Pb ages as young as 1 Ma have been reported
Haver, 1988; Searle et at., 1990b]. in tourmaline-bearing leucogranites, sillimanite grade
gneisses,and cordierite+ quartz+ K-feldsparñ plagioclase
seams[Zeitter et al., 1993;Smithet al., 1992, 1994].
4.4. Eocene
Figure 6 shows the tectonicallyrestoredposition of

Kohistanduringthe periodof collision of the Indo-Pakistan 5. Hunza Karakoram
plate(latestPaleocene
- earlyEocene60-50 Ma). Subduction
of the leadingedgeof the Indo-Pakistanplate to depthsof
-•90 km is known from the recent discovery of toesite The Karakoramterranerepresentsthe southernmarginof
Asian continental crust and is correlated eastward with the
inclusionsin omphacitein the Besal eclogites[O'Brien et
al., 1999]. Theseeclogitesarevery freshand containgarnet, LhasaBlock of southTibet. The KKH runs along the Hunza
omphacite, and white mica,overgrownby black amphibole valley, north of Gilgit, which providesan excellentprofile
crystals.They aremetamorphosed marielavasand sills within acrossthe Karakoram(Figure 7). Previouswork in Hunza has
thePermianshelfsequenceof the leadingedgeof the Indian beencarriedout by Desio and Martina [1972], Debon et al.
plate, in an identicalstructural-tectonicposition to similar [1987], Rex et at. [1988], Searle [1991] and Crawford and
eclogites at the deepeststructural level beneath the Oman Searle[1992, 1993].The Karakoramterranehasbeenbroadly
ophiolite [Searleet at., 1994]. In Omanthe eclogiteswere divided into three main units, a northernsedimentarybelt
formedby the subduction of the leading edge of the characterizedby Ordovicianto Early Cretaceous sedimentary
rocks [Gaetani and Garzanti, 1991] and a southern
continentalplatebeneatha purelyophiolitic,oceanicupper
plate and are not related to any continental collision. A Karakorammetamorphiccomplex[Searle and Tirrut, 1991]
similaroriginfor the Besaleclogitesis pro;•osedhere,during including regional Barrovian facies metamorphicrocks,
obductionof the Kohistanare (Figure6). separatedby the Karakorambatholith [Searle et at., 1989,
1992]. The Karakoram batholith includes a number of
The timing of eclogitefaciesmetamorphism in Pakistan is
thought to be 49 ñ 6 Ma, the Sm/Nd age of a garnet- precollisionalhornblendeand biotite-bearinggranodiorites
clinopyroxenepair [Tonarini et at., 1993]. The Besal and tonalites [Searle et at., 1989; Crawford and Searle,
eclogites,like the Tso Morari eclogites in northernLadakh, 1992] as well as the large, early Miocene Baltoro plutonic
unit in the central and eastern Karakoram,which includes
are metabasaltic sills (tentatively correlated with the
Carboniferous-PermianPanjal Trap voltanits) within monzogranites and garnettwo-micaleucogranites[Searle et
Permianlimestonesalong the .eading(northern)edgeof the at., 1989, 1992;Parrish and Tirrut, 1989;Searle, 1991].
Indian plate. U-Pb dating of allanites from an eclogite
metapeliteand Lu-Hf dating of garnet-omphaciteand whole 5.1. North Karakoram Terrane
rock from a metabasiceclogite from Tso Morari in Ladakh
gave poorly constrainedages of 55 ñ 17 and 55 ñ 12 Ma
[deSigoyeret al., 1999].Theseagesareall immediatelypre Sedimentaryrocks crop out along the north Karakoram
Indianplatecollisionand supportan Oman-typecontinental range, north of the Karakoram batholith [Gaetani and
subductionmodelfor the leadingedgeof the Indian plate. Garzanti, 1991]. Widespread Carboniferousblack shales
Structural,metamorphic,and geochronologicaldata show were depositedacrossthe Karakoramterraneand crop out
that the Besal and Tso Morari eclogites record the alongthe northernmarginof the batholith in the Hunza and
subductionof Indian plate rocksbeneathsouthernKohistan Baltororegion.Developmentof a stablepassivecontinental
during the obduction process and subsequent rapid margin began in the Permian with thick, shallow, marine
exhumationalongthe MMT zone. carbonatesedimentationwhich continued throughout the
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Set 1 Hunza Dykes
>•x
............... :105.7
-:-•-h•--?-:•-:;-•--½:-•
•-:-.
•'.'---•
4-•-•:.-•-.-•.
:'•':•
;?::•'.
.................... ..... !!i( 94+ 5 Ma
.........................
!-:i:i:'•:'!::i:i':'!::i:i':-!:ii:i'::'i:i::'i:i•:i':'•
:::i-:;-.-:
..
......
........ x•..•::-.::•
...... LeFortetal.
..... :._.x.x_xx x x xx x x • x x• x x
.....
-.. .........
....
•.-" .- - -.'7:23-
-. .....
xxxxxxxxxx
.......... xxxxxxxxxx
.............
:.............................
• Set l& 2 HunzaDykes: xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
River'
I:-:--:--•?-•----:--:i•
i] Passu Slates Hunza Plutonic Unit
,,,,, PassuLimestones Mixing Zone

I"-+++%+1
['"!;?•!i!!i!:
'i!!?;i;:i•;;,,;:l
Sillimanite
Zone •.++.
+.++,+4
Leuoogranites
'-'• Staurolite-Kyanite
Schists Kohistan Batholith
Iiiiiii:iiiill
Staurolite
Schists :"'"•
"'-"" Granodiorite Sheets
";:'•
":'/'"'" Gamet-Chloritoid
Schists ShyokSutureZone
U-Pb samplelocality ß ß ' Position of thrust
Figure 7. Geologicalmapof the Hunza Karakoram[after Rex et al., 1988;Searle,

1991;Crawfordand Searle,1992;Fraser et al., 1999].
942 SEARLE ET AL.' KOHISTAN-KARAKORAM COLLISION, NORTH PAKISTAN
Triassicand Lower Jurassic(Liassic). The youngest marine Thestrikeof the foliation is -130 ø NW-SE, andthe dip is -
sedimentsin the Karakoramare probably Late Jurassic,after 60ø NE. Postmagmaticmetamorphicmineral growth is
which the southernmargin of Asia began uplifting as the indicated by the growth of garnet and epidote, the
Andean-typemargindeveloped.Frommid-Jurassicup to the replacementof plagioclase by zoisite and occasionally
early Eocenethe southernmarginof Asia has been the site of scapolite, and quartz + hornblende pods [Crawford and
intrusions of Andean-type gabbro-diorite, granodiorite, Searle, 1992]. The southerncontactof the HPU is a steepN E
graniteand tonalite intrusionsalong long, linear batholiths. dippingthrust emplacingthe granitesover sillimanite-grade
These early precollisional granites, such as the K2 gneiss marbles, pelites, and amphibolites. Thermobarometry
[Searle et al., 1990a]; the Muztagh Tower gneiss, and the indicates that recrystallization of the HPU occurred at
Hushe gneiss [Searle et al., 1989; Searle, 1991] are often roughly the sameP-T conditions as the sillimanite gneisses
deformedand metamorphosed. Others,suchas the Broad Peak to the south [Debon et al., 1987]. At least two sets of
porphyryand the Gasherbrumquartz diorites, are essentially leucograniticdikes, the Hunza dikes, cut the southern and
undeformedand intrude through the Triassic- Jurassic centralpartsof the HPU.
carbonates. Along the Hunza valley several similar Although the geology of the KKH section along the
precollisional granitic intrusions, the mid-Cretaceous Hunza valley is quite well known, it mustbe emphasizedthat
Khunjerab and Sost plutons, also intrude through the largetractsof extremelymountainous countryto the west and
Carboniferous-Permian sediments. east remain relatively unknown. Boulders of unfoliated
tourmaline + muscovite + garnet leucogranites in the
morainesof the Hasanabadglacierappearto be derived froma
5.2. Hunza and Batura P!utonic Units
pale-coloredleucograniteintrusion making up most of the
peak of Shishpare(7611 m)NW of Ultar peak (Figure 7).
The mainpart of the Hunza plutonic unit (HPU) is a Togetherwith the Pumari Chhish leucogranitenorth of the
deformedcalc-alkalinebiotite + hornblendegranodiorite, Hispar glacier [Searle, 1991], these young undeformed
whichhasa U-Pb ageof 95 4-5 Ma [LeFortet al., 1983]and a leucogranitesmay be the westwardextensionof the Baltoro
morepreciseU-Pb age given by three concordantzircon granites.It is doubtful whether these mountainswill ever be
analyses of 105.7 4- 0.5 Ma [Fraser et al., 1999]. The Hunza properly mapped, however, because tl•eyrepresent the most
granitesare quite complexwith a central "mixing zone" extreme topography on this planet.
composedof quartz diorites, granodiorites,and agmatites
(magmatitic migmatites)withboth acid and basicgneisses,
5.3. Hunza Dikes
leucograniticsweats, and late aplite sheets [Crawford,
1988]. Enclaves of both igneous and metasedimentary
(calcareous and pelitic) rocks probably represent The Hunza dikes are a cogeneticsuite of granodiorites,
incompletelyassimilatedcountry rock. Most of the Hunza monzogranites, and leucogranites which intrude the
plutonicunit is composedof foliatedhornblendeand biotite- precollisional HPU granodiorites [Crawford and Searle,
bearingtonalites and granodiorites,which are probably 1993].Thereare at leasttwo setsof dikes,whichcanmakeup
coevalwith similarrocksof the Muztagh Tower unit and K2 to-40% of the outcrop. The earliest set, set 1, intrudes the
gneissto the northof the batholith[Searleet al., 1990a] and granodiorites but have beenrotatedinto parallelismwith the
partof the Hushe gneissto the south of the batholith in the mainSSWdirectedshearfabricsassociated with emplacement
BaltoroKarakoram[Searle, 1991]. of the HPU over the metamorphic rocksto the south during
The northernpart of the Karakorambatholith along the simpleshear.In the centralpart of the batholith around the
Hunzavalley consistsof the composite Baturaplutonicunit mixing zone along the KKH section,a sub horizontal set of
comprisingearly gabbrosand diorites and peraluminous dikes and a sub-vertical set form a criss-crosspattern
leucocraticgranodioritescontainingbiotite [Debon et al.; indicating coaxial extensionduring intrusion. To the north
1987;Rexet al.; 1988; Crawford and Searle, 1992]. These and south of this zone,non coaxialsimpleshearhas rotated
plutons are undeformedand intrude the older, deformed the dikes into parallelogramorientations.
Hunza granodiorites to the south and Permian slates and The secondsetof Hunzadikescrosscutsall lithologiesof
marblesto the north. A narrow andalusite-bearing hornfels the HPU, includingthe set 1 Hunza dikes. Theseset 2 dikes,
contactmetamorphic aureolelies alongthe northernmarginof which include several localized sub sets of cross-cutting
the batholith, where a few leucocratic dikes emmanate out dikes, also intrude across the thrust contact and across the
from the pluton.Rb-Sr wholerock isochronages63.4 4- 2 Ma metamorphic fabric in the marblesand pelites below. Both
(Kuk gabbro)and 42.8 4-5.6 Ma (Sarbzeapluton) havebeen setsof dikes are volatile-depleted non minimummelts with
givenby Debonet al. [1987] andDebon [1995] indicating unevolved crustal isotopic ratios similar to the Miocene
Pale9cene-early Eocene plutonism.These authors have .Baltoroplutonto the east[Searleet al., 1992, Crawford and
proposed a mantle sourcewith a small crustal contribution Searle, 1993]. They are interpreted to represent lower
for these Paleocene granitoids, similar to the Kohistan Karakoramcrustalmelts,derivedfromdehydrationmelting of
plutons, which were associatedwith Tethyan oceanic metasediments, possiblypromotedby limited heat input from
subductionnorthwardprior to the Indian plate collision the mantlewedgebelow [Crawford and Searle, 1993]. Set 1
(Figure5). dikeshavea U-Pb zirconanduraniniteageof 51.5 4- 1.5 Ma,
The southernpart of the Karakorambatholithhasa distinct andset2 dikes,which crosscut both southernHPU granites
metamorphic foliation overprintingearly magmaticfabrics. andmetamorphic rocks,havebeendatedusingU-Pb methods
on zircon, monazite,and uraniniteat 35.1 4- 0.6 Ma [Fraser et at presenthas no correlativein the Hunza valley, but in the
al., 1999]. This age provides a youngest time constraint on interestsof a meaningfulcorrelationalong the Karakoram,we
sillimanitegrademetamorphismin the southernKarakoram. retain the numbering. Thus M2 is the main regional
metamorphism south of the Karakorambatholith, and M3 is
the narrowzoneof contactmetamorphism aroundthe Baltoro
5.4. Si!!imanite Grade Metamorphism granite intrusion(Figure 3).
An isolated tourmaline+ muscovite+ biotite 4- garnet
The southern Karakoram metamorphic complex is a leucogranite intrusion, the Sumayarleucogranite,intrudes
regional high-grade terranebetween the Shyok suture zone and crosscuts fabricsin the staurolitegradeschistssouth of
to the south and the Karakoram batholith to the north. The the Hunza valley. The Sumayarleucogranitehas a U-Pb
highestgraderockslie immediatelysouthof the batholith. In zirconanduraniniteageof 9.5 4- 0.2 Ma [Fraser et al., 1999],
the Baltoro region the isograds have been mappedas right which is consistent,being younger than the 16 Ma peak
way up but folded and intruded by the 21 Ma Baltoro staurolite metamorphicrocks into which it has intruded.
batholith [Searle and Tirrul, 1991]. Along the Hunza valley Several leucogranite-aplite sheets intrude and cut the
foliation in the metamorphicrocks. The Bar and Hasanabad
the metamorphic sectionis invertedwith the Hunza plutonic
sheets are composed of biotite (+ minor muscovite)
unit thrust over the sillimanitegrade marblesand gneisses,
granodiorites-monzograniteswith pegmatite rims rich in
which have then been thrust over the kyanite, stauroliteand
garnet,muscoviteand secondarytourmaline [Crawford and
lower grade rocks to the south. The structuresalong the
Searle, 1993]. The Hasanabadgranodioritesheet (Figure 7)
KKH section have been interpreted as postmetamorphic
contains huge xenoliths of metamorphic rocks, one
thrusting of higher-graderocksover lower-graderocks [Rex
et al., 1988, Searle, 1991, Crawford and Searle, 1993]. Most containinga Hunza leucogranitedyke which cuts acrossthe
of the rocks immediately south of the HPU are marbles metamorphic fabric in the xenolith.The Hasanabadsheetmust
thereforebe younger than the 35 Ma set 2 Hunza dikes. The
consisting of calcite + phlogopite 4- fuchsite 4- ruby
southern boundary of the metamorphicseries is the Main
corundum.Calc silicates may also contain diopside, olivine,
KarakoramThrust, a young north to NE dipping breakback
tremolite, plagioclase, and garnet. Pelites are relatively
thrust which follows the trace of the Shyok suturezone and
uncommonbut contain sillimanite, garnet, muscovite, and
biotite. Amphibolites are occasionallyinterbeddedwith the which was responsiblefor the uplift and exhumationof the
more massive marble bands and consist of hornblende + Karakoramduringthe late Miocene - Pliocene.
plagioclase + garnet 4- clinopyroxene.Monazites from two Metamorphismin the Baltoro region, east of the KKH
samples of sillimanite grade metapelites from Baltit and section alongthe Hunza valley is significantlydifferent. Here
Hasanabad(Figure7) gaveU-Pb agesof 64 4- 0.8 and 44 4- 2 the initial metamorphicevent is a precollision, low-pressure,
Ma, respectively [Fraser et al., 1999]. This could either high-temperatureandalusite grade metamorphism, probably
representone very long (20 Ma) protractedmetamorphism or related to the pre-collisional Andean-type granites (e.g.,
two events, M1 being related to crustal thickening and Hushe gneiss), [Searle et al., 1989]. M2 is the widespread
metamorphismfollowing the Kohistan-Karakoramcollision high-temperatureand medium-pressure metamorphism related
to crustal thickening of the southern Karakoram.This M2
and M2 being related to crustal thickening and heating
event representsthe timing of majorthickening, shortening,
following the later India-Asia collision.
burial, heating,and exhumation.The M3 event is the contact
thermal aureole surrounding both margins of the 21 Ma
Baltoro granite intrusion [Searle and Tirrul, 1991]. M4 is
5.5 Staurolite Grade Metamorphism the youngestphaseof metamorphism dated in the Karakoram
and represents a high-temperature sillimanite grade
The sillimanitegrademarblesand gneissesalong the metamorphism affectingPrecambrianbasementcrust exposed
Hunzavalleyhavebeenthrustover-lowergrademetamorphic in gneissdomes(e.g., Dassu gneiss) along the hanging wall
rocks,probablyalonga late NE dippingthrust(Figure7). of the Main KarakoramThrust [Searle et al., 1989; Fraser et
Kyanite, staurolite,garnet, and chloritoid-chloritegrade al., 1999].
rocksmarkthezoneof apparent invertedmetamorphism along
the Hunza valley. It was previously assumedthat all the
metamorphicrocks south of the batholith in the southern 6. Tectonic Evolution of the Hunza
Karakorambelonged to onemajorepisodeof postcollisional Karakoram
regional metamorphism [Bertrand et al.; 1988, Searle and
Tirrul, 1991].However,
2ø6Pb/238U
agesof metamorphic
6.1. Late Cretaceous- Early Tertiary
monazites,extracted fromstaurolite+ garnetmicaschistsfrom
near Nazirabad in the Hunza valley, are 16.0 4- 1.0 Ma
[Fraseret al., 1999].This surprisingresult showsthat there The youngest marinesedimentsin the Karakoramterrane
musthavebeenat leasttwo distinctmetamorphic episodes, are Late Jurassic[Gaetani and Garzanti, 1991], and in the
possiblythree:a 68 Ma sillimanitegradeM1 event,a 44 Ma Lhasa Block of south Tibet they are middle Cretaceous
sillimanite-kyanite
gradeevent,anda 16 Ma staurolitegrade [Murphy et al., 1997]. After this, the Karakoramand south
M3 Hunza(M3h) event.M3 Baltoro(M3b) is a 21 Ma thermal Tibet evolved into an uplifted Andean-type continental
metamorphic aureolesurroundingthe Baltorogranite,•hich margin with multiple parallel batholiths or plutons
composedof hornblende and biotite-bearing granodiorites with the Hunza dikesbeingolder (51 and 35 Ma) [Fraser et
and granites.Along the KKH section the Hunza plutonic at., 1999] and the Sumayarpluton being younger (9 Ma)
unit formed the main batholith with minor intrusions to the [Fraser et at., 1999]. The southernKarakoramin the Hunza
north, such as the Warbin, Khunjerab, and Sost plutons region was finally subjectedto crustal thickening, which
intruding late Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments of the resulted in the medium-pressure, medium-temperature
northern Karakoram (Figure 8a). The HPU probably had metamorphism up to staurolite(and in a few places,kyanite)
extrusive volcanic rocks at upper crustal levels, but these grade (Figure 8d). Postmetamorphic thrusting placed the
havebeenerodedaway. The thick marblesin the metamorphic sillimanitegraderockssouthwardover the staurolitegrade
seriesto the south of the batholith in Hunza probably had a rocks after 14 Ma. South vergentthrusting later propagated
protolithsimilarto that of the thick carbonatesof the Permo- to the late Miocene - PlioceneMain KarakoramThrust, which
Triassic and Jurassicsedimentsto the north (Figure 8a). follows the trace of the SSZ and places the Karakoram
Deformationincludingfolding and thrusting of the northern metamorphic complexover rocksof the SSZ.Crustal melting
sedimentarybelt occurred during the middle and Late continued at depth with crystallization of the Sumayar
Cretaceous.In common with south Tibet [England and leucogranite at 9.2 4- 0.1 Ma [Fraser et al., 1999], the
Searle, 1986; Murphy et al., 1997], much of the crustal youngestevent in the Karakoramdatedso far.
shorteningseemsto have occurredprior to the India - Asia
collision.New U-Pb data of Fraser et at. [1999] also shows
that at least someof the sillimanite grade metamorphism in 7. Discussion and Conclusions
Hunza occurredprior to the India-Asiacollisionbut afterthe
Kohistan-Karakoram collision.
The Shyoksuturezoneclosedduringthis periodwith the A review of the geology of Kohistan and the Hunza
dockingof Kohistanto Asia and the switch fromsubduction Karakoram, coupled with recent data on the timing of
north of Kohistanto the main north dippingsubductionzone metamorphism,magmatism,and deformation events, has
alongthe southernmarginof Kohistan(MMT). Basicdikes of resultedin speculativemodelsfor the tectonic evolution of
the Jutal swarm intruded at --75 Ma and crosscut closure- Kohistan and the Hunza Karakorampresentedhere. These
relatedfabricsalong the SSZ [Petterson and Windtey, 1985, modelsarefar from perfectandarebasedon the geologicaland
1991; Coward et at., 1986, 1987]. geochronological data set up until the presenttime. They
will changeasmore data becomeavailable.However,several
importantnew pointscanbe gleanedfrom the tectonicmodels
6.2. Eocene presentedhere.Theseare summarizedin sections7.1-7.3.
Postcollisional crustal thickening and metamorphism 7.1. Kohistan Arc Evolution

appearsto have initiated along the site of the precollisonal
Karakorambatholith and not along the SSZ (Figure 8). The
Baturaunit granitesare morefelsicthan the HPU, relatedto The Kohistan terraneis one of the best exposedand most
lower crustal melting with some possible mantle imput completesectionsthroughan obductedand uplifted island
[Debon,1995],and intrudealong the northernmarginof the arc. It is a composite arc terrane composedof multiple
batholith (Figure 8b). Field evidencesuggeststhat the site episodesof arc magmatism.Early subduction-relatedarc
for large-scalemelting occurredalong the traceof the old sequences(Jijal complexremnantarc) were subductedto
batholith, with Hunza dikes forming up to 40% of the depthsof morethan -•45 km and subjectedto high-pressure
batholithin places.Sillimanitegrademetamorphism occurred and high-temperature granulite faciesmetamorphism.
Upper
southof the batholithduringa high-temperature metamorphic mantle peridotites and lower crustal gabbro-noriteshave
event (M2), possibly associatedwith a large melt zone beenpreserved,eitheras obductedophioliticcomplexesor as
hidden at depth in the lower crust. South or SW vergent intrusive lower crustal magmachambers,along southern
thrusting emplacedthe HPU over the sillimanite grade Kohistan. The main island arc sequencewas constructedon
gneissesto the south.The late, set 2 Hunza dikes crosscut metavolcanic amphibolites with MORB chemistry. The
south vergent fabricsin the granite and in the sillimanite geochemistryof all other rocks in Kohistan shows a
graderocks to the south (Figure 8c). Surprisingly,at this subduction component.The Chilas complexgabbro-norites
time the southernmost Karakoram rocks, which were the represent a subarc magmachamberof exceedingly large
protolith for the staurolitegrademetamorphism, were still proportions,probablymadeup of severalbatchesof magma,
intruded into the lower crust.
apparentlyunaffectedby metamorphism or burial.
Northern Kohistan was composed of low-grade
metasedimentaryrocks which form the base of thick
6.3. Miocene sequencesof Late Cretaceous and Paleocene basaltic
andesitesand ignimbrites.Boninites are widespreadin the
Chalt volcanicsalongnorthernKohistan,which led Khan et
Large-scalecrustal melting occurredalong the Baltoro al. [1997] to proposean early (-•100 Ma) southwarddipping
plutonit unit to the east of Hunza during the latest subductionzone fromthe Shyok ocean beneath Kohistan
Oligocene- earlyMiocene(---25- 21 Ma). In theHunzavalley (Figure5, modelB). This situation could have a present-day
no majormagrnatism has beendated at this time (Figure 3), analoguein the Mariana island arc systemof the western
SEARLEET AL.: KOHISTAN-KARAKORAM COLLISION,NORTH PAKISTAN 945
Shyok Karakoram batholith Khunjerab

Suture Warbin + Sost
zone Hunza Plutonic
unit pluton plutons
ß Closure of Shyok suture zone

ß Endingof precollisionsubduction-related
granitoidmagmatism
ß Folding and thrusting of North Karakoram sediments
M2 Hunza Batura
SSZ sillimanite dikes Plutonic
• metamorphism set I Unit
•' •,"•.._ -,•, •. _• ....
Protolith
of••-"-: •'•" • • •'
staurolite
metamorphism
ß Baturn Plutonic unit granites (65-45.Ma)

© Lower crustal melting - intrusionof Hunza set I dikes
ß Sillimanite grade metamorphism
M2 Hunza Batura
sillimanite dikes PU
SSZ metamorphism set 2
.
•
Protolit.of
staurolite N •+• •++1
z m.tamomhim '
c,I 35-30
MaI
Thrusting Of HPU south over sillimanlte grade metamorphic rocks
Intrusion of Hunza set 2 dikes
Karakoram
Sumayar batholith Batura
SSZ pluton PU
© $taurolite 9fade metamorphiam (16 Ma) aouthern Karakoram

© gruatal meltin9-intruaion o• $uma•ar leuco9ranita {9
Figure8. Modelforthetectonic evolutionoftheHunzaK•or• (seetextfordiscussion):

(a) 75-70
M• (b) 50-45M• (c) 35-30Ma, •d (d) 15-10Ma. •C, K•akor• met•o•hic complex; • Jurassic;
TK Triassic;PM, Pe•i•;.C, C•boniferous;HPU, Hunzaplutonicunit; SSZ,Shyoksuturezone;M2,
M3 referto me•o•hic phmesdescribedin text.
Pacific where backarcrifting producedmarginal basins such gradeeventaffectingrockssouthof the precollisionalHunza

as the west Mariana and Parece Vela basins underlain by plutonicunit datedat 64.2 ñ 0.8 Ma andmayhavecontinued
MORB-type ocean floor volcanics [Dietrich et al., 1978] until the secondsillimanite-kyanite gradeevent dated at 44
leaving older, remnantarcs such as the West Mariana ridge ñ 2 Ma [Fraseret al., 1999]. Sillimanitegrademetamorphism
and the Kyushu-Palau ridge some distance away from the mayhavebeena long lastingeventbut musthavebeenover
subduction front [Karig, 1971,a,b, 1972]. In the Kohistan before intrusion of the 35 Ma set 1 Hunza dikes, which
situation the intrusive Chilas magmachamberwould have crosscutall syn-metamorphicdeformationfabricssouth of the
intruded the MORB-related amphibolites of the Kamila Karakorambatholith. We speculatethat the heat source for
Group in an intra-arcsetting. The active mid-Cretaceousarc this metamorphismwas a high heat flow caused by the
would have occurredto the north (Chalt-Dras arc volcanics) docking of a recentand still active large island arc complex
with boninites along the trench forearc region as in the (Kohistan). The ultimate driving force for all the
Bonin-Marianaactivearc today.However,there is still a big postcollisional metamorphicevents in the Karakorammust
differencein scale.The Kohistan-Dras arc exposedtoday is have been the collision and continuing northward
around 500 km long from eastern Afghanistan to western indentation of first, Kohistan, and later, India into Asia,
Ladakh,whereasthe Phillipinearc is some2000 km long and causingongoing crustal shorteningand thickening.
the Bonin-Mariana arc, in its completelength fromPalau to The third phase (M3) of postcollisional metamorphismin
Japan,is some3000 km long. the KKH sectionalong the Hunza valley is characterizedby
In Kohistan the main, later subduction event was, staurolitegrade metapeliteswhich have been dated at 16 Ma
however,from the main Neo-Tethysoceansouth of Kohistan, using U-Pb on metamorphicmonazite[Fraser et at., 1999].
dipping north under the arc. We interpret the subduction This is at least 20 Myr younger (possibly 50 Ma) than the
zone along the Main Mantle Thrust to have propagated sillimanite grade event. Our model (Figure 8) is consistent
southwardwith time froman early high-temperatureas well with the southwardpropagationof thrusting fromthe pre-35
as high-pressuresubduction,resultingin the subductionof a Ma-thrust which places the HPU over the sillimanite
remnant arc, the metamorphismof the lower arc crust to gneissesto the Pliocene-Pleistocene Main KarakoramThrust
granulite facies (Jijal complex), and a later medium- alongthe southernboundaryof the Karakoram.The puzzling
temperatureand medium-pressure subduction creating the fact to explain is why the protolith rocks of the staurolite
blueschists at Shangla and obduction of the dismembered grade schists along the southern Karakoram remained
ophiolite complexes. The entire northern part of the unmetamorphosed for so long, when they were adjacentto the
composite Kohistan arc terrane was intruded by early highly deformedrocks of the SSZ to the south and the
granitoid plutons, which are commonly composed of deformed, metamorphosed,and very hot rocks of the
hornblende-bearing diorites and granodiorites along sillimanitegrade gneissesto the north.
northern Kohistan, when Kohistan was still a separated, Our conclusionis that regionalmetamorphicterranes,such
intra-oceanicisland arc terrane.Theseearly granitoids were as the southernKarakoram,can no longer be assumedto be
subsequentlydeformedand intruded by later undeformed all related to one event. Structuralstudies, combined with U-
plutons during and after the collision with the Asian Pb geochronology, have shown that major metamorphic
(Karakoram)plate to the north and the closing of the Shyok eventscould be both very long-lasting (up to 20 Ma) and
suture zone. very restrictive,both in time and space,and may also be very
differentalong the strike of the mountain range. It is likely
that with more detailed geochronology, combined with
7.2. Metamorphic Events in the Karakoram Crust thoroughfield structuralrelationships,a muchmoredetailed
picture of the pressure-temperature-time (P-T-t) evolution
Following the closureof the Shyok suture zone, crustal will emerge with time, with several "episodes" of
thickening, deformation,and metamorphism affectedthe metamorphism within the broad spectrumof postcollisional
Karakoram terrane.The earliestmetamorphiceventalongthe crustal thickening. It is proposed that the major, regional
southernKarakoramwas a widespreadandalusite+ garnet M1-M2 metamorphism in the southern Karakoramcould be
grade static metamorphismspatially associated with more relatedto crustalthickeningand heating afterthe Asia-
precollisionaldeformed granodiorites[Searleet at., 1989]. Kohistan collision during the late Cretaceousratherthan to
Theheatsourceforthis HT-LP metamorphism wasprobably the India-Asia collision during the early Eocene.
magmatic and may have been associated with some
unquantifiableamountof Andean-typecrustal thickening
7.3. Crustal Melting in the Karakoram
andorogenesis alongthe southernmarginof Asia.
Previous interpretations suggested that the
postcollisionalsouthernKarakorammetamorphism was one There is also increasingevidenceof multiple episodes of
continuousepisodefi'om-•50to 37 Ma [Searle and Tirrul, postcollisionalcrustalmelting acrossthe Karakoram.Most of
1991]. However,recentnew U-Pb dating of metamorphic the Karakoram batholith in the Hunza section is the
monaziteand magmaticzircon, monaziteand uraninite from p•'ecollisional,Andean-type Hunza plutonic unit, related to
crosscuttingdikes in Hunza [Fraser et al., 1999] has northward subduction of Tethyan oceaniccrust beneath the
distinguished two distinct phases of postcollisional southernmarginof Asia. The granodioritesof the HPU have
metamorphism in the southernKarakoram(Figure 3). The been intruded by a vast network of postcollisional
earliest metamorphism(M1) was a widespreadsillimanite monzograniteto leucogranitedikes. TheseHunza dikes were
intrudedduring severalepisodes,an early set (51.5 ñ I Ma) monaziteat 25-21 Ma [Parrish and Tirrul, 1989; Scharer et
prior to southwardthrustingof the HPU and a later set (35.1 al., 1990] and the youngestcrustalmeltingeventdatedin the
ñ 0.6 Ma) clearly post-thrusting, with dikes cutting the Karakoramis the localized9.2 ñ 0.1 Ma Sumayarleucogranite
deformation fabrics. Within each set there are also several in Hunza [Fraser et al., 1999]. The youngest undated
crosscutting dikes, but the broad subdivision of set 1 intrusive events are a series of pegmatiteand aplite dikes
deformed,and set 2 crosscuttingdikes remainsvalid. It is which crosscutall previous structuresand occur along the
possiblethat we are only seeingthe upper crustalpart of an Karakoram and also in the Haramoshmassif, the northwestern
unexposeddeepcrustalmelt zone (Figure 8c), which released spur of the High Himalaya (Figure 2). These pegmatites
crustalmelt granitesepisodicallyfrom middleEocenetime up contain gem-quality aquamarine (beryl), tourmaline,
to the late Miocene or Pliocene. Low S7Sr/S6Sr initial ratios muscovite,biotite, and garnet.They are probably temporally
suggest that although the granites are interpreted to be related to the Pliocene - Pleistocene (5-1 Ma) high-
continentalcrustal melts,there may have been somemantle- temperature (sillimanite+ cordieritegrade)metamorphism
and
related magmatic underplating beneath the southern meltingin theNangaParbatmassifto the south [Smithet al.,
Karakoramwhich provided an extra heat source and could 1992; Zeitler et al., 1993].
account for the Sr and Nd isotopic ratios in the Baltoro
granitesand the Hunza dikes [Searle et al., 1992; Crawford Acknowledgments. This work was funded by NERC grant
and Searle, 1993]. GT5/96/13/E to MPS, NERC D.Phil studentships to JF and SG, and a
Localized, postcollisional leucogranitesin the northern Commonwealth Scholarshipto Asif Khan, which alsoenabledhim to
part of the Kohistan terrane,such as the Parri aplite sheets visitOxfordfor a year. We are gratefulto all thesefundingagencies
andalsoto RandyParrishand SteveNoble for extensiveand valuable
and Jaglot granite [George et al., 1995], may also be related helpwith U-Pb datingat NIGL Keyworth.We appreciatediscussions
to this phase.The major Baltoro plutonit unit, which is with PeterTreloar,Jean-PierreBurg, and RashidKhan Tahirkheliand
locatedeastof Hunza, hasbeendated by U-Pb on zircon and constructive
reviewsfrom SusanDeBari and an anonymousreviewer.
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Tectonics - 1999 - Searle - The Tectonic Evolution of The Kohistan Karakoram Collision Belt Along The Karakoram Highway

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TECTONICS, VOL. 18, NO.

6, PAGES 929-949 DECEMBER 1999

The tectonic evolution of the Kohistan-Karakoram

plateau have a similar averageelevation of around 5.2 km

PAKISTAN •"•" • LHASATERRANE

Karakoramhas large topographicdifferences(7000-8700 m geochemistry,isotope chemistry,and geochronology from

ß. Potwarplateauß. ' '

ASIAN PLATE INDIAN PLATE

MKT • Main Karakoram Thrust HighHimalaya

.9 I Staurolite-Grt Schist r-• Masherbrum

80- Shangla blueschists

Turonian Koz Sar granite

x U-Pb Darkot pass granite

2. Tectonic Overview complexwhich hasbeenobductedonto the Indian plate to

The volcanicevolution of the Kohistanarc is long and

Initiation of oceanic noah directed subduction

MMT Kohistan Shyok

ß Obduction of the subducted remnant arc (Jijal)

Saidu MMT ultra- Jijal Kamila Dir-Utror

Figure6. Modelfor thetectonicevolutionof Kohistan(seetextfor discussion).

Figure 6 shows the tectonicallyrestoredposition of

xxxxxxxxxxxx xxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

,,,,, PassuLimestones Mixing Zone

U-Pb samplelocality ß ß ' Position of thrust

Figure 7. Geologicalmapof the Hunza Karakoram[after Rex et al., 1988;Searle,

Postcollisional crustal thickening and metamorphism 7.1. Kohistan Arc Evolution

Shyok Karakoram batholith Khunjerab

ß Closure of Shyok suture zone

ß Baturn Plutonic unit granites (65-45.Ma)

© $taurolite 9fade metamorphiam (16 Ma) aouthern Karakoram

Figure8. Modelforthetectonic evolutionoftheHunzaK•or• (seetextfordiscussion):

Pacific where backarcrifting producedmarginal basins such gradeeventaffectingrockssouthof the precollisionalHunza

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