UNIT-4 Introduction to Environment Pollution

Environmental pollution is any discharge of material or energy into water, land,

or air that causes or may cause acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term) detriment to the Earth's
ecological balance or that lowers the quality of life. Pollutants may cause primary damage, with
direct identifiable impact on the environment, or secondary damage in the form of minor
perturbations in the delicate balance of the biological food web that are detectable only over long
time periods.

Until relatively recently in humanity's history, where pollution has existed, it has
been primarily a local problem. The industrialization of society, the introduction of motorized
vehicles, and the explosion of the human population, however, have caused an exponential
growth in the production of goods and services. Coupled with this growth has been a tremendous
increase in waste by-products. The indiscriminate discharge of untreated industrial and domestic
wastes into waterways, the spewing of thousands of tons of particulates and airborne gases into
the atmosphere, the "throwaway" attitude toward solid wastes, and the use of newly developed
chemicals without considering potential consequences have resulted in major environmental
disasters. Technology has begun to solve some pollution problems, and public awareness of the
extent of pollution will eventually force governments to undertake more effective environmental
planning and adopt more effective antipollution measures.

Types of Pollution:

Pollution can be classified as natural (which originates from natural processes such as
forest fires, natural organic and inorganic decays, volcanic eruption, earthquake etc.) or artificial
(which originates due to human activities).
However it is better to classify pollution either according to environment in which it occurs
or according to the pollutants by which pollution is caused.

1- Classification according to environment: When different spheres of the environment are

affected by pollution, they can be categories as:
(i) Air Pollution
(ii) Water Pollution
(iii) Soil or Land Pollution

2- Classification according to the pollutant: The pollution caused by pollutant may be of a

many types. For example:

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 Radioactive Pollution
(ii) Marine Pollution
(iii) Thermal Pollution
(iv) Noise Pollution
(v) Pesticide Pollution
(vi) Industrial Pollution
(vii) Plastic Pollution
(viii) Smoke Pollution
(ix) Chemical Pollution
(x) Oil Pollution
(xi) Metal Toxicity Pollution
(xii) Soap and detergent Pollution
(xiii) Biomedical waste pollution

Air Pollution

Fig-1.2: Air Pollution

“Air pollution is the

introduction of (undesirable or
unwanted substances)
chemicals, particulate matter,
or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or
cause damage to the natural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere”.

Classification of Pollutants

1. Primary Pollutants
2. Secondary Pollutants

Primary pollutants are directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption,
the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories.

Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary
pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone
— one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.

Examples for Primary Pollutants are:

 Sulfur oxides
 Nitrogen oxides
 Carbon monoxide
 Carbon dioxide
 Particulate matter
 Persistent free radicals
 Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 Ammonia (NH3) etc.

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Examples for Secondary Pollutants are:
 Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in
photochemical smog
 Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs

Causes of Air Pollution:

The air gets polluted because of the industrial and transport
activities, which release the toxic matter in the air. Following are the important
pollutants, which have made the problem of air pollution very serious:
 Carbon compounds: CO2 is released by complete combustion of fossil fuels and CO, a
toxic gas is released by automobile exhausts.
 Sulphur compounds: SO2, H2S and H2SO4 are released through thermal power plants,
using coal and from the oil refineries.
 Oxides of Nitrogen: Oxides like NO, NO2, and HNO3 are released by automobiles, power
plants and industries etc.
 Fluorides: They are produced by the industrial and insecticides sprays etc.
 Hydrocarbons: They are released by automobiles e.g. benzene and benzpyrene etc.
 Metals: The metals such as Lead, Nickel, tin and titanium are present in the form of solid
particles produced by metallurgical process.
 Biological Particulate: They are mainly the bacterial cells, fungal spores and pollens etc.
 Increase in the population, and urbanization are the some other major factors responsible for
air pollution. The following industries are among those that emit a great deal of pollutants into
the air: thermal power plants, cement, steel, refineries, petro chemicals, and mines etc.

Fig-1.2.2: Sources of Air Pollution

Effects of Air Pollution
Effects of Air pollution on human health:
 Headaches reduced mental alertness, heart attack, cardiovascular diseases, impaired fetal
development, death.
 Irritation, wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath, lung damage.
 Susceptibility to respiratory infections, irritation of the lung and respiratory symptoms (e.g.,
cough, chest pain, difficulty breathing).
 Eye and throat irritation, coughing, respiratory tract problems, asthma.
 High blood pressure, brain and kidney damage, neurological disorders, cancer, lowered IQ.
 Bronchitis problem, lung damage, cancer, heavy metal poisoning, cardiovascular effects and
allergies.

Effects of Air pollution on plants:

Spraying of pesticides, and other agricultural particles cause exposure of the plants to a
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 large number of air pollutants. These adversely affect their growth and metabolism by
destroying chlorophyll and disrupting photosynthesis. For example;
 NO2 causes premature leaf fall and suppressed growth of plants.
 SO2 bleaches the leaf surfaces and causes chlorosis (i.e. disruption of chlorophyll pigment).
 Ozone causes nacrosis (i.e. dead tissues on the leaf surfaces).
 Epinasty (Downward curvature of the leaf due to higher rate of growth on the upper surface.

Effects of Air pollution on climate and material:

 Causes global warming , acid rain and helps in the formation of photochemical smog.
 Causes depletion of ozone in stratosphere.
 Causing temperature inversion.
 Sulphur dioxide is converted to sulphuric acid in the presence of moisture and iron, which
are present in dust, nails etc. This results in yellowing, de-colorization, weakening and corrosion
of material and other physical distortion of building materials, monuments, statues etc.

Control Of Air Pollution:

Air pollution can be controlled by two fundamental approaches:
prevention techniques and emission control. They are as follows:
 The particulate matter can be removed by gravitational settling chamber, cyclone separator,
fabric filter electrostatic precipitator and wet scrubber.
 By using de-sulphurized fuel.
 By absorbing the toxic or pollutant gases in different solutions
 The gaseous pollutants are controlled through absorption in liquid, absorption on a solid
surface and chemical alteration of the pollutants through combustion or catalytic treatment.
 By plantation and foresting.
 Building higher smoke stacks facilities to discharge the pollutants as far away from the
ground as possible.

Electrostatic Precipitator:
Electrostatic precipitator consisting of vertical wires is placed in between parallel
plates. Strong electric fields is created between the wires and the plate impressing a high
negative voltage on the wires. The intense field created near the wire causes corona
discharge ionizing gas molecules in the air stream. The negative ions and free electrons
thus created move towards the plates and on the way some attach themselves to the
particulate matter. The particles now carry a charge, which causes them to move under
the influence of the electric field to the surface of the plates. They are removed from the
collection electrode either by the gravitational forces or by the flashing the collecting
plates with liquid.

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 Advantages of Electrostatic precipitator:
 Less power requirement
 Economic and easy to operate.

Cyclone Separator:
Cyclone separator utilizes a centrifugal force generated by a spinning gas
stream to separate the particulate matter from the carrier gas. The centrifugal force on a
particulate matter in a spinning gas stream is much greater than the gravity and therefore
cyclone are effective in the removal of smaller particles. The efficiencies of cyclone
separator can be above 90% for the particles larger than 5um and drop rapidly for the
smaller particle sizes.

Fig-1.2.7:Cyclone Separator

Advantages of Cyclone separator:

 Low initial cost
 Simple construction and operation
 Low pressure drop
 Low maintenance
 No moving parts
 Continuous disposal of solid wastes

Bag Filter:
The bag filter is also known as fabric
filter. This system typically comprises a tubular bag which suspended or mounted in such
a manner that the collected particles fall into a hopper when dislodge from the fabric. The
structure in which the bag hang is known as bag house. Generally, particle laden gas
enters the filter from the bottom and passes through the fabric filter. Through passing the
bag, the particles are deposited on the surface of the bag. The cleaning of the bag is
accomplished by shaking at fixed intervals of time and dusts are collected at the bottom.

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 Fig-1.2.6:Bag Filter

Advantage of Bag filter:

 Very high efficiency retention of fine particles
 Collection of particles in dry form

Disadvantages of Bag filter:

 Requirement of large space
 High construction cost
 Operation possible below 285ᵒC0 of the carrier gas.

Water Pollution: Water pollution is the introduction of chemical, biological and physical
matter into large bodies of water that degrade the quality of life that lives in it and consumes it.

Sources of water pollution: Some of the main contributors to water pollution are:

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 Factories
 Refineries
 Waste treatment facilities
 Mining
 Pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers
 Human sewage
 Oil spills
 Failing septic systems
 Soap from washing your car
 Oil and antifreeze leaking from cars
 Household chemicals
 Animal waste

Effects of Water Pollution:

There are various effects of water pollution.

 Spread of disease: Drinking polluted water can cause cholera or typhoid infections,
along with diarrhea.
 Affects body organs: The consumption of highly contaminated water can cause injury to
the heart and kidneys.
 Harms the food chain: Toxins within water can harm aquatic organisms, thus breaking a
link in the food chain.
 Causes algae in water: Urea, animal manure and vegetable peelings are food for algae.
Algae grow according to how much waste is in a water source. Bacteria feed off the algae,
decreasing the amount of oxygen in the water. The decreased oxygen causes harm to other
organisms living in the water.
 Flooding: The erosion of soil into waterways causes flooding, especially with heavy
rainfall.
 Harms animals: Birds that get into oil-contaminated water die from exposure
to cold water and air due to feather damage. Other animals are affected when they eat dead fish
in contaminated streams.

Control of Water pollution: Waste water treatment is an essential necessity to reuse the
water resources main aim of this treatment is to remove contaminants. Various measures
adopted for waste water treatment are listed below.

1. Primary treatment:
 Screening
 Communiting
 Sedimentation
 floatation
 Neutralization
2. Secondary treatment
 Activated sludge process
 Trickling filters
3. Tertiary treatment
 Removal of suspended solids

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  Removal of BOD
 Removal of dissolved solids
 Removal of toxic substances

Soil Pollution:

Soil pollution may be defined as:-

“The contamination caused by chemicals and other substances resulting in the loss of the
fertility or the productivity of the soil”. It is also known as soil degradation.

Fig-1.3: Soil Pollution

Causes Of Soil Pollution:

The loss of soil fertility means quantitative as well as qualitative loss of soil. Soil pollution is
caused due to following main sources:-

 Excessive use of chemicals to raise the crop yield.

 Improper sanitation methods:- Human and animal excreta is used as organic fertilizer to
increase the crop yield but if these excreta have pathogens, the soil as well as the crop gets
contaminated.
 Industrial waste: The metals like iron, copper, lead, mercury, zinc and the acids and
alkalies enter into the soil directly through discharge of industrial waste water into the soil. They
make change the composition of soil to make it toxic for the plant growth.
 Soil erosion
 Water logging, floods and land undulation etc.
 Disposal of medical waste.
 Wet lands due to always full irrigational canals.
 Poor management of solid and liquid waste disposal of sewage and sludge, domestic waste,
industrial waste and agricultural wastes etc.
 Disposal of radioactive substances:- Through the mines and nuclear process, the radioactive
waste reaches the soil and enter into the plants and affect the food chain in total.
 Acid rain

Effects of Soil Pollution:

The injurious effects of soil pollution are listed as:

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 Adversely affects the human health.
 Reduce soil productivity
 Decomposition of organic matter by micro organisms releases unpleasant odour which
causes chronic diseases.
 Excessive Use of non biodegradable Pesticides: The insecticides like D.D.T, Aldrin, and
benzene are used to control the growth of soil borne pests. They degrade slowly and hence get
accumulated in the soil and make it toxic.
 Pesticides seep gradually through the soil and Contaminates the underground water
 Radioactive isotopes replace the essential elements of body which causes abnormalities.
 Urban solid wastes such as rubbish, broken articles etc. obstruct the passage and roads etc.

Control Measures Of Soil Pollution:

The soil pollution can be controlled by adopting the following means:
 By making vegetation cover.
 By controlling the grazing activities.
 By applying water infiltration measures for soil and moisture conservation.
 Effluent should be properly treated before discharging them on soil.
 Biodegradable organic waste should be used for generation of bio-gas.
 There should be optimum use of pesticides and fertilizers.
 Solid waste should be properly collected and disposed off by appropriate method
 Cattle dung should be used for methane generation.

Introduction to Marine Pollution

Fig-2.1 marine Pollution

Marine pollution has going unnoticed for a long time for discharge of domestic waste,
agricultural wastes and industrial effluents into the rivers which end up in the seas. Besides
these, washing of cargo tanks in the open sea, discharge of oils and petroleum products, waste
disposal and dumping of radio nuclides into sea cause marine pollution.

CAUSES OF MARINE POLLUTION:

The important source of pollution of sea is oil. These oil
releases into the oceans from land based sources and sea based sources. The major
sources of marine pollution are as follows:

 Natural sources: Natural seeps occur from geological faults and

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 fissures in the ocean floor in all regions of the world.
 Marine Transport: Approximately 1.5 million metric tons of oil
released into the sea every year by maritime transport. Of this, about
1.1 million metric tons are non-accidental stemming from frequent
discharge of oil by tankers at sea. The balance 0.4 million metric tons,
result from tanker accidents and many of these are avoidable.
 Anthropogenic sources: Due to human activities, oil spills at sea can
originate from tankers, drilling rigs, well blowouts, intentional
discharge of oil etc., causing marine pollution.

Effects of Marine Pollution:

Effects of oil pollution in sea water:

 Oil films reduce the rate of oxygen uptake resulting in death of aquatic animals.
 Smothering coats of oil kills algae and lichens along the shore lines of the sea.
 Presence of oil slick the intensity of light is decreased by 80-90%.The diffused light
may reduce the rate of photosynthesis of aquatic plants.
Effects of oil pollution on marine ecosystem:
 Continuous inhalation of aromatic compound result in aquatic intoxication.
Example: Benzene even in minute concentration is very toxic. Similarly Naphthalene
and phenanthrene have been found as extremely toxic to marine biota.
 The oil may reach the bottom of the sea hampering the life of aquatic animals and
plants.

Effects of oil pollution on human being:

 The crude oil contains metals like Fe, Ni, Sulphur compounds, small amount of
nitrogen and olefins. These are extremely lethal.
 Some aromatic compounds like thiophenes and mercaptans are lethal as they
damage the liver and kidney permanently.
 Paraffins like metane, ethane and propane found in crude oil which cause acute
suffocation of marine organisms.

Control Measures of Marine Pollution:

Control measures of marine pollution involves:
 The floating oil can be absorbed by using suitable absorbing material like
polyurethane foam and saw dust etc.
 The chalk or CaCO3 treated with stearate and 10% sand in water is a good method to
remove the oil from the sea.
 Chemical dispersants are widely used for breaking up surface oil slicks into
numerous droplets. The resulting droplets are then dispersed into large volume of water
are carried away.
 Bioremediation is also a method used in removal of organic compounds from sea. In
this method the degradation of organic contaminants through biochemical activity of
microorganisms such as bacterias etc. They breakdown the organic compounds into fatty
acid and CO2 etc.
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 Noise Pollution:
Noise can be defined as unwanted sound or sound in the wrong place at
wrong time. Noise can also be defined as any sound that is undesirable because it
interfere, with speech and hearing, is intense enough to damage hearing, or is
otherwise annoying. Noise pollution has an adverse effect on human being and
their environment. It can also disturb natural wild life and ecological systems. So
noise pollution can be defined as:

“The unpleasant, high intensity and annoying nature sound is known as

noise pollution.”

Fig-2.2: Noise Pollution

Measurement of intensity of noise:

The unit of measurement of sound is called as ‘decibel’ (db). The range of this scale
extends between 1 and 140 db. When it is less than 1 db we can’t hear it and when it is more
than 140 db we can’t stand to it.

Noise level of various sources of sound

S.No. Sources of sound Sound level(db)

1 Normal Breathing 10
2 Rustling of leaves 20
3 Whispering sound 30
4 Library 35
5 Living Room 45
6 Normal Conversation 55-60
7 Telephone 60-70
8 Alarm Clock 80
9 Normal Traffic 50-90
10 Train whistle 110
11 Rock Band 110-115
12 Running motor cycle 115-120
13 Commercial jet aircrafts 120-140
14 Sirens And Loudspeakers 150
15 Space Rocket at Launching 170-180
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Source of Noise Pollution:-
The harmful noise is produced at various sources. Following are some
major sources of noise pollution:-

Transport activities : Automobiles, Railways and aeroplanes etc.

Industrial activities : Textile industries, Steel Rolling industries,
woodcutting mills and pneumatic industries etc.
Cultural activities : Religious programmes, marriage functions,
festivals and public speeches etc.
Agricultural activities : Threshers and Tractors etc.
Mining activities : Blasting
Defense activities : Bombs, aeroplanes, tanks, Gunfire’s and army
exercises etc.
Domestic activities : Television, Radio, Tape recorders and mixer
grinders etc.
Other Sources : Stone crushing, constructions of dams, tunnels,
roads. Landslides and earthquakes are the
natural sources of noise pollution.

Effects of Noise Pollution:-

The noise pollution creates temporary as well as permanent problems in the
human beings. The noise pollution can have physical, physiological and psychological
effects:-

1) Physical Effects:

 Temporary hearing problems

 Permanent deafness
 Damage to tympanic membrane
1) Physiological Effects

 Loss of memory
 Headache
 Rise in blood pressure
 Pains in the heart
 Reduction in the vision
 Nervous break down
 Muscular strain
 Increase in the rate of heart beat
1) Psychological Effects
 Irritation
 Disturbed sleep
 Reduced efficiency
 Depression
 Fatigue
 Frustration
 Emotional disturbance

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 Fig-2.2.2: Effects of Noise Pollution

Control of Noise Pollution:

Noise pollution could be controlled by either reducing the noise at the
sources or by preventing its transmission or by protecting the receivers:
At the Source:
 Reduction in sources of noise
 Proper oiling will reduce the noise from machinery
 Tightening the loose nuts
 Decibel meters should be installed along highways and in factories to check and control the
intensity of noise pollution.

In the path:
 A green belts effectively reduces the noise.
 A 20 foot wide plantation inside the compound protects the house from the noise of
vehicular traffic.
 Use of noise absorbing silencers
 Through Laws
 For people working in noisy installations ear protection aids such as ear plugs, ear muffs
noise helmets and headphones should be used.

Noise exposure level standards:

Generally acceptable noise level for different outdoor and indoor locations are illustrated
in the table
Location Acceptable noise level
range (db)
Out door
Rural 25-35
Residential 35-45
Business 45-50
City 45-55
Industrial Area 50-60

In door
Radio, T.V., Studio, Hospital and classroom 25-30
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 Apartments, Hotel and conference rooms 35-40
Private offices 40-45
Public rooms, stores and banks 45-50

Permissible exposure limits to various sound levels

Noise level (db) Permissible duration exposure

(Hours per day)
90 8
95 4
100 2
105 1
110 ½
115 ¼

Thermal Pollution:
Thermal pollution is basically the form of water pollution that
refers to degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature.

Thermal pollution may be defined as:

1- The warming up of an aquatic ecosystem to point where desirable organisms are

adversely affected.
 Addition of excess of undesirable heat to water that makes it harmful to man, animal or
aquatic life, or otherwise causes significant departures from the normal activities of aquatic
communities in water.
 Heated effluent, either from natural or man made sources, contaminated with water
supplies, may harmful to life because of their toxicity, reduction in normal oxygen level of
water, aesthetically unsuitable and spread diseases.

Fig-2.3: Thermal Pollution

Causes Of Thermal Pollution:

 A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power
plants and industrial manufacturers. When water used as a coolant is returned to the
natural environment at a higher temperature the change in temperature impacts
organisms by :

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 (a) Decreasing supply,
(b) Affecting ecosystem composition

 Urban runoff-storm water discharged to surface waters from roads and parking lots--
can also be a source of elevated water temperatures.

Effects of Thermal Pollution:

 The change in water temperature decreases the amount of oxygen in the water which
can lead to many negative ecological effects.
 Less oxygen in the water can harm fish population, for instance it can increase the
metabolic rate of fish and other aquatic animals so they eat lot more food in a shorter
time than if their environment were not changed. This can lead to imbalance in food
chain resulting in significant damage to many aquatic ecosystems.
 Warmer water temperatures can also lead to reproduction problems for many aquatic
animals, and can cause huge bacteria and plant growth. It can even lead to algal bloom
resulting in even less oxygen in the water.
 Industry doesn't always return water at higher temperatures, sometimes the water can
return to its natural environment at lower temperatures. Colder water can have even more
serious consequences to fish population than warmer water, as it can completely disrupt
their reproduction ability.

Control Measures of Thermal Pollution:

Thermal pollution from industrial sources is generated mostly by power plants, petroleum
refineries, pulp and paper mills, chemical plants, steel mills and smelters. Heated water from
these sources may be controlled with:

 Cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation,

convection, and radiation.
 Cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation
and/or heat transfer.
 Some facilities use once-through cooling (OTC) systems which do not reduce
temperature as effectively as the above systems. For example, the Potrero Generating
Station in San Francisco, which uses OTC, discharges water to San Francisco Bay
approximately 10° C (20° F) above the ambient bay temperature.
Urban runoff: During warm weather, urban runoff can have significant thermal impacts on
small streams, as storm water passes over hot parking lots, roads and sidewalks. Storm water
management facilities that absorb runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bio-retention
systems and infiltration basins, can reduce these thermal effects. Retention basins tend to be less
effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged
to a receiving stream.

Introduction to nuclear Hazards:

“The physical pollution of air, water and soil caused by radioactive

materials”. Nuclear Pollution happens when Radioactive element come into contact with other
elements in environment & emits “Alpha & Gamma rays”(Short Wave Electromagnetic Rays)
Which is serious threat to living organisms. The Phenomenon of “Nuclear Fission” creates a
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nuclear pollution.
Some radioactive elements occur as natural minerals in earth’s crust.
Uranium, which is mined for use in atomic weapons and in nuclear power plants, is one such
element. A radioisotope is form of chemical element that spontaneously undergoes radioactive
decay. It changes from one isotope to another and during this process; emits one or more forms
of radiation. Some radioisotopes undergo a series of decay finally reaching a stable non-
radioactive isotope.

Fig-3.1 Nuclear Hazards:

CAUSES OF NUCLEAR POLLUTION:

 Use of nuclear weapon against civil population during war or conflict.

 Use of radioactive material by terrorists who seems to be adopting newer methods
to further their cause b adopting violence as a tool to cause disturbance in societies.
 Accident at nuclear power plants resulting in release of nuclear radiation.
 Transportation accidents, which involve nuclear material.
 Improper or deficient disposal of radioactive material.
 Nuclear Power Plants.
 Nuclear Experiments.
 Nuclear Accidents.
 Disposal of nuclear waste in the environment.
 Varying concentrations of radiations enter the human body during different
medical treatments. For e.g. X-rays are common for detecting skeleton disorders,
therapy for cancer patients often includes radium and other isotope radiations.

Effect of Nuclear Pollution:

Effects on Living Organisms:

 Skin Diseases.
 Damages of reproductive organs.
 Causes Abnormality in Bone Marrow.
 Destroys Retina Of Eyes.
 Shortening of Life Span.
 In high doses, radiation can cause instant death.
 Tumors, cancers and developmental changes are other long term effects of radiation
pollution.
 Some cells are more vulnerable to injury by radiations, for example
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 Activity of growing cells
 Bone marrow cells which produce blood corpuscles.
 Cells lining the intestine
 Foetus or embryo
 The pollutants which happen to fall in the fields find their way into cattle grazing on the
plants growing in these fields. Children who drink the milk of such cattle get Leukemia because
the radioactive pollutants like strontium 90 gets deposited in the bones in the same manner as
calcium does and causes bone cancer.

Control & Measures:

 Proper maintenance of nuclear plants.
 Preventive nuclear experiments.
 Safe transportation.
 Ban on usage of nuclear weapons.
 Proper storage: High activity solid wastes are placed in shielded containers.
 Minimize use of nuclear elements.
 Extraction of radioactive elements from nuclear waste.
 Adequate protection should be given to limit the exposure to desired part of the body.
 Avoid routine use of X-rays such as
 Chest radiography
 Tuberculosis screening by chest radiography
 Chest and lower back X-ray examinations

Solid Waste Management

It can be defined as:-

“A method of collection processing, resource recovery and disposal of the solid waste is
called as solid waste management”.

Contents of solid waste:

In general the following unwanted objects are fall in the category of solid waste:-
 Waste arises from Industrial and the thermal power generating plants.
 Waste arising from the construction work and also from demolishing the old
constructions.
 Domestic waste consist the garbage like food and vegetable residues.
 The hospital waste covers both the organic waste like organs, tissues etc. and also
inorganic material like bottles, rubber tubes bandages ,syringes and tins etc.
 The urban waste has plastic, broken glass, rubber, metals, wood and ceramic
products etc.
 The atomic waste is generated in the atomic power generating plants, which is very
toxic as it is radioactive.

Causes of Solid Waste Generation:-

 Overpopulation: Growth in the population having consumption based economy, it
generates more waste material i.e. use and throw policy.
 Advance Technology: Leading to large scale production of consumable food.
 Urbanization: Expansion of urban areas need more buildings, more roads, railways,
airways, more shopping centers and malls, bridges and dams etc. Their construction and
demolishing the old buildings create a lot of waste material.

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  Affluence: With the affluence, there is a tendency to declare items as being in or out
of fashion and the items those are out of fashion results solid waste pollution.
 Advent of packaging technology: Due to which almost every item is packed before
sale.
 The municipal and private hospitals also create a huge amount of solid waste.
 The private as well as the public transport system also responsible for generating
material like used tires, broken seats and the hood of the vehicles etc.

Effects Of Solid Wastes:

 Solid waste disposal increases the rate of breeding disease vectors, primarily flies
and rats.
 There is danger of water pollution when the leachate from a solid waste dump enters
surface water and underground water resource.
 In addition, uncontrolled burning of open dumps can cause objectionable odor and
air pollution.
 The solid waste material chokes the surface streams and also the drainage pipes
which creates water logging conditions.
 The aesthetic beauty of the urban settlement is lost due to the heaps of the solid
waste which get spread over a large area by the pigs and other animals.
 The various diseases which get spread through contaminated solid waste are as
follows:
 Bacterial infections create Typhoid fever and cholera etc.
 Viral infections create Polio and jaundice etc.
 Protozoal infections create the amoebic dysentery.

Control Measures:
The solid waste generation cannot be totally stopped but can be put under control.
The following are some of the measures and method to control the solid waste:
 By reducing the generation of domestic garbage.
 By making the laws and by following them the waste material generation on the
public places like streets, gardens play grounds, picnic spots and sea beaches etc. can be
put under control.
 By using dustbins for the collection of the domestic wastes, office wastes and shop
wastes etc.
 Solid wastes need technical methods for getting disposed off. The methods are being
applied in various countries each one of them has some advantages and few limitations.
The methods are as follows:

Open dumping:
Open dumping of solid waste is very common, cheap and it requires on technical
detailing. Generally low lying areas of the outskirts of towns and cities are used for this
purpose. The open dumps cause public health problems by encouraging the breeding of
flies, rats, mosquitoes and other pests.
They also become a source of irritable smell and cause air pollution when the paste burnt
in order to reduce their volume and conserve space.
Pulverization: Amongst all the disposable methods of solid waste, pulverization method,
being costly and least preferred. In this method, the solid waste is covered to powder
form by grinding. It thus becomes almost odourless and of reduced volume. After this
treatment, the waste may be used as manure or for landfilling.

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Sanitary Land filling: Sanitary land filling is an engineered operation design and
operated according to the acceptable standards. In this method, waste is sprayed and
compacted in thin layers within small areas. This layer structure is usually called as cell.
To allow for a proper compaction, the cell depth should not exceed more than 2 m. The
‘cells’ is than covered with a layer of soil which is spread uniformly and then compacted.
To provide an adequate seal, the seal, the cover should normally at least 20 cm thick. If
the waste includes large irregular objects it may be necessary to increase the thickness of
the cover. When a number of ‘cell’ reach the final desired height, a final cover of about
one matter is placed and is again compacted.

Incineration: Incineration involves the burning of solid waste at high temperature, left
over ashes plus metals and un burnt combustible amount reduced to nearly 25% of the
original waste. This residue must still be disposed of in the same manner the incineration
leads to air pollution unless the plant is designed, equipped and operated to comply with
air pollution standards. The non- combustible material are removed from waste by
gravity or magnetic separation. Many of the separated materials, fine glass or metals can
be recycled. Air pollution can be controlled by installation of proper controlling
equipment.

Composting: In contrast to sanitary land filling, composting of waste materials is an

aerobic method. Many types of micro organisms are present in the waste; stabilize the
organic matter in the waste to produce soil conditioner. The organisms include bacteria,
fungi and actinomycetes.
Initially the process starts with mesophillic bacteria which oxidizes the organic
matter in the waste CO2 and liberate heat. The temperature raises to about 450C and at
this point the thermophillic bacteria takes over and continues the decomposition. During

69
 this phase, the temperature rises to about 600C. The wastes are periodically turned over to
allow sufficient oxygen to penetrate to all parts of the waste to support aerobic life. After
about three weeks, the compost is stabilized. The end point of a composting operation
can be measured by nothing a drop in temperature. The composting materials should
have typical smell and dark brown colour.

Pyrolysis: Transformation of a compound into smaller and simpler compounds, or

compounds of higher molecular weight, under elevated temperatures usually in the range
of 400°C to 800°C to as high as 1400°C. It differs from combustion in that it occurs in
the absence of air and therefore no oxidation takes place.

Causes, Effects and Control Measures of Industrial Wastes

Causes of Industrial Wastes: A wide range of organic and inorganic pollutants are present
in industrial effluents. The pollutants include:
 Oils
 Grease
 Plastics
 Plasticizers
 Metallic wastes like Na, Cu, Cd, Cr, Hg and Pd etc.
 suspended solids
 Phenols
 Toxins
 Acids
 Salts
 Cyanides etc.
These pollutants discharged from different industries and causes serious pollution problems.
Effects: The industrial waste creates the following ill-effects:
 Industrial wastes are extremely toxic to all living being. These toxins enter in the
food chain causing a number of health related problems.
 Toxic metallic contaminants like Hg, Cd and As etc. destroy bacterias and other
micro organisms present in the soil.
 The use of polluted ground water containing industrial effluents reduce the soil
fertility by killing soil micro organisms.
 Radioactive industrial pollutants cause undesirable diseases when food containing
radio nuclides is consumed by human being.
 Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers in the field can cause diarrhea and cyanosis
in children.

Control Measures Of Industrial Waste: The Proper and specific treatment of industrial
effluents is necessary before it disposal into water bodies or sewage system. Industrial effluents
and sewage may be mixed prior to treatment only in industrial effluents meets the following
quality criteria. Waste should be homogeneous in composition and uniform in flow rate.
 Effluent has less suspended solids and Biological oxygen demand(BOD).
 Effluent is in the near neutral zone of pH.
 Effluent is free from toxic chemical content.
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Pre-treatment of Industrial wastes:
It includes:
(i) : Segregation and reduction of waste strength and Volume:
Strong and weak wastes may be separately collected, treated and disposed. As
mixing the two types of wastes creates large volumes, therefore treatment
becomes difficult like:
 A number of useful substances like grease, caustic soda, silver and potash may be
recovered for economic gains and to reduce pollution loads.
 Waste water may be conserved by reuing or recycling within the industry, for e.g.
white liquors in paper industry, cooling water in steel plants.

(ii)Equalization and neutralization:

Most of the biological treatment plants function effectively within a range of 6.0-
8.5. Therefore for biological treatment of industrial wastes of acidic and alkaline
in nature, they have to be first neutralized in a tank. The process is known as
neutralization. For e.g, acid wastes may be passed through beds of limestone.
Waste fuel gas, as carbonic acid from boiler unit, may be allowed to react with
caustic to obtain a natural pH value of effluents.

Treatment Technologies for Industrial effluents:

Before deciding the treatment technology for industrial effluents, following points
should be considered:
 Identification of pollutants and total pollution load.
 The concentrated effluents should be separated and treatment option should be separately
planned for concentrated as well as dilute effluents.
 A material balance with regard to raw materials, intermediate, and final product should be
used to verify the position.
The industrial waste treatment methods can be classified into three main categories, that
is physical, chemical and biological treatment.
Physical Treatment:
 Coarse or fine screens as well, as bar screens to remove large particles, wood pieces, paper ,
cloth and rags etc.
 comminuting devices like grinders, cutters or shredders, which are employed to break up
solid materials
 Grit chamber to arrest sand, stones, cinders and other heavy inorganic settle able material.
 Grease trap to remove unemulsified oil and grease from the effluents.

Chemical Treatment:
The following are important chemical treatment method from industrial wastes
for removing toxic and non organic effluents:
 Neutralization, for adjusting of pH to neutral range.
 Precipitation to remove dissolved substance, like metals and organic substance.
 Chemical destruction of toxic substances like cyanides.
 Coagulation and flocculation are commonly used for the removal of colloidal particles.

Biological treatment: Biological treatment is generally preferred in agro- based

industries that having effluents with organic impurities. Under this treatment
process, microorganisms breakdown pollutants in a stable form. Biological
processes can be broadly classified as:
 Aerobic, that is biological process in the presence of oxygen

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 Anaerobic, that is biological process in the absence of oxygen

Role Of Individual in Prevention Of Pollution:

Each individual should change his /her life style in such a way as to reduce
environmental pollution. It can be done by the following some of the suggestions:-
 Use eco-friendly products.
 Cut down the use of CFCs as they destroy the ozone layer.
 Improve energy efficiency power.
 Reduce dependency on fossil fuels especially coal, minerals and oil.
 Promote reuse and recycling wherever possible.
 Use mass transport systems.
 Use optimum amount of chemical pesticides.
 Use rechargeable batteries.
 Use low phosphate, non-biodegradable washing and laundry detergents.
 Use organic manure instead of commercial inorganic fertilizers.
 Do not dispose paints, solvents, oil and pesticides into the drainage system.
 Use minimum amount of water for various activities.
 Do not cut the trees and promote for plantation.
 Check on population growth so that the demand of material is under control.
 Save electricity by not wasting it when not required.
 Adopt and promote the use of renewable energy resources.
 People should be persuaded not to wash, bathe or disposed the waste material in rivers,
lakes and ponds etc.
 Burning of dead bodies and thereafter throwing the ashes into the river must be avoided.
 Smoke to be discharged into the air must be treated before exhausting it to mix with air.
 Rubbish, religious offerings and other waste should not be thrown into the river.

Sollution Case Studies

Case studies narrate the specific information of an accident, accident, disaster are an
occurrence. They present the real story of happening and reveal their cause, so that they are not
repeated again. These studies also enhance awareness and consciousness among people for a
certain cause, and prepares ground for efficient policy making to remove or minimize such
problems. With this aim, the various case studied related to different aspects of the environment
are given in this unit:

Chernobyl Disaster:

Chernobyl was a catastrophic nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl
Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine , which was under the direct jurisdiction of the central
authorities of the Soviet Union. An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive
contamination into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe. It is
widely considered to have been the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, and is one of
only two classified as a level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale. The battle to
contain the contamination and avert a greater catastrophe ultimately involved over 500,000
workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles, crippling the Soviet economy.

The disaster began during a systems test on Saturday, 26 April 1986 at reactor number four of
72
the Chernobyl plant, which is near the city of Prypiat and in close proximity to the
administrative border with Belarus and Dnieper river. There was a sudden power output surge,
and when an emergency shutdown was attempted, a more extreme spike in power output
occurred, which led to a reactor vessel rupture and a series of explosions. These events exposed
the graphite moderator of the reactor to air, causing it to ignite. The resulting fire sent a plume of
highly radioactive smoke fallout into the atmosphere and over an extensive geographical area,
including Pripyat. The plume drifted over large parts of the western Soviet Union and Europe.
From 1986 to 2000, 350,400 people were evacuated and resettled from the most severely
contaminated areas of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy:

The Bhopal disaster (commonly referred to as Bhopal gas tragedy) was a gas leak
incident in India, considered one of the world's worst industrial catastrophes. It occurred on the
night of December 2–3, 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. A leak of methyl isocyanate gas and other chemicals from the
plant resulted in the exposure of hundreds of thousands of people. The toxic substance made its
way in and around the shantytowns located near the plant. Estimates vary on the death toll. The
official immediate death toll was 2,259 and the government of Madhya Pradesh has confirmed a
total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas release. Others estimate 3,000 died within weeks and
another 8,000 have since died from gas-related diseases. A government affidavit in 2006 stated
the leak caused 558,125 injuries including 38,478 temporary partial and approximately 3,900
severely and permanently disabling injuries.

Factors leading to the magnitude of the gas leak include:

Storing MIC in large tanks and filling beyond recommended levels

 Poor maintenance after the plant ceased MIC production at the end of 1984
 Failure of several safety systems (due to poor maintenance)
 Safety systems being switched off to save money, including the MIC tank refrigeration
system which could have mitigated the disaster severity.
The problem was made worse by the mushrooming of slums in the vicinity of the plant, non-
existent catastrophe plans, and shortcomings in health care and socio-economic rehabilitation.

Mini- Mata Disease:

In the early 1950s, people of Mini-Mata (a small coastal town in Japan) noticed a strange
behavior of their cats. Their cats were twitching, stumbling and jerking: that they called ‘dancing
cats’. But the fact was that the cats were suffering from brain damage known as ‘methyl mercury
poisoning’.
The Chisso chemical plant used to release the residues containing mercury into Mini-Mata
bay. It was assumed that elemental mercury, which is insoluble in water, would sink into the
bottom sediments converted the elemental mercury into soluble methyl mercury. This soluble
methyl mercury was finally absorbed by the tissues of aquatic organisms, particularly fishes.
These fishes, containing about 50 ppm of mercury, when consumed by people lead to an
epidemic of nervous problem including numbness, tingling sensation, headaches, blurred vision,
loss of muscle control and slurred speech. About 50 people died and more than 3,500 were
affected. Mini-Mata tragedy was probably the first water pollution episode of modern times.
Japan, Sweden and Canada are still suffering from ‘Mini-Mata Diseases’ due to widespread use
of mercury compounds as algaecides and fungicides in agriculture, pulp and water industries and
chloro-alkali plants.
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Decay of Taj -Mahal Due to Pollutants:

The suspected decay of Taj Mahal, the magnificent historical monument, is an

alarming example of onslaught by polluted atmosphere. The pollutants making the Taj Mahal
vulnerable come from the following main sources.
1. Mathura oil refinery that emits about 25-30 tonnes of SO2, daily.
2. Two thermal power stations at Agra. (These are closed now)
3. Heavy automobile traffic on Agras-Mathura highway and on other radial roads.
Although the refinery used low sulphur content fuels, yet the emitted So2 on
combining with humidity converts to dry and wet precipitation and wind spreads it in
adjoining areas. This acid deposition reacts with Calcium Carbonate (CaCO 3) present in the
marble of Taj Mahal, and forms Calcium Sulphate (CaSO 4), which causes deterioration. The
detrimental effect of this precipitation on Taj Mahal is visible in following forms.

 Discoloration of white marble.

 Appearance of yellowish or yellow-grey or brown stains particularly in arches and niches.
 Chipping breaking of the marble slab edges.
 Formation of cracks in the marble.
To safeguard this world heritage monument from onslaught of air pollutants,
various measures have been adopted by the Government. These are
 Creation of green belt of 1 to 5 km width around the Taj Mahal.
 Diverting the traffic away from the Taj Mahal, by making an outer road away from it.
 Forcing the Mathura oil refinery to emit clean emissions only by installing the required
equipments in the refinery.
 Shutting-down the two thermal power plants at Agra.

What is the Greenhouse Effect

The Sun powers Earth’s climate, radiating energy at very short wavelengths, predominately in
the visible or near-visible (e.g., ultraviolet) part of the spectrum. Roughly one-third of the solar
energy that reaches the top of Earth’s atmosphere is reflected directly back to space. The remain-
ing two-thirds is absorbed by the surface and, to a lesser extent, by the atmosphere. To balance
the absorbed incoming energy, the Earth must, on average, radiate the same amount of energy
back to space. Because the Earth is much colder than the Sun, it radiates at much longer wave-
lengths, primarily in the infrared part of the spectrum (see Figure 1). Much of this thermal radia-
tion emitted by the land and ocean is absorbed by the atmosphere, including clouds, and reradi-
ated back to Earth. This is called the greenhouse effect. The glass walls in a greenhouse reduce
airflow and increase the temperature of the air inside. Analogously, but through a different phys-
ical process, the Earth’s greenhouse effect warms the surface of the planet. Without the natural
greenhouse effect, the average temperature at Earth’s surface would be below the freezing point
of water. Thus, Earth’s natural greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible. However,
human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have greatly inten-
sified the natural greenhouse effect, causing global warming.
The two most abundant gases in the atmosphere, nitrogen (comprising 78% of the dry atmos-
phere) and oxygen (comprising 21%), exert almost no greenhouse effect. Instead, the greenhouse
effect comes from molecules that are more complex and much less common. Water vapour is the
most important greenhouse gas, and carbon dioxide (CO2) is the second-most important one.
Methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and several other gases present in the atmosphere in small
amounts also contribute to the greenhouse effect. In the humid equatorial regions, where there is
74
so much water vapour in the air that the greenhouse effect is very large, adding a small addition-
al amount of CO2 or water vapour has only a small direct impact on downward infrared radia-
tion. However, in the cold, dry polar regions, the effect of a small increase in CO2 or

75
water vapour is much greater. The same is true for the cold, dry upper atmosphere where a small
increase in water vapour has a greater influence on the greenhouse effect than the same change
in water vapour would have near the surface.
Several components of the climate system, notably the oceans and living things, affect atmos-
pheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. A prime example of this is plants taking CO2 out of
the atmosphere and converting it (and water) into carbohydrates via photosynthesis. In the indus-
trial era, human activities have added greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, primarily through the
burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests.
Adding more of a greenhouse gas, such as CO2, to the atmosphere intensifies the greenhouse
effect, thus warming Earth’s climate. The amount of warming depends on various feedback
mechanisms. For example, as the atmosphere warms due to rising levels of greenhouse gases, its
concentration of water vapour increases, further intensifying the greenhouse effect. This in turn
causes more warming, which causes an additional increase in water vapour, in a self-reinforcing
cycle. This water vapour feedback may be strong enough to approximately double the increase
in the greenhouse effect due to the added CO2 alone.
Additional important feedback mechanisms involve clouds. Clouds are effective at absorbing
infrared radiation and therefore exert a large greenhouse effect, thus warming the Earth. Clouds
are also effective at reflecting away incoming solar radiation, thus cooling the Earth. A change in
almost any aspect of clouds, such as their type, location, water content, cloud altitude, particle
size and shape, or lifetimes, affects the degree to which clouds warm or cool the Earth. Some
changes amplify warming while others diminish it. Much research is in progress to better
understand how clouds change in response to climate warming, and how these changes affect
climate through various feedback mechanisms.

Types of Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gases comprise less than 1% of the atmosphere. Their levels are determined by a
balance between “sources” and “sinks”. Sources and sinks are processes that generate and de-
stroy greenhouse gases respectively. Human affect greenhouse gas levels by introducing new
sources or by interfering with natural sinks.
The major greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, (CH4), ni-
trous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and ozone (O3). Atmospheric water vapour
(H2O) also makes a large contribution to the natural greenhouse effect but it is thought that its
presence is not directly affected by human activity.

Consequences of Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

i) Global Warming
Increase of greenhouse gases concentration causes a reduction in outgoing infrared radiation,
thus the Earth's climate must change somehow to restore the balance between incoming and out-
going radiation. This “climatic change” will include a “global warming” of the Earth's surface
and the lower atmosphere as warming up is the simplest way for the climate to get rid of the ex-
tra energy. However, a small rise in temperature will induce many other changes, for example,
cloud cover and wind patterns. Some of these changes may act to enhance the warming (positive
feedbacks), others to counteract it (negative feedbacks).
Using complex climate models, the "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change" in their third
assessment report has forecast that global mean surface temperature will rise by 1.4℃ to 5.8℃
by the end of 2100. This projection takes into account the effects of aerosols which tend to cool
the climate as well as the delaying effects of the oceans which have a large thermal capacity.
However, there are many uncertainties associated with this projection such as future emission
rates of greenhouse gases, climate feedbacks, and the size of the ocean delay ...etc.
ii) Sea Level Rise
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If global warming takes place, sea level will rise due to two different processes. Firstly, warmer
temperature cause sea level to rise due to the thermal expansion of seawater. Secondly, water
from melting glaciers and the ice sheets of Greenland and the Antarctica would also add water
to the ocean. It is predicted that the Earth's average sea level will rise by 0.09 to 0.88 m
between 1990 and 2100.
Potential Impact on human life
a) Economic Impact
Over half of the human population lives within 100 kilometres of the sea. Most of this popula-
tion lives in urban areas that serve as seaports. A measurable rise in sea level will have a severe
economic impact on lowlying coastal areas and islands, for examples, increasing the beach ero-
sion rates along coastlines, rising sea level displacing fresh groundwater for a substantial dis-
tance inland.
b) Agricultural Impact
Experiments have shown that with higher concentrations of CO2, plants can grow bigger and
faster. However, the effect of global warming may affect the atmospheric general circulation and
thus altering the global precipitation pattern as well as changing the soil moisture contents over
various continents. Since it is unclear how global warming will affect climate on a regional or
local scale, the probable effects on the biosphere remains uncertain.
c) Effects on Aquatic systems
The loss of coastal wetlands could certainly reduce fish populations, especially shellfish. In-
creased salinity in estuaries could reduce the abundance of freshwater species but could increase
the presence of marine species.
However, the full impact on marine species is not known.
d) Effects on Hydrological Cycle
Global precipitation is likely to increase. However, it is not known how regional rainfall patterns
will change. Some regions may have more rainfall, while others may have less. Furthermore,
higher temperatures would probably increase evaporation. These changes would probably create
new stresses for many water management systems.

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78
Human–wildlife conflict:

Human–wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people
and the resultant negative impact on people or their resources, or wild animals or their
habitat.

Conflict between people and animals is one of the main threats to the continued
survival of many species in different parts of the world, and is also a significant threat
to local human populatons. If solutions to conflicts are not adequate, local support for
conservation also declines.
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As human populations expand and natural habitats shrink, people and animals are
increasingly coming into conflict over living space and food.

From baboons in Namibia attacking young cattle, to greater one-horned rhinos in Nepal
destroying crops, to orangutans in oil palm plantations, to European bears and wolves killing
livestock – the problem is universal, affects rich and poor, and is bad news for all concerned.

The impacts are often huge.

People lose their crops, livestock, property, and sometimes their lives. The animals, many of
which are already threatened or endangered, are often killed in retaliation or to 'prevent'
future conflicts.
Outcomes of conflict

Human–wildlife conflict occurs with various negative results. The major outcomes of human-
wildlife conflict are:[8]

 Injury and loss of life of humans and wildlife.

 Crop damage, livestock depredation, predation of managed wildlife stock.
 Damage to human property.
 Trophic cascades.
 Destruction of habitat.
 Collapse of wildlife populations and reduction of geographic ranges.
One of the initiators of the concept of man-animal conflict was Das and Guha.[9] They described the
two-sided impacts of this conflict. From one side, the source of conflict is the restriction on the local
people to access forest resources. On the other side, the source of conflict is the damage incurred to
them by wild animals.

Management techniques
Management techniques of wildlife are of two types. The first type are the traditional techniques
which aim to stop, reduce or minimize conflict by controlling animal populations in different ways.
Lethal control has the longest history but has major drawbacks. Other measures, less costly in terms
of life, are trans-location, regulation and preservation of animal populations. Modern methods
depend upon the ecological and ethological understanding of the wildlife and its environment to
prevent or minimize conflict; examples being behavioural modification and measures to reduce
interaction between humans and wildlife.
Potential solutions to these conflicts include electric fencing, land use planning, community-
based natural resource management (CBNRM), compensation, payment for environmental
services, ecotourism, wildlife friendly products, or other field solutions.[14]
In efforts to reduce human-wildlife conflict, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) has partnered with
a number of organizations to provide solutions around the globe. Their solutions are tailored to the
community and species involved. For example, in Mozambique, communities started to grow
more chili pepper plants after making the discovery that elephants dislike and avoid plants
containing capsaicin. This creative and effective method prevents elephants from trampling
community farmers' fields as well as protects the species.

Tribal RIGHTS
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)

80
Act, 2006, is a key piece of forest legislation passed in India on 18 December 2006. It has also
been called the Forest Rights Act, the Tribal Rights Act, the Tribal Bill, and the Tribal Land
Act. The law concerns the rights of forest-dwelling communities to land and other resources,
denied to them over decades as a result of the continuance of colonial forest laws in India.
India's forests are home to crores of people, including many Scheduled Tribes, who live in or
near the forest areas of the country. Nearly 250 million people live in and around forests in India,
of which the estimated indigenous Adivasi or tribal population stands at about 100 million. To
put these numbers in perspective, if considered a nation by themselves, they would form the 13th
largest country in the world, even though they cannot be depicted as representing any singular,
monolithic culture.[3] Forests provide sustenance in the form of minor forest produce, water,
grazing grounds and habitat for shifting cultivation. Moreover, vast areas of land that may or
may not be forests are classified as "forest" under India's forest laws, and those cultivating these
lands are technically cultivating "forest land. Forest Rights Act is also known as Community
Forest Management (CFM) in Telangana.

Since times immemorial, the tribal communities of India have had an integral and close knit
relationship with the forests and have been dependent on the forests for livelihoods and
existence. The relationship was mutually beneficial and not one sided. However, rights were
rarely recognized by the authorities and in the absence of real ownership of the land, the already
marginalized local dwellers suffered.
The reason for this latter phenomenon is India's forest laws. India's forests are governed by two
main laws, the Indian Forest Act, 1927 and the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The former
empowers the government to declare any area to be a reserved forest, protected forest or village
forest. The latter allows any area to be constituted as a "protected area", namely a national park,
wildlife sanctuary, tiger reserve or community conservation area.
Under these laws, the rights of people living in or depending on the area to be declared as a
forest or protected area are to be "settled" by a "forest settlement officer." This basically requires
that officer to enquire into the claims of people to land, minor forest produce, etc., and, in the
case of claims found to be valid, to allow them to continue or to extinguish them by paying
compensation.
Studies have shown that in many areas this process either did not take place at all or took place
in a highly faulty manner. Thus 82.9% of the forest blocks in undivided Madhya Pradesh had not
been settled as of December 2003 while all the hilly tracts of Odisha were declared government
forests without any survey In Odisha, around 40% of the government forests are "deemed
reserved forests" which have not been surveyed.
Those whose rights are not recorded during the settlement process are susceptible to eviction at
any time. This "legal twilight zone" leads to harassment, evictions, extortion of money and
sexual molestation of forest dwellers by forest officials, who wield absolute authority over forest
dwellers' livelihoods and daily lives.
The Statement of Objects and Reasons of the Forest Rights Act describes it as a law intended to
correct the "historical injustice" done to forest dwellers by the failure to recognise their rights.
"The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)
Act, 2006" was enacted by the Parliament of India in 2006.

Provisions
The Act as passed in 2006 has the following basic points.
Types of rights

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The rights which are included in section 3(1) of the Act are:

1. Right to hold and live in the forest land under the individual or common occupation for
habitation or for self-cultivation for livelihood by a member or members of a forest
dwelling Scheduled Tribe or other traditional forest dwellers;
2. Community rights such as nistar, by whatever name called, including those used in erst-
while Princely states, Zamindari or such intermediary regimes;
3. Right of ownership, access to collect, use, and dispose of minor forest produce( includes
all non-timber forest produce of plant origin) which has been traditionally collected
within or outside village boundaries;
4. Other community rights of uses of entitlements such as fish and other products of water
bodies, grazing (both settled or transhumant) and traditional seasonal resource access of
nomadic or pastoralist communities;
5. Rights including community tenures of habitat and habitation for primitive tribal groups
and pre-agriculture communities;
6. Rights in or over disputed lands under any nomenclature in any State where claims are
disputed;
7. Rights for conversion of Pattas or leases or grants issued by any local council or any
State Govt. on forest lands to titles;
8. Rights of settlement and conversion of all forest villages, old habitation, unsurveyed vil-
lages and other villages in forest, whether recorded, notified or not into revenue villages;
9. Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource which
they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use;
10. Rights which are recognised under any State law or laws of any Autonomous Dist. Coun-
cil or Autonomous Regional Council or which are accepted as rights of tribals under any
traditional or customary law of the concerned tribes of any State;
11. Right of access to biodiversity and community right to intellectual property and tradi-
tional knowledge related to biodiversity and cultural diversity;
12. Any other traditional right customarily enjoyed by the forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes
or other traditional forest dwellers, as the case may be, which are not mentioned in
clauses-1 to 11, but excluding the traditional right of hunting or trapping extracting a
part of the body of any species of wild animal
These can be summarised as:

 Title rights - i.e. ownership - to land that is being farmed by tribals or forest dwellers as
on 13 December 2005, subject to a maximum of 4 hectares; ownership is only for land that is
actually being cultivated by the concerned family as on that date, meaning that no new lands
are granted
 Use rights - to minor forest produce (also including ownership), to grazing areas, to pas-
toralist routes, etc.
 Relief and development rights - to rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or forced dis-
placement; and to basic amenities, subject to restrictions for forest protection
 Forest management rights - to protect forests and wildlife .
Eligibility criteria
Eligibility to get rights under the Act is confined to those who "primarily reside in forests" and
who depend on forests and forest land for a livelihood. [18] Further, either the claimant must be a
member of the Scheduled Tribes scheduled in that area[19] or must have been residing in the
forest for 75 years.[20]
Process of recognition of rights[edit]

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Section 6(1) of the Act provides that the gram sabha, or village assembly, will initially pass a
resolution recommending whose rights to which resources should be recognised (i.e. which lands
belong to whom, how much land was under the cultivation of each person as on 13 Dec 2005,
etc.). This resolution is then screened and approved at the level of the sub-division (or taluka)
and subsequently at the district level. The screening committees consist of three government
officials (Forest, Revenue and Tribal Welfare departments) and three elected members of the
local body at that level. These committees also hear appeals.

The Convention on Biological Diversity:

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international agreement adopted at the

Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro, in 1992. It has three main objectives:
to conserve biological diversity
to use its components in a sustainable way
to share fairly and equitably the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
The CBD was negotiated under the guidance of the United Nations. It was signed by more than
150 government leaders at the Rio Earth Summit (which official denomination is the 'United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development'). The Convention is now one of the most
widely ratified international treaties on environmental issues, with 194 member countries.
Unlike other international agreements that set compulsory targets and obligations, the CBD takes
a flexible approach to implementation. It identifies general goals and policies, and countries are
free to determine how they want to implement them.
One of the CBD's greatest achievements so far has been to generate an enormous amount of
interest in biodiversity, both in developed and developing countries. Biodiversity is now seen as
a critically important environment and development issue.

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