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REPRODUCTION
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Reproduction
Reproduction may be defined as the biological process by which organisms give rise to their own kind.
Reproduction may occur in two ways:
• — Asexual reproduction: is reproduction in which new individuals
are produced from a single parent.

• — Sexual reproduction: is reproduction in which two individuals are

involved to produce a new individual.

Asexual Reproduction:

Fission:
Fission is an asexual reproduction by which a unicellular organism
divides and forms two or more new individuals. Fission is of two types
i) Binary fission :- In this method an organism divides and forms two
individuals. First the nucleus divides and forms two nuclei. Then the
cytoplasm divides and forms two daughter cells. Eg:- Amoeba,
Paramaecium etc.
ii) Multiple fission :- In this method one organism divides into many daughter cells. Eg. Plasmodium
(Malarial parasite).

Budding:
In this method a bud like
projection is formed on the
body of the organism. The
bud then develops into a
new individual.
It then separates from the
parent and forms an
independent individual. Eg:-
Hydra, Yeast etc.

Regeneration:
In this method a part of the body if the organism if cut or
broken can develop into a new individual. Eg :- Hydra,
Planaria, Star fish etc.

Spore formation
In this method structures called sporangia produce tiny cells
called spores. When the spores come in contact with a moist
surface, it develops into new individuals.
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Eg :- Rhizopus , Mucor, Penicillium

etc.
Vegetative Propagation:

In this method new plants are

produced from the vegetative parts
of the plant like root, stem or leaf.
Eg:- from roots – dhalia, sweet
potato, from stem – potato,
ginger, from leaf –
bryophyllum, begonia.

Plants produced by vegetative

propagation produce flowers
and fruits earlier than those
produced from seeds. It also
helps in the propagation of
plants which do not produce
seeds like rose, jasmine banana
etc.

Vegetative propagation can also be done artificially by cutting, layering, grafting etc.

Sexual reproduction in Plants

Reproductive parts of a flower:
The reproductive organ of flowering plants is the flower:
Stamens (Androecium) which produce pollen are the male part. Pollen grains contains male sex cells.
There may be several stamens in each flower. Each stamen (Androecium) has two parts. The upper part is
known as anther which bears pollen. It is held on the lower part called filament.

Reproductive parts of a flower:

The pistil (Gynoecium) is the female part, and its
basal part is the ovary carrying eggs or ovules or
female sex cells. The parts of the pistil are the
stigma, style and ovary.
In most plants, each flower bears both male and
female parts. They are termed bisexual. In some
plants there are male flowers with only
androecium and female flowers bearing only
gynoecium. They are unisexual.
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Pollination:
The transfer of
pollen grains
from the
anther to the
stigma of a
flower is called
pollination. It
takes place by
wind, water or
insects. If the
pollen grains
are transferred
from the
anther to the
stigma of the
same flower it
is self pollination and if it is transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower it is
cross pollination. Pollination takes place by insects, wind, water etc.
Fertilization:
• After the pollen grain is transferred to the stigma it produces a pollen tube which passes through the
style and enters the ovary and ovule. In the ovule the male germ cell (male gamete) fuses with the
female germ cell (female gamete) to form a zygote. This process is called fertilisation.
• After fertilisation the zygote divides several times and forms the embryo which then develops into the
seed and the ovary develops into the fruit.
• Double fertilization involves two sperm cells; one fertilizes the egg cell to form the zygote, while the
other fuses with the two polar nuclei that form the endosperm.
• After fertilization, the fertilized ovule forms the seed while the tissues of the ovary become the fruit.
• In the first stage of embryonic development, the zygote divides to form two cells; one will develop
into a suspensor, while the other gives rise to a proembryo.
• In the second stage of embryonic development (in eudicots), the developing embryo has a heart
shape due to the presence of cotyledons.
• As the embryo grows, it begins to bend as it fills the seed; at this point, the seed is ready for dispersal.
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Sexual reproduction in Animals

• In all animals, the female produces eggs and the male produces sperms.
• An egg and a sperm fuse to form the zygote which then develops into the embryo and the embryo
into a full-fledged individual.
• The development may occur partially or completely, inside the egg. Such animals that lay eggs include
fish, frog, reptiles and birds and are thus called oviparous.
• In mammals such as cats, dogs, cows and humans, the baby develops inside the mother’s womb. They
are Termed viviparous.
• In tapeworms and earthworms both female and male sex organs are in the same individual. Such
individuals are termed hermaphrodite.

Male reproductive system:

• The male reproductive system consists of a pair of
testes which produces the male reproductive cells
called sperms and the hormone testosterone.
• It is contained in sac like structures called scrotum.
From each testis arises a tube called vas deferens.
It joins into the urethra.
• The urethra is enclosed in a muscular organ called
penis. It has an opening called genital pore.
• The seminal vesicles and prostate glands produce
fluids which provide nutrition and help in the
movement of the sperms.

• The process of spermatogenesis takes place in the

seminiferous tubules.

• The Sertoli cells are the supporting cells and provide nutrients to the developing sperms.

• The Leydig cells are polyhedral in shape and lie between the seminiferous tubules and secrete
testosterone. It initiates the process of spermatogenesis.

Female reproductive system :

• The female
reproductive
system consists
of a pair of
ovaries which
produces the
female
reproductive
cells called ova
or eggs and the
hormone
oestrogen.
• Above the ovaries are tubes called oviducts or fallopian tubes. The two oviducts unite into a bag like
structure called uterus. The uterus has opening called vagina.
• Each ovary is a compact structure consisting of an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
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• The cortex is composed of a network of connective tissue called as stroma and is lined by the
germinal epithelium.
• The epithelial cells called the granulosa cells surround each ovum in the ovary together forming the
primary follicle.
• As the egg grows larger, the follicle also enlarges and gets filled with the fluid and is called the
Graafian follicle.
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• The figure (a) and (b) are the human gametes,sperm, the male gametegenerated in the testis
(spermatogenesis) and egg or ovum, the female gamete produced in the ovary through the process of
oogenesis.
• The nuclei of sperm and egg fuse inside the egg, forming the zygote. This fusion is termed fertilisation
and takes place in the fallopian tube (the oviduct). (c).
• The fertilised egg or zygote begins to divide repeatedly and upon reaching a stage containing cells and
a cavity called blastocoel, gets embedded (e) in the thickened uterine wall in which many blood
capillaries have formed.
• In case fertilisation does not occur the egg disintegrates. The thickened wall of uterus along with
capillaries breakdown leading to bleeding or menstrual flow (menstruation). In human female
menstruation occurs every 28 to 30 days
• The embryo, now called foetus develops (f) and (g) into a full fledged individual in 280 days inside the
uterus and is born under the influence of a hormone from posterior pituitary, called oxytocin.