Unit 1

1. Cells (3-23)

Cells - smallest basic unit of all organisms

1. single cell organism - unicellular
2. Many cells organism - multicellular (human)

Cell structure (animal) contains

1. Cytoplasm
• Like sloppy jelly texture which contains many different
structures called organelle

2. Nucleus
• Largest organelle in the cell and controls the activities of the cell
• All cells have nucleus except red blood cells (RBC)
How to control?
Nucleus contains chromosomes which carry genetic material, genes (DNA) which
determine to make proteins that do their specific functions of the cell. Proteins making
(assembly) occurs on the ribosomes (very tiny) in the cytoplasm.
Most proteins are Enzymes (biological catalyst) which controls the chemical reactions.

3. Cell membrane/ cell surface membrane

• A thin layer that surrounds the cells to distinguish from others
a boundary (barrier) between the cytoplasm and the outside but not completely
• partially/ selectively permeable à some selected chemicals can pass in and out

4. Mitochondrion/mitochondria)
• Generates energy for the cell by the reactions of respiration
• More mitochondria in muscle and nerve cells (because of more energy needs)

5. Endoplasmic reticulum
• It is a network of membrane throughout the cytoplasm
• It is covered by tiny granules (ribosomes) which synthesizes proteins.The spaces
between endoplasmic reticulum membrane act as transportation system of protein.
Chromosomes, Genes and DNA

DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid

• Basic inheritance of organisms
• Found in nucleus as chromosome

Gene – small section of DNA that codes for a

specific protein

The structure of DNA

• James Watson and Francis Crick discovered in 1953 (1962 Nobel prize)
• Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958) – X ray diffraction (very helpful for DNA structure)
• DNA – two strands (Double stranded) of polynucleotides (many nucleotides)
• Nucleotide (base + sugar + phosphate)

Four bases (ATCG)

• Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine
• A pairs with T (if Adenine on one strand, Thymine on opposite strand)
• C pairs with G (if Cytosine on one strand, Guanine on opposite strand)
• Called complementary base pairing via weak hydrogen bonds
o amounts of A and T or amounts of C and G are equal
o DNA replication (exact copy)

DNA replication
The Genetic Code
• Only one strand of DNA codes for protein (template strand) and the other strand doesn’t
(non-template strand)
• 3 DNA letter (bases) codes one amino acid (TGT - cysteine) à triplet code (universal)
• many amino acids containing chain à protein
• Most proteins (enzymes), some (structural proteins – keratin & myosin), others
(hemoglobin and hormone)

The stages of protein synthesis (transcription + translation)

• DNA must be copied (transcribed) because protein synthesis occurs in cytoplasm.
• It is called transcription (DNA à RNA)
• RNA – ribonucleic acid
• 3 main differences between DNA and RNA
1. DNA (double strand), RNA (single strand)
2. DNA (deoxyribose sugar), RNA (ribose sugar)
3. DNA (thymine), RNA (Uracil) (AUCG)
• Two types of RNA take part in protein synthesis
1. mRNA (messenger) – carries message
2. tRNA (transfer) – carries amino acids to the ribosomes to make the protein
• Two stages of protein synthesis – transcription and translation

Transcription (DNA à RNA)

• Occurs in nucleus
• Unwinds (unzips) DNA and transcribe the template DNA into mRNA via base pairing (A
pairs with U instead of T)
• After transcription, mRNA moves from the nucleus into the cytoplasm through pores in
nuclear membrane
• DNA rewinds (zips up) again
Translation (mRNA à protein)
• Occurs at ribosomes (RNA + protein)
• 3 DNA letter (bases) of mRNA à one codon which codes one amino acid
o CCU – proline, AUG – Methionine
• tRNA – anticodon of three bases at one end and a specific amino acid at
the other end
• It is called translation
• Start codon – AUG (methionine)
• Stop codon – the protein is complete and stops
• more than one codon (GGA, GGG, GGC, GGU) can code one amino acid (glycine)
(due to 64 codons and only 20 amino acids)

Gene mutation – A mutation is a change in the DNA of a cell.

• It can happen in individual genes or in whole chromosome.
• During replication, mistakes can occur like
a) Duplication – duplicate one nucleotide à alters reading the gene sequence
after the mutation point à makes a different protein
b) Deletion – one nucleotide is deleted à alters reading the gene sequence after
the mutation point à makes a different protein
c) Substitution – a different nucleotides is used à alter just the triplet that
contains the mutation à amino acid could be same or different (due to more than one
codon can code one amino acid) à protein function may be normal or abnormal
d) Inversion – the sequence of triplet is reversed à like substitution
 • Mutation can occur in both cells
1) somatic cells (heart, skin and intestine) à not pass mutation to next generation
2) gamete cells (sperm and ovary) à pass mutation to next generation à genetic
diseases
Mutation is BAD? No. It can be advantage to an individual.
• Random mutation occurs à some insects are resistant to insecticides à pass to next
generations
• Bacteria resistant to antibiotics like this (penicillin resistance)
• Called natural selection

Mutagens – agents that cause mutations

• Ionizing radiation (UV light, X-ray, gamma ray)
• Chemical – many chemicals and tar in cigarette smoke, mustard gas and nitrous oxide

Cell division

2 types of cell division

1. Mitosis (in all cells except gametes) – to grow or to replace old and damaged cells
• diploid cell (46 chromosomes) divides into two diploid cells (46 chromosomes)
which is identical to original cells
2. Meiosis (in gametes) – to reproduce
• diploid cell (46 chromosomes) divides into two haploid cells (23 chromosomes)

Mitosis (PMAT)
§ A parent cell divides two genetically identical (number and type of chromosome) daughter cells
§ To achieve mitotic cell division, cell must
 o copy each chromosome (DNA replication) before it divides
o divide the cells with one copy of each chromosome
§ Skin and gut (million cells per every day), RBCs (1011 cells per days) destroyed in spleen
and replaced by bone marrow
§ Cancer cells undergo mitosis uncontrollably

Cell division (Mitosis) and differentiation

• single fertilized egg (zygote) à 2 cells à then four à then eight à countless millions
of cells by means of cell division à Mitosis
• In mitosis,
1) copy chromosomes
2) nuclear division (split into two)
3) cytoplasmic division
• As developing embryo grows, cells become specialized to carry particular roles à
differentiation
• Different kinds of cells develop depending on where they are located in the embryo
(nerve cell in the spinal cord, epidermal cell in outer layer of skin)
Cells, Tissues and Organs

Group of cells with similar function à Tissues

Muscle tissue – group of millions of similar muscle cells for contracting
• Voluntary muscle – the contraction of muscles under the conscious control of the brain
(e.g., skeletal muscle contraction for movement of bones)
• Involuntary muscle - the contraction of muscles not under the conscious control of the
brain (e.g., smooth muscle contraction in intestine, bladder and blood vessels)
• Cardiac muscle – special type of muscle in the walls of heart
Epithelial tissue – group of millions of cells that line organs
• Ciliated epithelium – the lining cells that contain tiny hair-like projection called cilia
• Squamous epithelium – the flattened cells lining the cheek
Bone – group of millions of cells that secrete a hard material calcium salts
Blood - group of millions of cells (RBCs, WBCs & plasma) that transport materials
Nervous tissue - group of millions of cells (brain, spinal cord & nerves) that do coordination
A collection of several tissues carrying out a particular function à Organs
• In most organs à Collections of muscles, blood, nervous tissue and epithelium tissues
Different organs working together à Organ system
Stem cells
Cells has ability to divide many times by mitosis (while remaining undifferentiated) and can
differentiate into specialized cells later
1) Embryonic stem cells
Cells of early stage of development of the embryo à can differentiate any type of cells
2) Adult stem cells
Cells of later stage of development of the embryo (some cells of bone marrow, skin and
intestine) à can differentiate into a number of specialized cells
E.g., bone marrow cells à different types of red and white blood cells

Stem cell therapy - to treat a disease and to repair a damage tissue

Bone marrow transplant - (most common stem cell therapy) supply stem cells that can divide
and differentiate which replace cancer cells (leukemia)

Genetic engineering

Recombination and Recombinant DNA – basis of genetic engineering

- A DNA segment of one species is cut and recombined into the DNA of other species
- This new DNA is called recombinant DNA.
- The organism that receives the genes from a different species à transgenic organism
o e.g., human insulin gene in bacteria to produce insulin proteins

Producing transgenic (genetically modified) bacteria

1) vectors – carry foreign DNA
• plasmid – a small circular DNA and carries foreign DNA into the bacterial cell
• bacteriophage – a virus that carries foreign DNA and inserted into the host DNA
2) molecular scissors – restriction endonuclease (restriction enzyme)
3) molecular glues – ligases (DNA ligases) joins cut ends of DNA molecules
Restriction endonucleases/ enzymes
- They are enzymes that cuts DNA at specific sites because specific restriction enzyme
recognizes specific sequence of DNA. (e.g., one enzyme to GAATTC)
- Cut DNA in two types
o straight cut à blunt end
o staggered cut à sticky end (overlapping end) [easy to join)

Stages in producing transgenic bacterium by using plasmid

Making use of genetically modified bacteria

1) Human insulin – control blood glucose
• Insulin need increases due to more diabetes patients
 • use animal insulin (cattle) before recombinant insulin à not same as human
insulin
2) Human growth hormone
• some children’s pituitary glands do not produce enough growth hormone and
they need growth hormone to get normal growth (Messi_10)
3) Human vaccine
• Hepatitis B vaccine (antigens of hepatitis B virus)
• To promote antibody production to Hepatitis B antigen (no risk of disease)

Producing genetically modified plants

To modify a plant, each cell of many must receive the new
gene
Two stages
1. introduce new gene or genes into plant cells
2. producing whole plants from just a few cells
Vector – agrobacterium
(soil bacterium)

Agrobacterium will not infect cereals. So, ‘gene gun’ technique is used for cereals.
• Gun fires golden bullet (tiny gold pellets coated with desired DNA)
young, delicate tissue à good uptake of DNA
• modified plant tissue à new plant
(Micropropagation)
• used for many cereal plants
• also, for tobacco, carrot, soybean, apple, oilseed rape, cotton and others
• e.g., golden rice (add three genes into normal rice DNA to make b-
carotene [yellow color])
§ two genes from daffodils
§ one gene from bacterium
(b-carotene is converted to vitamin A which is necessary for eyesight. But it has ethical issues because it
there are so many other b-carotene rich crops)

• genetically modified (GM) plants help human to resist infection

§ tobacco plants to provide hepatitis B antigen (vaccination)
§ banana to provide antigens for certain disease