(2021412317, OSEI MICHAEL BOATENG)

FACTORS, CONSEQUENCES, AND THE POSSIBLE WAYS OF PREVENTING OR

REDUCING ABORTION IN GHANA.

Abortion is defined as the termination of a pregnancy before the fetus is capable of

extrauterine life, and could be induced or spontaneous.1 Induced abortion also known as artificial

abortion is the intentional interference of pregnancy, with the aim of terminating it, whereas

spontaneous abortion occurs naturally without any intentional means of ending the pregnancy.2

the reason for induced abortion could be based on two forms. Thus, therapeutic and voluntary

reasons. The therapeutic reason for abortion is carried out in cases where a teenager or a woman

has been raped, has some mental or physical health issues, or has fetus abnormalities whilst the

voluntary reason is the interruption of pregnancy for reasons other than fetal abnormalities or

maternal risk.3 Therapeutic abortion is most times legally sanctioned and is carried out by a

legalized physician. Illegal abortion is carried out by a self-induced person or someone who is a

physician but violates the laws governing abortion in a state.4

In the global context of abortion, many women become pregnant inadvertently, due to numerous

reasons, including lack of or inadequate access to birth control services, contraceptive failure,

and sexual assault.5 While some of the women would try to abort the pregnancy through proper

means, others could also use other means to terminate the pregnancy even if it is against the law,
1
World Health Organisation . Complications of abortions: Technical and managerial guidelines for
prevention and treatment (Geneva: World Health Organisation,1995)
2
World Health organisation. Educational material for teachers of midwifery:Midwifery education
modules (2ed)( Geneva : World Health Organisation,2008)
3
G. Macpherson. Black’s Medical Dictionary London: (AC & Black Publishers Limited,2002)
4
World Health Organisation. Educational material for teachers of midwifery: Midwifery education
modules (2ed)( Geneva : World Health Organisation,2008)
5
B. Crane, &C. Hord-Smith. Safe abortion: An essential strategy for achieving the millennium
development goals to improve maternal health, promote gender equality and reduce poverty. UN
Millennium Project, 2006
improper means which could result in serious complications and health-related issues. Some

women in the past and present times depend on abortion to terminate unplanned pregnancies.6

The occurrences of induced abortions are believed to be one-third just as death and births. This

has been a critical issue due to some debate surrounding its pregnancy termination.

One of the main controversies surrounding the termination of pregnancy is whether a

fetus can be considered as a human being. While some scholars have argued that a fetus is not

considered a full human being at the time of conception and therefore can be terminated, it is

only upon birth that the fetus is considered a full human being, others have argued that a fetus is

considered as a full human being at the time of conception and it is therefore not ethical to

destroy it.7 Proponents who support the termination of pregnancy at the time of conception have

further argued that it is against the human right, will, and dignity of societies to constrain women

to retain their pregnancy. The “pro-choice” hold unto their argument that women should be given

the freedom to decide whether to abort their pregnancy or retain it. Therefore, abortion should

be legal. They claim that since the fetus is part of the woman’s body and not separated, she has

the sole right to decide what to do with her body.

However, the pro-life assertion refutes those claims because they view the fetus also has

the right to life and abortion denies this liberty.8 According to Fred, the issue of abortion has

been seen as “a condensational symbol involving questions of moral theology, human rights,

gender roles and sexual morality.”9

6
J.R. Simon. Abortion: Statutes, policies and public attitudes the world over (Connecticut: Greenwood
Publishing,1998)
7
M. Head. Pro-choice versus pro-life view. Accessed on 11th November, 2009. From
http://www.about.com
8
L. Alexander., J. Larosa., H. Bader., & S. Garfield, S. (2007). The abortion decision: reasons and
ambivalence. New Dimensions in Women’s Health. (5th ed.) Massachusetts (U.S.A: Jones and Bartlett
publishers, 2007)
9
M. Fried. The politics of abortion: A note. Indian Journal of Gender Studies. 13 (2), 2006, 18-19. ©
University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui
 In Africa, while some cultures have accepted the practice to abort unwanted pregnancies,

other cultures forbid the termination of such pregnancies because they believe such acts are very

strange in the African culture and should be avoided. Sai asserts that anecdotal evidence

indicates that abortion was regarded as vital in many traditional African societies for the

maintenance of law and order.10 He noted that in the Masai clan in Kenya, unmarried women

who get pregnant or those being raped were considered unacceptable behavior in society and

therefore should be terminated. Bram and Hessini opine that anthropological and historical

studies from pre-colonial Africa show that abortion was tolerated.11

In my country, Ghana, due to the religious, cultural, and ethical aspects, induced(physical)

abortion brings forth a lot of debate or discussion of opposing views. To some ethnic groups,

abortion is similar to death, and therefore if a person finds herself in that act people look at such

a person in a despised manner. For example, Among the “Akan” ethnic group, abortion is seen as

an evil act and it came about by witches and other powerful forces on their adversaries.12 Induced

abortion in the Akan clan did not exist, because the thought of having a child or children with a

person to whom one is not married was not in existence and they also desire a large family size.

It is looked at again in a secret manner and seen as “the most clandestine method.”13 Regarding

the law on abortion in Ghana, it is seen as an offense and illegal. The criminal code of 1960 ruled

by act 29 section 58 says that if a person assists or gives any harmful substances or uses any

instrument or other means to perform an abortion on a woman, such a person would be

imprisoned for not more than five years. The only exemption to the law is when there is a risk

10
F. Sai. International commitments and guidance on unsafe abortion. African Journal of Reproductive
Health. 8 (1), 2004, 16-18.
11
T. Braam, T. & L. Hessini. (2004). The power dynamics perpetuating unsafe abortion in Africa: A
feminist perspective. African Journal of Reproductive. 8 (1),2004, 43-51.
12
W. Bleek. Induced Abortion in a Ghanaian Family. .African Studies Review. 21 (1), 1978, 103-120
13
W. Bleek. Induced Abortion in a Ghanaian Family. .African Studies Review. 21 (1), 1978, 103-120
concerning a woman’s pregnancy to the extent of endangering her life or if the child would

suffer from abnormal development and pregnancy from rape, incest, or defilement of a mentally

challenged woman. The reason why abortion is not permitted in Ghana unless some exceptions

are because of the kind of series of complications that women go through. Women who go

through unsafe abortions suffer from health problems, cervix tearing, uterus infections, and

sometimes barrenness. It is approximated that between 10 and 50 percent of these women will

need medical attention.14 It is estimated that over five million women across the world suffer

some complications due to abortion and are hospitalized and out of that 1.7 million are

Africans.15 In the gynecological wards of most hospitals in Ghana, health workers are being

burdened by women wanting to be treated due to abortion-related complications.

Although there has been a law that prohibits abortion in Ghana, the problem still persists.

But it can be prevented or reduced if women are educated on the dangers of abortion by religious

leaders, health workers, parents, teachers, and security services to deal with people who abuse

women sexually. Due to this, the researcher would like to examine some of the factors,

consequences, the Christian perspective, and some possible ways to reduce or prevent abortion in

Ghana and include some of the ethical theories in relation to the above-mentioned.

Factors accounting for abortion

One of the factors that account for abortion in Ghana is pregnancy resulting from rape.

Most women who are victims of rape get pregnant in such an incident. Since these women get

pregnant without their will or consent, they become extremely traumatized and as a result, would

not be able to show their unborn child maternal love and care. Some of the women permanently
14
C.E. Hord., J. Benson., J.L. Potts, D.L & Billings. Unsafe abortions in Africa: an overview and
recommendations for action. (New York: Guttmacher Institute, 2006)
15
Guttmacher Institute. The high cost of unsafe abortion. Accessed on 13th September, 2008. From
http://www.guttmacher.org.
become traumatized, stigmatized, and even caring the pregnancy to the end, it is possible both

the mother and the child can suffer certain complications. Those who decide to give birth

sometimes recall such traumatization at every moment in their life when seeing the child every

day. In other to avoid all these problems, abortion becomes an alternative to reduce the pain or

the trauma. Applying the principle of deontology, although abortion is illegal in Ghana, there are

cases in which the law permits it or gives exemptions and rape is one of them. Therefore, if

actions are right or wrong based on the moral principle which is the law, then abortion could be

justified in this case. Also, applying the situation ethics in this case, abortion could be justified

since aborting the unborn child could reduce the pain that such women would go through if the

child should be born.

Again, “therapeutic abortion” is one of the factors. Therapeutic abortion is when a

physician suspects that a pregnant woman or her child could have some health problems during

the time of delivery. There are certain occasions where the mother’s life would be in danger if

the unborn child is supposed to be alive or the child could have some deformities if given birth.

In other for the mother or the family to avoid these problems or harm, abortion becomes a tool in

such a case. This is because the mother or the family would not want to spend more money on a

deformed child and also on the preservation of the mother’s life. In applying deontology and

situational ethics, abortion could be justified here since the law permits it in such cases, and

allowing the child to be alive would cause more harm than good. There are some other factors

that are not permitted by the law of Ghana. These are financial constraints, not using

contraceptives, contraceptive failure, and unplanned pregnancy. In applying deontology to these

factors, abortion cannot be justified because the law does not permit these factors because it is

regarded as morally wrong.

Consequences of abortion

According to the world health organization, abortion does not only affect the lives of

individuals but sometimes family members as well since it has both social and medical

problems.16 Women engaged in abortion become affected physically, mentally, economically,

and socially. Some of them even lose their lives sometimes. In some parts of the less industrialized

world, up to 50 percent of hospital budgets for obstetrics and gynecology are spent treating

complications of abortion.17 Women are not the only people who get affected when it comes to

issues regarding abortion. Children, societies, and countries get affected in many ways. When a

woman dies, children lose their primary caregiver, families lose her nurturing and productivity,

communities are denied of her paid and unpaid labor, and countries forego her contributions to

economic and social development.18 The financial resource of the country gets drained due to

treatment used in unsafe abortion complications. For example, the average Nigerian woman

reported having spent 10,933 naira in treating abortion-related complications.19 Some scholars

have argued that in spite of all that women go through during abortion, there are some cases

where abortion is not permitted, the consequences could be greater. For example, in cases of a

woman pregnant as a result of rape or a pregnant woman whose life would be in danger if her

baby’s life is to be spared or the child being born could suffer from certain deformities. In these

examples mentioned, if abortion is not permitted, the psychological, financial problems and

emotional trauma that these women could go through can be greater. If we reason according to

the principles of utilitarianism, the action that can produce the greatest happiness for the greatest

16
World Health Organisation. Abortion. (Geneva: World Health Organisation, 1990)
17
A.D. Grimes, J., Benson, S., Singh, M., Romero, B., Ganatra, F.E. Okonofua, & I.H Shah, I. H. Unsafe
abortion: The preventable pandemic. The lancet. 368 (2006), 1908-1919
18
Ibid
19
A. Bankole., S. Singh, &T Haas . Reasons why Women have Induced Abortions: Evidence from 27
Countries. International Family Planning Perspective. 24 (1998), 127-128. Accessed on 4th March 2009.
number and less pain could be considered the right action. In this case, the act that would be

considered as less painful or produces fewer consequences could be considered the right action.

On this note, I would like to examine the Christian perspective of abortion in Ghana, since

Christians are about 71 percent of the population.

Christians’ perspective on abortion in Ghana.

According to the 2010 Census, the following statistics show the respective religious

affiliation of Ghanaians: Christians 71.1%; Muslims 17.6%; No religion 5.3%; Traditionalists

5.2%; others 0.8%.20 Early Church theologians generally allowed abortion before the first three

months after which it was believed the soul entered the fetus hence it was morally wrong to

destroy it.21 The catholic church was the earliest to arrange churchly legislation on abortion

issues. The church’s decision was that when a fetus is within forty days of conception, thus for

males and females eight days, then abortion is accepted but after hand it was murder. This decree

was a principle for the church until 1930 it was dissolved by Pope Pius IX. Pope Pius stated that

abortion is illegal, thus whether the fetus is within forty days or eight days. Therefore, if anyone

is found guilty, that person would be excommunicated from the church.22 Some scholars have

argued that this decree became the foundation for the formulation of laws on issues pertaining to

abortion. Most denominations, especially the protestant churches have not yet taken a firm

decision on abortion, and others see it as essential especially when the mother’s life is in

danger.23 The assemblies of God and Lutheran churches are in favor of the prolife theory on

20
Ghana Statistical Service. Population & Housing Census. Summary Report of Final Results. (Accra: A
Publication of the Ghana Statistical Service - Sakoa Press Limited, 2010), p. 40.
21
J.R. Simon., Abortion: Statutes, policies and public attitudes the world over. (Connecticut: Greenwood
Publishing, 1998)
22
Abortion Rights Centre. History of abortion laws in the UK. http://www.abortionrights.org.uk.
Accessed on 20th November 2012.
23
M. Head., Pro-choice versus pro-life view. Accessed on 11th November 2009. From
http://www.about.com.
abortion, however, in the case of rape, the health risk of a mother, and incest, they have different

opinions on whether abortion is important or not. In the Methodist church, the issue of abortion

has been left in the hands of individuals or couples to decide on what to do after they have gone

through pastoral counseling. In the Adventist church, abortion is allowed only in the case where

the mother’s life is at risk or some deformities are likely to occur to the fetus and in cases of

rape. The presbyterian church of Ghana does not support abortion because they believe the fetus

is a human being who is in the process of being created by God.

Possible ways to reduce or prevent abortion in Ghana

Abortion is a sensitive issue because it does not only affect women but society and

nations as well. Most women in Ghana would like to produce children after marriage because it

is seen as an acceptable way in society and advantageous. Children born before marriage have

been portrayed by society as immoral acts or non-ethical. In Ghana, marriage occurs very early,

from the age of 20- 24, thus, one in four women.24 Almost 40% of women and 26% of men

engage in sexual intercourse, especially during their 18th birthday and the use of contraceptives

are higher in men than women.25 Apart from financial issues and continuation of education, the

desire for these women to terminate an unplanned pregnancy is very high because they want to

produce children only after marriage and the only way to do that is to engage in abortion

illegally. As I said early on, in Ghana, abortion is illegal according to the constitution.

However, it is only permitted in an exceptional cases like rape, a pregnant woman’s life

at risk, or fetus deformity and incest. In view of this, what are some of the measures we can put

in place to prevent or reduce abortion including exceptional cases? What role can religious

24
Ghana Statistical Service, Ghana Health Service. Ghana Demographic and Health Survey. (Accra:
Ghana, 2008)
25
Ibid
leaders, health workers, security services, parents, and teachers play in reducing or preventing

abortion in Ghana? In the USA, some federal governments have imposed Abstinence-Until-

Marriage Education programs on their citizens.26

On the part of parents, they should be educated by counselors or sex educators on how to

teach their children or what to tell them when they are in their adolescence stage. This is because

most parents find it very tedious to engage their adolescent children on sexuality issues because

they feel those discussions belong to adults. Parents have the duty to counsel adolescent

children, especially young girls on how to deal with sexual behavior by educating them on what

to do to avoid immoral sexual behavior.27

Teachers in various institutions should also take responsibility to educate their students

about sexuality problems. I believe students most times pay more attention to their teachers than

their parents because they feel they have been trained in such fields and they have in debt

knowledge on such issues. Therefore, teachers must take advantage of this opportunity to address

sexuality issues.

More so, health workers must also give proper education to pregnant women as to what

to do to keep the fetus safe in other to avoid any risk or complications when it is time for them to

deliver. For example, women who are pregnant must be advised to visit the hospital more often

and check the health and the development of the fetus so that if there is any problem it can be

addressed immediately before it gets out of hand. In my opinion, if this is done it can reduce or

prevent the mother or the fetus from any risks.

26
. Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS). Abstinence only sex
education: a reality check. The Educat Diges. 67(2):46–50
27
EA, Baku. Socio-cultural factors affecting parent-adolescent communication on sexuality in the Accra
Metropolis. Num Horiz. 2017;1(2):1–10
 Again, religious leaders like pastors and bishops must also give proper counseling to their

members and the public on sexuality problems. Most pastors sometimes find it very difficult to

address issues relating to sexuality, dating, parental guidance, and care of members’ needs.

Meanwhile, these issues are very sensitive to the church and society as a whole. Religious

leaders must not only look at the spiritual issues but also the physical issues as well. For

example, apart from the spiritual aspect that people face that sometimes the prayer of faith is

offered in such a situation, most pregnant women engage in sexual immorality or suffer certain

health risks when they are pregnant because of the inability to have proper medical care and

these happen as a result of financial constraints.

Lastly, security services must also ensure that the law is being enforced without any

discrimination on issues regarding rape. People who engage in such an atrocious act must be

dealt with by the law so that it can serve as a deterrent for others. Also, physicians who engage

in abortion without any reason or what the law does not permit must also be dealt with by law.

This is because some of these physicians engage in such acts not because of humanitarian

reasons but greediness in acquiring wealth.

Conclusion

Abortion has become a very sensitive issue around the world. This is because of its ethical

implications and how different theories are in favor or against whether a fetus is considered a

human being or not and to what extent can a fetus be considered a full human being. Thus, the

pro-life theory considers a fetus as a human being and his or her right must be protected while

the pro-choice considers the right of women first before the fetus. However, abortion can be

considered right or wrong depending on the situation at hand. And applying the various ethical

theories such as deontology, virtue, utilitarianism, and situational ethics would be considered as
morally right or wrong. In Ghana, abortion is illegal, but some exceptions are permitted, such as

rape, incest, or the risk to a mother’s life. Although it is illegal, the issue still persists because of

the factors or the reasons why women terminate their pregnancies and the consequences that

follow. In view of this, abortion can be reduced or prevented by various stakeholders such as

health workers, parents, teachers, religious leaders, and security services educating the public on

sex education, and giving advice to young ladies and women on what to do before they

encounter or face such problems.

REFERENCES
Abortion Rights Centre. History of abortion laws in the UK. http://www.abortionrights.org.uk.
Accessed on 20th November 2012.
Alexander.L., J. Larosa. J., Bader.H., & Garfield, S. The abortion decision: reasons and
ambivalence. New Dimensions in Women’s Health. (5th ed.) Massachusetts (U.S.A:
Jones and Bartlett publishers, 2007)
Baku. EA., Socio-cultural factors affecting parent-adolescent communication on sexuality in the
Accra Metropolis. Num Horiz. 2017;1(2):1–10
Bankole. A., Singh. S., & Haas.T., Reasons why Women have Induced Abortions: Evidence
from 27 Countries. International Family Planning Perspective. 24 (1998), 127-128.
Accessed on 4th March 2009.
Bleek. W., induced Abortion in a Ghanaian Family. .African Studies Review. 21 (1), 1978, 103-
120
Bleek. W., Induced Abortion in a Ghanaian Family. .African Studies Review. 21 (1), 1978, 103-
120
Braam, T. & Hessini. L., (2004). The power dynamics perpetuating unsafe abortion in Africa: A
feminist perspective. African Journal of Reproductive. 8 (1),2004, 43-51.
Crane. B., & Hord-Smith.C., Safe abortion: An essential strategy for achieving the millennium
development goals to improve maternal health, promote gender equality and reduce
poverty. UN Millennium Project, 2006
Fried. M., The politics of abortion: A note. Indian Journal of Gender Studies. 13 (2), 2006, 18-
19. © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui
Ghana Statistical Service, Ghana Health Service. Ghana Demographic and Health Survey.
(Accra: Ghana, 2008)
Ghana Statistical Service. Population & Housing Census. Summary Report of Final Results.
(Accra: A Publication of the Ghana Statistical Service - Sakoa Press Limited, 2010), p.
40.
Grimes. A.D., Benson. J., Singh. S., Romero. M., Ganatra. B., Okonofua. F.E., & Shah, I. H.
Unsafe abortion: The preventable pandemic. The lancet. 368 (2006), 1908-1919
Guttmacher Institute. The high cost of unsafe abortion. Accessed on 13th September, 2008. From
http://www.guttmacher.org.
Head. M., Pro-choice versus pro-life view. Accessed on 11th November, 2009. From
http://www.about.com
Head. M., Pro-choice versus pro-life view. Accessed on 11th November 2009. From
http://www.about.com.
Hord. C.E., Benson. J., Potts. J.L., & Billings. D.L., Unsafe abortions in Africa: an overview
and recommendations for action. (New York: Guttmacher Institute, 2006)
Ibid
Ibid
Macpherson. G., Black’s Medical Dictionary London: (AC & Black Publishers Limited,2002)
Sai. F., International commitments and guidance on unsafe abortion. African Journal of
Reproductive Health. 8 (1), 2004, 16-18.
Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS). Abstinence only
sex education: a reality check. The Educat Diges. 67(2):46–50
Simon. J.R., Abortion: Statutes, policies and public attitudes the world over (Connecticut:
Greenwood Publishing,1998)
Simon., J.R., Abortion: Statutes, policies and public attitudes the world over. (Connecticut:
Greenwood Publishing, 1998)
World Health Organisation. Abortion. (Geneva: World Health Organisation, 1990)
World Health Organisation. Complications of abortions: Technical and managerial guidelines
for prevention and treatment (Geneva: World Health Organisation,1995)
World Health organisation. Educational material for teachers of midwifery:Midwifery education
modules (2ed)( Geneva : World Health Organisation,2008)
World Health Organisation. Educational material for teachers of midwifery: Midwifery
education modules (2ed)( Geneva : World Health Organisation,2008)