He 416 Hydropower Engg I Lecture Notepdf PDF Free

Arbaminch University, Department of Hydraulic Eng’g
HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING I
LECTURE NOTE
COMPILED BY:
LECTURER IN HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
ARBA MINCH WATER TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE
ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY
HE-432: Hydropower Engineering-I Lecture Note/2008/2009/Fikadu & Abdela 1

TABLE OF CONTENT FOR HE-432: HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING-I

1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................... 4
1.1. SOURCES OF ENERGY ............................................................................................................. 4
1.2. CURRENT AND POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ENERGY FROM ETHIOPIAN CONTEXT ....................... 4
1.3. ENERGY RESOURCES UTILIZATION ......................................................................................... 5
1.4. ENERGY RESOURCES UTILIZATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ....................................5
1.5. EFFORTS MADE TO TACKLE THE PROBLEM ASSOCIATED WITH ENERGY RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION .........................................................................................................6
1.6. HYDROPOWER STATUS IN THE WORLD ................................................................................... 6
1.7. HYDROPOWER POTENTIAL AND STATUS IN ETHIOPIA ............................................................. 7
1.8. ACHIEVEMENTS IN HYDROPOWER.......................................................................................... 8
1.9. WATER AND ENERGY SECTOR POLICIES ................................................................................ 9
1.10. POWER SECTOR REFORM ..................................................................................................... 10
1.11. CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES ...................................................................................... 10
1.12. MERITS AND DEMERITS OF HYDROPOWER ........................................................................... 12
1.13. SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENTS ................................................................................................ 12
2 DEVELOPMENT AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PLANT 14
2.1 LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENTS ......................................................................... 14
2.2 HYDRAULICS OF HYDROPOWER ........................................................................................... 17
2.2.1 Energy-Work Approach: 17
2.2.2 Bernoulli’s Energy Equation Approach: 19
2.2.3 Kinetic Theory: 20
2.3 HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS FOR HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT ........................................... 23
2.3.1 Flow duration studies .............................................................................24
2.3.2 Extrapolation of flow duration data to ungauged sites ............................ 25
2.3.3 Determination of average annual discharge ...........................................26
2.4 ESTIMATION OF HYDROPOWER POTENTIALS OF A RIVER/SITE .............................................. 29
2.4.1 Water Pressure or ‘Head’ .......................................................................31
2.4.2 Residual, reserved or compensation flow ...............................................32
2.4.3 Tail water Relationships .........................................................................33
2.4.4 Area Capacity Curves ............................................................................33
2.4.5 Reservoir Rule Curves ...........................................................................34
2.4.6 Evaporation Loss Evaluation ..................................................................34
2.4.7 Spillway Design Flood Analysis .............................................................. 34
2.4.8 Estimation of plant capacity and energy output ......................................34
2.5 FIRM AND SECONDARY POWER ............................................................................................ 36
2.5.1 Firm Power............................................................................................. 38
2.6 LOAD PREDICTIONS AND DEMAND ASSESSMENT ................................................................. 39
2.6.1 Power Market......................................................................................... 39
2.6.2 Supply system:....................................................................................... 39
2.6.3 Energy conservation: .............................................................................40
2.6.4 Load Prediction ...................................................................................... 41
2.7 TUTORIAL PROBLEM SET-1 .................................................................................................. 44
3 CLASSIFICATION AND SITE CONFIGURATIONS OF HYDROPOWER
DEVELOPMENT ...........................................................................................................51
3.1 CLASSIFICATION AND BASIS ................................................................................................. 51
3.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON HYDRAULIC FEATURES.............................................................. 51
3.3 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ACTUAL OPERATION IN MEETING THE DEMAND......................... 51
3.4 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PLANT CAPACITY ...................................................................... 52
3.5 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON HEAD ........................................................................................ 52
3.6 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES (LAYOUTS) ................................. 53
3.6.1 Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants) ...................................53
3.6.2 Valley dam plants (medium to high head plants) ....................................53
3.6.3 Diversion canal plant ..............................................................................54
3.6.4 High head diversion plants .....................................................................55
3.6.5 Pumped Storage Plant ...........................................................................56
3.6.6 Storage and Pondage ............................................................................57

3.6.7 Reservoir (storage) capacity ..................................................................57

3.7 PLANT CAPACITY DETERMINATION ...................................................................................... 58
3.7.1 Limits of use of turbine types..................................................................59
3.7.2 Determination of number of units ........................................................... 59
3.7.3 Selection of Most Economical Units ....................................................... 60
3.8 TUTORIAL PROBLEM SET-2 .................................................................................................. 64
4 WATER PASSAGES ............................................................................................. 66
4.1 INTAKE STRUCTURES ........................................................................................................... 66
4.2 FUNCTIONS OF INTAKES ....................................................................................................... 66
4.3 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF INTAKES:.............................................................................. 66
4.4 CONVENTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF INTAKES ..................................................................... 67
4.5 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION AND LOCATION OF INTAKE SITES ...................................... 71
4.6 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................... 75
4.6.1 Trash racks and Skimmers.....................................................................75
4.7 LOSSES IN INTAKES .............................................................................................................. 77
4.8 AIR ENTRAINMENT AND VORTEX FORMATION AT INTAKES ................................................. 78
4.9 INLET AERATION .................................................................................................................. 79
4.10 SETTLING BASINS................................................................................................................. 80
4.11 Design of Settling Basins .......................................................................81
4.11.1 Design neglecting the effect of turbulence (simple settling theory): ........83
4.11.2 Design considering the effect of turbulence:...........................................84
4.11.3 Removal of Sediments from Settling Basins...........................................85
4.12 GATES AND VALVES ............................................................................................................. 86
4.13 HEAD RACE.......................................................................................................................... 86
4.13.1 Canals....................................................................................................86
4.13.2 Canal Lining ........................................................................................... 87
4.13.3 Design and dimensioning .......................................................................88
4.13.4 Tunnels ..................................................................................................90
4.13.5 Tunnel Design Features .........................................................................92
4.14 FOREBAYS ............................................................................................................................ 94
4.14.1 Functions of a Forebay...........................................................................94
4.14.2 Components of a Forebay ......................................................................95
4.14.3 Design Guidelines for a forebay ............................................................. 95
4.15 SURGE TANKS ...................................................................................................................... 96
4.16 PENSTOCK ........................................................................................................................ 96
4.16.1 Classification of penstock.......................................................................97
4.16.2 Hydraulic design of penstock..................................................................98
4.16.3 Economical Diameter of Penstock (D).................................................... 99
4.16.4 Structural Analysis of the Penstock ........................................................ 99
4.16.5 Penstock Joints .................................................................................... 101
4.16.6 Penstock Supports and Anchors .......................................................... 102
4.16.7 Penstock Valves................................................................................... 104

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Sources of Energy

Sources of energy can be categorized as renewable and non-renewable.
Sources of energy that are renewable include solar, biomass, hydropower and
wind energies. Energy sources such as petroleum, coal, natural gas and the
like are categorized as non-renewable. The following two major sources of
power generation may also be identified as conventional energy sources and
unconventional energy sources on the basis of present day importance:
a) Conventional sources
i) Thermal power
ii) Hydropower
iii) Thermo-nuclear power
b) Unconventional sources
iv) Tidal power
v) Solar power
vi) Geothermal power
vii) Wind power
viii) Wave power
ix) Depression (solar) power
1.2. Current and potential Sources of Energy from Ethiopian Context

Most of the domestic energy needs in Ethiopia are met from renewable bio-
fuels. In 1994, the total amount of energy consumed in the country was
698.84 Terra Joules, out of which 95.1 percent was covered by bio-fuels. The
share of energy generated from petroleum and electricity was only 4.3 percent
and 0.60 percent respectively.
The total annual hydropower potential of Ethiopia is estimated at about 650

TW, of which 25 percent can be directly used as energy supply.
The deposits of natural gas and geothermal resources in Ethiopia are

estimated in the order of 30-50 billion m3 and 700 MW respectively. Other
sources of energy such as coal and oil shale are estimated at several millions
tones, all of which could be used for power generation. In the area of
alternative renewable energy resources, the country is noted to have potential
of about 2.3 TWH of solar and 4.8 million terra calories of wind power.
Wind energy source vary from place to place in Ethiopia, on average the wind
speed is about 4.7 m/sec. Studies indicate that the country’s average solar
energy is in the order of 5.26 KWh/m2. This figure, however, varies seasonally
from a high of 5.26 KWh/m2 to a low of 4.55 KWh/m2. Apart from some
ongoing initiatives to exploit solar energy for rural telecommunication services,
nothing substantial has been done to date in this regard.
Regarding sources of biomass energy, the potential of the country is

estimated at about 14 million terra calories, out of which one million terra
calorie of energy can be produced annually. Out of this, the share of forest

products, animal dung and crop residue is 79 percent, 13 percent and 8

percent respectively.
1.3. Energy resources utilization
Much of energy needs of the country (77%) is met from fuel wood, while
animal dung, crop residues, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), coal, hydropower,
petroleum and oil cover 7.7 percent, 8.7 percent, 0.06 percent, 1.55 percent, 1
percent and 4.8 percent of the energy requirements of the country,
respectively. This shows that 95 percent of the energy consumed in the
country originates from biomass energy sources.
Table 1.1: Predicted Energy Demands by sources (2005 and 2010)
2005 2010 Annual Average

Energy Source Terra Joule % Terra Joule % Growth (%)
Bio-mass 862,552 91.0 974,464 88.5 2.6
Fuel wood 47,986 53,932 2.5
Coal 805 1,113 6.4
Crop residue 4,755 5,316 2.4
Dung 5,340 5,988 2.4
Petroleum 76,514 8.1 113,859 10.3 8.7
Electricity 9,132 1.0 13,365 1.2 7.9
Total 948,198 100 1,101,688 100 3.0
The above figures suggest that energy derived from biomass may be
expected to fall slightly, while energy consumption from electricity and
petroleum may increase.
1.4. Energy resources utilization and environmental problems
Although the country is known to have the potential to produce substantial

amounts of energy from its various sources, currently most of the energy
consumed comes from biomass. As a result:
• The water holding capacity of catchments and reservoirs is decreasing

rapidly due to increased soil degradation and consequent siltation and as
a result the pressure on hydropower energy source utilization is increasing
• The heavy dependence on biomass resources such as animal dung for
energy supplies is leading to situation where soils are being deprived of
natural soil conditioners essential for maintaining soil fertility
The fact that the income of the majority of the population is too low to use
alternative energy sources has led to heavy dependence on biomass
resources, which are, as a result, being depleted fast.
Apart from the environmental problems mentioned above, there are other
factors that directly affect the energy resources utilization in the country.
These are:
• Inefficient in energy utilization which results in a high degree of energy
resources wastage in the country
• Lack of capacity to effectively develop the country’s energy resources

such as hydropower, solar and other renewable energy sources
• The fact that climate change is causing erratic rainfall, both in amount and
distribution and consequent fluctuations in hydropower energy supply in
the country
1.5. Efforts made to tackle the problem associated with energy

resources development and utilization
The following are the major efforts that have been made to undertake the
problems associated with the poor development of the energy resources of
the country.
• A national energy policy has been issued

• Even though insignificant compared to the vast potential, some attempts to
utilize renewable energy resources have been made
• Some steps to promote charcoal and other biomass energy efficient
cooking stoves have been taken
• An investment code that encourages the involvement of the private sector
in energy generation has been prepared
• Survey, design and construction are being done to develop the country’s
enormous hydropower potential
• There are ongoing initiatives in the agricultural sector designed to
encourage the participation of rural communities in the development of
forest for firewood
• In order to enhance energy development for rural areas, a Rural Energy
Development Promotion Centre has been established as an independent
entity by the Federal Government and by some Regional States, and
• A Rural Electrification Fund has been established
Though the efforts made to tackle the problems related to energy resources
utilization so far are commendable, there is need to do much more in view of
the magnitude of the pressures exerted on the environment generally and on
forest and other biomass resources in particular.
1.6. Hydropower status in the World

The status of hydropower with respect to the total power generation varies
considerably from country to country. Developing countries need affordable
energy to:
• increase agricultural productivity;
• deliver basic educational and medical services;
• establish adequate water supply and sanitation facilities, and
• build and power new job-creating industries
Worldwide, only 15.2% of the technically possible hydroelectric energy was
developed by 1990. The following table gives hydroelectric generation in 1990.

Table 1.2: Hydroelectric Generation in 1990 (in TWh/year)

Continent Technical Generated in (2) as % of (1)
Potential (1) 1990 (2)
Africa 1344 50 3.7
Asia 4212 387 9.2
Australia/Oceania 203 38 18.7
Europe 836 483 57.8
North America 969 573 59.1
Latin America 3486 380 10.9
USSR 2950 223 7.6
World 14000 2134 15.2
According to UN estimates in 1981, the total world hydropower production will
have risen to 80% by year 2020. It seems that this target will not be achieved.
Hydropower is the most important source energy next to thermal power, and
about one quarter of the world's power requirement is at present derived in this
way.
1.7. Hydropower potential and status in Ethiopia

As a result of the country’s topography suitability and abundant river flows,
hydropower has been the cheapest and the main energy source in Ethiopia
for supplying energy for domestic, industrial and others energy consumptions.
exploitable potential is estimated to be about 30,000 MW. However, only less

than 3% is known to have been developed so far.
Table 1.3: Hydropower Potential in GWh of Ethiopia by Basin and Generation Type
Generation Type
With flow Small slope River plain Total
Basin Regulation plants plants
Awash 16,770 1,574 4,010 22,354
Tekezze 23,150 - 12,720 35,870
Blue Nile 221,930 8,197 51,017 281,144
Baro 58,700 2,553 18,050 79,303
Chamo 73,850 2,961 27,430 104,241
Bilate, segen and Dawa 47,050 1,910 - 48,960
Genale 31,500 2,641 11,360 45,501
Gistro 4,400 133 - 4,533
Wabi Shebelle 14,500 1,490 8,780 24,770
Total 491,850 21,459 133,367 646,676

Table 1.4: Total installed electricity generation capacity in 2005 (MW)
ICS (Inter Connected System) SCS (Self Contained System)

Hydro 628.76 95.5 Hydro 6.2 31
Diesel 22.5 3.4 Diesel 13.8 69
Geothermal 7.3 1.1 Geothermal 0 0
Total 658.56 100 Total 20 100
Table1.5: Electric power potential and actual production of the hydropower

generation plants
Power Actual Production in Billion KW/h
Station Production 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99
Koka 43.20 84.80 129.30 59.30 120.10
Soar (SCS) 5.00 10.50 11.50 11.99 11.30
Awash2 32.00 106.60 159.10 97.80 114.80
Awash 3 32.00 106.80 183.50 113.40 175.50
Denbi (SCS) 0.80 (0.71) 1.00 1.80 2.10 1.86
Fincha 100.00 771.10 624.40 843.30 671.50
Yadot (SCS) 0.35 0.84 0.88 0.79 0.95
Melka 153.00
Wakena 381.60 436.30 438.90 510.10
Tis Abay1 12.00 (11.5) 28.30 19.60 11.90 11.30
Tis Aby 2 73.00 - - - -
Gilgel Gibe 184.00 - - - -
Total 635.35 (634.76) 1,491.54 1,566.38 1,579.48 1,617.41
1.8. Achievements in Hydropower
The ICS consists of 8 hydro, 10 diesel and one geothermal power plants with
total installed capacity of 635.35 MW, 22.2 MW and 7.3 MW respectively.
However, due to aging of the plants the dependable total capacity is only
456.4 MW excluding the newly commissioned Gilgel Gibe hydroelectric power
plant and the peak demand is 391.15? MW. Over 98% of the total generation
in the country comes from the ICS and of the total (ICS and SCS) supply
system 99% is from hydro.
1950. The most important indicator is the progressive expansion of

hydroelectric system and the diminishing significance of thermal system. The
table below demonstrates the electric supply system growth indicators for
selected years. Future expansion of the supply system would be in the form of
extension of the hydro-electric grid and installation of diesel. The diesel option
will, however, be avoided as far as possible in the interest of cost reduction,
supply reliability and environmental concerns.
Table 1.6: EEPCO supply system growth indicators for selected years
Indicators 1956 1974 1984 1996 1999 2002

Installed Capacity (MW)
ICS-Predominantly hydro - 213.3 213.7 371 384 502
SCS-Predominantly diesel 9.7 35.6 35.6 38 41 20
Actual Generation (GWh)
ICS - 322 670 1495 1619 1976
SCS 33 61.5 83 53 32 33
Per capita Generation (ICS+SCS 1.6 11.6 17.7 26.3 26.7 31
(KWh/head))
Per capita Consumption (ICS+SCS - - - - - 25
(KWh/head))
Part of the population which has - - - - - 13.99%
access to electricity
Table 1.7: Hydropower Plants under construction and committed
Station name Installed Number of Dependable Scheduled

Capacity Units Capability Commissioning
(MW) (MW) date
Under Construction
Gilgel Gibe-II 425? 3? 425? 2007?
Tekeze 225 3 225 2006
Committed?? Suspended due to environmental Reason
Gojeb 102 2 102 2005?
1.9. Water and Energy Sector Policies

1.10. Power Sector Reform
1.11. Challenges and Opportunities

Despite the abundance of water resources, Ethiopia is facing considerable


hydropower development in Ethiopia.
1.12. Merits and Demerits of Hydropower

Hydropower has the following advantages over other sources:
i) Hydropower has a 'continuous' source of energy, while thermal power
has a depletable fossil fuel source. Besides hydropower doesn't
consume the water.
ii) Running cost of hydropower plant is very low compared to thermal
and nuclear plant.
iii) Hydropower plants can be brought in to operation in few minutes
while thermal & nuclear power plants lack this capability. Thus
hydropower plants are particularly useful in taking up short period
peak loads in a power grid system.
iv) Efficiency of hydropower system is very high (90-95%), while thermal
power plants have low efficiency, as low as 40%.
v) Hydropower development also provides secondary benefit such as
recreation, fishing, flood control etc, where storage is contemplated.
Some of the disadvantages of hydropower development are:
i) It is capital intensive & therefore rate of return is low.
ii) The development period is long. This period is low for thermal power
plants.
iii) Hydropower is dependent on natural flow of streams. Since this is
very variable the dependable or firm power is considerably low
compared to total capacity.
1.13. System of measurements

Derivation:
Energy can be described as potential for work, which may be withdrawn if
needed. The source for any kind of energy on earth is the sun. This is also
valid for nuclear and fossil fuel when taking into account the genesis of the
earth.
Table 1.8: Energy and Related Terms
Physical Term Unit
Force = mass x acceleration kg .m
2
= N (Newton)
s
= force x dis tan ce N.m = J (Joule
)
Work 
= power x time J
s = J = W.s
s
Energy = available potential to work J (Joule)
=W(Watt
)
kg.m m Joule
= work/ time . =
Power s2 s s
= forcex velocity
With the definition of power, one can state whether a defined energy reserve
is transformed slowly or fast: If the transformation is fast ( for instance burning
with open flame), the power is high; in case of slow transformation ( for
instance burning in living organism), the power is low despite an equal energy
credit.
Units:
As the different energy forms are convertible into each other, the energy can
be measured in the units of physical work. The previous heat units (such as
calorie, British Thermal Unit (BTU), etc.) do not, in their definition, refer to the
mechanical heat equivalent (detected through experiments by J.P Joule,
1818- 1889).
Table 1.9: Energy Units and Conversions
Unit Application Conversion

Joule Metric SI-unit 1 J = 1 watt-second
= 1 Newton meter (NM)
Kilowatt-hour Very common; disadvantage: 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 Ws
Energy
mixing up the time units = 3.6 x 106 J

second and hour
Calorie Obsolete 1 cal = 4.1868 J
Coal equivalent Obsolete 1 kg SKE = 29.3 x 106 J
British Thermal Non- metrical; used in the 1 Btu = 1 055 J
Unit (BTU) Anglo- American area. = 2. 93x10-4 kWh
Various Btu are in use
Which differ only slightly
Watt Metric SI-unit J m
1W = 1 =1 N
s s
Power
Horse power Obsolete 1 PS = 736 W

(metric)
Horse power 1 HP = 746 W
(English)
It is recommended to use the unit of SI.
Table 1.10 Internationally Recommended Prefixes for SI Units
Prefix symbol K M G T P E
Prefix Kilo Mega Giga Tera Peta Exa
Factor by which the 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018
unit is multiplied

2 DEVELOPMENT AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PLANT

2.1 Layout of hydropower developments
Various possibilities exist for the general layout of hydro scheme. The layout
of hydropower scheme should be done in order to have optimum layout and
which also gives minimum cost for implementation, maintenance and
operation.
A decision must be made with regards to the relative lengths of the penstock
and channel/tunnel, and how to route them.
Low head with channel Low head river barrage
High head with no channel High head with channel

Figure 2.1: General layouts for a hydro scheme

Powerhouse
Anchor
Penstock
Penstock
Support
Figure 2.2: The components of hydro scheme
A hydro scheme may include the following components:
• A dam/diversion weir
• An intake mouth
• Regulating structures
• Spillways
• Spillway drains
• A silt basin
• A channel/tunnel
• A forebay/surge chamber
• Channel crossings
• A penstock
• Penstock supports
• Penstock anchors
A number of essential factors must be borne in mind in the design of all these
components, and the design engineer should be able to list them.
System layout
Penstock pipe work is considerably more expensive than open channel work.
The basic rule in laying out a system is:
Keep the penstock as short as possible.

Figure 2.3: Channel and penstock options
Figure 2.4: Short penstock
Figure 2.5: Long Penstock following river

Figure 2.6: Mid-length penstock
2.2 Hydraulics of Hydropower

In considering hydraulic theory in hydropower engineering, it is important to
relate the concept of power to the fundamental variable of head and
discharge.
2.2.1 Energy-Work Approach:
Figure 2.7: Diagram for developing turbine theory

Referring to figure 2.7, if the elemental volume of water, designated dv,
moves from position 1 slightly below the headwater level to position 2 at the
surface of the tail water the exit to the draft tube, the work done is represented
by dw in the following equation:
Work = force X distance
dw = ρgdVh (2.1)
Where dw = work done by elemental mass of water

ρ = density of water
g = acceleration of gravity
dV = elemental volume
h = vertical distance moved by the elemental volume of water
The h has been purposely designated as slightly below the head water or
forebay level. It is conventional in hydropower computations to treat as the
effective head, i.e., the difference between energy head at the entrance to
the turbine and the energy head at the exit of draft tube, utilized in producing
power.
By observing the elements of figure 2.7, equation 2.1 represents the energy
that the water has at position 1 with respect to position 2.
If the elemental volume of water moves in some differential unit of time (dt),
the differential discharge (dq) of water can be noted as:
Discharge = volume per unit time

dV
dq = (2.2)
dt
The power extracted by the hydropower unit is the rate of doing work and can
be represented mathematically as follows:
work
Power = (2.3)
time
dW
dp =
dt
Where dp = elemental amount of power or, by substitution from equation (2.1)
gdVh
dp =
dt
or, by substitution for equation 2.2
gdqdth
dp = (2.4)
dt
Which reduces to:
dP = ρgdqh (2.5)
Summing the elemental power components of the total discharge passing
through the turbine gives the theoretical power equation for determining the
Power capacity of hydropower plants:
P = ρgQh (2.6)
WhereP = unit power capacity, Watt (W)
ρ = mass density of water (kg/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity, (m/s2)
h = effective head (m)
The foregoing equations are for theoretical conditions. The actual output is
diminished by the fact that the turbine has losses in transforming the potential
and kinetic energy in to mechanical energy. Thus an efficiency term (η),

usually called overall efficiency, must be introduced to give the standard
power equation:
P = ηρgQh (2.7)
2.2.2 Bernoulli’s Energy Equation Approach:
A second approach to basic hydraulic theory of hydropower engineering is the

mathematical development in terms of energy grade line and hydraulic grade
lines, using the Bernoulli equation. The Bernoulli equation is related to the
energy grade line, hydraulic grade line, and the position grade lines as shown
in figure 2.8 and by the equation:
V1 2 P V 2 P2
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + Z 2 = cons tan t (2.8)
2g  2g 
WhereV1, V2, V3 = water velocity at points 1, 2 and 3
P1, P2, P3 = pressure at points 1, 2 and 3
γ = ρg = specific weight of water
Z1, Z1, Z1 = potential head at points 1, 2 and 3 referenced to the datum
hf = head loss in flow passage between points 1 and 2
h = effective head on turbine
Figure 2.8: Bernoulli diagram relating energy grade lines and hydraulic grade
line
Mathematically, the Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the component
energies (Position energy, pressure energy, and kinetic energy) is constant in
a confined moving fluid as the fluid moves along its path. Thus a change in
any one of the components energies at any point along the path of the moving
fluid must be compensated for any an equal change of the water energy
components at that point.
Referring to figure 2.9, the practical sense of Bernoulli equation for a
hydropower installation is first written between point 1 at the surface of the
forebay and point 2 at the entrance to the turbine as:
V1 2 P V 2 P2
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + Z2 + hf (2.9)
2g  2g 
Then the Bernoulli equation is written between 2 and 3, the surface of the
waater at the exit to the draft tube:
V2 2 P V 2 P3
+ 2 + Z2 = 3 + Z3 + h (2.10)
2g  2g 
Recognizing that for practical purposes, V 1, P1, and P3 are equal to zero, then
P2
solving for in (2.9), the result is

p2 V2 2
= Z1 − − Z2 − hf (2.11)
 2g
Next solving for h equation (2.10), the result is
V2 2 P V 2
h = + 2 + Z2 − 3 − Z3 (2.12)
2g  2g
now substituting in equation (2.11) in to (2.12), the result is
V2 2 V V 2
h = + (Z1 − 2 − Z 2 − h f ) + (Z 3 − 3 − Z 3 ) (2.13)
2g 2g 2g
Simplifying, we have
V3 2
h = Z1 − Z 3 − h f − (2.14)
2g
which is the effective head and is so indicated dimensionally in figure 2.9.
The weight of water flowing through the turbine system per unit of time by
definition is Q . Recognizing energy per unit time is power, if equation (2.14) is
multiplied by Q the theoretical power delivered by the water to the turbine is:
P = Qh = theoretical power.
2.2.3 Kinetic Theory:
Further theory related to the speed of the runner and the dynamic action of
the water on the buckets and vanes is important for understanding the
energy-converting action and is necessary in developing certain turbine that
are used in the design and selection of runners.

Gross Head
hg
Figure 2.9: Bernoulli diagram for a hydropower installation
Further theory related to the speed of the runner and the dynamic action of
the water on the buckets and vanes is important for understanding the
energy-converting action and is necessary in developing certain turbine that
are used in the design and selection of runners.
Impulse Runner Force:
Figure 2.10: Definition sketch for water action on impulse turbine

The dynamic force imparted on a moving vane or bucket by a jet of water is

given by the equation:
Wv
F = (1 − m cos  ) (2.15)
g
WhereF = dynamic force on the vane
W = weight of water striking vane
G = acceleration of gravity
v = relative velocity of the jet of water with respect to moving vane
m = coefficient accounting for loss of velocity moving across vane
θ = angle of deflection of jet from the original jet direction
The ideal deflection angle for θ for an impulse runner bucket is 180 o but for
practical purposes the bucket angle is generally about 165 o so that the jet of
water doe not interfere with the bucket (Refer figure (2.10)
The relative velocity v is determined from the relation
v=V–u
WhereV = absolute velocity of water jet,
u = absolute linear velocity of the bucket
Torque: the torque exerted by the jet of water is the product of the force F and
the lever arm r at which the water force is acting. Torque is given by the
formula:
Wvr
T = (1 − m cos  ) (2.16)
g
WhereT = torque imparted to runner
r = radius of the runner
Power: the theoretical power imparted is given by the formula

Wvu (1 − m cos  )
P = Fu = (2.17)
g
or utilizing the torque equation,
P = T (2.18)
Where ω = angular velocity of runner
Reaction runner:
The torque (T) imparted by the water to the runner is given by the equation:
W
T = (r1V1 cos  1 − r2V 2 cos  2 ) (2.19)
g
And the theoretical power imparted by the water moving through the reaction
turbine is given by the formula:
W
P = T = (r1V1 cos  1 − r2V 2 cos  2 ) (2.20)
g

Figure 2.11: Vector diagram of water action on reaction turbine
2.3 Hydrological Analysis for hydropower Development
Hydrological studies will provide data on the flow of water, one of the main
parameters used in hydropower planning.
Precipitation and hence water supply, varies widely between geographical

locations, from season to season and from year to year. Each of these
variations has a profound effect on the planning for the control and use of
water resources.
All planning in hydrology terms is predicted on the assumption that the past
history of water occurrence will be repeated in future. In other words, plans for
control and use of water are based on the assumption that the precipitation
and stream flow conditions which have been observed in the past can be
expected to occur, within reasonable limits of similarity, in the future, except if
stream flows are modified by acts of Man.
Obviously the ideal foundation for water resources planning would be
comprehensive records, covering an infinite period of years, of precipitation
and other climatic conditions, stream flows and groundwater conditions.
Unfortunately, such records seldom exist, and the records that are available in
most instance fall far short of the ideal.
The generation of hydropower does not imply consumption of water except as

a result of incidental evaporation, especially from reservoirs. The extent to
which power production will affect the use of water for other purposes will
depend on a number of factors such as:
• the location and capacity of power plants

• the nature of power to be produced, that is, ROR power, firm power or
peaking power
• the amount of forebay and afterbay regulation provided
• and the relative preference assigned to the uses of water for various
purposes
The determination of the water requirement for power production is probably

best accomplished by “trial and error” methods including incremental analyses
and will require close coordination and integration of power studies and
economic and social studies.
Hydrological data
• historical series of daily or monthly flows
Rainfall data
• historical series of daily, monthly or annual total of rainfall
Basic hydrological studies are required mainly to determine water discharge
and hydraulic head.
2.3.1 Flow duration studies
A useful way of treating the time variability of water discharge data in

hydropower studies is by utilizing flow duration curves. A flow duration curve
is a plot of flow versus the percent of time a particular flow can be expected to
be exceeded. A flow duration curve merely reorders the flows in order of
magnitude instead of the time ordering of flows versus time plot.
Methods of computing:
• rank-ordered technique
• class-interval technique

100
Q (m3/s)
10
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Exceedence percentage
Figure 2.12: Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
The longer the record, the more statistically valuable the information that
results from the flow duration curve.
2.3.2 Extrapolation of flow duration data to ungauged sites
All too often the stream flow data that are available from measured gauging
stations are not from location for which a project site analysis is to be made.
Methods are required to develop extrapolation of measured flow data which
will be representative of a given site on a stream.
In regions where stream flow does not vary with respect to the contributing
drainage area flow duration curves can be plotted for the gauged sites. From
these developed flow duration curves, a family of parametric flow duration
curves can be developed, in which flow is plotted against the average annual
runoff ( R ) or annual discharge, Q at the respective gages for several
exceedence interval percentages. A separate curve is developed for each
exceedence interval used. A correlation analysis is then performed to obtain
the best-fitting curve for the data taken from the measured records of stream
flow.

10000
Gage 4
Gage 3
1000
Gage 2
Flow
Gage 1
100
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Exceedence Percentage
Figure 2.13: FDC for gauging stations in a homogeneous drainage basin
100000
10000
10%
Discharge (Q)
%
1000 30
50%
80% %
100 95
10
10 100 1000 10000
Average annual runoff (R)
Figure 2.14: Parametric flow duration curves
2.3.3 Determination of average annual discharge
To use the parametric flow duration curves effectively, it is necessary to

determine the average annual discharge, Q , at the point or location on the

stream for which a flow analysis is to be made. Isohytal maps developed for
normal annual precipitation in a river basin are helpful for determining the
annual discharge. The records of precipitation and stream flow data should
represent the same period of record.
Utilizing the records of average annual precipitation input to the basins at

measured streams nearby or having similar hydrologic characteristics, a
runoff coefficient is estimated for the drainage basin being studied. The
product of this coefficient and the computed normal annual precipitation input
to the basin and the basin area can be used to calculate the average annual
discharge as:
kPA
Q = (2.21)
T
With the average runoff annual discharge estimate it is possible to enter the
parametric flow duration curve and determine values of flow for different
exceedence percentages for which the parametric flow duration curve has
been developed.
Example 2.1: Hydrology of Ungauged Catchment
A drainage basin has a power plant site located at the mouth of the
catchment. An upstream reservoir regulates the flow at the upper portions of
the drainage. The area of the hydrologic map representative of the drainage
basin below the reservoir has been planimetered and given in table A below.
A runoff coefficient for the basin on the annual basis is 0.65. The historic
monthly flows of a nearby stream gauge on the downstream side of the
stream are presented in table B. The gauge records are considered to be a
good representation of seasonal variation of runoff for the ungauged portion of
the river drainage basin. The outflows from the reservoir are given in table C.
Using the information provided compute the river flow at its mouth that would
be useful for the hydropower study. Scale of the isohytal map is 1:400,000.
Table 2.1: Values of planimetered areas downstream of the reservoir

Avg value of precipitation between Isohytal lines Planimetered Area (mm2)
(mm)
762 11.94
889 26.13
1016 14.45
Table 2.2: Monthly flows for an average year in a representative gauged

stream
Month Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
No. of Days 31 28 31 30 31 30 31 31 30 31 30 31
Discharge
3
(m /s) 7.11 7.14 9.88 33.13 80.02 64.31 22.57 11.84 9.40 9.40 9.51 8.44
Table C: Out flow from the upper reservoir
Discharge
(m3/s) 1.42 1.27 2.27 2.83 5.66 7.08 7.08 5.66 1.98 1.84 1.70 1.56

Solution:
Step 1: Compute the average annual runoff using NAP

− −
Q=k P A
−
P=
∑ P A = 762 *11.94 + 889 * 26.13 + 1016 *14.45 = 895.07mm
∑A 11.94 + 26.13 + 14.45
−
Q = 0.65 * 895.07 / 1000 * 52.52 /(1000 * 1000) * 400,000 2 = 4888941.2 m 3 / year
− 4888941 .2
Q= = 56.58 m 3 / sec/ day
24 * 60 * 60
Step 2: Compute yearly runoff from the representative gauge
No. of Days 31 28 31 30 31 30 31 31 30 31 30 31
Discharge
(m3/s) 7.11 7.14 9.88 33.13 80.02 64.31 22.57 11.84 9.40 9.40 9.51 8.44
Run off
(m3/s)/(day) 220.41 199.92 306.28 993.9 2480.62 1929.3 699.67 367.04 282 291.4 285.3 261.64
Yearly Total
(m3/s)(days) 8317.48
Step 3: Compute monthly fraction of runoff

Runoff for the month 220.41
qi = , qi ( Jan) = = 0.026
Total runoff for the Re cord period 8317.48
Monthly
fraction 0.026 0.024 0.037 0.119 0.298 0.232 0.084 0.044 0.034 0.035 0.034 0.031
Step 4: Compute flow for the downstream portion

0.026 * 56.58
Q ( Jan) = = 0.05 m 3 / sec
31
Monthly
flow (m3/s) 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.23 0.54 0.44 0.15 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
Step 5: Compute the total flow at the outlet

Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Monthly flow
3
(m /s) 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.23 0.54 0.44 0.15 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
Flow from
upper res. 1.42 1.27 2.27 2.83 5.66 7.08 7.08 5.66 1.98 1.84 1.70 1.56
Total Flow 1.47 1.32 2.34 3.06 6.20 7.52 7.23 5.74 2.04 1.90 1.76 1.62

Step 6: Compute the flow duration curve
Flow Descending %Exceeded

Flow order Rank or Equaled
7.52 7.52 1 8.33%
7.23 7.23 2 16.67%
6.20 6.20 3 25.00%
5.74 5.74 4 33.33%
3.06 3.06 5 41.67%
2.34 2.34 6 50.00%
2.04 2.04 7 58.33%
1.90 1.90 8 66.67%
1.76 1.76 9 75.00%
1.62 1.62 10 83.33%
1.47 1.47 11 91.67%
1.32 1.32 12 100.00%
Flow Duration Curve
8.00
7.50
7.00
6.50
6.00
5.50
5.00
Q (m3/s)
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0.00% 20.00% 40.00% 60.00% 80.00% 100.00%
% of time Exceeded or Equalled
Figure 2.15: Flow duration curves

The firm flow = 1.32 m3/sec
2.4 Estimation of hydropower potentials of a River/Site
In processing regulated and unregulated flow data, it is important to recognize

that in the power equation, flow is the primary limiting factor. When a Run-Off-
River type of power study is done and a flow duration analysis is used, the
capacity or size of the hydropower units determines the maximum amount of
water that will go through the unit or units. This is dictated by the nominal
runner diameter and the accompanying outlet area and draft tube.
In the figure below Qc is the discharge capacity of the plant under the design
head. This Qc is the discharge at full gate opening of the runner under design
head. Even though to the left of Q c on the flow duration curve the stream
discharge is greater, it is not possible to pass the higher discharge through
the plant. If the reservoir or storage is full, water must be bypassed by a
spillway.
To the right of the runner discharge capacity point, Q c, it should be noted that
all the water that can go through the turbine is the amount flowing in the river
at the particular percent of that point. This shows that full-rated power
production will not be produced. With storage it is possible to alter this for
short periods of time, but the total amount of energy output can not be
increased.
If hydraulic head and the expected losses in the penstock are known, it is
possible to generate a power duration curve from the flow duration curve.
100
Q (m3/s)
10 Runner Discharge Capacity point
Qc
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
100
Exceedence percentage
Figure 2.16: Flow duration curve showing discharge capacity value
Turbine power output
Turbine Capacity Point
10
Qc
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of tim e pow e r is e qua l or e x ce e de d
Figure 2.17: Power duration curve

2.4.1 Water Pressure or ‘Head’
Measurement of gross head:
The gross head is the vertical distance that the water falls through in
generating power, i.e. between the upper and lower water surface levels.
Field measurements of gross head are usually carried out using surveying
techniques. The precision required in the measurement will impose the
methods to be employed.
In the past the best way to measure it was by leveling with a surveyor’s level
and staff, but the process was slow. Nowadays with digital theodolites, the
electronic digital levels and especially with the electronic total stations the job
has been simplified. The modern electronic digital levels provides an
automatic display of height and distance within about 4 seconds with a height
measurement accuracy of 0.4 mm, and the internal memory makes it possible
to store approximately 2,400 data points. Surveying by Global Positioning
Systems (GPS) is already practiced and a handheld GPS receiver is ideal for
field positioning, and rough mapping.
Estimation of net head:
Having established the gross head available it is necessary to allow for the
losses arising from trash racks, pipe friction, bends and valves. In addition to
these losses, certain types of turbines must be set to discharge to the
atmosphere above the flood level of the tail water (the lower surface level).
The gross head minus the sum of all the losses equals the net head, which is
what is available to drive the turbine.
The potential or theoretical power in any river stretch with a difference in

elevation H is computed from:
Pp =  ⋅ Q ⋅ H (2.22)
Which is a power that can be required for useful work by overcoming friction
loss in watts.
where
H = head in m
Q = discharge of streams in m3/s
Pp= Potential (theoretical) power of the stream in KW
 =  ⋅ g γ = ρ.g/1000 = 9.81 KN/m3
If the river course is divided in to a number of n stretches, the total power can
be described by:
n
P =  ∑ (Q ⋅ H )
1 (2.23)
Potential power resources can be characterized by values according to the
discharge taken as a basis of computation. The conventional discharges are
Q100, Q95, Q50, Qm. Thus we have,

i) Minimum potential power designated Pp100, computed from the

minimum flow that is available for 100% of the time (365 days or
8760 hrs.)
ii) Small potential power computed from the flow available for 95% of
the time. This represented by Pp 95
iii) Median potential power is computed from the flow available for 50%
of time. This is represented by Pp 50.
iv) Mean potential power is computed from the average of mean yearly
flows for a period of 10 to 30 years. This is designated as Ppm and
is also known as gross power potential.
Technically Available Power

Evaluation of technically available power from the available power is
significance. According to Mossony the losses subtracted from the Pp values
represents an upper limit of utilization.
Losses = Conveyance loss + plant losses (entrance, rack, generator, turbine)
2.4.2 Residual, reserved or compensation flow
An uncontrolled abstraction of water from a watercourse, to pass it through a

turbine, even if it is returned to the stream close to the intake, could lead to
sections of the watercourse being left almost dry with serious results for
aquatic life.
To avoid this happening, permission to divert water through a hydro turbine or

a license to abstract from a river or stream will almost always specify that a
certain residual flow should remain.
It is in the interest of the hydro-power developer to keep the residual flow as

small as is acceptable to the licensing authority, since in seasons of low flow,
its release may mean generation being stopped if there is insufficient
discharge to provide for the turbine. On the other hand the lack of flowing
water can endanger the life of the aquatic biota
Figure 2.18: Residual, reserved or compensation flow:

2.4.3 Tail water Relationships

As release of water over spillways and other releases in to the stream
immediately below a hydropower plant are made, the tail water elevation
below the outlet to the turbine will fluctuate. Therefore, it is important to
develop a tail water elevation versus discharge curve over the complete range
of flow that is to be expected. Preparing such a curve requires an adequate
contour map of the channel area and an estimation of velocity in the channel
at various stages of flow. Information on normal tail water, maximum tail
water, and minimum tail water elevations is necessary to determine design
head and to determine the appropriate turbine setting. Estimating stream
channel velocity can be made using slope-area calculations that involve
conventional Manning’s open-channel-flow equation.
2.4.4 Area Capacity Curves

Most hydropower developments involve an impoundment behind a dam. The
water in storage in the impoundment is released; the head water elevation
changes and this will influence the design of the plant and the pattern of
operation. Therefore, it is necessary to have a storage or pondage volume
versus impounding surface elevation curve. At the same time there is a need
to know surface area versus reservoir elevation. This information can be
obtained by plannimetering a contour map of the reservoir area and making
necessary water volume calculations and water surface area determinations.
The two curves are typically combined into what is termed an area-capacity
curve.
0.E + 00
5.E + 07
1.E + 08
2.E + 08
2.E + 08
3.E + 08
3.E + 08
4.E + 08
4.E + 08
C a p a c ity / v o lu m e
3100
3050
3000
E l e va t io n
E l e va t io n
2950
2900
2850
2800
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
A rea
Figure 2.19: Typical area-capacity curve

2.4.5 Reservoir Rule Curves
When releases from reservoir are made, the schedule of releases is often
dictated by considerations other than just meeting the flow demands for power
production. The needs for municipal water supply, for flood control, and for
down stream irrigation use dictates certain restraints. The restraints are
conventionally taken care of by developing reservoir operation rule curves that
can guide operating personnel in making necessary changes in reservoir
water releases.
To be effective, rule curves often require the use of rather careful and
extensive reservoir operation studies using historical flow data and estimates
of demand for water that are likely to occur in the future.
2.4.6 Evaporation Loss Evaluation
Where there is a reservoir involved in a hydropower development there is

need to assess the effect of evaporation loss from the reservoir surface. This
loss in warmer climate is considerable.
2.4.7 Spillway Design Flood Analysis
Many hydropower developments require a dam or a diversion that blocks the

normal river flow. This then requires that provision be made for passing flood
flows. Spillway design flood analysis treats a unique type of hydrology that
concerns the occurrence of rare events of extreme flooding. Flood frequency
analysis is a well defined procedure for spillway design flood determination. It
is customary on large dams and dams where failure might cause a major
disaster to design the spillway to pass the probable maximum flood. For small
dams, spillways are designed to pass a standard project flood.
2.4.8 Estimation of plant capacity and energy output

The FDC provides a means of selecting the right design discharge and taking
into account the reserved flow and the minimum technical turbine flow, the
plant capacity and the average annual energy output can be estimated.
Figure 2.18 illustrates the FDC of the site it is intended to evaluate. Usually
the design flow is assumed to be, in a first approach, the difference between
the mean annual flow and the reserved flow. In actual practice is strongly
recommended to evaluate the plant for other design flows in order to choose,
the one that yields the best results. Once the design flow is defined (Q m-Qres),
and the net head is estimated, suitable turbine types must be identified. The
suitable turbines are those for which the design flow and head plot within the
operational envelopes (figure 3.18). Figure 7 shows the useable region of the
flow duration curve. Every selected turbine has a minimum technical flow (with
a lower discharge the turbine either cannot operate or has a very low
efficiency) and its efficiency is a function of the operating discharge.
The gross average annual energy (E in kWh) is a function E = fn (Q median, Hn,
ηturbine, ηgenerator, η gearbox, ηtransformer,  , t)
Where:

Qmedian = flow in m3/s for incremental steps on the flow duration curve
Hn = specified net head
ηturbine = turbine efficiency, a function of Qmedian
ηgenerator = generator efficiency
η gearbox = gearbox efficiency
ηtransformer = transformer efficiency
t = number of hours for which the specified flow occurs.
The gross average energy is then the sum of the energy contribution for each
strip. The capacity of each turbine (kW) will be given by the product of their
design flow (m3/s), net head (m), turbine efficiency (%), and specific weight of
the water (kNm3).
Table 2.1: Minimum technical flow of turbines
Turbine Type Qmin
Francis spiral 30
Francis open flume 30
Semi Kaplan 15
Kaplan 15
Cross flow 15
Pelton 10
Turgo 10
Propeller 65
Figure 2.20: Turbine Envelopes

Figure 2.21: Typical Turbine efficiency
2.5 Firm and Secondary Power

The power demand is defined as the total load, which consumers choose, at
any instant of time, to connect to the supplying power system.
Load curve
Peak Load
Average Load
Load (MW)
Base Load
0 6 12 18 24
Time
Figure 2.22: Definition Sketch of Load Curve
Maximum demand determines the size of the plant and its cost.
Highest instantaneous value of demand is, strictly speaking, the peak load or
peak demand. Generally, however, peak load is defined as that carried at
intensity greater than 4/3 times the average load intensity.
Base Load is the total load continuously exceeded where as the average load
is the area under the curve divided by the time.
Load factor is the ratio of average load to the peak load and is expressed as a
daily, weakly, monthly or yearly value. The area under a load curve is energy
(KWh) and it can be plotted to obtain energy consumption curve. Thus the
load factor can also be defined as:

Energy consumed ( say during 24 hrs )

Load factor = (2.24)
Max demand * 24 hrs
Max. Load - determines plant capacity
Load factor - gives an idea of degree of utilization of capacity. Thus an annual
load factor of say 0.4 indicates that the machines are producing only 40% of
their yearly maximum production capacity.
Capacity factor: also called plant use factor or plant factor
Average output of plant for a given period

Capacity factor =
Full plant capacity
(2.25)
Energy actually produced
Or Capacity factor =
Energy that a plant is capable of producing at full capacity
e.g. - If a plant with capacity of 100 MW produces 6,000,000 KWh operating
for 100 hrs, its capacity factor will be
6 , 000 , 000
C .F = = 0 . 60 o 60 %
100 , 000 * 100
The capacity factor for hydroelectric plant is generally between 0.25 & 0.75.
Therefore, If the peak load = plant capacity, then capacity factor = load factor.
If the plant is not used to its full capacity, then load factor ≠ capacity factor.
Thus in the above example if the maximum load was 75 MW instead of 100
MW then
6,000,000
L.F = = 0.80 or 80%
75,000 *100
Qauntity of water actually used for power generation
Utilizatio n factor = (2.26)
Quantity of water that is avavailable in the river
For assumed constant head
Power Utilized
Utilizatio n factor = (2.27)
Power available
For hydroelectric plants, this factor varies from 0.4 to 0.9 depending on plant
capacity, load factor & storage.
Load Duration Curve

This is a curve of load versus percentage of time. It is usually plotted for long
duration such as a year.
Firm Power
0% 100%
Figure 2.23: Definition Sketch of Firm Power

Area under load duration curve = total energy production during the period.
Thus
Area under the curve
Annual load factor = (2.28)
Area of Re c tan gle corresponding to max . demand during the year
2.5.1 Firm Power

The term “firm” is given to supply which can be guarantied at all times or a
large percentage of the time (e.g. 90% of the time). This type of supply is
distinguished from the supply governed by the availability of water, which is
often termed “secondary”. Supply available as a result of seasonal excess of
water or abnormal runoffs is termed “surplus” as the alternative to generation
is letting the water run off (spilling).
Some of the river discharge is by nature firm, usually the minimum flow, but its
share of the total discharge can be increased by introducing regulation of the
river, i.e. provision of storage reservoirs from which water can be drawn
during dry periods.
The value of having guaranteed supply of water and the additional costs
involved in regulation is reflected in the price of electricity and firm supply
commands a higher price than secondary and surplus power and energy.
The highest priced energy, however, is often the supply termed “peaking”. By
peaking is meant the load which can be supplied to meet the variation in
demand in a supply system. It is measured as excess of the average demand
over a period of time, day, season or year.
Secondary Power
Firm Power (for run-off
Primary Power river plant)
0% 100%
Figure 2.24: Definition Sketch of Firm/Primary and Secondary Power

Firm power can be increased by use of flow regulation (storage).
Increased firm power
Firm Power
(Without storage)
0% 100%
Figure 2.25: Increased Firm Power by Flow regulation

2.6 Load Predictions and Demand Assessment

2.6.1 Power Market
Demand:
The need for and the purpose of demand forecasts are fully recognized. Not
only the size but the “shape” of the demand is important factors in planning
the power supply. By shape is meant the daily, seasonal and annual variation
of the demand curve.
A lot of planning information can be derived from the demand curves of supply
systems. They will indicate need for regulation of watercourse contemplated
for development as they give information on the water needed for generation
on a daily, seasonal and annual basis. Such demand curves also provide data
needed to determine the size of generation, installations, and unit size and
transmission facilities.
140
Maximum
120
100
Cold
80
60
Seasonal Variation
40
Load (MW)
Maximum
20
Hot
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Time of Occurence (Hrs)
Figure 2.26: Typical 24 Hours Load Curve
2.6.2 Supply system:
The network of consumers which can be reached by a generation scheme is

called the supply system. Supply systems have to be studied in connection
with the planning of new generation facilities in order to ensure that the new
scheme will satisfactorily fit the system and the purpose for which it was
originally conceived. The additional power should also be fully compatible with
the requirements of the system it will supply. System studies will have to
explore:
- the influence of the new scheme on the operation of the existing

system and on the structure of its production costs
- the effects of the new scheme on the expansion of the system
- the optimum dimensioning of the new scheme in relation to system
requirements and the phasing of its development
- the transmission capacity and any strengthening of the network
needed for absorbing the output from the new generation scheme
2.6.3 Energy conservation:
Power Market surveys:
In order to achieve a balanced and orderly development of the power supply

to an area, the planning has to be based on reliable knowledge of the market,
the present and the future demand. Power market surveys are means of
evaluating the present and potential markets for electric energy in a defined
area. They are based on registration of the prevailing demand and supply
situation, adjusting for possible suppressed demand due to under supply, high
tariffs, etc. as well as overuse due to excess capacity in the system, price
subsidies and similar inducements.
The market survey will consider the effects on the use of electric energy within
the survey are of such factors as:
- geographical location
- natural resources
- industrial development
- new power uses
- the economic status and prospective growth of the population
- substitution loads
Demand forecast:
As hydropower development has long leadtime, it is necessary to be guided
by a long term demand prognosis. Normally demand forecast cover at least
ten years or more. They are organized in such a way that periodic updating is
easy to perform.
- base case
- low case
- high case
Base Load - Peak Load
Power is needed for a variety of purposes, such as domestic, commercial,
industrial, municipal, agricultural, public transport etc. The energy demand
(local, regional, trans-regional) is subject to considerable temporal
fluctuations. These variations could be from hour to hour within a day, from
day to day within a week/month, from month to month within a year, etc.
These seasonal fluctuations depend on:
Weather, season;
Vacation times;
Cyclical business activity.
Daily fluctuations are due to:

Rhythm of work time and free time;
Weather;
Traffic.
At certain times the demand may reach the highest value, known as the peak-
load. This maximum demand usually determines the size of a plant.
Generally, the peak-load is defined as that part of the load carried at intensity
greater than 4/3 times the mean load intensity.
To cover the fluctuating energy demand, the following types of power plants
are interconnected to each others and work together:
Base load power stations (coal, oil, nuclear and run-of-river scheme power
stations);
Average load power stations (temporary, gas and reservoir power stations);
Peak load power stations (pumped storage and peak load hydro power
stations).
Base load power stations having high utilization times, they produce electric
energy on a very economical basis. The energy prime costs of peak load
power stations are higher due to shorter utilization times; their emphasis lies
on instant availability. These differences affect considerably the price of base
load and peak load power.
2.6.4 Load Prediction

For the installation of a new power plant or for the expansion of the existing
power plant, it is necessary to estimate the total amount of load that would be
required to be met for various purposes. The economics of the installation or
expansion of a power plant calls for the correct prediction or forecasting of the
power demand.
Load forecasting may be done either for short-term (< 5 years), or medium-
term (around 10 years), or long-term (> 20 years) periods. The short-term
forecasting is usually done for operation planning of existing power plants,
while the medium-term forecast is the basis for expansion program of power
generation facilities. The long-term forecast helps in the formulation of the
country’s perspective plan for power generation.
There are three basic load forecasting techniques:

Trend analysis
End-use analysis
Econometric analysis
Each of the forecasting methods uses a different approach to determine
electricity demand during a specific year in a particular place. Each
forecasting method is distinctive in its handling of the four basic forecast
ingredients: the mathematical expressions of the relationship between power
demand and the factors which influence or affect it – the functions; the factors
which actually influence the power demand (population, income, price, etc.) –
the independent variables; power demand itself – the dependent variables;
and how much power demand changes in response to population, income,
price, etc., changes – the elasticities.
Trend Analysis:
Trend analysis extends past growth rates of power demand into the future. It
focuses on past changes or movements in demand and uses them to predict
future changes in the demand.
The advantage of trend analysis is that it is simple, quick and inexpensive to

perform. It is useful when there is no enough data to use more sophisticated
methods or when time and funding do not allow for a more elaborate
approach.
The disadvantage of trend analysis is that it produces only one result – future
power demand. It doesn’t help analyze why power demand behaves the way
it does, and it provides no means to accurately measure how changes in
energy prices or government policies, for instance, influence the demand.
End-Use Analysis:
The basic idea of end-use analysis is that the demand for power depends on
what it is used for (the end-use). For instance, by studying historical data to
find out how much power is used for individual electrical appliances in homes,
then multiplying that number by the projected number of appliances in each
home and multiplying again by the projected number of homes, an estimate of
how much power will be needed to run all household appliances in a
geographical area during any particular year in the future can be determined.
Using similar techniques for power used in business and industry, then adding
up the totals for residential, commercial, and industrial sectors, a total forecast
of power demand can be derived.
The advantage of end-use analysis is that it identifies exactly where power
goes and how much is used for each purpose.
The disadvantage of the end-use analysis is that it assumes a constant

relationship between power and end-use, for example, power used per
appliance. But, in actual case, energy saving technology or energy prices will
undoubtedly change with time, and the relationship will not remain constant.
End-use analysis also requires extensive data.
Econometric Analysis:
Econometric analysis uses economics, mathematics, and statistics to forecast
power demand. It is a combination of trend analysis and end-use analysis, but
it does not make the trend analyst’s assumption that future power demand
can be projected based on past demand. Moreover, unlike end-use method, it
can allow for variations in the relationship between power input and end-use.
Econometric analysis uses complex mathematical equations to show past

relationships between demand and the factors which influence the demand.
For instance, an equation can show how power demand in the past reacted to
population growth, price changes, etc. For each influencing factor, the
equation can show whether the factor caused an increase or decrease in a
power demand. The equation is then tested and fine tuned to make sure that
it is a reliable a representation as possible of the past relationships. Once this
is done, projected values of demand-influencing factors (population, income,
prices) are put in to the equation to make the forecast.
The advantage of econometric analysis is that it provides detailed information

on future levels of power demand, why future power demand increases or

decreases, and how power demand is affected by all the various factors. In
addition, it is flexible and useful for analyzing load growth under different
scenarios.
The disadvantage of econometric forecasting is the assumption that the

changes in the power demand caused by changes in the factors influencing
that demand remain the same in the forecast period as in the past. However,
this constant elasticity assumption is hard to justify in reality.
Note:
Load forecasts should be interpreted as rough indications of the reasonable
range of possible outcomes of power growth, rather than precise
computations of future power consumption.
Often it is necessary to develop a range of load growth projections that reflect

the uncertainty associated with many of the factors that influence load growth.
Then, the mid-range forecast will be used as the basis for planning and the
high and low growth scenarios will be utilized for sensitivity studies.

2.7 Tutorial Problem set-1
336
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308
400
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839
400 600
400
500
400
676
Figure 1
852
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561
629
839
400 600
400
500
400
676
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Figure 2
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629
Figure 3
1. For the given sites in figures 1, 2 and 3, prepare a suitable layout for an
optimum hydropower development and locate the appropriate sites for
intake (perhaps dam or weir), water way and power house. The layout

should consider the shortest possible route and to gain maximum head for
power production
2. The four pump-turbine units of a pumped storage hydro electric scheme
are each to be supplied by a high pressure pipeline of length 2000 m. the
minimum gross head (difference in level between upper and lower
reservoirs) is 310 m and the maximum head is 340 m.
The upper reservoir has a usable volume of 3.25X10 6 m3 which could be

released to the turbines in a minimum period of 4 hours.
Max. power out put required/turbine = 110 MW

Turbo-generator efficiency = 80%
Effective roughness of pipeline = 0.6mm
Taking minor losses in the pipeline, power station and draft tube to be 3 m
a) Determine the minimum pipeline to enable the maximum specified
power to be developed.
b) Determine the pressure head to be developed by the pump-turbines
when reversed to act in the pumping mode to return a total volume of
3.25X106 m3 to the upper reservoir uniformly during 6 hours in the off-
take period.
hf
Losses
he
Pump/Turbine
Figure 4: Pumped storage power scheme in generating mode
3. Home Take Test

A high head hydroelectric scheme conssits of an impounding reservoir
from which the water is delivered to four Pelton wheel turbines through a
low pressure tunnel, 10, 000 m long, 4 m in diameter lined with concrete,
which splits in to four steel pipelines (penstocks) 600 m long, 2 m in
diameter each terminating in a single nozzle the area of which is varied by
a spear valve. The maximum diameter of each nozzle is 0.8 m and the
coefficient of velocity (Cv) is 0.98. The difference in level between
reservoir and jets is 550 m. roughness sizes of the tunnel and pipelines
are 0.1 mm and 0.3 mm respectively.
a) Determine the effective area of the jets for maximum power and the
corresponding total power generated.
b) A surge chamber is constructed at the downstream end of the
tunnel. What is the difference in level between the water in the
chamber and that in the reservoir under the condition of maximum
power?
4. The following flow record has been observed on Kulfo River near
Arbaminch Town. Assess the hydropower potential of the river.
YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN
1976 3 3 5.1 27.8 55.5 54.2
1977 3 3.9 7.2 10.8 36.5 **
1978 ** ** ** ** ** **
1979 3 6.4 20.2 44.2 39.7 14.2
1980 2.24 1.93 1.35 ** 16.52 6.84
1981 1.22 1.49 3.24 9.14 9.62 3.97
1982 1.63 1.93 7.28 9.87 15.39 10.11
1983 3.07 2.56 ** 12.41 10.11 9.87
1984 3.36 ** 1.76 0.767 13.06 11.36
1985 ** ** ** 21.57 15.95 10.36
1986 2.24 2.24 3.6 8.66 18.26 18.26
1987 3.6 2.73 11.63 21.26 ** **
1988 ** ** ** ** ** **
1989 ** ** ** ** ** **
1990 ** ** ** ** ** **
1991 ** ** ** ** ** **
1992 ** ** ** ** ** **
YEAR JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

1976 28.7 22.5 31.5 30.5 9.3 3.3
1977 ** ** ** 66.8 ** **
1978 ** ** ** ** ** **
1979 49 20.2 ** ** 9.5 **
1980 4.74 3.97 9.38 7.51 3.6 2.24
1981 9.62 ** ** ** 2.56 2.24
1982 6.19 6.84 10.61 12.67 8.66 5.56
1983 8.43 7.74 8.2 9.62 7.51 2.4
1984 3.54 4.4 7.44 7.01 7.44 **
1985 7.14 7.96 15.39 111.88 3.97 2.4
1986 8.2 7.28 18.26 11.88 5.97 10.61
1987 3.24 10.61 4.55 ** ** **
1988 ** ** ** ** ** **
1989 ** ** ** ** ** **
1990 ** ** ** ** ** **
1991 ** ** ** ** ** **
1992 ** ** ** ** ** **
5. In the table below the elevation and the corresponding measured area are
given. Estimate the elevation and the area inundated when the reservoir
volume is 225X106 cubic meter.
Level (m.a.s.l) Measured Area (m2)
880 1.715 X106
885 3.208 X106
890 4.312 X106
895 8.110 X106
900 8.720 X106
905 10.115 X106
910 15.710X106
915 17.515X106
920 22.718X106
925 28.300X106

6. The figure below shows a connection between two reservoirs for a
pumped storage plant. The reservoirs are connected by a transfer tunnel.
The capacity of the tunnel is 45 m3/s.
a. Compute the level in the upper reservoir available for energy
production. The level of the lower reservoir is 1290 m.a.s.l.
b. Sketch the energy grade and total pressure lines with reference to the
reservoir’s level.
Cross sectional area details:

A1 = 16 m2,, Manning’s n1 = 0.035; and A2 = 36 m2 , Manning’s n2 = 0.030
Trash Rack:
Total area = 16 m2, Rack opening = 10 m2
Length of tunnel: Provided on the sketch
Figure 5: Tunnel connecting two reservoirs
7. Estimate the power and work for the given data below.
Given: Q=50 m³/s, H=5 m, operation hour 7,000h/year, and overall efficiency
=0.8.
8. Given: Two stations sharing a common load

- One is base load station
- The other is stand by station
Base load station characteristics:
Installed capacity = 25 MW
Yearly output = 125*106 KWh
Take a peak of 22.5 MW
Standby station characteristics
Installed capacity = 30 MW
Yearly output = 10.5*106 KWh
Peak load taken by stand by station = 15 MW
Station works for 2500 hrs/year
Determine (1) Annual load factor for both
(2) Plant use factor for both
(3) Capacity factor for both
9. A run-off-river plant operates as a peak load plant with 20% weekly load
factor, and all its capacity is firm capacity. What will be the minimum flow
in the river so that the station may serve as a base load station given that:
Installed capacity of generator = 10,000 KW

Operating head = 15m
Plant efficiency = 80%
Estimate the daily load factor of the plant if the stream flow is 15m3/s.
10. A mini hydropower plant is under planning. The simplified sketches of the
intake area and the head water channel are shown in Figure 6. Estimate
the necessary amount of water (discharge, Q1) that must flow in the river in
order to satisfy the demand of 5 m3/s water through the turbine. The head
water channel will made of concrete and Manning number assumed is
0.0125.
Da
A Q1 20
A Q2
Q3
a) General Plan
B
Q1 El. 139.20
El. 137.50 Q2
Dam
Slope ˜ 0
b) Cross-section A-A, River Longitudinal Section
El. 138.40
El. 138.40
El. 137.50
D
D Slope = 1/324
Q3 = 5 m3/s
Channel
c) Cross-Section B-B, headworks, longitudinal section

9.0 m 2.50 m
El. 138.40
d) Cross-section C-C, Intake Cross section e) Cross-section D-D, Channel X-

section

3 CLASSIFICATION AND SITE CONFIGURATIONS OF HYDROPOWER

DEVELOPMENT
3.1 Classification and basis

Hydropower plants could be classified on the basis of
• The hydraulic features of the plant
• Operating features of the plant
• Plant Capacity
• Operating head
• Construction Features
• Location & topographical features
• Presence or absence of storage
• The range of operating heads
A complete understanding of the types of hydropower developments
requires information under all such categories. All the above classification
basis are not mutually exclusive.
3.2 Classification based on hydraulic features

The basic hydraulic principle governs the type of classification in this category
i. Conventional Hydro-plants
• Use normally available hydraulic energy of the flow of the river.
e.g. Run-of river plant, diversion plant, storage plant
ii. Pumped storage plants
• Use the concept of recycling the same water.
• Normally used with areas with a shortage of water
• It generates energy for peak load, and at off-peak periods water is
pumped back for future use.
• A pumped storage plant is an economical addition to a system which
increases the load factor of other systems and also provides additional
capacity to meet the peak load.
iii. Unconventional Hydro-plants
a) Tidal power plant
− Use the tidal energy of the sea water
− Very few have been constructed due to structural complication.
b) Wave power plant
c) Depression power plant
• Hydropower generated by diverting an ample source of water in the
natural depression
• Water level in the depression is controlled by evaporation
3.3 Classification based on actual operation in meeting the demand

• isolated plant (SCS)- operating independently (mini and small
hydropower scheme serving small community)
• interconnected in to grids (ICS)
Thus in a grid system, a power station may be distinguished as a base load
plant or peak load plant. Hydropower plants are best suited as peak load
plants, because hydropower plants can start relatively quickly and can thus
accept load quickly.

Hydropower
Load
(MW)
Nuclear
Thermal
Time (months)
Figure 3.1: Place of Hydropower in a power system
3.4 Classification based on plant capacity

Classification based on plant capacity changes with time as technology
improves. The typical classification according to Mossonyi, and present day
trend are:
According to Mossonyi
i) Midget plant up to 10 KW
ii) Low capacity < 1 MW
iii) Medium capacity < 10 MW
iv) High capacity > 10 MW
Present day classification
ii) Micro hydropower < 5 MW
iii) Medium plant 5 to 100 MW
iv) High capacity 100 to 1,000 MW
v) Super plant above 1,000 MW
The range hydropower plants in Ethiopia may be classified as medium to high.
Table 3.1: Range Hydropower developments in Ethiopia
Power Station Production (MW) Classification

Koka 43.20 High/Medium
Soar (SCS) 5.00 Medium
Awash2 32.00 High/Medium
Awash 3 32.00 High/Medium
Denbi (SCS) 0.80 (0.71) Low/Micro
Fincha 100.00 High
Yadot (SCS) 0.35 Low/Micro
Melka Wakena 153.00 High
Tis Abay1 12.00 (11.5) High/Micro
Tis Aby 2 73.00 High
Gilgel Gibe 184.00 High
3.5 Classification based on head

The most popular & convenient classification is based on the head operating on
the turbine. On this basis:
i) Low head plants < 15m
ii) Medium head plants 15-50m
iii) high head plants 50-250m
iv) very high head plants > 250m
3.6 Classification based on constructional features (layouts)

In this category hydropower development could be classified as:
• Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
• Valley dam plants (Medium to high head plants)
• Diversion Canal Plants
• High head plants
• Pumped storage plants
3.6.1 Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)

• The normal flow of the river is not distributed
• There is no significant storage
• A weir or barrage is built across a river & the low head created is used
to generate power. It also acts as a controlled spilling device.
• The power house is normally in the main course of the river
• Preferred in perennial rivers with moderate to high discharge, flat slope,
with low sediment and stable reach of a river.
Water enters the power house through an intake structure incorporating some or
all of the following.
• Entrance flume separated by piers and walls for each machine unit.
• Turbine chamber: scroll case with turbine
• Concrete or steel draft tube
• Power house building
Additional structures are
• deflector or skimmer walls
• forebay
• service bridge
• river training walls
• sediment trap and flushing sluices, where necessary
a)a)Block
Blockpower
powerplant
plant b)
b)Twin
Twin block
block plant
plant c)Island
c) Island plant
plant d)d)pier
pierhead
head plant
plant e) Submersible
e) Submersible plant
Figure
plant 3.2: Run-Of-River Hydropower plant arrangement
3.6.2 Valley dam plants (medium to high head plants)

• The dominant feature is the dam to maintain creates the required
storage (to balance seasonal fluctuations) and necessary head for the
power house.
• Power house is located at the toe of the dam or further
• Water flows through the penstock embedded in the dam or diverted in
to a cannel/tunnel system to deliver flow to the power house.
Important components of a valley dam plant
• The dam with its appurtenance structures like spillway, energy
dissipation arrangements etc.
• The intake with racks, stop logs, gates & ancillaries
• The penstock conveying water to the turbine with inlet valve &
anchorage.
• The main power house with its components.
Figure 3.3: Run-Of-River Hydropower plant arrangement
3.6.3 Diversion canal plant

• The distinguishing feature is the presence of power canal that diverts
the water from the main stream channel.
• The power house is provided at suitable location along the stretch of
the canal
• The water often flowing through the turbine is brought back to the main
stream.
• Diversion canal plants are generally low head or medium head plants.
• They don't have storage.
• Pondage requirement is met through a pool called forebay located just
upstream of the power house.
Ways of developing required head
• The flatter slopes of power canal and the absence of meander, by
reducing length, helps in providing head.
– Let distance from A to B along main river be 15 km
Average slope of Main River be 1 in 500
:. Total head difference between A & B = 30m.
– Let length of power canal be 8 km
Average slope of power canal be 1 in 800
Level difference between A & forebay = 10m
:. Difference between forebay & B = 30-10 = 20m
• If the river has a natural fall, diverting the water from upstream side of
the fall & locating the power house at the downstream side of the fall
provide the required head.
• In inter-basin diversion, water may be diverted from a higher level river
to a lower river through a diversion canal to the power house located at
the lower river.

A
B
Figure 3.4: Diversion Canal Hydropower plant arrangement
Main structures of the diversion canal plant:

1) Diversion weir with its appurtenant structures.
2) Diversion canal intake with its ancillary works such as sills, trash racks,
skimmer wall, sluice, settling basin, disiltting basin, disilting canal, and silt
exclusion arrangement is needed in some sediment laden streams.
3) Bridges and culverts of the canal.
4) Forebay & its appurtenant structures.
3.6.4 High head diversion plants

High head is developed by:
• Diverting the river water through a system of canals and tunnels to a
downstream point of the same river.
• Diverting the water through canals and tunnels to a point on another
river which is at much lower level.
There may be two situation concerning storage situation:
• A diversion weir to create pondage (and no storage). Here like run-off-
plant the power production is governed by the natural flow in the river.
• Storage may be provided on the main river at the point of diversion.
(This second situation is advantageous since the fluctuation in reservoir
level does not materially affect the head and the power output can be
adjusted by the controlled flow release from the reservoir. e.g. Fincha &
Melka Wakana power plants)
Main Components of high head diversion plants:

• Storage or diversion weir with appurtenant structures
• Canal/tunnel
• Head race either open cut or tunnel.
• Forebay/surge tank
• Penstock
• Power house
• Tail race

Figure 3.5: High head diversion hydropower plant arrangement
3.6.5 Pumped Storage Plant

Pumped storage plant is suitable where:
• the natural annual run-off is insufficient to justify a conventional
hydroelectric installation
• It is possible to have reservoir at head & tail water locations
This kind of plant generates energy for peak load, & at off peak period water is
pumped back for future use. During off peak periods excess power available
from some other plants in the system is used in pumping back water from the
lower reservoir. Various arrangements are possible for higher and lower
reservoirs:
• Both reservoirs in a single river
• Two reservoirs on two separate rivers close to each other and flowing
at different elevations
• Higher reservoir on artificially constructed pool and the lower reservoir
on natural river
• The lower reservoir in a natural lake while the higher is on artificially
created reservoir
Another way of classifying is as pure pumped storage scheme and mixed
plant scheme (total generation greater than pumping and higher reservoir on a
natural system).
The most important basis of pumped storage plant is the relative
arrangements of turbines and pumps
• four units -pump, motor, generator, turbine
• three units- pump, generator, turbine
• two units-generator, turbine or reversible pump-turbine installation

Figure 3.6: Pumped Storage Plant arrangement
3.6.6 Storage and Pondage

Storage is provided to balance seasonal fluctuation by using the natural land
feature or constructing artificial reservoirs. Pondage is provided through
balancing reservoir or forebay for short term fluctuations (daily or hourly)
3.6.7 Reservoir (storage) capacity

Reservoir capacity is determined by means of mass curve procedure of
computing the necessary capacity corresponding to a given inflow and demand
pattern. Reservoir capacity has to be adjusted to account for the dead storage,
evaporation losses and carry over storage.
Storage (1)
Dam (2)
Appurtenant Structure: Intake and Spillage Structures:
Spillage Structure: Spillway (5)
Intake: Service Intake (3) and Bottom Outlet (4)
Surveillance Structure (in Dam, in Foundation as well as Valley Sides)
Diversion (6)
Service Road (7)
Figure 3.7: Storage Components
Lake

Figure 3.7: Diversion Possibilities
Mass Curve
700
600
500
Accumulated Volume
Storage Required
L i ne
nd
400
e ma
300 D
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time
Figure 3.8: Reservoir capacity determination: Mass Curve Procedure
3.7 Plant capacity Determination

Turbine selection and plant capacity determination require that rather detail
information has been determined on head and possible plant discharge. In
theoretical sense, the energy output, E, can be expressed mathematically as
plant output or annual energy in a functional relation as:
E = f(h,q,TW, d, n, Hs, Pmax) (6.1)
Where h = net effective head
q = plant discharge
TW = tail water elevation
d = diameter of runner
n = generator speed
Hs = turbine setting elevation above tail water
Pmax = maximum output expected or desired at plant
It is seen that there are numerous parameters that can be varied to achieve
the best selection. The usual practice is to base selection on the annual
energy out put of the plant and the least cost of that energy for the particular
scale of hydropower installation. Thus one must recognize that determination
of plant capacity requires analyses that vary the different parameters in
equation (6.1) while applying economic analysis.
3.7.1 Limits of use of turbine types

For practical purposes there are some definite limits of use that need to be
understood in the selection of turbines for specific situations. Impulse turbines
normally have most economical application at head above 300 m.
For Francis turbines the units can be operated over a range of flows from
approximately 50 to 115% best efficiency discharge. Below 40%, low
efficiency, and rough operation may make extended operation unwise. The
upper range of flow may be limited by instability or the generator rating and
temperature rise. The approximate limits of head range from 60 to 125% of
design head.
Propeller turbines have been developed for heads from 2 to 70m but are
normally used for heads less than 30 m. For fixed blade propeller turbines the
limits of flow operation should be between 75 and 100% of best-efficiency
flow. Kaplan units may be operated between 25 and 125% of the best
efficiency discharge. The head range for satisfactory operation is from 20 to
140% of design head.
Table 3.2: Minimum technical flow of turbines

Turbine Type Qmin
Francis spiral 30
Francis open flume 30
Semi Kaplan 15
Kaplan 15
Cross flow 15
Pelton 10
Turgo 10
Propeller 65
3.7.2 Determination of number of units

Normally, it is cost effective to have minimum number of units at a given
installation. However, multiple units may be necessary to make the most
efficient use of water where flow variation is high. Factors such as space
limitations by geological characteristics or existing structure may dictate larger
or smaller units. The difficulty of transporting large runners sometimes makes
it necessary to limit their size. Larger units require construction in segments
and field fabrication with special care. Field fabrication is costly and practical
only for multiple units where the cost of facilities can be spread over many
units. Runners may be split in two pieces, completely machined in the factory
and bolted together in the field. This is likewise costly, and most users avoid
this method because the integrity of the runner cannot be assured.
Figure 3.9 shows how multiple units can be used effectively to take advantage
of low flow variation. At the design stage of analysis and with availability of
standardized units, it may be desirable to consider as alternatives a single full-
capacity unit, two or more equal size units, and two or more unequal size units
to determine the optimum equipment selection
100
90
80
70
Available flow
60
20%
50 Turbine # 1
30%
40 Turbine # 2
40%
30 Turbine # 3
70%
20
Turbine # 4
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50of time
Percent 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 3.9: Effective use of multiple units
3.7.3 Selection of Most Economical Units

An economic analysis must be done in order to justify the optimum
installation. When the curve of total cost of installation crosses the total benefit
gained the optimum installation can be decided depending on the local
situation. The flow chart shown in figure 3.10 can be followed for turbine
selection.
Example is presented how to optimize the most economical installation. The

computation is done following the steps given in the flow chart. In table 3.3 the
energy for each increment of 10% of the time is determined by considering the
average output for the increments. The total energy is then the sum of the 10
increments.
In table 3.4, the second row gives the value for various flow capacities for
alternative sizes of power plants. In the example the plant capacity was varied
from 11.68 MW to 6.28 MW. Using flow capacities for 0, 8, 10, 20, 30 and 40
exceedence percentages, and the table was completed to determine net
annual benefits and thus most economical size of unit. This required a
determination of the project life and the discount rate for money necessary for
capital investment. The capital recovery cost was computed using a 7%
discount rate and a plant life of 50 years. The investment and annual
operating costs are estimated.
1. Obtain river flow data for each percent of time, 0%

through 100%
2. Determine headwater elevation at each flow

characteristics by flow duration curve. On Run-of river
plants this is often constant

3. Determine tail water elevation at each flow
characteristics by the flow duration curve
Figure 3.10: Flow Chart of turbine selection procedure
The annual benefit is computed multiplying the energy produced by the unit
sale value. In this case 0.26 Birr/Kwh is used for the unit sale. Plotting annual
costs and benefits against the installed capacity will then permit a
determination of the optimum plant capacity by showing where the maximum
benefit is or where marginal benefit equals marginal cost. This is shown in
figure 3.11, where the optimum installation is shown as 10 MW.
Table 3.3: Computation table for turbine capacity selection
Duration (30%)
0 10 20 30 40 50

River Discharge(m3/s) 283.10 179.77 133.06 110.41 96.25 87.76
Head (m) 4.72 5.73 6.40 7.01 7.47 7.96
Plant Discharge(m3/s) 110.41 110.41 110.41 110.41 96.25 87.76
Efficiency 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89
Power Output(MW) 4.55 5.52 6.17 6.76 6.28 6.10
Percent Time(%) 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00
Energy(MWh) 4414.15 5121.95 5662.46 5708.66 5418.61
Duration (30%)
60 70 80 90 100
River Discharge(m3/s) 79.27 75.02 72.19 63.70 28.31
Head (m) 8.38 8.69 8.99 9.30 9.51
Plant Discharge(m3/s) 79.27 75.02 72.19 63.70 28.31
Efficiency 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89
Power Output(MW) 5.80 5.69 5.67 5.17 2.35
Percent Time(%) 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00
Energy(MWh) 5210.72 5033.02 4974.45 4746.77 3294.03
River Discharge(m3/s) 49584.81
Table 3.4: Computational table for Economic capacity selection
0 8 10 20 30 40
Plant discharge
(m3/s) 283.10 196.00 179.80 133.06 110.41 96.30
Plant Capacity,
P(MW) 11.68 9.81 8.99 7.44 6.76 6.28
Capital cost
(mBirr) 133.98 121.37 117.89 104.40 95.27 88.39
Capital recovery
cost (mBirr) 10.04 9.09 8.83 7.82 7.14 6.62
Annual operating
cost (mBirr) 6.24 5.39 5.24 5.18 4.99 4.92
Total Annual
Cost (mBirr) 16.27 14.48 14.07 13.00 12.12 11.54
Annual energy
3
out put (10 XKWh) 56853.29 55991.04 54986.43 52095.30 49584.81 47256.80
Annual benefits
(mBirr) 14.84 14.61 14.35 13.60 12.94 12.33
Net benefits (mBirr) -1.43 0.13 0.28 0.60 0.82 0.80

Selection of Most Economic Installation
17.00
Total Annual Cost
16.00
Annual Benefits/Cost (mBirr)
15.00
Annual benefits
14.00
Annual benefits
13.00
12.00
Total Annual Cost
11.00
10.00
6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00
Capacity of Hydroplant (MW)
Total Annual Cost (mBirr) Annual benefits (mBirr)
Figure 3.11: Benefits and costs versus plant capacity

3.8 Tutorial Problem Set-2

1. A hydropower development has been proposed as a run-of-river plant
in which headwater will remain essentially constant. The flow duration
data at various exceedence percentages, the expected corresponding
net head, and expected turbine efficiency are given in the table below.
Figure 1 gives annual cost versus plant capacity for the type of plant
being considered. Assuming a value of 0.35 Birr/Kwh for the energy
that could be produced, determine the optimum installed capacity.
Exceedence (%)
0 10 20 30 40 50
River Discharge (m3/s) 452960 328396 254790 223649 220818 209494
Estimated Head (m) 25.6 27.4 28.7 29.0 29.3 29.4
Plant Discharge (m3/s)
Efficiency (%) 86 88 89.5 91 89.5 89
Power Output (KW)
Percent Time (%)
Energy (KWh)
Exceedence (%)
60 70 80 90 100
River Discharge (m3/s) 206663 201001 195339 193923.5 192791.1
Estimated Head (m) 29.6 29.6 29.7 29.7 29.7
Plant Discharge (m3/s)
Efficiency (%) 88.5 88 87.5 87.2 87
Power Output (KW)
Percent Time (%)
Energy (KWh)
Total Energy (KWh)
2. In problem 1, limit the use of the turbine to the restraints that is

practically done and select the size and number of units that you would
propose for the installation.
3. Take a mini hydropower station with a firm flow of 3 m 3/s and firm
power of 900 KW. If the generating flow is increased to 4 m 3/s, an
additional capacity of 320 KW and an additional generation of 209*10 3
KWh can be obtained. Given investment per KW of Birr 10,000, the
energy price is Birr 2/KWh and the allowance pay back period is 12
years, to justify the installed capacity of the mini hydropower plant,
what is the result when the hydropower is connected to the local grid
with diesel power prevailing? The generation of diesel power is Birr
1.6/KWh.
4. A hydropower station with a design head of 40 m and a firm flow of 1.2
m3/s takes 6 h of peak load and a partial base load. Given a minimum
daily load factor of 0.5, find the operating capacity of the power station
P0 (i.e. the dependable peaking power Pp), the Peak discharge Qp, and
the volume of the daily regulating pond Vd.

Annual Cost Estimating Curve
70
65
60
Annual Cost (MBirr)
55
50
45
40
35
50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Plant Size (MW)
Figure 1: Annual Cost Curve

Load Curve
1000
900
800
700
Power (KW)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 6 12 18 24
Time (Hr)
Figure 2: Load Curve

5. For the data given in the table below, determine the regulating flows
during the high and low flow seasons to maintain the required amount
of energy production. The active volume and dead storages of the
proposed reservoir are 31.5* 106 m3 and 10.5*106 m3 respectively.
Month 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2
Natural 7.50 6.50 5.00 12.00 5.50 3.90 2.35 0.85 1.20 1.00 1.65 2.50
flow (m3/s)
Note: Use discounting factor of 7% if necessary.

4 WATER PASSAGES
4.1 Intake Structures

The intake is a structure constructed at the entrance of a power canal or
tunnel or pipe through which the flow is diverted from the source such as a
river or reservoir. It is an essential component of hydropower schemes and
provided as an integral part or in isolation from the diversion, weir or dam.
• A water intake must be able to divert the required amount of water into
the power canal or into the penstock without producing a negative
impact on the local environment and with the minimum possible head
loss.
• The intake serves as a transition between a stream that can vary from
a trickle to a raging torrent, and a controlled flow of water both in quality
and quantity. Its design, based on geological, hydraulic, structural and
economic considerations, requires special care to avoid unnecessary
maintenance and operational problems that cannot be easily remedied
and would have to be tolerated for the life of the project.
• A water intake designer should take three criteria into consideration:

– Hydraulic and structural criteria common to all kind of
intakes
– Operational criteria, e.g. percentage of diverted flow, trash
handling, sediment exclusion, etc- that vary from intake to
intake
– Environmental criteria, fish diversion systems, fish passes-
characteristics of each project.
4.2 Functions of Intakes

The main functions are:
i) To control flow of water in to the conveyance system. The control is
achieved by a gate or a valve.
ii) To provide smooth, easy and vortex or turbulence free entry of water in
the conveyance system to minimize head loss. This can be achieved
through providing bell-mouth shaped entrance.
iii) To prevent entry of coarse river born trash matter such as boulders, logs,
tree branches etc. Provisions of trash racks at the entrance achieve this
function.
iv) To exclude heavy sediment load of the river from interring the
conveyance system. Special devices such as silt traps and silt excluders
are used to control & trap the silt.
4.3 General Classification of Intakes:

• The intake supplies water directly to the turbine via a penstock (power
intake or forebay)
• The intake supplies water to other waterways power canal, flume,
tunnel, etc- that usually end in a power intake (conveyance intake)
• The scheme doesn't have any conventional intake, but make use of
other devices, like siphon intakes

Figure 4.1: Power intake or forebay
Figure 4.2: Conveyance intake
4.4 Conventional Classification of Intakes

Intakes are conveniently classified in to the following types depending on the
power plant type and its layout.
i) Run - of - river intakes
ii) Canal intakes
iii) Dam intakes
iv) Tower intakes
v) Shaft intakes
vi) Intakes of special type
ii) Run - of - river intakes

The component parts are
• Bell mouth entrance guarded by R.C or still grid forming the trash rack
structure.
• Control gate situated immediately d/s of the bell mouth entry
• Upstream of the gate may be provided with stop-log groves for provision of
access to the gate for repair.
• Special de-silting arrangement may be provided in silt loaded rivers.

Figure 4.3: Run - of - river intakes
iii) Canal Intakes

• Water is admitted in to the diversion canal.
• Silt excluders or silt-traps are usually essential components of such
intakes.
• The inlet invert level of the intake is raised to form a sill so as to prevent
entry of rolling bed load.
• A skimmer wall (a diaphragm which extends below the water surface)
abstracts the floating material from interring in to the canal.
• Trash racks are also fitted at the entrance.
• Vertical lift gate with motorized operation are used to control the flow.

Figure 4.4: Arrangement of canal intake

iv) Dam intakes
• For valley dam plants, the intake structure is provided usually in the body of
the dam.
• The penstocks are embodied in the dam.
• The main features of such an intake are:
− a trash rack structure in front of the dam
− a bell mouth inlet horizontal or inclined alignment
− a control gate installed either at or after the bell mouth
Cage-shaped intakes resting against the face of the dam and supported on slab
cantilevered from the dam provide larger area of entry than the penstock intake
area, thus reducing entrance losses.
Figure 4.5: Dam Intake
iv) Tower Intakes

In multipurpose reservoirs built for irrigation, drinking water abstraction, flood
regulation, etc- the water can be withdrawn through towers with multiple level
ports, permitting selective withdrawal from the reservoirs vertical strata.
− Also used when there are wide fluctuations in water level.
− Tower may be connected with main dam through a bridge when the
tower is near the dam
− Flow through the pressure conduit is controlled by vertical uplift gates.
− The structure should be strong enough to withstand hydrodynamic,
earthquake, wind, etc.
Figure 4.6: Tower intake designed to withdraw water at different levels

v) Shaft intakes
• This is a vertical shaft that carries water to the penstock tunnel. It consists of
the following.
• The entrance structure with trash rack and rounded inlet.
• The vertical shaft followed by an elbow and transition connecting the shaft
with the tunnel.
• The intake gate (cylindrical) and sometimes a stop-log closure.
Figure 4.7: Shaft Intake
vi) The French or Drop intake

• is essentially a canal built in the streambed, stretching across it and
covered by a trash rack with a slope greater than the streambed slope
• the trash rack bars are oriented in the direction of the stream flow
The Drop Intake is improved by placing the bars as cantilevers to avoid the
accumulation of small stones commonly entrained by the water.

Figure 4.8: Drop Intakes
vii) The Coanda type screen

• is an advanced concept of the drop intake, incorporating the Coanda
effect, well known in the ore separation industry, to separate fish and
debris from clean water
• essentially it consists of a weir with a downward sloping profiled
surface of stainless steel wire screen mesh on the downstream side
and a flow collection channel below the mesh as in the drop intake
4.5 Basic principles of selection and location of intake sites

• Intakes from streams should be located, wherever possible on the
concave side of the bend.
• The effectiveness of the intake in preventing sediment entry increases
with the sharpness of the bend.
• Intakes from straight reaches can be made favorable by artificially
forcing the water to follow a curved path.
• The location of the intake should consider submergence,
geotechnical conditions, environmental considerations, especially
those related to fish life, sediment exclusion and ice formation
• The orientation of the intake entrance to the flow is a crucial factor in
minimizing debris accumulation on the trash rack, a source of
future maintenance problems and plant stoppages. The best
position of the intake is with the screen at right angles to the spillway
so; that in flood seasons the flow carries the debris over its crest.
• The intake should not be located in an area of still water, far from
the spillway, because the eddy currents common in such waters will
entrain and accumulate trash at the entrance. If for any reason the
intake entrance should be parallel to the spillway, it is preferable to
locate it close to the spillway so the debris can be pushed away and
carried away by the spillway flow.
• The water intake should be equipped with a trash rack to minimize the
amount of debris and sediment carried by the incoming water; a
settling basin where the flow velocity is reduced, to remove all
particles of critical sizes; a sluicing system to flush the deposited silt,
sand, gravel and pebbles with a minimum of water loss; and a spillway
to divert the excess water.

A
Spiral flow
Ground/bottom flow
Surface flow Movement of bed load

A
Section A-A
Figure 4.9: Spiral flow
W eir
B en d
C an al
G ate
In a bend W ith de-silting canal
W ithout de-silting canal C urved lateral branch
Figure 4.10: Typical Layouts of intakes
a ) B o tto m G u id e va n e s
b ) S u rfa ce G u id e V a n e s
Figure 4.11: Bottom and surface guide vanes

Intake Protection:
Figure 4.12: Protecting the intake location from flood damage
Sufficiently high velocity of water is necessary to flush sediments in the head

race channel/tunnel
Figure 4.13: Unsuitable position for intake because of surface level reduction
due to seasonal variations of flow or scouring or river-bed over time

Figure4.14: Intake located upstream of natural and artificial weirs
Intake cross sections and dimensions

4.6 Mechanical Equipment
4.6.1 Trash racks and Skimmers

Debris carried in the incoming water can have adverse impacts on a
hydropower scheme in that:
• It can obstruct flow along the conveyance structures, interrupting power
generation or causing the water to overflow and possibly undermine the
structures.
• It can cause rapid deterioration of the penstock or turbine or cause a
catastrophic failure, such as rupture of the penstock through a sudden
blockage of flow through the nozzle (in the case of impulse turbines) or
fracture of the runner blades (in the case of reaction turbines). It is
therefore essential that the quantity of debris which enters the
conveyance system of a hydropower scheme be minimized. This can
be achieved with the help of trash racks and skimmers.
i) Trash Racks:
A trash rack intercepts the entire flow and removes any large debris, whether
it is floating, suspended, or swept along the bottom. Frequently, it is located in
the intake structure to prevent debris from entering the water conveyance
system. It can also be placed just before the inlet to the penstock to remove
smaller debris as well as other trashes which may have entered the water
conveyance system downstream of the intake.
A trash rack is made up of one or more panels, each generally fabricated of a

series of evenly spaced parallel metal bars. The bars are parallel and evenly
spaced because a rake is commonly used to clear the debris off the rack. In
this case, it is essential that the teeth of the rake mesh into the parallel bars
without binding so that the rake can be pulled along the bars easily to scrape
off accumulated debris.
Trash racks can be installed by sliding them into grooves in the concrete walls
of the intake, canal, or forebay structure. They should be removable and not
permanently set in concrete.
Bars on a trash rack before the inlet to the penstock should be spaced no
closer than is necessary to remove debris which might be detrimental to the
turbine’s operation. Otherwise, head losses may be high and the rack may fill
up quickly with debris. With a Pelton turbine, the space between bars
usually is not more than half the nozzle diameter (or a quarter, if spear
valve is used) to prevent the nozzle from choking. For Francis turbines, the
space between bars should not exceed the distance between the runner
vanes.
The approach velocity of flow should be kept within such limits that it will not
cause damage to the rack structure. A design approach velocity of 0.5 m/s is
usually used. If a trash rack is located immediately in front of the inlet to a
penstock and the penstock velocities are significantly higher than 0.5 m/s, the
trash rack can be built in a circular area to increase the area of the trash rack
and correspondingly decreases velocity through it.
Cleaning of the trash racks can be performed either manually (for small
schemes) using manual rake or mechanically (for large schemes) using
automatic cleaning machines. The trash rack is usually placed vertical or near
vertical (< 25o from the vertical). Placing the trash racks in an inclined position
makes the cleaning easy apart from giving less resistance to flow.
Clogging of racks is objectionable on account of the operational trouble and

loss of energy production involved, and of the unbalanced load created on the
rack causing partial or total damage thereof. Allowing for partial clogging,
racks are generally designed to withstand a head ranging from 1 to 2 m under
normal conditions and from 4 to 5 m under exceptional circumstances.
ii) Skimmers:
A skimmer wall is an obstruction placed at the water surface, usually at an
angle to the stream flow which skims floating debris from the passing water. If
the water level changes markedly as, for example, at the intake of stream, the
skimmer can be a floating piece of timber secured at both ends. If changes in
water level are small, a fixed skimmer can be used. Because some debris
usually passes under the skimmer, a trash rack is still necessary. However, a
skimmer reduces the frequency with which the trash rack has to be cleaned.

Skimmer walls are made, for the most part, of reinforced concrete with a
service bridge on top. They are designed usually for a horizontal pressure of
1000 kg/m2 acting on the submerged surface.
4.7 Losses in Intakes

The intake losses include entrance loss, trash rack loss and head gate loss.
Entrance Losses
These comprises of:
a) Loss due to change in direction is given by:
2
V2 Vf
∆h e = −C (4.1)
2g 2g
WhereV is velocity in the diversion canal
Vf is velocity of flow in the main river
C is a constant which depends on the off-take angle of the diversion
canal.
According to Mossonyi, C is equal to 0.8 for 300 off-take angles and 0.4 for
900 off-take angles.
Vf
α
V
Figure 4.15: Losses due to change of flow direction

b) The losses due to sudden contraction of the area at the inlet section
is given by:
V2
∆h e = K (4.2)
2g
Where K is a constant, which depends on the shape of the entry
K = 0.03 for bell-mouthed entry
K = 1.3 for sharp cornered entry.
c) Rack Losses:
There are numerous expressions available for predicting head loss across
trash racks. One such expression (after Kirschmer’s) is:
4/3
t Va 2
∆h r = K t   sin  (4.3)
b 2g
Where, Kt is trash rack loss coefficient (a function of bar shape), t is bar

thickness, b is spacing between bars, Va is approach velocity, and  is angle
of inclination of bars with the horizontal.
If the grill is not perpendicular but makes an angle b with the water flow (b will
have a maximum value of 90º for a grill located in the sidewall of a canal),
there will be an extra head loss, as by the equation.
Va 2
∆h  = sin  (4.4)
2g

Figure 4.16: Rack losses
d) Gate Losses:
Head loss due to gates (at part gate opening) is given by:
2
1  Q 
∆h g =   (4.5)
C A
2g  d 
Where, Q is flow in the canal or conduit, A is area of gate opening, and Cd is
discharge coefficient which varies between 0.62 and 0.83.
e) Velocity Through Trash Racks
Velocity should be sufficiently low to avoid high head loss and should be
sufficiently high to avoid large intake and trash rack cross section. The
following are suggested limiting entrance velocities:
i) Justin and Creager formula:
V ≤ 0.12 2 gh (4.6)
h =head from center line of gate to normal water surface
ii) Mossonyi’s formula to eliminate eddies and vortices:
V ≤ 0.075 2 gh (4.7)
iii) U.S.B.R's criterion: permissible velocity in the range of 0.6 to 1.5 m/s
The trashrack is designed so the approach velocity (Va) remains between
0.60 m/s and 1.50 m/s. The total surface of the screen will be given by the
equation:
1 t +b Q
S=   (4.8)
K 1  b  V a sin 
4.8 Air Entrainment and Vortex formation at Intakes

Air entrainment is due to development of vortices and also due to partial gate
opening that facilitates hydraulic jump formation. Effects of air entrainment
are: Additional head losses, reduction in discharge and drop in efficiency of
turbines. Minimizing vortex formation and avoiding hydraulic jump formation
help in preventing air entrainment.
A vortex which forms at the inlet to power conduit occasionally can cause
troubles by itself. It can induce loss of turbine efficiency, possible cavitations,
surging caused by the formation and dissipation of vortices, and flow
reduction as air replaces part of the water through the inlet. It can also draw
floating debris into the conduit. Thus, it is necessary to prevent formation of
vortices at intakes and air entrainment.
Vortices are formed due to the following factors:
i) Hydraulic jump formation
ii) Velocities at intakes
iii) Submergence at intakes
iv) Geometry of approaching flow at intakes
Designing for a low velocity into the conduit and increasing submergence of
the inlet can help prevent the formation of vortices. Flow approaching the
intake asymmetrically is more prone to vortex formation than symmetrical
flow. It is therefore important that flows upstream of the inlet area be as
straight and uniform as possible.
For the condition of no vortices at intakes, the following empirical relations
may be used:
Ys > 0.30 V D for symmetrical approach
Ys > 0.40 V D for asymmetrical approach Ys
Where, Ys is necessary submergence depth,
V is velocity at inlet to the canal, V D
D is diameter of the conduit.
Figure 4.17: Sketch of submergence

depth arrangement
Another remedy to vortex formation is provision of a floating raft or baffle
which disrupts the angular momentum of the water near the surface.
4.9 Inlet Aeration

Intakes normally have a bulk head gate at the front and a control gate inside
on the downstream side. An air vent is always provided just downstream of a
control gate. The functions are:
i) To nullify vacuum effect, which could be created when the penstock is
drained after control gate closure.
ii) Intake gates operate under conditions of balanced pressure on both
sides of the gate. Thus the conduit is required to be filled with water
through a by-pass pipe. The entrapped air is therefore driven out
through the air vent.
Qa
Air vent
Control gate
Figure 4.18: Air
Bulk head Vent Arrangement
Size of the air vent: There are several recommendations

1. Q a = 400C a ( P )1 / 2
WhereQa = Discharge of air in cumecs
a = Area of vent pipe in m2
C = Constant (normally with a value of 0.7)
P =Pressure difference between the atmosphere and pressure in the
penstock in kg/cm2
2. 4th Congress on Large Dams (ICOLD)
Area of air vent =10% of control gate area
3. USBR design guide: Capacity of air vent = 25% of conduit discharge

4.10 Settling Basins
The water drawn from a river for power generation may carry suspended
sediment particles. This silt load may be composed of hard abrasive materials
such as quartz and will cause damage or wear to the hydro-mechanical
elements like turbine runners, valves, gates and penstocks. To remove this
material a structure called settling basin should be constructed, where the
velocity of the flow will be reduced resulting in settling out of the material,
which has to be periodically or continuously flushed out.
In order to satisfy the requirement for a good hydraulic performance the basin
is divided into three main zones: inlet zone, settling zone, and outlet zone.
B
L
Flushing flume
A A
Power canal
W
Flushing sluice
Inlet Settling zone Outlet

zone zone
B
Power canal
Flushing flume
Section A-A
W W
Collection tank
Flushing flume
a) For continuous flushing b) For intermittent flushing
Section B-B
Figure 4.19: Settling basin SectionB-B
Inlet Zone:
The main function of the inlet is to gradually decrease the turbulence and
avoid all secondary currents in the basin. This is achieved by decreasing the
flow velocity through gradually increasing the flow cross-section, i.e., by
providing gradual expansion of the width and depth.
To achieve optimum hydraulic efficiency and effective use of the settling zone,
the inlet needs to distribute the flow uniformly over the cross-section of the
basin. To achieve uniform flow distribution, the following techniques, in
addition to the provision of gradual expansion, may be adopted at the inlet
zone:
• Use of submerged weir
• Use of baffles
• Use of slotted walls

Settling Zone:
This is the main part of the basin where settling of the suspended sediment is
supposed to take place. The dimensions of this zone can be determined
through calculations.
Outlet Zone:
This is a kind of transition provided following the settling zone to facilitate
getting back the flow into the conveyance system with the design velocity by
gradually narrowing the width and depth. The outlet transition may be more
abrupt than the inlet transition.
4.11 Design of Settling Basins

The design principle of settling basin must consider the following points:
1. The settling basin must have length and width dimensions which are
large enough to cause settling of the sediments but not so large that
the basin is over expensive and bulky.
1. It must allow for easy flushing out of deposits, undertaken at sufficiently
frequent intervals.
2. Water removed from the flushing exit must be led carefully away from
the installation. This avoids erosion of the soil surrounding and
supporting the basin foundations.
3. It must avoid flow turbulence caused by introduction of sharp area
changes or bends, and they must avoid flow separation.
4. Sufficient capacity must be allowed for collection of sediment.
The hydraulic design of settling basins is broadly outlined in the following:

1. Exploration of sediment conditions, involving the quantitative and
qualitative analysis of sediment carried by the river. As regards to wear of
the hydraulic machinery, suspended sediment is of significance, since the
bulk of the bed-load moving along the bottom can be effectively prevented
from entering the canal by a well-designed intake.
2. On the basis of theory and practical experience, the necessary degree of

removal should be determined. Usually, the sensitivity of plant
installations, particularly the hydraulic machines, requires that a marginal
(critical) grain size dcr is not exceeded. Generally, Francis and Pelton
turbines are subject to greater wear and tear (form of blades, higher flow
velocities) than Kaplan turbines with comparably bigger discharges and
lower heads. Consequently, the settling basin must be dimensioned in
such a way that grains with diameters bigger or equal to dl (limit particle
size) must be settled. It should be noted, however, that no standard values
or specifications have yet been developed
For medium head = (15-50m); dl = 0.2 to 0.5mm in diameter

For head up to 100m; dl = 0.1 to 0.2mm in diameter
Very high head >100m; dl = 0.01 to 0.025m in diameter
For the limit particle sizes mentioned above, the lower limits should be
used if the sediment fractions contain sharp-edged quartzite grains.

Degree of removal
100
90
80
70
% Sieve passing 60% removal ratio
60
50
40
30
dl
20
10
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm) (Log scale)
Figure 4.20: Example of removal ratio
Instead of using the limit particle size, the degree of removal is frequently
defined by the removal ratio, which is the ratio of concentrations after and
before settling, expressed in percentages. If the concentration of the raw
water is C, and that of clarified water is specified as the permissible value Cp,
the required removal ratio is obtained as:
Cp
R= × 100 (%)
C
In the above figure the removal ratio is 60%
3. Having determined the basic data as suggested above, one can proceed
to establish settling velocity of the smallest fraction, i.e., of the limit
particle size to be removed. This can be established theoretically (Stoke's
law) or by experiments (Sudry graph).
The so-called horizontal-flow settling system is usually applied at

power developments. For this system the dimensions of the settling basin
may in principle be determined by two computational methods depending
on whether to neglect or to take into account the turbulence effect.
Figure 4.21: Settling velocity in stagnant water plotted against the density
of silt loaded water and the particle diameter (After L.Sudry)
• The silt particles begin to collect, fall and the lightest ones will fall at the
end of the basin:
• After a period of time the collection tank will be full. The lightest particles
still fall at the end of the basin:
4.11.1 Design neglecting the effect of turbulence (simple settling theory):

Here, the effect of turbulent flow upon settling velocity is neglected. Three
basic relations may be written for the determination of the required basin
dimension.
Denoting the depth of the basin by D and its width by W, the discharge
passing through the basin is:
Q = W DV (4.9)
Where, V is the flow-through velocity.
The second equation expressing the relation between the settling velocity,
the depth of the basin D, and the settling time t is:
D
t= (4.10)

Finally, the length of the basin will be governed by the consideration that
water particles entering the basin and sediment particles conveyed by them
with equal horizontal velocity should only reach the end of the basin after a
period longer than the settling time. Thus, even the smallest settling particle
may reach the bottom of the basin within the settling zone. In other words, the
retention period should not be shorter than the settling time. The required
length of the basin is thus:
L =V t (4.11)
Eliminating t from the last two equations two relations can be established
between the six parameters governing the hydraulic design:
Q =W DV
 (4.12)
DV 
L= 
 
Obviously a solution of the problem is not possible unless four of the six
quantities are known. The discharge Q is usually known. The settling velocity
ω is defined by the initially specified degree of removal and, as mentioned
previously, can be established by calculation or experimentally. The highest
permissible flow-through velocity V should also be specified, considering that
particles once settled should not picked up again. According to Camp, the
critical flow-through velocity is estimated from:
V = a dl [m / s ] (4.13)
Where, d is the equivalent diameter of the smallest sediment particle to be
settled in mm and a is a constant given as:
a = 0.36 , for d l > 1 mm
a = 0.44 , for 0.1 mm < d l < 1 mm
a = 0.51, for d l < 0.1 mm
[Modern tendency is to use V =0.4 to 0.6 m/s]
Depth of basin should be specified considering that long and/or wide basins
are economical than deep ones. The depth of settling basins in waterpower
projects is generally between 1.5 and 4 m with flow-through velocities not
higher than 0.5 m/s. Hence W and L can be computed.
Check
From Q=DWV gives V=Q/WD
and from L=V*t gives V=L/t
Therefore, Q/WD = L/t gives Q*t = WDL (Water conveyed to tank =
Volume of tank)
4.11.2 Design considering the effect of turbulence:

Owing to the retarding effect of turbulent flow on subsiding particles, settling is
slower in flowing water. A more accurate investigation of the basin is thus by
considering the retarding effect of turbulence into consideration.
By using a lower settling velocity  −  ′ , equation (4.11) obviously yields

greater values for the length of the basin. The reduction in the settling velocity
 ′ is related to the flow-through velocity by:
 ′ =  V (m / s) (4.14)
The coefficient α may be computed from:

0.132
= (4.15)
D
Accordingly, the second row of equation (5.14) can be modified for the settling
length as:
DV D 3 / 2V
L= = 1/ 2 ( m) (4.16)
 −  V D  − 0.132 V
This shows a larger settling basin is required, when compared with simple
settling theory. In the computation if the result provides negative value in the
denominator, it indicates that no settling takes place in the basin; hence
dimension should be modified.
Theoretically, the following equation can be used to estimate the settling
velocity:
1/ 2
 4 gd   s −  w 
=   (4.17)
 
 3 C d   w 
Where, d and s, respectively, are the diameter and specific weight of the
sediment particle, w is specific weight of water, and Cd is the coefficient of
drag and is a function of particle Reynolds number R = d/,  being the
kinematic viscosity of the water.
Figure 4.22: Drag coefficient of spheres as a function of particles Reynolds

number (note  = v)
The drag coefficient in the Stokes range (R < 0.1) is given by Cd = 24/R, and
equation (4.17) can be modified for Stokes range as:
gd 2   s − w 
=   (4.18)
18   
 w 
4.11.3 Removal of Sediments from Settling Basins

There are different techniques for removing sediment deposits in settling
basins:
• Manual or mechanical removal of deposited sediments after the basin is
de-watered.
• Flushing of deposited sediments through an outlet provided at the bottom,
often called flushing sluice.
When the water flow through the basin is halted, it will cause interruption in
power generation. However, this is not an acceptable solution, and instead a
continuous power generation should be facilitated during cleaning of settling

basins. Continuous operation can be ensured by one of the following
methods:
i) Providing two or more parallel basins (some can be cleaned while others
are operating).
ii) Adopting continuous flushing, by admitting excess water into the basin. An
inflow exceeding the water demand by about 10 % may be admitted
continuously into the basin and used for flushing the sediment
accumulating at the bottom.
4.12 Gates and valves

In every hydropower scheme some components, for one reason or another
maintenance or repair to avoid the runaway speed on a shutdown turbine, etc
should be temporary isolated. Some of the gates and valves suited to the
intakes for hydro systems include the following:
• Stop logs made up of horizontally placed timbers
• Sliding gates of cast iron, steel, plastic or timber
• Flap gates with or without counterweights
• Globe, rotary, sleeve-type, butterfly and sphere valves
Almost without exception the power intake will incorporate some type of
control gate or valve as a guard system located upstream of the turbine and
which can be closed to allow the dewatering of the water conduit. This gate
must be designed so it can be closed against the maximum turbine flow in
case of power failure, and it should be able to open partially, under maximum
head, to allow the conduit to be filled.
4.13 Head Race

Head race may be a power canal, a pressure tunnel, or a pipe, which in most
cases conveying water from intake structure to surge tank, forebay or
pressure shaft, depending on the arrangement of the scheme.
4.13.1 Canals
Canals are appropriate choice when the general topography of the terrain is
moderate with gentle slopes. However, when the ground is very steep and
rugged, it becomes uneconomical to construct canals as it follows longer
distances and/or needs provision of cross-drainage works and deep cuts and
fills at a number of appropriate locations. In such cases, it is advisable to go
for tunnels or pipes. The choice, in fact, has to be made based on economic
analysis. Where the topography of the region presents special formations, the
alternating use of open-canal and open-surface tunnel sections may ensure
the most economical development.
The tracing of a power canal should closely follow the contour lines of the
terrain. Based on the topographic conditions, a canal may be constructed
through cuts, over fills, and in cuts-and-fills as shown in Figure below.
A very important feature of an open canal is its vulnerability to damage from

such sources as landslide and rock falls, and from storm water runoff crossing
its path. The cost of protection from these eventualities and their associated
repair costs must be included in an estimation of the canal cost.

(a) In cut and fill (b) In cutting (C) In filling
Figure 4.23: Canal Sections
4.13.2 Canal Lining

Power canals may be lined or unlined. The lined canals are usually lined with
impervious material such as concrete, masonry, or clay.
Canal lining might be carried out to:
• Reduce seepage losses
• Reduce canal surface roughness
• Prevent the growth of weeds
• Reduce damage caused by erosion, rodents, and livestock
• Reduce the required volume of excavation
• Permits the use of rectangular x-section
Concrete is the most extensively used material in power canal lining. It is
mostly used with trapezoidal cross sections. The excavation of a canal for a
thin, unreinforced concrete lining is similar to that of an earth canal. It should
be done carefully to ensure that the lining conforms closely to the desired
profile when it is completed; otherwise, the lining will require more material
than expected. The foundation should be adequately compacted and
moistened before the concrete is placed. The necessity of moistening the
foundation is to prevent the sub-grade from absorbing moisture from the
freshly laid concrete making it weak and porous.
Concrete sections of a lining can be hand-formed at the site. If the side slopes
exceed 1 in 1, form works may be necessary to hold the concrete in place
until it sets. The thickness of the concrete lining may range from 10 to 20 cm,
depending on the quality of the concrete and the soil conditions.
In preparing concrete for lining a canal, it is important to use the minimum

amount of water needed for workability. Excess water will cause the concrete
to slump and not stay on the canal side slopes.
Brick and masonry are another most frequently used type of power canal
lining materials. Use of stone masonry permits savings by reducing the
quantity of cement required as compared to concrete lining. Masonry lining
consumes only about 25 – 30 % of the amount of cement required for poured
concrete. Whether brick or stone is used depends on their relative availability
and cost.
With masonry linings, a rectangular canal section is often used. In this case,
the sides of the canals are constructed as retaining walls to counteract the
lateral forces of either the earth backfill or the water within the canal.
Other materials like bituminous mixtures, soil-cement, wood, clay, chemical

sealant are used for canal lining.

4.13.3 Design and dimensioning
Canal design involves determination of the Carrying capacity, velocity of water
in the canal, canal slopes & roughness coefficient of the canal surface.
The flow conveyed by a canal is a function of its cross-sectional profile, its

slope, and its roughness. Natural channels are normally very irregular in
shape, and their surface roughness changes with distance and time. The
application of hydraulic theory to natural channels is more complex than for
artificial channels where the cross-section is regular in shape and the surface
roughness of the construction materials - earth, concrete, steel or wood - is
well known, so that the application of hydraulic theories yields reasonably
accurate results.
The manning formula is widely used to compute the capacity of conveyances
AR 2 / 3 S 1 / 2 A5 / 3 S 1/ 2
Q = = (4.19)
n nP 2 / 3
Where n is Manning’s coefficient
S is the hydraulic gradient, which normally is the bed slope. Alternatively
2
 QnP 2 / 3   Qn 
2
S =  =   (4.20)
 A5 / 3   AR 2 / 3 
 
Equation (4.20) shows that for the same cross-sectional area A, and channel
slope S, the channel with a larger hydraulic radius R, delivers a larger
discharge. That means that for a given cross-sectional area, the section with
the least wetted perimeter is the most efficient hydraulically. Semicircular
sections are consequently the most efficient. A semicircular section however,
unless built with prefabricated materials, is expensive to build and difficult to
maintain. The most efficient trapezoidal section is the half hexagon; whose
side slope is 1 v. 0.577 h. strictly this is only true if the water level reaches the
level of the top of the bank. Actual dimensions have to include a certain
freeboard (vertical distance between the designed water surface and the top
of the channel bank) to prevent water level fluctuations over spilling the banks.
Minimum freeboard for lined canals is about10 cm, and for unlined canals this
should be about one third of the designed water depth with a minimum of
fifteen centimeters. One way to prevent overflow of the canal is to provide
spillways at appropriate intervals; any excess water is conveyed, via the
spillway, to an existing streambed or to a gully.
The following table defines for the most common canal sections the optimum
profile as a function of the water depth y, together with the parameters
identifying the profile.
Wetted Hydraulic Top Water
Channel Section Area
Perimeter Radius Width Depth
A
P R T d
Trapezoidal: half hexagon 1.73 y2 3.46y 0.500y 2.31y 0.75y
Rectangle: half square 2 y2 4y 0.500y 2y y
Triangle: half square Y2 2.83y 0.354y 2y 0.500 y
Semicircle 0.5 πy2 πy 0.500y 2y 0.250 πy
Once the canal profile has been selected it is easy to compute its maximum
discharge.

Canal material Roughness coefficient

Clay, with stones and sand 0.020
Earth canals Gravelly or sandy loam 0.030
Lined with coarse stones 0.040
Medium coarse rock muck
0.037
Rock muck from careful
Rock canals 0.045
blasting
0.060
Very coarse rock muck
Brickwork, well pointed 0.015
Masonry
Normal masonry 0.017
canals
Coarse rubble masonry 0.020
Smooth cement finish 0.010
Concrete Concrete, unplastered 0.015
canals Coarse concrete 0.018
Irregular concrete surfaces 0.020
Planed, well jointed boards 0.011
Wooden canals Unplanned boards 0.012
Older wooden canals 0.015
Apart from the hydraulic computations, the flow velocities in the canal or other
water conduits in general are determined according to economic point of
views (investments, head losses, wear and tear of material, danger of erosion
and silting). The velocity must be high enough to prevent sedimentation. It has
to be low enough to prevent bed erosion for unlined and wear by abrasion for
lined-canals.
Lowering the velocity keeps the head loss over the length of the canal to a
minimum; however, it increases the cost necessary to construct the canal as
the cross-sectional area increases when the velocity lowers. The Table below
provides permissible velocity ranges.
Maximum velocity Minimum velocity

Bed Material Vmax (m/s) Vmin (m/s)
Sand 0.4
Sandy loam 0.6
Loam 0.6 To keep any sediment
Clayey loam 0.8 from settling out, the
Clay 2.0 minimum velocity in a
Gravel 3.0 canal should not be less
Masonry 3.5 than 0. 3 m/s.
Asphalt 4.0
Concrete 5.0
As stated above, in unlined canals flow velocities are limited by the resistance
of the bed material to erosion. In unlined canals flow velocities are limited by
resistance against wear.
Maximum Velocities:
Critical bottom velocity (with respect to erosion) is given by:
Strenberg: Vb =  2d for d is particle size in meters,   =4.43
Maximum permissible mean velocity according to Bogardi and Yen is given
by:
V = 22.9d m4 / 9 S s − 1

Where dm is mean particle size and Ss is specific gravity of particles.
Minimum Velocities:
There are various recommendations for non silting velocity
1) According to Ludin
If Vmin >0.3 m/sec, there will be no silting (for silty sediments)
Vmin >0.3 to 0.5 m/sec, there will be no silting (for sandy sediments)
2) According to R.C. Kennedy
Non-scouring and non silting velocity is given by: V = Ch 0.64
Where h is depth of water in meters and C is coefficient varying from 0.54 to
0.7, depending on silt load.
Freeboard Allowance:
Freeboard is provided above the design water level for safety purposes. For
earth canal the lower limit is 35 cm and the upper limit is 140 cm. Generally
the free board = [0.35+1/4h] m. Where h is depth of flow. Allowances should
be made for bank settlements. For lined canals, the top of the lining is not
usually extended for the full height of the free board. Usually it is extended to
15cm to 70cm above the design water level.
Water Loss in Power Canals
Water losses are due to
a) seepage
b) evaporation
c) leakage at gates
Generally b) and c) are generally of minor importance. Seepage losses from
earth canal may be described according to the following procedures:
4.13.4 Tunnels
Tunnels are underground conveyance structures constructed by special
tunneling methods without disturbing the natural surface of the ground. In
many modern high head plants, tunnels form an important engineering
feature.
In the headrace of water conveyance system, tunneling is popular because of

the following reasons:
i) It provides a direct and short route for the water passage thus resulting in
considerable saving in cost
ii) Tunneling work can be started simultaneously at many points thus leading to
quicker completion
iii) Natural landscape is not disturbed
iv) Tunneling work has become easier with development techniques of drilling and
blasting and new mechanical equipment (Tunnel Boring Machines)
v) Development of rock mechanics and experimental stress analysis has given
greater confidence to engineers regarding stability of tunnels.
Hydropower tunnels serve as service tunnels in addition to water carrying

tunnels
The Water carrying tunnels include head race or power tunnels, tail race
tunnels and diversion tunnels. Flows in water tunnels are usually under
pressure (pipe flow), but sometimes free-flow (open channel flow) can be
experienced, especially, in tailrace tunnels. The design of free-flow tunnels
follows the same principles as used in the design of open canals.

Service tunnels include Cable tunnels to carry cables from underground
power house to the switch yard, Ventilation tunnels fitted with fans at the open
end to supply fresh air to the underground and access or approach tunnels
used as a passage tunnel from surface to underground power house.
The shape of a tunnel can be circular, D-shaped and horseshoe shaped.

Circular tunnels are most stable structurally. They are more stable when the
internal pressure is very high.
a) Circular shape b) Horseshoe shape C) D-shape

Figure 4.24: Commonly adopted tunnel shapes
Tunnels are aligned nearly horizontal when used as head race, access and
tailrace tunnel. Shaft and pressurized tunnels are steep with vertical alignment
or steeply inclined to the horizontal. It is very crucial to investigate in detail the
geology of the strata through which a tunnel would be passing. Sound,
homogenous, isotropic, and solid rock formations are the most ideal ones for
tunneling work. However, such ideal conditions are rarely present, and rather
the rock mass exhibits various peculiarities. There may be folds, faults, joint
planes dipping in a particular direction, weak strata alternating with good
strata, etc.
Lining of tunnel can be done with plain concrete, fiber reinforced concrete,
R.C. or steel in the case of pressure shafts.
Lining of tunnels is required:
i) For structural reasons to resist external forces particularly when the
tunnel is empty and when the strata is of very low strength.
ii) When the internal pressure is high
iii) When reduction in frictional resistance and therefore the head loss is
required for increasing capacity
iv) For prevention or reduction of seepage losses
v) For protection of rock against aggressive water
In the case of low-pressure tunnels the tunnel surface may frequently be left
unlined except for visible fissures. A watertight lining is usually required for
tunnels operating under medium and high heads. Seepage is more likely to
occur as the head increases, water may leak through the smallest fissures
and cracks. Moreover, under high-pressure it may penetrate the otherwise
watertight rock and render it permeable.
Let hr = depth of overburden rock
γr = specific weight of the rock
γw = specific weight of water.
H = Internal pressure head of water.
Then for equilibrium: w H  r hr
With w = 1 ton/m , we have
3
H  r hr
 r hr
Using a factor of safety of, H = (m )

Recommended factor of safety  = 4 to 6.

With r = 2.4 t/m3 to 3.2 t /m3 and using lower  values for good quality rock,
one gets H = (0.4 to 0.8) hr
4.13.5 Tunnel Design Features

In addition to the fore mentioned general discussion, as design features
alignment, geometric shape, longitudinal slope, flow velocity, head loss, rock
cover (overburden), lining requirements and economic x-section are mst
important.
Alignment:
In aligning water tunnels, the following points should be taken in to account:
• Length of the tunnel: as much as possible short route should be followed
• Location of surge tanks & adits: the alignment should provide convenient
points for surge tanks & adits.
• Rock cover (overburden): sufficient rock cover should be available along
the alignment
• Discontinuities: the alignment should, if possible, avoid crossing of
weakness zones, joint planes, etc. If crossing of these features is
unavoidable, suitable direction of crossing should be considered.
• Rock quality: good quality of rock mass should be sought in aligning the
tunnel
Geometrical Shape:
• The choice of the cross-sectional profile of a tunnel depends on:
• Hydraulic considerations: Circular is preferable
• Stability considerations: Circular is preferable
• Convenience for construction: Horseshoe is preferable
• Available tunneling equipment :
Longitudinal Slope:
The minimum slope for a pressure tunnel is limited on the basis of dewatering
requirements. And also the longitudinal profile of the tunnel should be such
that the roof remains below the hydraulic pressure line by 1 to 2 m. Likewise,
the tunneling method and the equipment employed for transportation of the
excavated material (rail or wheel transport) can limit the maximum slope
possible to provide. The usual practice is to keep the slope of power tunnel
gentle till the surge tank and then steeper (even vertical) for the pressure
shaft.
Flow Velocity:
The allowable velocities in tunnels depend upon whether it is lined or unlined.
In unlined tunnels, a velocity of 2 to 2.5 m/s is the upper limit, while in
concrete lined tunnels 4 to 5 m/s is often in use. The velocities for the
pressure shafts, which are generally steel lined, are usually higher than that in
the power tunnel. The normal range of velocities is between 5 to 8 m/s.
Rock Cover (overburden):

For pressure tunnels, it is obvious that the overburden on the roof of the
tunnel serves to balance the effect of upward force due to internal pressure.
The required depth of overburden may vary for lined and unlined tunnels.

In the case of unlined tunnels, the entire internal water pressure is resisted
by the overburden rock pressure. Where a steep valley side constitutes the
overburden above the tunnel, the rule of thumb equation, H= (0.4 to 0.8)hr has
to be modified and given by:
1 r
hw = L cos  (4.21)
 w
Where L is the shortest distance between the ground surface and the studied
point of the tunnel (or shaft) and  is the average inclination of the valley side
with the horizontal (see figure below).
 r L cos  >  w h w
hw
hr
Figure 4.25: Overburden requirement in a steep valley side
In the case of concrete or steel lined tunnels, the linings are usually designed
to carry part or full load of the internal water pressure, and the above
equations, given for unlined tunnels, are modified accordingly in determining
the required overburden depth.
Head Loss:
Head losses in tunnels can be computed using Manning’s, Darcy-Weisbach,
or Hazen-Williams formulas.
2
Manning formula: h f = n 2 lv4 / 3
R
2
Darcy-Weisbach formula: h f =  l v
2 g D eq
Hazen-Williams formula (rarely used): h f = 6.84 l v 1.85

1.17
C 1.85 Deq
Where, hf is head loss due to friction, L is tunnel length, V is mean velocity of
flow, R is hydraulic radius, Deq is equivalent diameter ( Deq = 4 A /  ), A is area
of the tunnel x-section, n is Manning’s roughness coefficient,  is Darcy-Weisbach
friction factor (can be obtained from Moody diagram), and C is Hazen-Williams
roughness coefficient.
Optimum X-section:
The optimum x-section of a tunnel or a shaft is one for which the sum of tunnel
construction cost and the economic loss due to head loss is minimum.

Total cost
Cost Economic Construction

loss cost
X-section
Figure 4.26: Optimum tunnel cross-section
For a quick initial estimate of the diameter of pressure tunnels, the empirical formula
suggested by Fahlbusch can be used:
For concrete-lined tunnels: D = 0.62 Q 0.48

Q 0.45
For steel-lined tunnels: D = 1.12
H 0.12
4.14 Forebays
A forebay, also called a head pond, is a basin located at the end of a power canal
just before the entrance to the penstock or pressure shaft. It acts as a transition
section between the power canal and the penstock. It is formed simply by widening
the power canal at the end as shown in Figure 4.27.
Figure 4.27: General Arrangement of a Forebay.
4.14.1 Functions of a Forebay

A forebay serves the following purposes:
It can serve as a balancing reservoir. Water is temporarily stored in the forebay in the
event of a rejection of load (turbine closure) and the stored water will be withdrawn
from it when the load is increased (turbine opening). In the case of low-head power
plants, the forebay may even provide daily pondage for the plant. It can serve as a
final settling basin where any water borne debris which either passed through the
intake or was swept in to the power canal can be removed before the water passes
into the turbine. In this case, the forebay must be large enough to reduce flow
velocities sufficiently for settling to occur and to accommodate the sediment which
accumulates between cleanings. It can serve to distribute evenly the water conveyed
by the power canal among the penstocks, where two or more penstocks are
provided.
4.14.2 Components of a Forebay

The following are the main components of a forebay:
- the basin: used to store water and sediment (if any)
- the spillway: used to dispose excess water that might enter the forebay
- the bottom outlet: used for flushing out of the sediment stored in the basin as well
as for de-watering the forebay and the power canal for maintenance
- the penstock inlet: serves in controlling flow into the pressure conduit and in
preventing floating debris from entering the conduit. It also provides smooth
transition between the basin and the conduit.
4.14.3 Design Guidelines for a forebay

The location of the forebay is primarily governed by topographic conditions, yet of
course, the geology of the site should also be considered. The site of both the
forebay and the powerhouse should be selected simultaneously with a view to
ensuring the shortest possible penstocks/pressure shafts. The entire basin of the
forebay may be either excavated in rock or constructed above the terrain, enclosed
by embankments and retaining walls.
The size of a forebay varies depending on the sediment content of the water
conveyed in the power canal and whether it is to serve for storage. To be most cost-
effective, the forebay must be of a size adequate to fulfill its function, neither
significantly larger nor smaller. It is not advisable to design the forebay as a settling
basin if the suspended sediment is fine which does not damage the turbines
significantly.
A gradual transition section should be provided between the power canal and the
forebay basin. In the case of wide forebays, baffle piers are usually constructed at
the basin inlet in order to ensure even distribution of flow to the basin.
The bottom of the forebay basin should be provided with a proper slope to enable
periodical flushing of the silt deposited.
A bottom lining of the forebay basin is required in soils where large seepage is
expected. As concrete lining of large basins is very expensive, a less costly solution
of clay lining is usually adopted. The smoothed bottom of the basin is covered with
plastic clay to a thickness of 20 to 50 cm. The cover is compacted in several layers
and is protected against disturbance due to soaking and wave action by a layer of
gravel or crushed stone.
The spillway is usually an ogee type with stilling basin. If the discharge to be taken
care of is great and if, at the same time, prevailing conditions do not permit the
construction of a long overflow weir, water surface regulation within narrow limits can
be attained by constructing a siphon type spillway.
The spillway and the bottom outlet canal should be combined immediately at the foot
of the basin. Water spilling over the spillway crest and through the bottom outlet can
be either diverted into a suitable river bed (if any) in a nearby side valley or conveyed
by a special chute.
In designing a forebay tank, it is important to keep the entrance to the penstock fully
submerged. This is to prevent air being drawn in to the penstock because of a vortex
which can be formed if the penstock entrance is closer to the water surface in the
basin.

The usual components of the intake such as trashracks, flow control devices (gates
or valves), etc. must be provided at the penstock inlet. It is necessary to install an air
vent behind the gate to prevent damage to the penstock if for some reason the
penstock entrance is blocked or the gate is suddenly closed causing a low pressure
inside the conduit which can make it collapse inwards. The air vent can also help
remove air from inside the penstock during startup.
4.15 Surge Tanks

The surge tank, also called the expansion chamber, is a structure which forms an
essential part of the pressure conduit conveyance system whenever such system is
long. Surge tanks may be considered essentially as a forebay close to a machine.
Their primary purpose is protection of long pressure tunnel in medium and high –
head plants against high water hammer pressure arising from sudden rejection or
acceptance of load, The surge thank converts these high frequency, high pressure
transients (water hammer) in to low frequency low pressure, mass oscillation.
It is located between the almost horizontal or slightly inclined pressure conduit and
the steeply sloping penstock/pressure shaft. It is designed either as a chamber
excavated in the mountain or as a tower raising high above the surrounding terrain
Figure 4.28: General Arrangement of a Surge Tank
4.16 PENSTOCK
The penstock is high pressure pipeline between forebay (surge tank or reservoirs)
and the turbine. The design principle of penstocks is the same as that of pressure
vessels & tanks but water hammer effect has to be considered. For short length, a
separate penstock for each turbine is preferable. For a moderate heads & long
distances a single penstock is used to find two or more turbines through a special
branching pipe called Manifold.

Figure 4.29: Components of a penstock
4.16.1 Classification of penstock

Classification may based on:
1) The material of construction
2) Method of support.
3) Rigidity of connection and support
4) Number of penstocks
Material of construction:
Factors for the choice of material are: head, topography & discharge. Various
materials used are steel, R.C., asbestos cement, PVC, wood stave pipes, banded
steel, etc. The following factors have to be considered when deciding which material
to use for a particular project: Required operating pressure, Diameter and friction
loss, Weight and ease of installation, Accessibility of site, Cost of the
penstock, Design life, Availability, Weather conditions.
Method of support:
A penstock may be either buried or embodied underground (or inside dams) or
exposed above ground surface & supported on piers.
Buried penstocks: are supported on the soil in a trench at a depth of 1 to 1.5m and
back filled. The general topography of the land should be gentle sloping and of loose
material.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Continuity of support given by the soil provides • Difficulty in inspection
better structural storability.
• Pipe is protected from high temperature • Possibility of sliding on step
fluctuations • slopes
• Conservation of natural land escape • Difficulty in maintenance
• Protection from slides, storms & sabotage. • Expensive for loge diameter in
rocky soils.
Exposed penstocks: supported on piers or saddles.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Ease in inspection of defects & maintenance • Direct exposure to weather effect
• Economy in rocky terrain & large diameters. • Development of longitudinal stress
due to support and anchorage, thus
requiring expansion joints
• Stability is insured with proper anchorage
When the situation warrants, partly buried system, may be adopted this combines the
advantages of both system.
Rigidity of connection & Support:

There are three possible methods of support,
a) Rigid pipe support: Here every support is an anchorage so that any movement is
checked completely. This type is suitable when the temperature condition is
moderate.
b) Semi-rigid pipes: Here each member of the pipe line is fixed at one and leaving
the possibility of movement over the other support.
c) Flexible support (Flexible or loose-coupled pipes): Here expansion joint are
introduced between each adjacent section
Number of Penstocks:
The number of penstocks used at any particular installation can be single or multiple.
The general trend at older power stations was to use as many penstocks between
the forebay/surge tank and the powerhouse as the number of units installed. The
recent trend is to use a single penstock, unless the size or thickness of the penstock
involves manufacturing difficulties.
When a single penstock feeds a number of turbines, special sections called

manifolds are used at the lower end of the penstock to direct flow to individual units.
The design of such sections is an intricate job and has to be analyzed carefully.
The advantages of using a single penstock over the use of multiple penstocks are:
♦ The amount of material required to manufacture is less, making it economical.
♦ The cost of civil engineering components such as penstock supports and anchors
is less.
On the other hand, the use of a single penstock means reduced safety of operation
and complete shutdown will become necessary in case of repair. Further more,
significant losses are usually experienced at the manifolds.
In general, the use of multiple penstocks is preferably employed for low-head plants
with short penstocks; whereas for high-head plants requiring long penstocks,
provision of a single penstock with manifold at the end usually proves economical.
4.16.2 Hydraulic design of penstock

Permissible velocities:
3 to 5 m/s (no abrasion property settled water) for properly settled water in
exceptional cases up to 5m/s may be tolerated.
Q πD 2 Q0
Therefore: A= 0 = ⇒ D = 1.128
v0 4 v0
Head losses:
2
i) Frictional head loss: h f =  L v
D 2g
v2
ii) Other local losses: h f c = k where k = local loss coefficient
2g
Penstock Conditions k
Penstock with gradual transition entrance 0.10 - 0.20
Open butterfly valve (depending on disk thickness) 0.05 - 0.25
Needle valves 0.20 - 0.25
Bends (depending on deflection angle) 0.05 - 0.15

Net head:
H = Hg - ∑ losses
Where H = net head, Hg = gross head.
4.16.3 Economical Diameter of Penstock (D)

The diameter of the penstock is determined from economic consideration and then
checked to see that acceptable velocities are not exceeded
Two approaches: Graphical (economic analysis)
Empirical equations
i) Graphical approach : D – hf (capital cost, running cost)
If D is small, large hf , reduction in output, loss in revenue. If D is large, small hf ,
greater output , larger initial cost.
Total cost
Cost
Economic Construction
loss cost
X-section
Figure 4.30: Economical Diameter of Penstock
For preliminary design various empirical formula are available
1) SARKARIA’S Formula
0.62 P 0.43 D - Penstock diameter (m)

D=
H 0.65
P - hp transmitted by the pipe
H – Net head e the end of the penstock is m.
2) USBR
v = 0.125 2 gH v – Optimum velocity
3) Donald’s formula
0.466
P
D = 0.176  
H
4) Fahlbusch (2982)
D = 0.52 H 0.17 P
H
( ) 0.43
4.16.4 Structural Analysis of the Penstock

- It is necessary to construct pressure grade line
- In addition to pressure heads, to water hammer pressure have to be determined
The pressure wave speed C (m/s) depends on the elasticity of the water and pipe
material according to the formula:
Em 1 1 D
C= Where = +
ρ Em K TE
For instant closure, the time taken for the pressure wave to reach on the valve on its
return, after sudden closure is tc = 2 L
C

For instantaneous closure, the pressure wave reaches the valve after its closure the
increase in pressure, in meters of water column, due to the pressure wave:
Cv o Where v = the velocity change
h= 0
g
For all other closure t c > 2 L , the max pressure rise at the valve
C
h 2L C vo 2 L 2vo L
hmax = = . =
C tc g C tc g tc
The value of water hammer pressure rise as computed above may be taken at the
turbine gate, reducing to zero at intake or surge tank level. Values at intermediate
location may be calculated assuming a straight line variation
Thus, design head H = static head plus water hammer head.

For thin walled vessels, where D ≥ 20
t
pD Where σ = tensile strength of the penstock material
σ =
2t
At the design pressure, p, the wall thickness is computed by:
PD
t=
2
In the above σ ≤ φ σa; σa = allowable stress
φ = is coefficient depending on joint type. For welded joint, (φ = 0.85 – 0.95)
For steel used in penstocks usually a factor of safety of 3 to 3.5 is used. Thus for
material with ultimate tensile strength of 3700 kg/cm 2; σa ≤ 1200 kg/cm2
Thus for design purposes, t≥

pD
2 a
For protection against coating deterioration add 1 to 3mm to the above value.
For thick welded piper where D < 20, the following formula gives sufficient accuracy
t
D   a + 0.07 H 
t=  − 1)  + (1 to 3) mm

2   a − 0.13 H 

The ASME gives the formula for thickness as t = pr
+ 0.15
 a  − 0 .6 P
Where t in cm
P pressure in kg/cm2
r internal radius in cm
σa design stress in kg/cm 2
φ Joint efficiency factor
0.15cm is allowance for corrosion
In case where the negative water column gradient falls below the penstock center
line, there is danger of collapse of the penstock due to external atmospheric
pressure. The external pressure pe likely to result in collapse may be computed from
the formula by Mayer
3 EI 24 EI
pe = = kg / cm 2
r3 D3
3
I =moment of inertia of cross section of the pipe ring t m3
12
E =modulus of elasticity of steel
3
Introducing a safety factor,η Pe = 1  t  n=2 for buried pipes; n=4 for exposed
2  
 D
 Pe
t = D3
2E
pipes
For example for complete vacuum, t = D 3 4 ×1
= 0.01D
2 × 2 × 10 6
4.16.5 Penstock Joints

Penstock pipes are generally supplied in standard lengths, and have to be joined
together on site. There are many ways of doing this, and the following factors should
be considered when choosing the best jointing system for a particular scheme.
♦ Relative costs
♦ Ease of installation
♦ Suitability for chosen pipe material
♦ Degree of joint flexibility
Methods of pipe jointing fall roughly into four categories:

♦ Flanged joints
♦ Spigot and socket joints
♦ Mechanical joints
♦ Welded joints
Flanged Joints:
Flanges are fitted to each end of individual pipes during manufacture, and each
flange is then bolted to the next during installation as shown in Figure 4.31. A gasket
or other packing material is necessary between each flange of a pair. Flange jointed
pipes are easy to install, but flanges can add to the cost of the pipe. Flanged joints do
not allow any flexibility. They are generally used to join steel pipes, and occasionally
ductile iron pipes.
Figure 4.31: Flanged joints
Spigot and Socket Joints:

Spigot and socket joints are made by either fitting a collar to, or increasing the
diameter during manufacture of, one end of each pipe such that the internal diameter
of the collar or increased internal diameter of the pipe is the same as the external
diameter of the pipe. The plain end of each pipe can thus be pushed into the collar or
‘socket’ in the next as shown in Figure 4.32.
A good seal is required between each pipe section, and this is achieved by either
providing a rubber seal or special glue called solvent cement, depending up on the
material of which the pipes are made.
Figure 4.32: Spigot & socket joints
Spigot and socket joints are generally used to join ductile iron, PVC, concrete and
asbestos cement pipes.

Mechanical Joints:
Mechanical joints are rarely used on penstocks because of their cost. One important
application of it is for joining pipes of different material or where a slight deflection in
the penstock is required that does not warrant installing a bend.
Figure 4.33: Mechanical joints
Welded Joints:
Welded joints are used on penstocks made of steel. Steel pipes are brought to the
site in standard lengths, and then welded together on site. One advantage of welding
on site is that changes in the direction of the pipe can be accommodated without
preparation of a special bend section. It is relatively cheap method, but has the
drawback of needing skilled site personnel.
Expansion Joints:
A penstock, specially exposed ones, will change in length depending on temperature
fluctuations. If it is fixed the thermal expansion forces are substantial. It is possible to
relieve these forces by incorporating special joints called expansion joints, which
allow the pipe to expand and contract freely. For short penstocks, provision of a
single expansion joint may be sufficient, but for long penstocks with a multiple anchor
blocks expansion joints should be placed below each anchor block. Another
alternative to take care of thermal expansion is to take in to account the forces that
result from it in designing anchors.
4.16.6 Penstock Supports and Anchors

Slide blocks, anchors, and thrust blocks all serve the same basic function: to
constrain movement of the penstock. Different terms are used with these structures
simply to indicate which specific function they serve, and this is discussed in the
following paragraphs, see Figure 34 for the sketches.
Slide Blocks:
A slide block, also called supporting pier, carries the weight of pipe and water, and
restrains the pipe from upward and sideway movements, but allows it to move
longitudinally. In most cases the spacing between slide blocks are assumed equal to
the length of each pipe.
If the penstock is buried, slide blocks are unnecessary; rather instead the pipe is laid
in a trench on a bed of sand or gravel of consistent quality, with no big stones which
could cut into the pipe or cause stress concentrations on the pipe wall.
Forces that act on slide blocks include:

Weight of the pipe and enclosed water: As slide blocks do not resist longitudinal
forces, only the component of the weight perpendicular to the pipe will be considered.
Friction forces on the blocks: This is due to the longitudinal movement of the pipe
over the blocks caused by thermal expansion and contraction.

Weight of the block itself:
Figure 4.34: Forces on a slide block
Anchor Blocks:
An anchor block consists of a mass of reinforced concrete keyed to the penstock so
that the penstock cannot move in any way relative to the block. It is designed to
withstand any load the penstock may exert on it.
Anchors are often used at bends (horizontal and vertical) and before entrance to the
powerhouse. They can also be used along long straight sections of penstock, each
one next to expansion joint.
Because an anchor is keyed to the penstock pipe and is also frequently located at a
bend in the pipe, more forces act on an anchor than on a slide block. The major
forces which act on anchor blocks are the following:
♦ Weight of the pipe and enclosed water
♦ Hydrostatic force on a bend
♦ Friction forces on slide blocks located between the anchor and expansion joint
♦ Thermally induced stresses, when expansion joints are not incorporated
♦ The weight of the anchor block itself
Thrust Blocks:
These are a special form of anchor whose sole purpose is to transmit forces primarily
caused by hydrostatic pressures at horizontal bends along a buried penstock to
undisturbed soil which provides the reaction force. However, if the bend is vertical, an
anchor block is still used if the back filled soil is not able to resist this force.
Figure 4.35: Thrust block

Conditions of Stability for Supports and Anchors:
For any penstock support or anchor to be stable and fulfill its intended purpose, the
following conditions must be met:
The structure should be safe against sliding. For sliding not to occur:
∑ H <  ∑V
Where, H and V, respectively, are the sum of all horizontal and vertical forces,
and  is the coefficient of friction between the structure and the ground often
assumed as 0.5.
The structure should be safe against overturning. For this condition to be fulfilled,
the resultant force should act within the middle third of the base. In other words,
Lbase
e <
6
Where, e is eccentricity of loading and Lbase is length of the structure base.
The pressure transmitted to the foundation must be within the safe bearing capacity
of the foundation material. This can be expressed as:
Maximum pressure ∑V  6 e  Bearing capacity of 
 = 1 +  <  
by the structure  Abase  Lbase  the foundation soil 
4.16.7 Penstock Valves

Valves are usually installed at two places in a penstock. One valve is provided at the
upstream end of the penstock, i.e., at the forebay or immediately after the surge tank,
and is called penstock inlet valve, while the second is provided at the downstream
end of the conduit, immediately ahead of the turbine, and is named as turbine inlet
valve. The upper valve is sometimes replaced by a gate.
The main purpose of penstock inlet valve is for dewatering of the penstock in case
maintenance of the penstock is required. But, it can be omitted for short penstocks
where the closure of the power canal or power tunnel is possible from the intake.
The main purpose of turbine inlet valve is to close the penstock while the turbine is
inoperative. It can also act as an emergency shut-off device. This valve cannot be
omitted except under especial case where the penstock supplies a single unit having
installed the penstock inlet valve. The number of turbine inlet valves required at a
power station is governed by the number of turbine units installed, but not by the
number of penstocks, as a single penstock can serve a number of units through a
manifold at the end. There are varies types of valves for use in hydropower
installations. The most frequently applied include:
♦ Gate valves
♦ Butterfly valves
♦ Spherical valves
♦ Needle valves
The type to be applied should be determined individually for each case after
considering the various factors involved. For details on valves, reference can be
made to hydropower and hydraulic structures textbooks.

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Arbaminch University, Department of Hydraulic Eng’g

LECTURER IN HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

ARBA MINCH WATER TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

HE-432: Hydropower Engineering-I Lecture Note/2008/2009/Fikadu & Abdela 1

TABLE OF CONTENT FOR HE-432: HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING-I

HE-432: Hydropower Engineering-I Lecture Note/2008/2009/Fikadu & Abdela 2

3.6.7 Reservoir (storage) capacity ..................................................................57

HE-432: Hydropower Engineering-I Lecture Note/2008/2009/Fikadu & Abdela 3

1.1. Sources of Energy

1.2. Current and potential Sources of Energy from Ethiopian Context

The total annual hydropower potential of Ethiopia is estimated at about 650

The deposits of natural gas and geothermal resources in Ethiopia are

Regarding sources of biomass energy, the potential of the country is

HE-432: Hydropower Engineering-I Lecture Note/2008/2009/Fikadu & Abdela 4

products, animal dung and crop residue is 79 percent, 13 percent and 8

1.3. Energy resources utilization

Table 1.1: Predicted Energy Demands by sources (2005 and 2010)

2005 2010 Annual Average

1.4. Energy resources utilization and environmental problems

Although the country is known to have the potential to produce substantial

• The water holding capacity of catchments and reservoirs is decreasing

• Lack of capacity to effectively develop the country’s energy resources

1.5. Efforts made to tackle the problem associated with energy

• A national energy policy has been issued

1.6. Hydropower status in the World

HE-432: Hydropower Engineering-I Lecture Note/2008/2009/Fikadu & Abdela 6

Table 1.2: Hydroelectric Generation in 1990 (in TWh/year)

1.7. Hydropower potential and status in Ethiopia

exploitable potential is estimated to be about 30,000 MW. However, only less

HE-432: Hydropower Engineering-I Lecture Note/2008/2009/Fikadu & Abdela 7

Table 1.4: Total installed electricity generation capacity in 2005 (MW)

ICS (Inter Connected System) SCS (Self Contained System)

Table1.5: Electric power potential and actual production of the hydropower

1.8. Achievements in Hydropower

1950. The most important indicator is the progressive expansion of

Indicators 1956 1974 1984 1996 1999 2002

Table 1.7: Hydropower Plants under construction and committed

Station name Installed Number of Dependable Scheduled

1.9. Water and Energy Sector Policies

HE-432: Hydropower Engineering-I Lecture Note/2008/2009/Fikadu & Abdela 9

1.10. Power Sector Reform

1.11. Challenges and Opportunities

HE-432: Hydropower Engineering-I Lecture Note/2008/2009/Fikadu & Abdela 10

HE-432: Hydropower Engineering-I Lecture Note/2008/2009/Fikadu & Abdela 11

hydropower development in Ethiopia.

1.12. Merits and Demerits of Hydropower

1.13. System of measurements

Energy = available potential to work J (Joule)

Table 1.9: Energy Units and Conversions

Unit Application Conversion

mixing up the time units = 3.6 x 106 J

Horse power Obsolete 1 PS = 736 W

It is recommended to use the unit of SI.

Table 1.10 Internationally Recommended Prefixes for SI Units

HE-432: Hydropower Engineering-I Lecture Note/2008/2009/Fikadu & Abdela 13

2 DEVELOPMENT AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PLANT

Low head with channel Low head river barrage

High head with no channel High head with channel

HE-432: Hydropower Engineering-I Lecture Note/2008/2009/Fikadu & Abdela 14

Figure 2.2: The components of hydro scheme

A hydro scheme may include the following components: