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Abstract Algebra Notes
Abstract Algebra Notes
1. Introduction to Groups 1
2. Introduction to Rings 2
2.1. Basic Definition and Examples 2
2.2. Polynomial Rings and Matrix Rings 5
i
Preface
ii
Chapter 1
Introduction to Groups
1
Chapter 2
Introduction to Rings
Remarks. Note that there is a unique ring having 1 = 0, namely the trivial ring {0}.
Definition 2.1.2. A ring R with identity 1 ̸= 0 is called a division ring (or skew field )
if every nonzero element a ∈ R has a multiplicative inverse, i.e., there exists b ∈ R such
that ab = ba = 1. A commutative division ring is called a field.
Examples 2.1.3.
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(f) The ring of even integers, 2Z, doesn’t contain the identity element.
The set of all functions f : R → R having compact support is a commutative ring
without identity.
It is easy to see that the units in a ring R form a group under multiplication. Moreover,
it is easily observed that a zero divisor cannot be a unit.
Proposition 2.1.7. Assume a, b and c are elements of any ring with a not a zero divisor.
If ab = ac, then either a = 0 or b = c. In particular, if a, b, c are any elements in an
integral domain and ab = ac, then either a = 0 or b = c.
Proposition 2.1.8. In a finite ring with identity, every nonzero element is either a zero
divisor or a unit.
Proof. Let R be a finite ring and let a be a nonzero element that is not a zero divisor.
Then the map x 7→ ax is an injective function. Since R is finite this map is also surjective.
Thus, there is an element b ∈ R such that ab = 1. Using a symmetric argument, we get
that there is an element c ∈ R such that ca = 1. Now note that
c = c1 = c(ab) = (ca)b = 1b = b.
Hence, a is a unit.
A similar but comparatively difficult result is that any finite division ring is a field.
This result is known as Wedderburn’s Theorem.
Examples 2.1.10.
3
(c) If R is the ring of all functions from R to R then the units of R are the functions
that are not zero at any point. If f is not a unit and not zero then f is a zero
divisor because if we define
(
0, if f (x) ̸= 0
g(x) =
1, if f (x) = 0
then g is not the zero function but f (x)g(x) = 0 for all x. Observe that this is the
kind of behaviour that the finite rings with identity have.
(d) If R is the ring of all continuous functions from R to R then the units of R are still
the functions that are not zero at any point, but now there are functions that are
neither units nor zero divisors. For instance, f (x) = x has a zero at x = 0 so f is
not a unit. On the other hand if f g = 0 then g(x) = 0 for all x ̸= 0, and the only
continuous function with this property is the zero function. Hence f is neither a
unit nor a zero divisor.
Example 2.1.11 (Hamilton Quaternions). Let H = R4 be the abelian group with com-
ponentwise addition. We then define multiplication on H as follows:
(a, b, c, d)·(a′ , b′ , c′ , d) = (aa′ −bb′ −cc′ −dd′ , ab′ +ba′ +cd′ −dc′ , ac′ −bd′ +ca′ +db′ , ad′ +bc′ −cb′ +da′ )
It can be easily verified that H forms a ring (the associativity is a bit tedious to prove).
The inverse of the nonzero element a + bi + cj + dk is given by
a − bi − cj − dk
(a + bi + cj + dk)−1 = .
a2 + b2 + c2 + d2
It is easily observed that H is a noncommutative ring due to relations (2.1). Thus, H is
a division ring.
Definition 2.1.12. A subring of a ring R is a subset S of R that forms a ring under the
addition and multiplication operations inherited from R.
(a) S is a subgroup of R,
(b) S is closed under multiplication.
Example 2.1.14. Let D be a rational number that is not a perfect square in Q and
define √ √
Q( D) = {a + b D : a, b ∈ Q}.
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√ √
It is easily verified that Q( D) is a subring of C. In fact, Q( D) is a commutative
ring with identity. It is easy to show
√ that that the assumption that D is not a square √
implies that every element of Q( D) may√be written in the √ unique form a + b D.
This assumption √ √ that if a + b D ̸= 0 then a − b √
also implies D ̸= 0 and therefore
a2 − Db2 = (a + b D)(a − b D) ̸= 0. It thus follows that if a + b D ̸= 0 then
√
√ −1 a − b D
(a + b D) = 2 .
a − Db2
√ √
This shows that every nonzero element in Q( D) is a unit; that is, Q( D) is a field. It
is referred to as a quadratic field.
The rational number D can be written as D = f 2 D′ for some rational number f and
a unique integer D′ is not divisible by the square of any integer greater than 1; that is, D′
is either −1 or ±1 times the product√ of distinct
√ primes. √The unique√integer D′ is called
the square free part of D. Then D = f D′ , and so Q( D) = Q( D′ ). So there is no
loss in generality in assuming D to be a square free integer.
√ √
Example 2.1.15. Let D be √ a square free integer and
√ let Z[ D] = {a + b D : a, b ∈ Z}.
It then easily follows that Z[ D] is a subring of Q( D). If D ≡ 1 (mod 4) then
" √ # √
1+ D 1+ D
Z = {a + b : a, b ∈ Z}
2 2
√
is also a subring of Q( D). √
The ring of integers in the quadratic field Q( D) is defined to be
O = OQ(√D) = Z[ω] = {a + bω : a, b ∈ Z}
where √
D
if D ≡ 2, 3 (mod 4)
√
ω = 1+ D
if D ≡ 1 (mod 4).
2
Note that OQ(i) = Z[i] = {a √ + bi a, b ∈ Z}.
:
The field norm N : Q( D) → Q is defined by
√ √ √
N (a + b D) = (a + b D)(a − b D) = a2 − Db2 .
√ √
Note that N (a + b √D) = 0 if and only if a + b D = 0. This norm gives a measure of the
size in the field Q( D). It is quite easy
√ to show that this norm is multiplicative; that is,
N (αβ) = N (α)N (β) for all α, β ∈ Q( D).
√ √ √ √
Observe that if we define a + b D = a−b D for any a+b D ∈ Q( D) then N (α) =
αα. In particular, if a + bω ∈ Z[ω] then N (a + bω) = (a + bω)(a + bω) = (a + bω)(a + bω).
5
many entries ai are nonzero. The element ai is called the ith coefficient of f . If
f = (a0 , a1 , . . . , an , 0, 0, . . . ) then we write
n
X
n
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x or f (x) = ai x i .
i=0
f + g = (a0 + b0 , a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , . . . ),
k
X X
f g = (c0 , c1 , c2 , . . . ) with ck = ai bk−i = ai b j .
i=0 i+j=k
If we now compute f (gh) in a similar manner, we find exactly the same coefficients for
f (gh) as for (f g)h, thereby proving associativity. Finally, the multiplicative laws are
quite straightforward to prove.
Observe that the ring R[x] contains a copy of R, namely the set of constant polyno-
mials.
Proposition 2.2.3. Let R be a ring. Then
(a) R is commutative if and only if R[x] is commutative;
(b) R has an identity if and only if R[x] has an identity.
Definition 2.2.4. Let R be a ring and f = (a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . ) ∈ R[x] be a polynomial with
coefficients in R. Then the degree of f is defined to be the largest integer n such that
an ̸= 0. In this case, we write deg f = n and the coefficient an is called the leading
coefficient of f . If no such integer exists, that is, if f = 0 then the degree of f is defined
to be −∞.
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Proposition 2.2.5. Let f (x) and g(x) be polynomials in R[x], where R is an integral
domain. Then
deg f (x)g(x) = deg f (x) + deg g(x).
Furthermore, R[x] is an integral domain.
Proof. If f (x) = 0 or g(x) = 0 then the identity clearly holds as both sides become −∞.
Now suppose that
f (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0
and
g(x) = bm xm + · · · + b1 x + b0
where an ̸= 0 and bm ̸= 0. The degrees of f (x) and g(x) are n and m respectively. Then
and cn+m = an bm . Since R is an integral domain and both an and bm are nonzero therefore
cn+m is nonzero. Thus
Since f (x) ̸= 0 and g(x) ̸= 0 imply that f (x)g(x) ̸= 0, we know that R[x] must be an
integral domain.
R[x]× = R× .
Proof. Since R[x] has a copy of R as the set of constant polynomials and R[x] and R
have the same identity, it follows that R× ⊂ R[x]× .
To prove the other inclusion, suppose that f (x) ∈ R[x]× . This means there is g(x) ∈
R[x] such that f (x)g(x) = 1. By Proposition, 2.2.5, we have
This, in particular, implies that f (x) and g(x) are both nonzero, and so their degrees are
at least 0. Therefore deg f (x) and deg g(x) are two nonnegative integers that add up to
0. Hence both of them are zeros. That means f (x) = a and g(x) = b for some a, b ∈ R,
and f (x)g(x) = ab = 1. This implies that a ∈ R× , which finishes the proof.
Remarks. Note that the above corollary does not hold for general rings. For instance,
the nonconstant polynomial 1 + 2x is a unit in Z4 [x] as 1 is a unit and 2x is a nilpotent
element. (See Exercises.)
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Solutions to Exercises