MA in Leadership, Teaching and Values in Education

Assignment Tutor: Dr. Norbert Pachler

Final Assignment

Module : Teacher education and Continuing Professional

Development

Essay : The impact of educational reforms and the demand for

quality in education

Andréa de Souza

Institute of Education

University of London

2006
Introduction

The purpose of this essay is to discuss the link between teacher education and the

pupils’ achievements. It is said that teachers must do better, and politicians everywhere

demand greater effectiveness from educational services as the cost of lifelong education

(Hargreaves, 1997, p. 9). As a result of this demand, several countries have

implemented educational reforms and research has been carried out on the impact of

teachers’ characteristics on pupils’ achievement. However, changes in educational

policies do not mean changes in practice and improvement of quality because of the

existing distance between the rhetoric of policies and the reality of practice.

In this paper, there will be a description of the educational reforms in Brazil together

with the demands they have made on teachers to improve the quality of education to

ensure pupils learn more effectively. The achievement of Brazilian pupils has been

measured through assessment tests conducted by international organizations such as

UNESCO and OECD. Because of this, there will be a description of Initial Teacher

Training and Education in Brazil, together with a comparison with Initial Teacher

Training in England where the requirements to enter the profession are quite different

from those of this country.

In Brazil, for example, there has been a required shift away from teachers giving lessons

in scientific knowledge to teachers becoming educators in citizenship. At least this is

what one can conclude when analysing the curricula of formal Brazilian education that

is based on the development of the competencies. The reason for the comparison

between the two countries mentioned above is due to the result of the annual report

about quality of Education for All, which deals with the six goals agreed by the World

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Education Forum (2000). One hundred and twenty-five countries were analyzed for the

fifth edition of the report. Brazil is in 72nd place in the ranking of schooling while the

United Kingdom occupies the 1st place (Gazeta, 2006). In view of the wide diversity of

social, cultural and geographical circumstances, for example, the comparison can be

judged as unfair, but this kind of survey is necessary to meet the requirements of the

globalized world.

The structure of this paper is as follows: first, there will be an outline of the general

background of Brazilian educational reforms. Then, there will be a general comparison

of the requirements to be a teacher in Brazil and in England. Following this, a more

detailed description of teacher education in Brazil will be provided to show how it is

reflected in the classroom and in the pupils’ achievements. In the final stage, it will be

suggested that the continuous development of teachers can help to bring about teacher

professionalism.

The background of Brazilian educational reforms

It is widely held that formal education and politics work together. Moreover, throughout

history, the school has been a place where the ideology of the dominant classes has been

transmitted through a largely government-controlled curriculum. For generations, in

Brazil, for example, whenever there was a change in the government, this was

immediately accompanied by changes in the educational systems, in particular, at the

level of the state administration.

During the 1990s significant political changes occurred in Brazil. These changes

followed the end of the dictatorial government that had ruled this country for over

3
twenty years (1964-85). One of the most important educational projects was the

implementation of the Law 9394 (The Guidelines and Basis for National Education in

Brazil), which was enacted in 1996. This law has been the main legislative basis for the

formulations of the recommended reforms in formal Brazilian education. It outlines the

principles and objectives of National Education from elementary to higher education.

Since pupils’ learning can be regarded as resulting from the quality of teaching, teacher

education is also included in the law. Teacher education was subject to further

regulation by the National Council of Education in 2002. The regulation links the

improvement of educational standards to teacher education. Thus, the curriculum also

introduces the concept of competencies to be developed as a means of improving the

quality of teacher education.

As a result of these changes and the demands they make on the teachers, Initial Teacher

Training and Education and Teacher Continuing Development need to be re-structured

to improve educational standards at all levels. Teachers must be prepared to help the

new organization of basic education, as well as being provided with continuous

development. That is why it makes it difficult to detach teacher initial training from

continuing development (or in-service training). Education like other areas is not static

and has to be continuously brought up- to- date. At a rhetorical level, the role of

teachers in school and in society has been extremely valued, although teachers

themselves are often the object of adverse comments. “Teaching is believed to be the

most important factor in determining student achievement, then teachers and the quality

of teaching become the target of criticism” (Delandshere and Petrosky, 2004).

Nonetheless, some of the practical changes that have been proposed increase the

demands on teachers without giving them any kind of benefit such as an improvement

4
in their professional career structure. As a result, the new policies have been

contradictory and often ineffective in changing practice.

Programmes for Initial Teacher Training

This section seeks to draw a basic comparison between Teacher Education in Brazil and

England. This involves examining the complementary and differing state-defined roles

of initial teacher training in England and in Brazil by investigating centralised initial

teacher training programmes in both countries. Through a comparative analysis, it is

possible to see the roles that the policy-makers seek to confer on the educators of future

generations of schoolchildren, as well as explore opportunities for cross-cultural policy

learning.

In broad terms, I found that centrally-controlled initial teacher training in England is, as

its name implies, a training scheme that seeks to induct trainee teachers in the practical

skills and commitment necessary to undertake the following: a) instructing pupils in the

National Curriculum subjects, b) managing classroom activities, c) setting homework to

consolidate and extend classroom work and, d) providing pupils with a safe learning

environment (DfES/ITT, 2006). Centrally prescribed initial teacher education in Brazil

is, as its name implies, an educational model the goal of which is to prepare trainee

teachers to: a) teach by focusing on pupils’ learning, b) encourage tolerance and an

acceptance of diversity, c) carry out activities involving cultural improvement, d)

enhance research practices, e) plan and undertake the development projects of the

National curriculum subjects, f) make use of information/ communications technology

and new methodologies and strategies, g) encourage the development of collaborative

and team work (Resolution CNE/CP 1/2002).

5
When the outlined prescriptions for teacher education in both countries are compared, it

can be argued that in Brazil, the prescriptions of the curriculum are centred on social

productivity. That is, it is suggested that a ‘new paradigm’ in education should adjust

the school to meet the cultural and job requirements of society and the work-place

which have been constantly changing. This means that the teacher should know how to

draw up a flexible plan to adapt to the real situations in the classroom that involves the

context of the pupils. This flexibility in planning involves knowing how to use different

methods, resources and pedagogical strategies, which depend on teachers being in tune

with modern trends and well motivated. Although the teachers’ experience is important,

the pupils’ education also depends on the teachers’ initial training and continuing

development, and that this should take account of the knowledge areas and the context

where the teaching takes place. Research and assessment systems that have measured

the level of performance of Brazilian pupils have shown that the school has not

provided the fundamental learning that pupils deserve (R.F.P. 2002, p. 26).

Although the current Brazilian scene demonstrates that considerable investments have

been spent on education and implementation of policies concerning teacher education

have been into effect, the progress is still limited. The Brazilian constitution, for

example, prescribes that 25% of the funds resulted from tax must be transferred to

education. The resources of the FUNDEF (Funds for the Development of Basic

Education), 60% must be spent on professional of the educational area. In addition, the

law also prescribes that, by December 2007, school teaching at all levels of the based

education (primary and secondary education) is going to be a graduate entry profession,

that is, teachers must have higher education qualification to enter the profession. Until

December 2006, primary school teachers of the first four years of based education can

6
be trained at normal schools, at the secondary level. The requirements for ITE is

established with The Brazilian Education Guidelines and Bases for Based Education

Teachers, which were regulated by the Resolution CNE/CP 1/2002 (National Council of

Education).

A set of factors also interfere with pupils learning. As well as teachers, parents and

pupils too have to change their view of formal education because teaching is a cultural

activity. Stigler and Hiebert (1988) pointed out that reform requires change in the

system. The teaching-learning expectations of the pupils, parents and teachers are those

that are culturally known by society. Stigler and Hiebert referred to this as a “cultural

script”. These scripts “not only guide behaviour, they tell the participants what to

expect” from each other, and express what the teacher’s responsibility is believed to be.

Teaching is a complex system that includes, according to Stigler and Hiebert (1988):

“the physical setting of the classroom, the goals of the teacher, the material,
including textbooks and district or state objectives, the roles played by students, the way
the school day is scheduled, and other factors that influence how teachers teach.
Changing any of these individual features is unlikely to have the intended effect.”

And this is the situation of Brazil. The changes have been occurring in a sporadic way

which “almost inevitably ensures that the stated intended goal will not be

reached”(Delandshere and Petrosky, 2004, p. 6). This situation has led to complaints

because of their cultural implications about the role of the schools and teachers.

Different outcomes from those expected by the members of the school community can

cause potential conflicts or misunderstandings. There are various reasons for this

disintegration. One of them has to do with changes in the staff at the level of policy-

makers or at the level of the school. Different people understand policy

7
recommendations in different ways. When the Ministry (Federal) or the Secretary

(State) of Education is replaced because of political changes in the government, this

always has an impact at the level of the school. Another problem arising from the

fragmentation of the policies is that the policy-makers cannot foresee the consequences

of the decisions made; as a result, they cannot control events (Scott, 2000, p. 22).

In the course of this essay, my aim is to examine the educational reforms and the impact

they have had on initial teacher training and to demonstrate the need for teacher

professional development. As Evans (2002) points out, “teacher development is a

process and this process has some imperfect job-related situation, formulation of

remedial action strategy and effecting remedial action”. Being a teacher of English as a

Foreign Language (EFL), I can recognise some of the shortcomings as they affect my

job and professional development, in particular, the in-service training that is not

offered to EFL teachers. I want to point out that my experience of the in-service training

offered to EFL teachers by the educational organization has been confined to a few

courses or workshops that do not go beyond giving teachers some tips and ideas on how

to manage the classroom. What teachers need is to extend their skills and knowledge

through professional development to engage in changing the present climate of schools.

A comparison of Teacher Education in Brazil and England

In a previous section, I drew a comparison between the practical skills and commitment

necessary for initial teacher training in both countries. In this section, I intend to

compare the requirements to enter the teaching profession in Brazil and England. There

are some substantial differences between them. Initial teacher education in England and

in Brazil has undergone a number of reforms that have imposed great demands on

8
teachers. Amongst other differences, one can find differences in the requirements that

must be met to enter the profession, the standards for obtaining qualifications in

teaching, and the quality control that seems to be much more rigorous in England. In

Sachs (2001) opinion, the frameworks for standards of the National Standards for

Teaching carried out by TTA between 1994 and 1998, reduce the teachers’ professional

knowledge and intellectual standards. Yet I believe that to improve the present situation

in Brazil, a kind of control is necessary to gather people together to develop new forms

of working and developing new strategies to reach the required goal: quality.

In England, the new entrants to the teaching profession have extra tests imposed on

them in addition to those of their education degree (BEd). These “tests cover numeracy,

literacy and ICT skills” (Lambert and Pachler, 2002, p. 225). As well as completing

these areas of studies, the student-teacher is subject to an assessment-test based on

school practice. That is, during the training period, which is a postgraduate program, the

teacher-students spend two thirds of the one- year course in primary and secondary

schools experiencing what their professional life is going to be like. Moreover they are

given some financial incentives which mean that the pupils of the state schools have

well prepared teachers, this, which is not the case in Brazil.

Although in Brazil permanent teachers of the state schools have to sit a competitive

exam before being employed, the quality of the teaching that is offered has been

questioned by those involved in education. Because they are given ‘job stability’, the

teachers are in the same position as other public service sectors whose jobs are secure

regardless of whether or not they are efficient..

9
Another substantial difference is the fact that, in this country, there is no pre-requisite

to enrol in a teaching education course and acquire a Qualified Teacher Status

certificate. Any individual, who has completed his /her secondary school education, can

apply for the Education for Teachers of Basic Education Course. The course is designed

to embrace scientific and humanities subjects and the whole training lasts for three or

four years. The official policy document recommends an initial training of 400 (four

hundred) hours to take place during the second half of the course. After obtaining the

credits, the teacher-student is considered to be ready to enter the profession. Although

the policy recommends a combination of practice and observation, there is no evidence

that any official supervision or control actually occurs. .

In England, the “Standards for the award of Qualified Teacher Status are outcome

statements that set out what a trainee teacher must know, understand and be able to do.

The standards are professional values and practice, knowledge, understanding and

teaching. There are some requirements to apply for Initial Teacher Training: trainee

entry requirements, training and assessment, management of the ITT (Initial Teacher

Training) partnership and quality assurance” (TDA, 2006). My study of the standards

and requirements for initial teacher training in England suggests that strategies have

been carefully worked out on the future direction of teacher education and a

substantial agenda for change has been established, which seems to me to be the reason

for the high quality of education and pupils´ achievement shown in the last UNESCO

report.

Another difference is the fact that in Brazil, the higher educational institutions are

responsible for designing the course and curriculum content that are subject to approval

10
by the National Council of Education. Moreover, the institutions have to comply with

the Brazilian Education Guidelines and Bases for Basic Education Teachers and these

are regulated by the Resolution CNE/CP 1/2002 (National Council of Education),

whilst in England, “teacher educators have to work to detailed prescriptions from

central government and its agencies which specify in minute detail not just the

requirement outcomes but by implication the contents and process of initial teacher

education” (Lambert and Pachler, 2002, p. 227).

The context in Brazil is, in my mind, characterized by a significant degree of consensus

about the importance of education in the changing society. There is a genuine desire to

improve the standards of education at all levels. However, as I have already argued, it is

less clear that there is a strategic vision about how teacher training should develop,

particularly in the context of wider social, economic and technological changes that

have a great impact on the workforce and on society.

The Development of Competencies in Education

As argued earlier, teaching is cultural and difficult to change. However, there are some

key measures underpinning the arrangements for improving quality in teacher education

and, as a result, enhancing the achievements of the pupils. In the Brazilian context, the

first measure could be the establishment of minimum entry requirements for entry to

ITE courses. The kind of initial training teachers receive must be suited to the context of

teaching and learning for the student-teacher, teachers and pupils. The concept of

context is not confined to the school premises. That is, what happens in education can

be rooted both inside and outside schools since learning should be taking place all the

time and everywhere, and what happens outside the schools can have a powerful

11
influence on what happens inside. However, these activities are derived from other

factors such as political, ideological, economic and cultural variables, as well as the

development of a greater degree of autonomy and responsibility among the teachers.

The second measure requires the educational organizations to share with teachers the

responsibility for quality of education. Nowadays, formal education is often regarded as

the solution for different social problems like violence, unemployment and poverty. If

education is a way to tackle these social problems, then, it is necessary to improve the

quality of education at all levels, including the environment where teaching takes place.

In the opinion of Apple (2001) “teacher education does not stand alone” and “it is

deeply connected to more general tendencies in educational politics”. He believes the

solution is to qualify teachers by developing pedagogical knowledge and learning skills

and enabling the children to meet the requirements of modern society. The third

measure could be teachers working out their own values and beliefs about their role.

This can be translated as the development of competences, in particular those

competences outlined by the Brazilian law designed to further teacher education. These

competences are supposed to provide teachers with autonomy in their own professional

development.

The current law requires that the pedagogical planning of teacher education courses

must take account of the following competences: a) a commitment to social values, b) a

clear understanding of the role of the school, c) a good knowledge of the subject being

taught and an understanding of how pupils should progress within the framework of

their environment, d) pedagogical knowledge, e) knowledge of research practices to

enable teachers to carry out pedagogical procedures, f) management of professional

development. This set of competences listed here does not comprise all the teaching

12
that schools can offer to the teacher-student; however, as stated in the law they are

important for those who are involved in elementary education.

In the UK, there was a change of the language from competencies to standards.

According to Sachs (2001, p. 4) the idea of standards of professional training crossed

over easily into government concerns to raise educational standards. When referring to

competences, Scott (2000, p. 4) states that “these competences are meant to reflect good

practice per se”, but in fact they represent the position of other interests such as those of

the international agencies that play an important role in the internal politics of countries

for economic interests. Scheibe and Bazzo (2001) suggest that the notion of

competences as guiding teacher education has replaced other forms of teaching

knowledge. The development of competences aims to adapt educational issues to the

guiding principles of the globalised world. The fact is that school education is expected

to prepare the future generations to “the world of work and to social practices” (LDB,

9394/96, art. 1).

In general terms, teachers are, on the whole, responsible for developing their own

capacity to reflect on the context in which teaching takes place. Since there is no one

methodology, the teachers’ personal interpretation is very common in choosing what

best fits a particular situation. Sachs (2001, p. 2) states that this occurs “in the privacy

of their own classrooms, interpret and implement official documents on the basis of

their own experience, discipline base, beliefs and philosophy of teaching and

education”. However, this should not be a solitary activity. Teachers need professional

support so that they can keep improving their practice. This support is represented by

teachers being granted the place, time and right kind of supervision to carry out their

teaching practice.

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The implications of Initial Teacher Training and Teacher Development

Most of the pre-service and in-service training offers teachers instructions in content as

well as pedagogy (Jacob and Lefgren, 2002), but teachers in all subject areas need more

than just teaching formulae and irrelevant theories of learning and teaching. They need

to be trained to face the challenges that the educational system and the world have been

undergoing. This training involves educating teachers professionally to think about what

has been occurring in the classrooms and how to find ways to alter what is not working

satisfactorily. That is, teachers must be provided “with many different kinds of

practical and theoretical understanding” (Delandshere and Petrosky, 2004, p. 8) to reach

the goals established by the policy-makers that are demanding an improvement of

pupils’ achievement.

Complying with the new reforms requires changes in the behaviour of the whole school

community. It is not possible to improve the pupils’ achievement without collective

work. Furthermore, what happens in the classroom has a connection to the external

environment, which plays an important role in what teachers do. Educational researches

have claimed that family background (race, socioeconomic level, etc.) is one of the most

important determinants of pupils’ development (INEP, 2005). In addition, Delandshere

and Petrosky (2004) mention Cuban’s (1998) remark that “the family background

determines students’ academic performance – as measured by standardized achievement

tests” (p. 5). Nevertheless, the family structure does not follow the old conventions.

That is why initial teacher training ought to go beyond theory. It is necessary to provide

the means to cope with real experience and the development of skills to deal with the

unexpected events of real life in schools. Thus, a different organization from the

14
existing one is necessary to really educate the citizens, in particular the teachers, who

are ‘responsible’ for preparing the new generation.

As mentioned previously, changes in the government are reflected in changes in the

educational system that seems to be inefficient and lead to “changing requirements of

schoolteachers” (Moore, 2004, p. 39). As teachers are the representatives of the

institution, they become responsible for the transmission of the government’s ideology.

Thus, the changing requirements depend on the context of teaching. Changes in the

broad context automatically lead to changes in the educational system and within the

school community. As a result , more demands are being made on teachers, who have

been “believed to be the main determinant of students’ learning and achievement”

(Delandshere and Petrosky, 2004). These demands come from the outside world that

relates formal education to certain features of society, which places a lot of

responsibility on teachers.

The publication of pupils’ results in public exams, together with other international

studies of their achievement such as PISA and research carried out during the 1970s and

1980s, suggested that the standards of state school education in Brazil were very low.

This led the Ministry of Education (MEC) to regard the improvement of pupils’

achievement in basic education in Brazil as one of the main priorities. In a way, teacher

education and teacher continuing development became the heart of what must be done

in order to improve the quality of teaching and the pupils’ achievements. Many studies

have sought to establish a link between the characteristics of the teachers and the

achievements of the pupils; however, the impact of the in-service training has not yet

received enough feedback to corroborate this.

15
Because of the presumed relationship between teachers’ characteristics and pupils’

achievement the government, at the level of the State and at the level of the Municipal

administration, has developed some strategies to enhance pupils’ achievement. These

strategies involve initial teacher training and in-service training. However, the outcomes

suggest that these strategies have not been effective. The reason for this lack of

effectiveness might be due to a lack of motivation to improve and change their own

practice, for example. The teachers have not been given enough time to perform all their

tasks. Another problem lies in the way pupils have been evaluated. The kind of

assessment they have had measures their achievement in reading and mathematics while

the Brazilian curriculum covers other areas of knowledge such as the development of

skills for life.

Although there is a claim that teacher education matters and determines the pupils’

achievement, teachers have not always been given the opportunity to engage in their

professional learning. In-service training has been offered to teachers, in particular those

working in primary and secondary state schools, in an attempt to accommodate the

changes. The first teachers to be given this training were the primary teachers in specific

subject areas such as Portuguese and Mathematics. The focus on these areas was due to

problems that needed to be tackled. The SAEB (National System for Assessing Basic

Education) showed that 55% of the pupils completing the second cycle of basic

education in primary schools do not know how to read properly. These figures can be

compared to those collected by PISA (Programa Internacional de Avaliação de Alunos

– International Programme for Assessing Pupils), a programme coordinated by the

OECD. Among the 40 countries participating in this programme, in 2003, the Brazilian

pupils were placed in 37th place in reading and last in mathematics (INAF, 2006). This

16
international comparison of pupils’ achievement has been used to evaluate the quality of

teaching in Brazilian schools.

The data given above have led to a new discussion about the low standards of public

education being offered in this country. The concern starts with the quality of the

teaching and extends to other sectors of society interested in education. There is a

substantial literature that relates teacher characteristics to pupils’ learning. The

conclusion is that the quality of the teaching being offered depends on the quality of

education the teachers have received during their time as pupils and as teacher-students.

It also reflects the context where teaching takes place. According to Earley (2005) “the

quality of teaching largely depends on the quality of the teachers, which in turn depends

to a considerable extend on the quality of their ongoing professional development” (p.

228). As a result, there has been an attempt to improve teacher initial training and

development at national, state and municipal levels.

Although teachers have been asked to undergo training, it has not had a significant

impact on pupils’ achievement, which suggests that the strategies are not efficient or the

investments made in these schemes may not be sufficient. Jacob and Lefgen (2002)

claim that “there is a surprisingly little evidence of the effect of teacher training on

student achievement”. One of the reasons for this lack of success might be the survival

of traditional teaching practices, for example. Another reason is the development of

individual teaching activities, in particular, in schools working with students from the

5th grade onwards. What is lacking is a culture of collaborative work and a recognition

of all the learning activities in which teachers participate. I believe that changes in the

behaviour of teachers are possible if they are valued and motivated by having better

17
working conditions, better pedagogical resources, better training and better salaries.

These provisions would keep teachers working in only one school, and thus could

motivate them to devote more of their time to improving the quality of teaching.

In my view, another important issue is a cause of the ‘low’ achievement of pupils. It

concerns how their achievement has been measured. In Brazil, there is no statutory

requirement to undertake assessment of citizenship teaching, for example. If the

principles and objectives of National Education from elementary to higher education

presume that “pupils learn how to exercise citizenship and acquire the means to

progress in the world of work as well as in future studies” (LDB, art. 1), schools and

other organizations should find ways of assessing the progress children achieve in other

than academic areas. . The common practice is to evaluate pupils’ achievement in terms

of literacy and numeracy. Time has been devoted to developing the transversal themes,

for example, but this kind of teaching has not been assessed by the schools or by outside

evaluators. This seems to be contradictory because other abilities and progress made in

school deserve recognition, assessment and recording. Hence, any evaluation should

take account of the likely impact of the new strategies on teachers and pupils.

Conclusion

This essay has sought to describe the requirements to enter the teaching profession in

Brazil and England. It was stressed that the requirements for initial teacher training in

both countries are different in terms of subject knowledge and teaching and learning

expertise. Unlike the new qualified teachers in England, their Brazilian counterparts do

not undergo experience of the daily life in schools before they are employed, that is,

they do not have an induction period that is linked to their initial training. In several

18
cases, the supervised training period is described as “completing forms” (MEC, 2002, p.

161).

In addition, an attempt has been made to show that there are some contradictions

between the stipulations of the law and reality. Certainly, the suggestions about

improving teacher education represent a good start. However, it is also necessary to

improve the quality of basic education so that the teacher-student can acquire a good

general knowledge and the skills necessary for any individual who wants to enter a

profession and achieve improvement. The development of professional competences in

teacher education requires a broader understanding of the context of teaching and

learning. This understanding relies on experience and continuing development as part of

the professional activity. The educational institutions, (through the Secretariat of

Education), must provide all teachers with the opportunity for professional development

inside and outside schools, as well as, useful feedback related to their work.

It seems to me that there is a consensus about the importance of the quality of teaching

and that it makes a vital difference to how pupils learn and succeed, although the

rhetoric does not always match the practice. To raise the standards of achievement

demands hard work and continuing effort on the part of those interested in formal

education. They can be the policy-makers, for example, who should develop strategies

to involve and motivate teachers to improve their own practice through training,

professional development and other incentives.

19
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