Egypt - Wikipedia

201765 Egypt
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Coordinates: 26°N 30°E
Egypt
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Egypt ( i /ˈiːdʒɪpt/ EEjipt; Arabic: ‫ ِﻣﺼﺮ‬ Miṣr, Egyptian

Arab Republic of Egypt
Arabic: ‫ َﻣﺼﺮ‬ Maṣr,[15] Coptic: Kimi), officially the ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﺼﺮ‬ ‫ﺟﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ‬
Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country
spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest
corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai
Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by
the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of
Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south,
Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf
of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula Flag Coat of arms
lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and Saudi Arabia do not
share a land border with Egypt. Anthem: Bilady, Bilady, Bilady
My country, my country, my country
Egypt has one of the longest histories of any modern 0:00 MENU
country, emerging as one of the world's first nation states in
the tenth millennium BC.[16] Considered a cradle of
civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest
developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised
religion and central government. Iconic monuments such as
the Giza Necropolis and its Great Sphinx, as well the ruins
of Memphis, Thebes, Karnak, and the Valley of the Kings,
reflect this legacy and remain a significant focus of
archaeological study and popular interest worldwide.
Egypt's rich cultural heritage is an integral part of its national
identity, which has endured, and at times assimilated,
various foreign influences, including Greek, Persian, Roman,
Arab, Ottoman, and European. One of the earliest centres
of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the seventh century
and remains a predominantly Muslim country, albeit with a Capital Cairo
significant Christian minority. and largest city 30°2′N 31°13′E
Official languages Arabic [a]

With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous
country in North Africa and the Arab world, the thirdmost National language Egyptian Arabic
populous in Africa (after Nigeria and Ethiopia), and the Religion 90% Muslim
fifteenthmost populous in the world. The great majority of 9% Orthodox Christian
its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of 1% Other Christian[1]
about 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi), where the
only arable land is found. The large regions of the Sahara Demonym Egyptian
desert, which constitute most of Egypt's territory, are Government Unitary semipresidential
sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in republic
urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated • President Abdel Fattah elSisi
centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities • Prime Minister Sherif Ismail
in the Nile Delta. Legislature House of Representatives
Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle Establishment
power, with significant cultural, political, and military • Unification of Upper c. 3150 BC
[2][3][b]
influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim and Lower Egypt
world.[17] Egypt's economy is one of the largest and most • Muhammad Ali 9 July 1805[4]
dynasty inaugurated
diversified in the Middle East, and is projected to become
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt 1/40
201765 Egypt Wikipedia
one of the largest in the 21st century. Egypt is a member of • Independence from 28 February 1922

the United Nations, NonAligned Movement, Arab United Kingdom
League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic • Revolution Day 23 July 1952
Cooperation. • Republic declared 18 June 1953
• Current constitution 18 January 2014
Area
• Total 1,010,407.87[5] km2
Contents (390,120.66 sq mi) (29th)
• Water (%) 0.632
1 Names
2 History Population
• 2017 estimate 93,268,000[6] (14th)
2.1 Prehistory and Ancient Egypt
2.2 Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt • 2006 census 72,798,000[7]
2.3 Middle Ages (7th century–1517) • Density 90/km2 (233.1/sq mi) (118th)
2.3.1 The Fatimid Caliphate and the GDP (PPP) 2017 estimate
Mamluks • Total $1.173 trillion[8] (21st)
2.4 Early modern: Ottoman Egypt (1517– • Per capita $12,560[8] (100th)
1867)
2.4.1 The Muhammad Ali dynasty GDP (nominal) 2015 estimate
2.5 The European intrusion (1867–1914) • Total $330.765 billion[9] (34th)
2.6 British protectorate (1882–1952) • Per capita $3,740[9] (115th)
2.7 Republic (1953–present) Gini (2008) 30.8[10]
2.7.1 Reign of president Nasser
medium
(1956–1970)
2.7.2 Reign of president Sadat HDI (2014) 0.690[11]
(1970–1981) medium · 108th
2.7.3 Reign of president Mubarak Currency Egyptian pound (EGP)
(1981–2011)
Time zone EET (UTC+2[c])
2.7.4 Revolution and aftermath
(2011–2014) Drives on the right
3 Geography Calling code +20
3.1 Climate
3.2 Biodiversity ISO 3166 code EG
4 Government Internet TLD .eg
4.1 Law ‫ﻣﺼﺮ‬.
4.1.1 Human rights
4.1.2 Freedom of the press a. ^ Literary Arabic is the sole official language.[12]
4.2 Military and foreign relations Egyptian Arabic is the national spoken language. Other
dialects and minority languages are spoken regionally.
4.3 Administrative divisions
b. "Among the peoples of the ancient Near East, only the
5 Economy Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained
5.1 Tourism what they were, although they have changed their
5.2 Energy language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they
5.3 Transport constitute the world's oldest nation".[13][14] Arthur

Goldschmidt Jr.
5.3.1 Suez Canal
c. ^ See Daylight saving time in Egypt.
5.4 Water supply and sanitation
6 Demographics
6.1 Ethnic groups
6.2 Languages
6.3 Religion
6.4 Largest cities
7 Culture
7.1 Arts
7.2 Literature
7.3 Popular culture
7.4 Cinema
7.5 Music
7.6 Dances
7.7 Museums
7.8 Festivals
7.9 Cuisine
7.10 Sports
8 Telecommunication
8.1 Cellular
8.2 Post
9 Education
10 Health
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 Sources
15 External links
Names
The English name Egypt is derived from the Ancient Greek Aígyptos (Αἴγυπτος), via Middle French Egypte and Latin
Aegyptus. It is reflected in early Greek Linear B tablets as akupitiyo. The adjective aigýpti, aigýptios was
borrowed into Coptic as gyptios, and from there into Arabic as qubṭī, back formed into ‫ﻗﺒﻂ‬ qubṭ, whence English
Copt. The Greek forms were borrowed from Late Egyptian (Amarna) Hikuptah "Memphis", a corruption of the

earlier Egyptian name (⟨ḥwtkȝptḥ⟩), meaning "home of the ka (soul) of Ptah", the name of a
[18]
temple to the god Ptah at Memphis. Strabo attributed the word to a folk etymology in which Aígyptos (Αἴγυπτος)
evolved as a compound from Aigaiou huptiōs (Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως), meaning "below the Aegean".
Miṣr (IPA: [mi̠ sˤr] or Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mesˤɾ]; Arabic: ‫ ِﻣﺼﺮ‬ ) is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern

official name of Egypt, while Maṣr or Masar (IPA: [mɑsˤɾ]; Egyptian Arabic: ‫ َﻣﺼﺮ‬ ) is the local pronunciation in Egyptian
Arabic.[19] The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew
‫ ִמ ְצ ַריִם‬ (Mitzráyim). The oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian KURmiiṣru
miṣru,[20][21] related to miṣru/miṣirru/miṣaru, meaning "border" or "frontier".[22]
The ancient Egyptian name of the country was km.t, which means black land, likely referring to the
fertile black soils of the Nile flood plains, distinct from the deshret (⟨dšṛt⟩), or "red land" of the desert.[23] It has been
also speculated by some historians, such as the controversial PanAfricanist Cheikh Anta Diop, that the name might
refer to the skin tone of the NiloSaharan people.[24] This name is commonly vocalised as Kemet, but was probably
pronounced [kuːmat] in ancient Egyptian.[25] The name is realised as kēme and kēmә in the Coptic stage of the
Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as Χημία (Khēmía).[26] Another name was ⟨t mry⟩ "land of the
riverbank".[27] The names of Upper and Lower Egypt were TaSheme'aw (⟨t šm w⟩) "sedgeland" and TaMehew
(⟨t mḥw⟩) "northland", respectively.
History
Prehistory and Ancient Egypt
There is evidence of rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of
huntergatherers and fishers was replaced by a graingrinding culture. Climate changes or overgrazing around 8000 BC
began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River
where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralised society.[28]
By about 6000 BC, a Neolithic culture rooted in the Nile Valley.[29] During the Neolithic era, several predynastic
cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series
are generally regarded as precursors to dynastic Egypt. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates
the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their
southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact
through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic
period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.[30]
A unified kingdom was founded c. 3150 BC by King Menes, leading to a
series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptian
culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian
in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a
unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c. 2700–2200 BC.,
which constructed many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty pyramid
of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza pyramids.
The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for
The Giza Necropolis is the oldest of
about 150 years.[31] Stronger Nile floods and stabilisation of government,
the ancient Wonders and the only one
however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle
still in existence.
Kingdom c. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh
Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first
foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt
around 1650 BC and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by
Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.
The New Kingdom c. 1550–1070 BC began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international
power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Tombos in Nubia, and included parts of
the Levant in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose
III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The first historically attested expression of
monotheism came during this period as Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New
Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered by Libyans, Nubians and Assyrians, but native Egyptians
eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.[32]
In 525 BC, the powerful Achaemenid Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually
capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but
ruled Egypt from his home of Susa in Persia (modern Iran), leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy. The entire
Twentyseventh Dynasty of Egypt, from 525 BC to 402 BC, save for Petubastis III, was an entirely Persian ruled
period, with the Achaemenid Emperors all being granted the title of pharaoh. A few temporarily successful revolts
against the Persians marked the fifth century BC, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians.[33]
The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians again in 343
BC after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle. This Thirtyfirst Dynasty of Egypt,
however, did not last long, for the Persians were toppled several decades later by Alexander the Great. The
Macedonian Greek general of Alexander, Ptolemy I Soter, founded the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt
The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state, extending from southern
Syria in the east, to Cyrene to the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia.
Alexandria became the capital city and a centre of Greek culture and trade. To gain
recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the
successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had
themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and
participated in Egyptian religious life.[34][35]
The last ruler from the Ptolemaic line was Cleopatra VII, who committed suicide
following the burial of her lover Mark Antony who had died in her arms (from a self
inflicted stab wound), after Octavian had captured Alexandria and her mercenary
forces had fled. The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians often caused by
an unwanted regime and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline The Ptolemaic Queen
of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome. Nevertheless, Hellenistic culture Cleopatra VII and her son by
continued to thrive in Egypt well after the Muslim conquest. Julius Caesar, Caesarion, at
the Temple of Dendera.
Christianity was brought to Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the 1st century.[36]
Diocletian's reign (from 284 to 305 AD) marked the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a
great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian.
After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.[37]
Middle Ages (7th century–1517)
The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Sasanian Persian invasion early in the 7th century
amidst the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 during which they established a new shortlived province for ten years
known as Sasanian Egypt, until 639–42, when Egypt was invaded and conquered by the Islamic Empire by the Muslim
Arabs. When they defeated the Byzantine Armies in Egypt, the Arabs brought Sunni Islam to the country. Early in this
period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to various Sufi orders that
have flourished to this day.[36] These earlier rites had survived the period of Coptic Christianity.[38]
The Fatimid Caliphate and the Mamluks
Muslim rulers nominated by the Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for
the next six centuries, with Cairo as the seat of the Fatimid Caliphate. With
the end of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a TurcoCircassian
military caste, took control about 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt
linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.[39] The mid14th
century Black Death killed about 40% of the country's population.[40]
Early modern: Ottoman Egypt (1517–1867)
The AlHakim Mosque in Cairo, of
Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1517, after which it became AlHakim biAmr Allah, the sixth
a province of the Ottoman Empire. The defensive militarisation damaged its caliph, as renovated by Dawoodi
Bohra
civil society and economic institutions.[39] The weakening of the economic
system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign
invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade.[39] Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six famines.[41] The
1784 famine cost it roughly onesixth of its population.[42]
Egypt was always a difficult province for the Ottoman Sultans to control, due in part to the continuing power and
influence of the Mamluks, the Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries.
Egypt remained semiautonomous under the Mamluks until it was
invaded by the French forces of Napoleon Bonaparte 1798 (see
French campaign in Egypt and Syria). After the French were defeated
by the British, a power vacuum was created in Egypt, and a threeway
power struggle ensued between the Ottoman Turks, Egyptian
Mamluks who had ruled Egypt for centuries, and Albanian
mercenaries in the service of the Ottomans.
Napoleon defeated the Mamluk troops in the
The Muhammad Ali dynasty Battle of the Pyramids, 21 July 1798, painted
by Lejeune.
After the French were expelled,
power was seized in 1805 by Muhammad Ali
Pasha, an Albanian military commander of the
Ottoman army in Egypt. While he carried the
title of viceroy of Egypt, his subordination to the
Ottoman porte was merely nominal.
Muhammad Ali massacred the Mamluks and
established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt until
the revolution of 1952.
The introduction in 1820 of longstaple cotton
transformed its agriculture into a cashcrop
Egypt under Muhammad Ali monoculture before the end of the century,
dynasty concentrating land ownership and shifting
production towards international markets.[43]
Muhammad Ali was the
Muhammad Ali annexed Northern Sudan (1820–1824), Syria (1833), and parts of founder of the Muhammad Ali
Arabia and Anatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the dynasty and the first Khedive
Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans. of Egypt and Sudan.
His military ambition required him to modernise the country: he built industries, a
system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service.[43]
He constructed a military state with around four percent of the populace serving the army to raise Egypt to a powerful
positioning in the Ottoman Empire in a way showing various similarities to the Soviet strategies (without communism)
conducted in the 20th century.[44]
Muhammad Ali Pasha evolved the military from one that convened under the tradition of the corvée to a great
modernised army. He introduced conscription of the male peasantry in 19th century Egypt, and took a novel approach
to create his great army, strengthening it with numbers and in skill. Education and training of the new soldiers was not an
option; the new concepts were furthermore enforced by isolation. The men were held in barracks to avoid distraction of
their growth as a military unit to be reckoned with. The resentment for the military way of life eventually faded from the
men and a new ideology took hold, one of nationalism and pride. It was with the help of this newly reborn martial unit
that Muhammad Ali imposed his rule over Egypt.[45]
The policy that Mohammad Ali Pasha followed during his reign explains partly why the numeracy in Egypt compared to
other NorthAfrican and MiddleEastern countries increased only at a remarkably small rate, as investment in further
education only took place in the military and industrial sector.[46]
Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son Ibrahim (in September 1848), then by a grandson Abbas I (in
November 1848), then by Said (in 1854), and Isma'il (in 1863) who encouraged science and agriculture and banned
slavery in Egypt.[44]
The European intrusion (1867–1914)
Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty remained nominally an Ottoman
province. It was granted the status of an autonomous vassal state or
Khedivate in 1867, a status which was to remain in place until 1914.
The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869.
Its construction led to enormous debt to European banks, and caused
popular discontent because of the onerous taxation it required. In 1875
Ismail was forced to sell Egypt's share in the canal to the British government.
Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French controllers
who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the The battle of Tel elKebir in 1882
bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government."[47] during the AngloEgyptian War
Other circumstances like epidemic diseases (cattle disease in the 1880s),
floods and wars drove the economic downturn and increased Egypt's dependency on foreign debt even further.[48]
In later years, the dynasty became a British puppet.[43] Isma'il and Tewfik Pasha governed Egypt as a quasi
independent state under Ottoman suzerainty until the British occupation of 1882.
Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the formation of
the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmad Urabi a prominent figure. Fearing
a reduction of their control, the UK and France intervened militarily, bombarding
Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at the battle of Tel El Kebir.[49] They
reinstalled Ismail's son Tewfik as figurehead of a de facto British protectorate.[50]
In 1906, the Dinshaway Incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the
nationalist movement.
British protectorate (1882–1952)
The Khedivate of Egypt remained a de jure Ottoman province until 5 November
1914,[51] when it was declared a British protectorate in reaction to the decision of the
Young Turks of the Ottoman Empire to join World War I on the side of the Central
Powers.
Female nationalists
demonstrating in Cairo, 1919
In 1914, the Protectorate was made official, and the title of the head of state was
changed to sultan, to repudiate the vestigial suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who
was backing the Central powers in World War I. Abbas II was deposed as khedive and replaced by his uncle, Hussein
Kamel, as sultan.[52]
After World War I, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local
Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose
in its first modern revolution. The revolt led the UK government to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's
independence on 22 February 1922.[53]
The new government drafted and implemented a constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary system. Saad Zaghlul
was popularly elected as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924. In 1936, the AngloEgyptian Treaty was concluded.
Continued instability due to remaining British influence and increasing political involvement by the king led to the
dissolution of the parliament in a military coup d'état known as the 1952 Revolution. The Free Officers Movement
forced King Farouk to abdicate in support of his son Fuad. British military presence in Egypt lasted until 1954.[54]
Republic (1953–present)
Following the 1952 Revolution by the Free Officers Movement, the rule of Egypt
passed to military hands. On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared,
with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic.
Reign of president Nasser (1956–1970)
Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser – a PanArabist and
the real architect of the 1952 movement – and was later put under house arrest.
Nasser assumed power as President in June 1956. British forces completed their
withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. He nationalised
British infantry near El
the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956, prompting the 1956 Suez Crisis.
Alamein, 17 July 1942
In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union known as the United
Arab Republic. The union was shortlived, ending in 1961 when Syria
seceded, thus ending the union. During most of its existence, the United Arab
Republic was also in a loose confederation with North Yemen (or the
Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen), known as the United Arab States. In
1959, the AllPalestine Government of the Gaza Strip, an Egyptian client
state, was absorbed into the United Arab Republic under the pretext of Arab
union, and was never restored.
In the early 1960s, Egypt became fully involved in the North Yemen Civil Egyptian President Gamal Abdel
War. The Egyptian President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, supported the Yemeni Nasser in Mansoura, 1960
republicans with as many as 70,000 Egyptian troops and chemical weapons.
Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a
stalemate. Egyptian commitment in Yemen was greatly undermined later.
In mid May 1967, the Soviet Union issued warnings to Nasser of an impending Israeli attack on Syria. Although the
chief of staff Mohamed Fawzi verified them as "baseless",[55][56] Nasser took three successive steps that made the war
virtually inevitable: On 14 May he deployed his troops in Sinai near the border with Israel, on 19 May he expelled the
UN peacekeepers stationed in the Sinai Peninsula border with Israel, and on 23 May he closed the Straits of Tiran to
Israeli shipping.[57] On 26 May Nasser declared, "The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be
to destroy Israel".[58]
Israel reiterated that the Straits of Tiran closure was a Casus belli. In the 1967 Six Day War, Israel attacked Egypt,
and occupied Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip, which Egypt had occupied since the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During
the 1967 war, an Emergency Law was enacted, and remained in effect until 2012, with the exception of an 18month
break in 1980/81.[59] Under this law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship
legalised.
At the time of the fall of the Egyptian monarchy in the early 1950s, less than half a million Egyptians were considered
upper class and rich, four million middle class and 17 million lower class and poor.[60] Fewer than half of all primary
schoolage children attended school, most of them being boys. Nasser's policies changed this. Land reform and
distribution, the dramatic growth in university education, and government support to national industries greatly improved
social mobility and flattened the social curve. From academic year 1953–54 through 1965–66, overall public school
enrolments more than doubled. Millions of previously poor Egyptians, through education and jobs in the public sector,
joined the middle class. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, journalists, constituted the bulk of the swelling middle
class in Egypt under Nasser.[60] During the 1960s, the Egyptian economy went from sluggish to the verge of collapse,
the society became less free, and Nasser's appeal waned considerably.[61]
Reign of president Sadat (1970–1981)
In 1970, President Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat
switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United
States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the Infitah economic
reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition. In
1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October War, a surprise attack
to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. It Egyptian tanks advancing in the Sinai
presented Sadat with a victory that allowed him to regain the Sinai later in desert during the Yom Kippur War,
return for peace with Israel.[62] 1973.
In 1975, Sadat shifted Nasser's economic policies and sought to use his
popularity to reduce government regulations and encourage foreign
investment through his program of Infitah. Through this policy, incentives such
as reduced taxes and import tariffs attracted some investors, but investments
were mainly directed at low risk and profitable ventures like tourism and
construction, abandoning Egypt's infant industries.[63] Even though Sadat's
policy was intended to modernise Egypt and assist the middle class, it mainly
benefited the higher class, and, because of the elimination of subsidies on
basic foodstuffs, led to the 1977 Egyptian Bread Riots.
Celebrating the signing of the 1978
Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 peace Camp David Accords: Menachem
treaty in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked Begin, Jimmy Carter, Anwar Sadat.
enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from
the Arab League, but it was supported by most Egyptians.[64] Sadat was assassinated by an Islamic extremist in
October 1981.
Reign of president Mubarak (1981–2011)
Hosni Mubarak came to power after the assassination of Sadat in a referendum in which he was the only candidate.[65]
Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt's relationship with Israel yet eased the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbours.
Domestically, Mubarak faced serious problems. Even though farm and industry output expanded, the economy could
not keep pace with the population boom. Mass poverty and unemployment led rural families to stream into cities like
Cairo where they ended up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive.
In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target Christian
Copts, foreign tourists and government officials.[66] In the 1990s an Islamist group, AlGama'a alIslamiyya, engaged in
an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to
the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—
tourism[67]—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the
group depended for support.[68]
During Mubarak's reign, the political scene was dominated by the National Democratic Party, which was created by
Sadat in 1978. It passed the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law
which hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on
violations. As a result, by the late 1990s parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant and alternative avenues
for political expression were curtailed as well.[69]
On 17 November 1997, 62 people, mostly tourists, were massacred near Luxor.
In late February 2005, Mubarak announced a reform of the presidential election law, paving the way for multi
candidate polls for the first time since the 1952 movement.[70] However, the new law placed restrictions on the
candidates, and led to Mubarak's easy reelection victory.[71] Voter turnout was less than 25%.[72] Election observers
also alleged government interference in the election process.[73] After the
election, Mubarak imprisoned Ayman Nour, the runnerup.[74]
Human Rights Watch's 2006 report on Egypt detailed serious human rights
violations, including routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before
military and state security courts.[75] In 2007, Amnesty International released
a report alleging that Egypt had become an international centre for torture,
where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War
on Terror.[76] Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this Cairo grew into a metropolitan area
with a population of over 20 million
report.[77]
Constitutional changes voted on 19 March 2007 prohibited parties from using religion as a basis for political activity,
allowed the drafting of a new antiterrorism law, authorised broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, and gave
the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring.[78] In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal
Dessouki, Media Secretary of the National Democratic Party (NDP), described Egypt as a "pharaonic" political
system, and democracy as a "longterm goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real center of power in Egypt is the
military".[79]
Revolution and aftermath (2011–2014)
On 25 January 2011, widespread protests began against Mubarak's government.
On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Jubilant celebrations
broke out in Cairo's Tahrir Square at the news.[80] The Egyptian military then
assumed the power to govern.[81][82] Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, chairman of the
Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, became the de facto interim head of
state.[83][84] On 13 February 2011, the military dissolved the parliament and
suspended the constitution.[85]
A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March 2011. On 28 November 2011,
Egypt held its first parliamentary election since the previous regime had been in
power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of major irregularities or
violence.[86] Mohamed Morsi was elected president on 24 June 2012.[87] On 2
August 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister Hisham Qandil announced his 35member
Top: Celebrations in Tahrir
cabinet comprising 28 newcomers including four from the Muslim Brotherhood.[88]
Square after the announcement
Liberal and secular groups walked out of the constituent assembly because they of Hosni Mubarak's resignation;
believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood Bottom: Protests in Tahrir
Square against President Morsi
backers threw their support behind Morsi.[89] On 22 November 2012, President
on 27 November 2012.
Morsi issued a temporary declaration immunising his decrees from challenge and
seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly.[90]
The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.[91] On 5 December 2012, tens of thousands of
supporters and opponents of president Morsi clashed, in what was described as the largest violent battle between
Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution.[92] Mohamed Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition
leaders but refused to cancel the December 2012 constitutional referendum.[93]
On 3 July 2013, after a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of Morsi's Muslim Brotherhood
government,[94] the military removed President Morsi from power in a coup d'état and installed an interim
government.[95]
On 4 July 2013, 68yearold Chief Justice of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt Adly Mansour was sworn in
as acting president over the new government following the removal of Morsi. The militarybacked Egyptian authorities
cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, jailing thousands and killing hundreds of street
protesters.[96][97] Many of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and activists have either been sentenced to death or life
imprisonment in a series of mass trials.[98][99][100]
On 18 January 2014, the interim government instituted a new constitution following a referendum in which 98.1% of
voters were supportive. 38.6% of registered voters participated in the referendum[101] a higher number than the 33%
who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure.[102] On 26 March 2014 Abdel Fattah elSisi the head of the
Egyptian Armed Forces, who at this time was in control of the country, resigned from the military, announcing he would
stand as a candidate in the 2014 presidential election.[103] The poll, held between 26 and 28 May 2014, resulted in a
landslide victory for elSisi.[104] Sisi was sworn into office as President of Egypt on 8 June 2014. The Muslim
Brotherhood and some liberal and secular activist groups boycotted the vote.[105] Even though the militarybacked
authorities extended voting to a third day, the 46% turnout was lower than the 52% turnout in the 2012 election.[106]
Geography
Egypt lies primarily between latitudes 22° and 32°N, and
longitudes 25° and 35°E. At 1,001,450 square kilometres
(386,660 sq mi),[107] it is the world's 30thlargest country. Due
to the extreme aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are
concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning
that about 99% of the population uses about 5.5% of the total
land area.[108] 98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.[109]
Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, the Sudan to the south,
and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role
in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental
nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between A branch of the Nile near Aswan.
Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez
Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean by way of the Red Sea.
Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert, with a few oases scattered about. Winds create
prolific sand dunes that peak at more than 100 feet (30 m) high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara desert and of the
Libyan Desert. These deserts protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats and were referred to as the
"red land" in ancient Egypt.
Towns and cities include Alexandria, the second largest city; Aswan; Asyut; Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital and
largest city; El Mahalla El Kubra; Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu; Hurghada; Luxor; Kom Ombo; Port Safaga;
Port Said; Sharm El Sheikh; Suez, where the south end of the Suez Canal is located; Zagazig; and Minya. Oases
include Bahariya, Dakhla, Farafra, Kharga and Siwa. Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik
Protectorate and Siwa.
On 13 March 2015, plans for a proposed new capital of Egypt were announced.[110]
Climate
Most of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.[111] South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to
0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as
410 mm (16.1 in),[112] mostly between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north
coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim and Sidi Barrani, and rarely in Alexandria. A very small amount of snow fell on
Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time in many
decades.[113] Frost is also known in midSinai and midEgypt.
Egypt is the driest and the sunniest country in the world, and
most of its land surface is desert.
Egypt has an unusually hot, sunny and dry climate. Average high
temperatures are high in the north but very to extremely high in
the rest of the country during summer. The cooler
Mediterranean winds consistently blow over the northern sea
coast, which helps to get more moderated temperatures,
especially at the height of the summertime. The Khamaseen is a
hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south
and blows in the spring or in the early summer.
Saint Catherine in southern Sinai, on a snowy
It bringing scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings winter morning.
daytime temperatures over 40 °C (104 °F) and sometimes over
50 °C (122 °F) more in the interior, while the relative humidity
can drop to 5% or even less. The absolute highest temperatures
in Egypt occur when the Khamaseen blows. The weather is
always sunny and clear in Egypt, especially in cities such as
Aswan, Luxor and Asyut. It is one of the least cloudy and least
rainy regions on Earth.
Prior to the construction of the Aswan Dam, the Nile flooded
annually (colloquially The Gift of the Nile) replenishing Egypt's
soil. This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years.
The potential rise in sea levels due to global warming could
threaten Egypt's densely populated coastal strip and have grave The Qattara Depression in Egypt's north west.
consequences for the country's economy, agriculture and
industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a significant rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians
into environmental refugees by the end of the 21st century, according to some climate experts.[114][115]
Biodiversity
Egypt signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 9 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 2
June 1994.[116] It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by
the convention on 31 July 1998.[117] Where many CBD National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans neglect
biological kingdoms apart from animals and plants,[118] Egypt's plan was unusual in providing balanced information
about all forms of life.
The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483
species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species),
monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen
forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and wellstudied groups like
amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are
recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichenforming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that
over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is
expected to be much higher.[119] For the grasses, 284 native and naturalised species have been identified and recorded
in Egypt.[120]
Government
The House of Representatives, whose members are elected
to serve fiveyear terms, specialises in legislation. Elections
were last held between November 2011 and January 2012
which was later dissolved. The next parliamentary election
was announced to be held within 6 months of the
constitution's ratification on 18 January 2014, and were held
in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015.[121]
Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the
president was elected, but interim president Adly Mansour
pushed the date.[122] The Egyptian presidential election,
2014, took place on 26–28 May 2014. Official figures
showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, with Abdel Abdel Fattah elSisi is the Sherif Ismail is the current
Fattah elSisi winning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.91% current President of Prime Minister of Egypt.
compared to 757,511 (3.09%) for Hamdeen Sabahi.[123] Egypt.
After a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of the Muslim Brotherhood government of President
Mohamed Morsi,[94] on 3 July 2013 thenGeneral Abdel Fattah elSisi announced the removal of Morsi from office
and the suspension of the constitution. A 50member constitution committee was formed for modifying the constitution
which was later published for public voting and was adopted on 18 January 2014.[124]
In 2013, Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt at "5" (with 1 representing the most free and 7 the least), and
civil liberties at "5", which gave it the freedom rating of "Partly Free".[125]
Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the 19th century and becoming
the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anticolonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.[126] The
ideology espoused by Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood is mostly supported by the lowermiddle strata of
Egyptian society.[127]
Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world.[128] The first popular assembly was
established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a
consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided
for a parliamentary monarchy.[128]
Law
The legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly
Napoleonic codes); and judicial review by a Supreme Court,
which accepts compulsory International Court of Justice
jurisdiction only with reservations.[54]
Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation.
Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the Ministry of
Justice.[129] The personal status law that regulates matters such
as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia.
In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's
The High Court of Justice in Downtown Cairo.
testimony.[130]
On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was
approved by the public in a referendum held 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate
participation.[131] It replaced the 2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, adopted following the revolution.
The Penal code was unique as it contains a "Blasphemy Law."[132] The present court system allows a death penalty
including against an absent individual tried in absentia. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in
2012.[133]
On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a more secular constitution.[134] The president
is elected to a fouryear term and may serve 2 terms.[134] The parliament may impeach the president.[134] Under the
constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolute freedom of thought.[134] The military retains the ability
to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next two full presidential terms since the constitution took effect.[134]
Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".[134]
Human rights
The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights is one of the longeststanding bodies for the defence of human rights in
Egypt.[135] In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights.[136] Shortly after its
foundation, the council came under heavy criticism by local activists, who contend it was a propaganda tool for the
government to excuse its own violations[137] and to give legitimacy to repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.[138]
The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life ranks Egypt as the fifth worst
country in the world for religious freedom.[139][140] The United States
Commission on International Religious Freedom, a bipartisan independent
agency of the US government, has placed Egypt on its watch list of countries
that require close monitoring due to the nature and extent of violations of
religious freedom engaged in or tolerated by the government.[141] According
to a 2010 Pew Global Attitudes survey, 84% of Egyptians polled supported
the death penalty for those who leave Islam; 77% supported whippings and
cutting off of hands for theft and robbery; and 82% support stoning a person Protesters from the Third Square
who commits adultery.[142] movement, which neither supports
the Morsi government nor the Armed
In April 2016 Giulio Regeni, an Italian Ph.D student from the University of Forces, 31 July 2013
Cambridge studying trade unions and worker's rights in the country, was
found brutally murdered in Cairo after he went missing in January of the same
year. Subsequently, Italy withdrew its ambassador to Egypt. Egyptian law enforcement produced conflicting information
on the fate of the Italian citizen, which was unacceptable to Italian investigators. As a result, the Italian press and foreign
ministry pointed at the systematic human right violations in Egypt, and threatened with political sanctions unless police
leadership and practices undergo significant revisions.[143]
Coptic Christians face discrimination at multiple levels of the government, ranging from disproportionate representation
in government ministries to laws that limit their ability to build or repair churches.[144] Intolerance of Bahá'ís and non
orthodox Muslim sects, such as Sufis, Shi'a and Ahmadis, also remains a problem.[75] When the government moved to
computerise identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Bahá'ís, could not obtain identification
documents.[145] An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths may obtain identity cards without
listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognised.[146]
Clashes continued between police and supporters of former President Mohamed Morsi, at least 595 civilians were
killed in Cairo on 14 August 2013,[147] the worst mass killing in Egypt's modern history.[148]
Egypt actively practices capital punishment. Egypt's authorities do not release figures on death sentences and
executions, despite repeated requests over the years by human rights organisations.[149] The United Nations human
rights office[150] and various NGOs[149][151] expressed "deep alarm" after an Egyptian Minya Criminal Court sentenced
529 people to death in a single hearing on 25 March 2014. Sentenced supporters of former President Mohamed Morsi
will be executed for their alleged role in violence following his ousting in July
will be executed for their alleged role in violence following his ousting in July
2013. The judgment was condemned as a violation of international law.[152]
By May 2014, approximately 16,000 people (and as high as more than
40,000 by one independent count),[153] mostly Brotherhood members or
supporters, have been imprisoned after the coup [154] after the Muslim
Brotherhood was labelled as terrorist organisation by the postcoup interim
Egyptian government.[155]
After Morsi was ousted by the military, the judiciary system aligned itself with Muslim Brotherhoodaffiliated pro
the new government, actively supporting the repression of Muslim Morsi protesters holding the Rabia
Brotherhood members. This resulted in a sharp increase in mass death sign in a protest in September 2013.
sentences that arose criticism from thenU.S. president Barack Obama and
the General Secretary of the UN, Ban Ki Moon.
Homosexuality is illegal in Egypt[156] According to 2013 survey by the Pew Research Center, 95% of Egyptians
believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.[157]
Freedom of the press
Reporters Without Borders ranked Egypt in their World Press Freedom Index as #158 out of 180. At least 18
journalists were imprisoned in Egypt in August 2015. A new antiterror law was enacted in August 2015 that threatens
members of the media with fines ranging from about US$25,000 to 60,000 for the distribution of wrong information on
acts of terror inside the country "that differ from official declarations of the Egyptian Department of Defense".[158]
Military and foreign relations
The military is influential in the political and economic life of Egypt and
exempts itself from laws that apply to other sectors. It enjoys considerable
power, prestige and independence within the state and has been widely
considered part of the Egyptian "deep state".[65][159][160]
According to the former chair of Israel's Knesset Foreign Affairs and
Defense Committee, Yuval Steinitz, the Egyptian Air Force has roughly the
same number of modern warplanes as the Israeli Air Force and far more
Western tanks, artillery, antiaircraft batteries and warships than the IDF.[161]
Egyptian honor guard soldiers during
Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the second country in the region with a
a visit of U.S. Navy Adm. Mike
Mullen spy satellite, EgyptSat 1[162] in addition to EgyptSat 2 launched on 16 April
2014.[163]
The United States provides Egypt with annual military assistance, which in 2015 amounted to US$1.3 billion.[164] In
1989, Egypt was designated as a major nonNATO ally of the United States.[165] Nevertheless, ties between the two
countries have partially soured since the July 2013 overthrow of Islamist president Mohamed Morsi,[166] with the
Obama administration denouncing Egypt over its crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood, and cancelling future military
exercises involving the two countries.[167] There have been recent attempts, however, to normalise relations between
the two, with both governments frequently calling for mutual support in the fight against regional and international
terrorism.[168][169][170] However, following the election of Republican Donald Trump as the President of the United
States, the two countries are looking to improve the EgyptianAmerican relations. alSisi and Trump had met during the
opening of the seventyfirst session of the United Nations General Assembly in September 2016.[171] The absence of
Egypt in President Trump's travel ban towards seven Muslim countries was noted
Egypt in President Trump's travel ban towards seven Muslim countries was noted
in Washington although the Congress has voiced human rights concerns over the
handling of dissidents.[172] On March 22, 2017 it was reported that alSisi would
be traveling to Washington to meet with Trump on April 3, 2017.[173]
The Egyptian military has dozens of factories manufacturing weapons as well as
consumer goods. The Armed Forces' inventory includes equipment from different
countries around the world. Equipment from the former Soviet Union is being
progressively replaced by more modern US, French, and British equipment, a
significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt, such as the M1 Abrams
tank. Relations with Russia have improved significantly following Mohamed
Morsi's removal[174] and both countries have worked since then to strengthen
military[175] and trade ties[176] among other aspects of bilateral cooperation.
Relations with China have also improved considerably. In 2014, Egypt and China Top: Former President Hosni
Mubarak with US President
established a bilateral "comprehensive strategic partnership".[177]
George W. Bush at Camp David
The permanent headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the in 2002; Bottom: President
body's secretary general has traditionally been Egyptian. This position is currently Abdel Fattah elSisi and Russian
held by former foreign minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit. The Arab League briefly President Vladimir Putin in
moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978 to protest the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty, but Sochi, August 2014.
it later returned to Cairo in 1989. Gulf monarchies, including the United Arab
Emirates[178] and Saudi Arabia,[179] have pledged billions of dollars to help Egypt overcome its economic difficulties
since the July 2013 coup.[180]
Following the 1973 war and the subsequent peace treaty, Egypt became the
first Arab nation to establish diplomatic relations with Israel. Despite that,
Israel is still widely considered as a hostile state by the majority of
Egyptians.[181] Egypt has played a historical role as a mediator in resolving
various disputes in the Middle East, most notably its handling of the Israeli–
Palestinian conflict and the peace process.[182] Egypt's ceasefire and truce
brokering efforts in Gaza have hardly been challenged following Israel's
evacuation of its settlements from the strip in 2005, despite increasing
President elSisi with US President animosity towards the Hamas government in Gaza following the ouster of
Donald Trump, 21 May 2017 Mohamed Morsi,[183] and despite recent attempts by countries like Turkey
and Qatar to take over this role.[184]
Ties between Egypt and other nonArab Middle Eastern nations, including Iran and Turkey, have often been strained.
Tensions with Iran are mostly due to Egypt's peace treaty with Israel and Iran's rivalry with traditional Egyptian allies in
the Gulf.[185] Turkey's recent support for the nowbanned Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and its alleged involvement in
Libya also made of both countries bitter regional rivals.[186][187]
Egypt is a founding member of the NonAligned Movement and the United Nations. It is also a member of the
Organisation internationale de la francophonie, since 1983. Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros
Ghali served as SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.
In 2008, Egypt was estimated to have two million African refugees, including over 20,000 Sudanese nationals
registered with UNHCR as refugees fleeing armed conflict or asylum seekers. Egypt adopted "harsh, sometimes lethal"
methods of border control.[188]
Administrative divisions
Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The
governorates are further divided into regions. The
regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate
has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the
governorate.
1. Matrouh 15. Faiyum
2. Alexandria 16. Cairo
3. Beheira 17. Suez
4. Kafr El Sheikh 18. South Sinai
5. Dakahlia 19. Beni Suef
6. Damietta 20. Minya
7. Port Said 21. New Valley
8. North Sinai 22. Asyut
9. Gharbia 23. Red Sea
10. Monufia 24. Sohag
11. Qalyubia 25. Qena
12. Sharqia 26. Luxor
Governorates of Egypt
13. Ismailia 27. Aswan
14. Giza
Economy
Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media,
petroleum imports, natural gas, and tourism; there are
also more than three million Egyptians working abroad,
mainly in Libya, Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and
Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in
1970 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the
timehonoured place of the Nile River in the agriculture
and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population,
limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all
continue to overtax resources and stress the
economy.[189]
The government has invested in communications and
physical infrastructure. Egypt has received United
Egypt Exports by Product (2014) from Harvard Atlas of
States foreign aid since 1979 (an average of $2.2
Economic Complexity (http://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/explore/tr
billion per year) and is the thirdlargest recipient of such
ee_map/export/egy/all/show/2014/)
funds from the United States following the Iraq war.
Egypt's economy mainly relies on these sources of
income: tourism, remittances from Egyptians working abroad and revenues from the Suez Canal.[190]
Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power. Substantial coal deposits in the
northeast Sinai are mined at the rate of about 600,000 tonnes (590,000 long tons; 660,000 short tons) per year. Oil
and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of
gas, estimated at 2,180 cubic kilometres (520 cu mi),[191] and LNG up to 2012 exported to many countries. In 2013,
the Egyptian General Petroleum Co (EGPC) said the country will cut exports of natural gas and tell major industries to
slow output this summer to avoid an energy crisis and stave off political unrest, Reuters has reported. Egypt is counting
on top liquid natural gas (LNG) exporter Qatar to obtain additional gas volumes in summer, while encouraging factories
to plan their annual maintenance for those months of peak demand, said EGPC chairman, Tarek El Barkatawy. Egypt
produces its own energy, but has been a net oil importer since 2008 and is rapidly becoming a net importer of natural
gas.[192]
Economic conditions have started to
improve considerably, after a period of
stagnation, due to the adoption of more
liberal economic policies by the
government as well as increased
revenues from tourism and a booming
stock market. In its annual report, the
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
has rated Egypt as one of the top
countries in the world undertaking
economic reforms.[193] Some major San Stefano Grand Plaza in Alexandria (left) and view from Cairo.
economic reforms undertaken by the
government since 2003 include a
dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40%
to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006.
Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Egypt increased considerably
before the removal of Hosni Mubarak, exceeding $6 billion in 2006,
due to economic liberalisation and privatisation measures taken by
minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin. Since the fall of Hosni
Mubarak in 2011, Egypt has experienced a drastic fall in both foreign
investment and tourism revenues, followed by a 60% drop in foreign
exchange reserves, a 3% drop in growth, and a rapid devaluation of
the Egyptian pound.[194]
Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy
Smart Village, a business district in 6th of is the limited trickle down of wealth to the average population, many
October established in 2001 to facilitate the Egyptians criticise their government for higher prices of basic goods
growth of hightech businesses. while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively
stagnant. Corruption is often cited by Egyptians as the main
impediment to further economic growth.[195][196] The government
promised major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure, using money paid for the newly acquired third mobile
license ($3 billion) by Etisalat in 2006.[197] In the Corruption Perceptions Index 2013, Egypt was ranked 114 out of
177.[198]
Egypt's most prominent multinational companies are the Orascom Group and
Raya Contact Center. The information technology (IT) sector has expanded
rapidly in the past few years, with many startups selling outsourcing services
to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft,
Oracle and other major corporations, as well as many small and medium size
enterprises. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya,
E Group Connections and C3. The IT sector has been stimulated by new
Egyptian entrepreneurs with government encouragement.
An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the The Suez Canal.
development of their country through remittances (US$7.8 billion in 2009),
as well as circulation of human and social capital and investment.[199] Remittances, money earned by Egyptians living
abroad and sent home, reached a record US$21 billion in 2012, according to the World Bank.[200]
Egyptian society is moderately unequal in terms of income distribution, with an estimated 35 – 40% of Egypt's
population earning less than the equivalent of $2 a day, while only around 2–3% may be considered wealthy.[201]
Tourism
Tourism is one of the most important sectors in Egypt's economy. More than
12.8 million tourists visited Egypt in 2008, providing revenues of nearly $11
billion. The tourism sector employs about 12% of Egypt's workforce.[202]
Tourism Minister Hisham Zaazou told industry professionals and reporters
that tourism generated some $9.4 billion in 2012, a slight increase over the
$9 billion seen in 2011.[203]
The Giza Necropolis is one of Egypt's most wellknown tourist attractions; it
is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence.
Muizz Street has the greatest
Egypt's beaches on the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which extend to concentration of medieval
over 3,000 kilometres (1,900 miles), are also popular tourist destinations; the architectural treasures in the Islamic
Gulf of Aqaba beaches, Safaga, Sharm El Sheikh, Hurghada, Luxor, Dahab, world.
Ras Sidr, and Marsa Alam are popular cites.
Energy
Egypt produced 691,000 bbl/d of oil and 2,141.05 Tcf of natural gas in
2013, making the country the largest nonOrganization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) producer of oil and the secondlargest dry
natural gas producer in Africa. In 2013, Egypt was the largest consumer of
oil and natural gas in Africa, as more than 20% of total oil consumption and
more than 40% of total dry natural gas consumption in Africa. Also, Egypt
possesses the largest oil refinery capacity in Africa 726,000 bbl/d (in A resort in Taba.
2012).[191]
Egypt is currently planning to build its first nuclear power plant in El Dabaa,
in the northern part of the country, with $25 billion in Russian financing.[204]
Transport
Transport in Egypt is centred around Cairo and largely follows the pattern of
settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 40,800kilometre
(25,400 mi) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan and is operated
by Egyptian National Railways. The vehicle road network has expanded
rapidly to over 21,000 miles, consisting of 28 line, 796 stations, 1800 train An offshore platform in the Darfeel
covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, the Mediterranean and Red Sea Gas Field.
coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases.
The Cairo Metro in Egypt is the first of only two fullfledged metro systems
in Africa and the Arab World. It is considered one of the most important
recent projects in Egypt which cost around 12 billion Egyptian pounds. The
system consists of three operational lines with a fourth line expected in the
future.
EgyptAir, which is now the country's flag carrier and largest airline, was
founded in 1932 by Egyptian industrialist Talaat Harb, today owned by the
Egyptian government. The airline is based at Cairo International Airport, its
main hub, operating scheduled passenger and freight services to more than
75 destinations in the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
The Cairo Metro (line 2)
The Current EgyptAir fleet includes 80 aeroplane.
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal is an artificial sealevel waterway in Egypt considered the
most important centre of the maritime transport in the Middle East,
connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November
1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows ship transport between
Europe and Asia without navigation around Africa. The northern terminus is
Port Said and the southern terminus is Port Tawfiq at the city of Suez.
Ismailia lies on its west bank, 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) from the halfway
point.
The canal is 193.30 kilometres (120.11 miles) long, 24 metres (79 feet) deep
and 205 metres (673 feet) wide as of 2010. It consists of the northern The Suez Canal Bridge.
access channel of 22 kilometres (14 miles) (14 mi), the canal itself of 162.25
kilometres (100.82 miles) and the southern access channel of 9 kilometres (5.6 miles). The canal is a single lane with
passing places in the "Ballah ByPass" and the Great Bitter Lake. It contains no locks; seawater flows freely through the
canal. In general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. The current south of the
lakes changes with the tide at Suez.
On 26 August 2014 a proposal was made for opening a New Suez Canal. Work on the New Suez Canal was
completed in July 2015.[205][206] The channel was officially inaugurated with a ceremony attended by foreign leaders
and featuring military flyovers on 6 August 2015, in accordance with the budgets laid out for the project.[207][208]
Water supply and sanitation
The piped water supply in Egypt increased between 1990 and 2010 from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39%
to 93% in rural areas despite rapid population growth. Over that period, Egypt achieved the elimination of open
defecation in rural areas and invested in infrastructure. Access to an improved water source in Egypt is now practically
universal with a rate of 99%. About one half of the population is connected to sanitary sewers.[209]
Partly because of low sanitation coverage about 17,000 children die each year because of diarrhoea.[210] Another
challenge is low cost recovery due to water tariffs that are among the lowest in the world. This in turn requires
government subsidies even for operating costs, a situation that has been aggravated by salary increases without tariff
increases after the Arab Spring. Poor operation of facilities, such as water and wastewater treatment plants, as well as
limited government accountability and transparency, are also issues.
Demographics
Egypt is the most populated country in the Middle East, and the third most
populous on the African continent, with about 88 million inhabitants as of
2015.[6] Its population grew rapidly from 1970 to 2010 due to medical
advances and increases in agricultural productivity [211] enabled by the Green
Revolution.[212] Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million when
Napoleon invaded the country in 1798.[213]
Egypt's people are highly urbanised, being concentrated along the Nile
(notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal.
Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban
centres and the fellahin, or farmers, that reside in rural villages.
Egypt's population density (people per
While emigration was restricted under Nasser, thousands of Egyptian km2).
professionals were dispatched abroad in the context of the Arab Cold
War.[214] Egyptian emigration was liberalised in 1971, under President Historical populations in
Sadat, reaching record numbers after the 1973 oil crisis.[215] An estimated
2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants thousands
live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850
Year Pop. ±% p.a.
in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the
remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the 1882 6,712 —
United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).[199] The process of 1897 9,669 +2.46%
1907 11,190 +1.47%
emigrating to nonArab states has been ongoing since the 1950s.[216]
1917 12,718 +1.29%
Ethnic groups 1927 14,178 +1.09%
1937 15,921 +1.17%
Ethnic Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in the country, 1947 18,967 +1.77%
constituting 91% of the total population.[54] Ethnic minorities include the 1960 26,085 +2.48%
Abazas, Turks, Greeks, Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and 1966 30,076 +2.40%
the Sinai Peninsula, the Berberspeaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, 1976 36,626 +1.99%
and the Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal
1986 48,254 +2.80%
Beja communities concentrated in the southeasternmost corner of the
country, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum 1996 59,312 +2.08%
who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanisation increases. 2006 72,798 +2.07%
2013 84,314 +2.12%
Some 5 million immigrants live in Egypt, mostly Sudanese, "some of whom Source: Population in Egypt[7]
have lived in Egypt for generations."[217] Smaller numbers of immigrants
come from Iraq, Ethiopia, Somalia, South Sudan, and Eritrea.[217]
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that the total number of "people of
concern" (refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless people) was about 250,000. In 2015, the number of registered
Syrian refugees in Egypt was 117,000, a decrease from the previous year.[217] Egyptian government claims that a half
million Syrian refugees live in Egypt are thought to be exaggerated.[217] There are 28,000 registered Sudanese refugees
in Egypt.[217]
The oncevibrant and ancient Greek and Jewish communities in Egypt have almost disappeared, with only a small
number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious or other occasions and tourism. Several
important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.
Languages
The official language of the Republic is Modern Standard Arabic.[12] Arabic was adopted by the Egyptians after the
Arab invasion of Egypt.[218] The spoken languages are: Egyptian Arabic (68%), Sa'idi Arabic (29%), Eastern Egyptian
Bedawi Arabic (1.6%), Sudanese Arabic (0.6%), Domari (0.3%), Nobiin (0.3%), Beja (0.1%), Siwi and others.
Additionally, Greek, Armenian and Italian are the main languages of immigrants. In Alexandria in the 19th century there
was a large community of Italian Egyptians and Italian was the "lingua franca" of the city.
The main foreign languages taught in schools, by order of popularity, are English, French, German and Italian.
Historical Egyptian languages, also known as CoptoEgyptian, consist of ancient Egyptian and Coptic, and form a
separate branch among the family of Afroasiatic languages. The "Koiné" dialect of the Greek language, though not
native to Egypt, was important in Hellenistic Alexandria. It was used extensively in the philosophy and science of that
culture. Later translations from Greek to Arabic became the subject of study by Arab scholars.
Religion
Egypt is a predominantly Sunni Muslim country with Islam as its
state religion. The percentage of adherents of various religions is a Religions in Egypt est. [1]
controversial topic in Egypt. An estimated 90% are identified as Religions Percent
Muslim   90%
Muslim, 9% as Coptic Christians, and 1% as other Christian Orthodox Christian   9%
denominations, although without a census the numbers cannot be Other Christian   1%
known. Estimates put the Christian population as high as 1520%.
[nb 1] Nondenominational Muslims form roughly 12% of the population.[219]
Although Egypt was a Christian country before the 7th Century, after Islam
arrived, the country was gradually Islamised into a majorityMuslim
country.[220][221] It is not known when Muslims reached a majority variously
estimated from ca. 1000 A.D. to as late as the 14th century. Egypt emerged
as a centre of politics and culture in the Muslim world. Under Anwar Sadat,
Islam became the official state religion and Sharia the main source of law.[222]
It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow Native Sufi
orders,[223][224][225] with the Sufi leadership asserting that the numbers are The Mosque of Muhammad Ali in
much greater as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi Cairo.
order.[224]
There is also a Shi'a minority. The Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs estimates the Shia population at 1 to 2.2
million[226] and could measure as much as 3 million.[227] The Ahmadiyya population is estimated at less than
50,000,[228] whereas the Salafi (ultraconservative) population is estimated at five to six million.[229] Cairo is famous for
its numerous mosque minarets and has been dubbed "The City of 1,000 Minarets".[230]
Of the Christian minority in Egypt over 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox
Church of Alexandria, an Oriental Orthodox Christian Church.[231] Other native
Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Evangelical
Church of Egypt and various other Protestant denominations. Nonnative Christian
communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, such as the
SyroLebanese, who belong to Greek Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Maronite
Catholic denominations.[232]
Ethnic Greeks also made up a large Greek Orthodox population in the past. Likewise,
Armenians made up the then larger Armenian Orthodox and Catholic communities.
Egypt also used to have a large Roman Catholic community, largely made up of Italians
and Maltese. These nonnative communities were much larger in Egypt before the
Nasser regime and the nationalisation that took place.
St. Mark Coptic Cathedral
Egypt hosts the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.
in Alexandria
Egypt is also the home of AlAzhar University (founded in 969 CE, began teaching in
975 CE), which is today the world's "most influential voice of establishment Sunni Islam" and is, by some measures, the
secondoldest continuously operating university in world.[233]
Egypt recognises only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths and minority Muslim sects practised
by Egyptians, such as the small Bahá'í and Ahmadi community, are not recognised by the state and face persecution by
the government, which labels these groups a threat to Egypt's national security.[234][235] Individuals, particularly Baha'is
and atheists, wishing to include their religion (or lack thereof) on their mandatory state issued identification cards are
denied this ability (see Egyptian identification card controversy), and are put in the position of either not obtaining
required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognised faiths to obtain
identification and leave the religion field blank.[145][146]
Largest cities
Culture
Egypt is a recognised cultural
trendsetter of the Arabic
speaking world. Contemporary
Arabic and MiddleEastern culture
is heavily influenced by Egyptian
literature, music, film and
television. Egypt gained a regional
leadership role during the 1950s
and 1960s, giving a further
enduring boost to the standing of
AlAzhar Park is listed as one of the Egyptian culture in the Arabic
world's sixty great public spaces by Bibliotheca Alexandrina is a
the Project for Public Spaces speaking world.[236] commemoration of the ancient
Library of Alexandria
Egyptian identity evolved in the
span of a long period of occupation to accommodate Islam, Christianity and
Judaism; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic which is also based on many
Ancient Egyptian words.[237]
The work of early 19thcentury scholar Rifa'a alTahtawi renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian
society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi cofounded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology
school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied
the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.[238]
Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad
Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi elSayed, Muhammad Loutfi Goumah, Tawfiq elHakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama
Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to
personal freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.[239]
Arts
The Egyptians were one of the first major
civilisations to codify design elements in art and
architecture. Egyptian blue, also known as calcium
copper silicate is a pigment used by Egyptians for
thousands of years. It is considered to be the first
synthetic pigment. The wall paintings done in the
service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of
visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilisation is
renowned for its colossal pyramids, temples and
monumental tombs. The weighing of the heart scene from the Book of the Dead.
Wellknown examples are the Pyramid of Djoser
designed by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern and
contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of
Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud Mokhtar's sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic iconography of
Isaac Fanous. The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.
Literature
Egyptian literature traces its beginnings to ancient Egypt and is some of the earliest known literature. Indeed, the
Egyptians were the first culture to develop literature as we know it today, that is, the book.[240] It is an important
cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles
of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East.[241] The first
modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in
modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in
1913 in the Egyptian vernacular.[242] Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first
Arabiclanguage writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers
include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who
also writes about women and tradition.
Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre among Egyptians,
represented by the works of Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel
Rahman elAbnudi.
Popular culture
Egyptian media are highly influential throughout the Arab World, attributed to large
audiences and increasing freedom from government control.[243][244] Freedom of the Naguib Mahfouz, the first
media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this Arabiclanguage writer to
right.[243][245] win the Nobel Prize in
Literature.
Cinema
Egyptian cinema became a regional force with the coming of sound. In 1936, Studio
Misr, financed by industrialist Talaat Harb, emerged as the leading Egyptian studio, a
role the company retained for three decades.[246] For over 100 years, more than
4000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production.
Egypt is considered the leading country in the field of cinema in the Middle East.
Actors from all over the Arab World seek to appear in the Egyptian cinema for the
sake of fame. The Cairo International Film Festival has been rated as one of 11
festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film
Producers' Associations.[247]
Music
Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western
Suad Husni, film star.
elements. It has been an integral part of Egyptian culture since antiquity. The ancient
Egyptians credited one of their gods Hathor with the invention of music, which Osiris
in turn used as part of his effort to civilise the world. Egyptians used music instruments since then.[248]
Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu alHamuli, Almaz and
Mahmoud Osman, who influenced the later work of Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and
Abdel Halim Hafez whose age is considered the golden age of music in Egypt and the whole Middle East and North
Africa. Prominent contemporary Egyptian pop singers include Amr Diab and Mohamed Mounir.
Dances
Today, Egypt is often considered the home of belly dance. Egyptian belly dance has two main styles – raqs baladi and
raqs sharqi. There are also numerous folkloric and character dances that may be part of an Egyptianstyle belly
dancer's repertoire, as well as the modern shaabi street dance which shares some elements with raqs baladi.
Museums
Egypt has one of the oldest civilisations in the world. It has been in contact with many other civilisations and nations and
has been through so many eras, starting from prehistoric age to the modern age, passing through so many ages such as;
Pharonic, Roman, Greek, Islamic and many other ages. Because of this wide variation of ages, the continuous contact
with other nations and the
big number of conflicts
Egypt had been through, at
least 60 museums may be
found in Egypt, mainly
covering a wide area of
these ages and conflicts.
The three main museums in
Egypt are The Egyptian
The Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
Museum which has more
Tanoura dancer performing in Wekalet El
than 120,000 items, the
Ghoury, Cairo.
Egyptian National Military Museum and the 6th of October Panorama.
The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM), also known as the Giza Museum, is an under
construction museum that will house the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artifacts
in the world, it has been described as the world's largest archaeological museum.[249]
The museum was scheduled to open in 2015 and will be sited on 50 hectares (120
acres) of land approximately two kilometres (1.2 miles) from the Giza Necropolis
and is part of a new master plan for the plateau. The Minister of Antiquities
Mamdouh alDamaty announced in May 2015 that the museum will be partially
opened in May 2018.[250]
Festivals
Egypt celebrates many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They
are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated Tutankhamun's burial mask
by Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavour in is one of the major
Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as fawanees) and much attractions of the Egyptian
flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt to witness during Museum.
Ramadan.
The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic: Ϭ ‘ shom en nisim) has been celebrated by
Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May),
following Easter Sunday.
Cuisine
Egyptian cuisine is notably conducive to vegetarian diets, as it relies
heavily on vegetable dishes. Though food in Alexandria and the coast of
Egypt tends to use a great deal of fish and other seafood, for the most
part Egyptian cuisine is based on foods that grow out of the ground. Meat
has been very expensive for most Egyptians throughout history, so a great
number of vegetarian dishes have been developed.
Some consider kushari (a mixture of rice, lentils, and macaroni) to be the
national dish. Fried onions can be also added to kushari. In addition, ful
medames (mashed fava beans) is one of the most popular dishes. Fava
bean is also used in making falafel (also known as "ta‘miya"), which may Kushari, one of Egypt's national dishes.
have originated in Egypt and spread to other parts of the Middle East.
Garlic fried with coriander is added to molokhiya, a popular green soup made from finely chopped jute leaves,
sometimes with chicken or rabbit.
Sports
Football is the most popular national sport of Egypt. The Cairo Derby is
one of the fiercest derbies in Africa, and the BBC picked it as one of the
7 toughest derbies in the world.[251] Al Ahly is the most successful club
of the 20th century in the African continent according to CAF, closely
followed by their rivals Zamalek SC. Al Ahly was named in 2000 by the
Confederation of African Football as the "African Club of the Century".
With twenty titles, Al Ahly is currently the world's most successful club in
terms of international trophies, surpassing Italy's A.C. Milan and
Argentina's Boca Juniors, both having eighteen.[252]
The Egyptian national football team known as the "Pharaohs" won the
A crowd at Cairo Stadium.
African Cup of Nations seven times, including three times in a row in
2006, 2008, and 2010. Considered the most successful African national
team and one of the very few African teams that reached the 9th ranking on the FIFA world ranks, Egypt has only
qualified to the FIFA World Cup two times only though. The Egyptian Youth National team "Young Pharaohs" won the
Bronze Medal of the 2001 FIFA youth world cup in Argentina.
Squash and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fierce
competition in international championships since the 1930s. Amr Shabana and Ramy Ashour are Egypt's best players
and both were ranked as "World's Number One Squash Player".
Among all African nations, the Egypt national basketball team holds the record for best performance at the Basketball
World Cup and at the Summer Olympics.[253][254] Further, the team has won a record number of 16 medals at the
African Championship.
In 1999, Egypt hosted the IHF World Men's Handball Championship, and in 2001, the national handball team achieved
its best result in the tournament by reaching the fourth place. Egypt has won first place five times in the African Men's
Handball Championship, five times second place, and four times third place. In addition to that, it also championed the
Mediterranean Games in 2013, the Beach Handball World Championships in 2004 and the Summer Youth Olympics in
2010.
Egypt has taken part in the Summer Olympic Games since 1912 and hosted the first Mediterranean Games in 1951,
Alexandria.
Egypt has hosted several international competitions. the last one was 2009 FIFA U20 World Cup which took place
between 24 September – 16 October 2009.
On Friday 19 September of the year 2014, Guinness World Records has announced that Egyptian scuba diver Ahmed
Gabr is the new title holder for deepest salt water scuba dive, at 332.35 metres (1,090.4 feet).[255] Ahmed set a new
world record Friday when he reached a depth of more than 1,000 feet (300 metres). The 14hour feat took Gabr
1,066 feet (325 metres) down into the abyss near the Egyptian town of Dahab in the Red Sea, where he works as a
diving instructor.[256]
On 1 September 2015 Raneem El Weleily was ranked as the world number one woman squash player.[257] Other
Egyptian squash player women are Nour El Tayeb, Omneya Abdel Kawy, Nouran Gohar and Nour El Sherbini.
Telecommunication
The wired and wireless telecommunication industry in Egypt started in 1854 with the launch of the country's first
telegram line connecting Cairo and Alexandria. The first telephone line between the two cities was installed in 1881.[258]
In September 1999 a national project for a technological renaissance was announced reflecting the commitment of the
Egyptian government to developing the country's ITsector.
Cellular
Cellular GSM services were first launched in Egypt in 1996.[258] As of June 2011, it is currently offering 2G/3G
service, while LTE is under trials.[259] Egypt has 3 companies offering cellular services:
Orange Egypt, owned by Orange S.A.;
Vodafone Egypt, owned by Vodafone and Telecom Egypt; and
Etisalat Egypt, owned by Emirates Telecommunication Corporation.
Post
Egypt Post is the company responsible for postal service in Egypt. Established in 1865, it is one of the oldest
governmental institutions in the country. Egypt is one of 21 countries that contributed to the establishment of the
Universal Postal Union, initially named the General Postal Union, as signatory of the Treaty of Bern.
Education
The illiteracy rate has decreased since 1996 from 39.4 to 25.9
percent in 2013.The adult literacy rate as of July 2014 was
estimated at 73.9%.[260] The illiteracy rate is highest among
those over 60 years of age being estimated at around 64.9%,
while illiteracy among youth between 15 and 24 years of age
was listed at 8.6 percent.[261]
A Europeanstyle education system was first introduced in
Egypt by the Ottomans in the early 19th century to nurture a
class of loyal bureaucrats and army officers.[262] Under British
occupation investment in education was curbed drastically, and
secular public schools, which had previously been free, began
Cairo University.
to charge fees.[262]
In the 1950s, president Nasser phased in free education for all
Egyptians.[262] The Egyptian curriculum influenced other Arab education
systems, which often employed Egyptiantrained teachers.[262] Demand soon
outstripped the level of available state resources, causing the quality of public
education to deteriorate.[262] Today this trend has culminated in poor
teacher–student ratios (often around one to fifty) and persistent gender
inequality.[262]
Basic education, which includes six years of primary and three years of
preparatory school, is a right for Egyptian children from the age of six.[263] UIS Literacy Rate Egypt population
After grade 9, students are tracked into one of two strands of secondary plus15 1980 2015 by UNESCO
education: general or technical schools. General secondary education Institute of Statistics
prepares students for further education, and graduates of this track normally
join higher education institutes based on the results of the Thanaweya Amma, the leaving exam.[263]
Technical secondary education has two strands, one lasting three years and a more advanced education lasting five.
Graduates of these schools may have access to higher education based on their results on the final exam, but this is
generally uncommon.[263]
Cairo University is ranked as 401–500 according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities (Shanghai
Ranking)[264] and 551–600 according to QS World University Rankings. American University in Cairo is ranked as
360 according to QS World University Rankings and AlAzhar University, Alexandria University and Ain Shams
University fall in the 701+ range.[265] Egypt is currently opening new research institutes for the aim of modernising
research in the nation, the most recent example of which is Zewail City of Science and Technology.
Health
Egyptian life expectancy at birth was 73.20 years in 2011, or
71.30 years for males and 75.20 years for females. Egypt
spends 3.7 percent of its gross domestic product on health
including treatment costs 22 percent incurred by citizens and the
rest by the state.[266] In 2010, spending on healthcare
accounted for 4.66% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there
were 16.04 physicians and 33.80 nurses per 10,000
inhabitants.[267]
As a result of modernisation efforts over the years, Egypt's
healthcare system has made great strides forward. Access to
healthcare in both urban and rural areas greatly improved and
immunisation programs are now able to cover 98% of the 57357 Hospital
population. Life expectancy increased from 44.8 years during
the 1960s to 72.12 years in 2009. There was a noticeable
decline of the infant mortality rate (during the 1970s to the 1980s the infant mortality rate was 101132/1000 live births,
in 2000 the rate was 5060/1000, and in 2008 it was 2830/1000).[268]
According to the World Health Organization in 2008, an estimated 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women aged 15 to 49
have been subjected to genital mutilation,[269] despite being illegal in the country. In 2016 the law was amended to
impose tougher penalties on those convicted of performing the procedure, pegging the highest jail term at 15 years.
Those who escort victims to the procedure can also face jail terms up to 3 years.[270]
The total number of Egyptians with health insurance reached 37 million in 2009, of which 11 million are minors,
providing an insurance coverage of approximately 52 percent of Egypt's population.[271]
See also
Index of Egyptrelated articles
Outline of ancient Egypt
Outline of Egypt
Notes
1. The population of Egypt is estimated as being 90% Muslim, 9% Coptic Christian and 1% other Christian though
estimates vary. by the US Department of State ("Background Note: Egypt" (http://www.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/egypt/
180843.htm). US Department of State. 10 November 2010. Retrieved 5 March 2011.); the CIA World Factbook
("Egypt" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworldfactbook/geos/eg.html). CIA. 4 September 2008.) and the
United Kingdom's Foreign and Commonwealth Office ("Egypt" (http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/2012121213
5632/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/aboutthefco/countryprofiles/middleeastnorthafrica/egypt). UK Foreign and
Commonwealth Office. 27 January 2008. Archived from the original (http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/aboutthefco/country
profiles/middleeastnorthafrica/egypt) on 12 December 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2016.). Microsoft Encarta
Online similarly estimates the Sunni population at 90% of the total. (Egypt (https://web.archive.org/web/200910210036
19/http://encarta.msn.com/text_761557408___0/Egypt.html). Microsoft Encarta Online. 30 September 2008. Archived
from the original (http://encarta.msn.com/text_761557408___0/Egypt.html) on 21 October 2009.). The Pew Forum on
Religion and Public Life gave a higher estimate of the Muslim population at 94.6% ("Mapping The Global Muslim
Population" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091010050756/http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopu
lation/Muslimpopulation.pdf) (PDF). Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. p. 8. Archived from the original (http://pe
wforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf) (PDF) on 10 October 2009. Retrieved
25 July 2011.)
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1. "Religions" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworldfactbook/fields/2122.html#eg). CIA World Factbook.
Retrieved 9 July 2013.
2. Goldschmidt, Arthur (1988). Modern Egypt: The Formation of a NationState (https://books.google.com/books?id=Y
mZyAAAAMAAJ&q=state). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 5. ISBN 9780865311824. "Among the peoples of the
ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have
changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation. For most of
their history, Egypt has been a state, but only in recent years has it been truly a nationstate, with a government
claiming the allegiance of its subjects on the basis of a common identity."
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egypt&oldid=783919819"
Categories: Egypt North African countries Saharan countries Arabicspeaking countries and territories

Developing 8 Countries member states Eastern Mediterranean G15 nations Member states of the African Union
Member states of the Arab League Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean
Member states of the United Nations Middle Eastern countries Near Eastern countries
States and territories established in 1922 1922 establishments in Egypt 1922 establishments in Africa
Countries in Africa Countries in Asia
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201765 Egypt

Egypt ( i /ˈiːdʒɪpt/ EEjipt; Arabic: ‫ ِﻣﺼﺮ‬ Miṣr, Egyptian

Official languages Arabic [a]

one of the largest in the 21st century. Egypt is a member of • Independence from 28 February 1922

5.3 Transport constitute the world's oldest nation".[13][14] Arthur

Miṣr (IPA: [mi̠ sˤr] or Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mesˤɾ]; Arabic: ‫ ِﻣﺼﺮ‬ ) is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern

Categories: Egypt North African countries Saharan countries Arabicspeaking countries and territories

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Egypt - Wikipedia

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Egypt - Wikipedia

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2017­6­5 Egypt

Egypt ( i /ˈiːdʒɪpt/ EE­jipt; Arabic: ‫ ِﻣﺼﺮ‬ Miṣr, Egyptian

Official languages Arabic [a]

one of the largest in the 21st century. Egypt is a member of • Independence from 28 February 1922

5.3 Transport constitute the world's oldest nation".[13][14] Arthur

Miṣr (IPA: [mi̠ sˤr] or Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mesˤɾ]; Arabic: ‫ ِﻣﺼﺮ‬ ) is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern

Categories: Egypt North African countries Saharan countries Arabic­speaking countries and territories

You might also like

201765 Egypt

Egypt ( i /ˈiːdʒɪpt/ EEjipt; Arabic: ‫ ِﻣﺼﺮ‬ Miṣr, Egyptian

Categories: Egypt North African countries Saharan countries Arabicspeaking countries and territories