Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid

Mechanics

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Numerical simulation analysis of flow

characteristics in the cavity of the rotor-stator
system

Jianwei Shi, Zhizhou Zhao, Wenwu Song, Yongxin Jin & Jiaxing Lu

To cite this article: Jianwei Shi, Zhizhou Zhao, Wenwu Song, Yongxin Jin & Jiaxing Lu
(2022) Numerical simulation analysis of flow characteristics in the cavity of the rotor-stator
system, Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Mechanics, 16:1, 501-513, DOI:
10.1080/19942060.2021.2016494

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/19942060.2021.2016494

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Group.

Published online: 06 Feb 2022.

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ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTATIONAL FLUID MECHANICS
2022, VOL. 16, NO. 1, 501–513
https://doi.org/10.1080/19942060.2021.2016494

Numerical simulation analysis of flow characteristics in the cavity of the

rotor-stator system
Jianwei Shia,b , Zhizhou Zhaoa,b , Wenwu Songa,b , Yongxin Jin a,b and Jiaxing Lua,b
a Key Laboratory of Fluid and Power Machinery, Ministry of Education, Xihua University, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China; b School of Energy
and Power Engineering, Xihua University, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Investigating the flow characteristics in the cavity by changing the rotor profile of the rotor-stator Received 18 August 2021
system is of considerable significance, this paper simplifies clearance flow to rotor-stator cavity flow. Accepted 23 November 2021
The numerical simulation results are compared with the experimental results of the windage torque KEYWORDS
of the rotor-stator system, and the results show that the accuracy of the numerical calculation meets Rotor-stator system;
the requirements. The inlet flow rate and outlet gap were unchanged, and the flow in the concave clearance flow; Reynolds
cavity was most similar to the original model. The torque increased slightly and was more entrained, stress; vortex structure;
while the flow pattern of the convex cavity was more chaotic, and various forms of vortices appeared torque coefficient
in the rotor boundary layer. The interference of the rotor and stator disks and the viscous effect of the
fluid in the cavity are the main reasons for the generation of torque, and the Reynolds stress near the
rotor wall also contributes partly to the torque. After data processing, an interesting phenomenon
was observed. In the boundary layer of the rotor, the radial flow in which the inertial force plays a
major role is transformed into a circular motion dominated by the rotation of the rotor.

1. Introduction with experimental values. The results showed that for

The clearance cavity flow of rotating and stationary sys-
tems is universal in the structures of fans, compressors,
and aeroengines. Clearance flow in fluid mechanics is
common in the small cavities formed by the rotor and
stator, and using the fluid mechanics as a complete com-
putational domain reduces the accuracy of calculations
within the cavities. By simplifying this interstitial flow to
a rotor-stator cavity flow, the internal flow characteris-
tics can be accurately analyzed and subtle changes can
be more easily captured. Moreover, this type of clear-
ance cavity flow has an important impact on the energy
efficiency and operational stability of the system.
Many researchers have conducted relevant studies on
cavity flow in the rotor-stator system. Faller (1963) used
a rotor-stator system experiment to quantitatively ana-
lyze the critical Reynolds number of the Ekman laminar
boundary layer. Bayley and Owen (1969) also studied the
influence of different rotating speed disks on the flow
in the cavity through experiments, obtained the torque
coefficient of the disk, and made theoretical predictions.
Owen (1989) applied the linear Ekman layer equation
early on to predict the values of the core rotation of the
rotor-stator system for radial outflow and compared it
laminar flow without superimposed flow, the experimen-
tal values are in better agreement with the calculated
values, but for laminar and turbulent flow with superim-
posed flow, the calculations underestimated the rotation
of the core. In order to fit the calculated values to the
experimental values, he proposed a solution of the turbu-
lent momentum-integral equations that could take into
account the rotation of the core in the rotating static sys-
tem. Serre et al. (2001) indicated that the Ekman bound-
ary layer has a stable three-dimensional axisymmetric
structure at a critical speed. When the speed continued to
increase, a second transition process to an unsteady flow
was observed.
In recent years, some research has focused on improv-
ing the calculation accuracy of turbulence models. Ami-
rante and Hills (2015) studied the boundary layer flow
field distribution at different Mach numbers using an
improved implicit large-eddy simulation. The results
obtained by this improved turbulence model are con-
sistent with the experimental data and direct numerical
simulation (DNS) results. Eunok et al. (2018) used direct
numerical simulation and linear stability analysis to ana-
lyze the boundary layer of a shrouded rotor-stator system

CONTACT Yongxin Jin jyx0002@126.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits
unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
502 J. SHI ET AL.
and increased the rotational Reynolds number from 0
to 4×105 . The transition process of the boundary layer
from laminar to turbulent flow can be observed. Oguic
et al. (2016) simulated the model of an axial jet enter-
ing the rotor-stator cavity using high-precision DNS and
obtained the distribution of the local Nusselt number
along the rotor, which is consistent with the experimen-
tal results. Pitz et al. (2017) adopted high-precision DNS
to compare the numerical simulation results of adia-
batic rotor/stator and rotor/rotor cavities with the exper-
imental results, verifying the accuracy of the improved
numerical calculation method.
Numerous researchers have used the method of com-
bining the rotor-stator system test and numerical simula-
tion to conduct an in-depth study. Luo et al. (2014) tested
the rotor-stator cavity, obtained the distribution of pres-
sure and heat transfer on the rotor at different rotating
speeds and flow rates, and estimated the windage torque
coefficient. Geis et al. (2014) simplified the high-pressure
part of the gas turbine model and set up a rotor-stator sys-
tem test, and obtained the influence of the heat generated
by the windage on the surface temperature change in the
cavity. Poncet et al. (2005) divided the flow into Batche-
lor and Stewartson structures according to the presence
of a rotating vortex core in the axial inlet cavity. Makino
et al. (2015) proposed that in a certain range of rotational
Reynolds numbers, the streamline curvature (S–C) insta-
bility plays a leading role in the transition process from
the rotor boundary layer to turbulence.
Clearance flow is more widely available in practical
applications and many scholars have worked on various
aspects of clearance flow. Abadi et al. (2020) employed
numerical and experimental studies to assess the vari-
ables influencing the energy efficiency of a new regen-
erative evaporative cooler utilising indirect evaporative
cooling at the dew point. Internal heat transfer and effi-
ciency are investigated in the experiments by varying
the size of the clearance. Gu et al. (2020) addressed the
problem of leakage and pressure distribution in cen-
trifugal pumps and proposed a theoretical model for the
direct prediction of leakage flow. He developed a pressure
model for the simplified geometry of an open rotor-
stator cavity by introducing Poncet’s K formula. Pre-
dictions from the new one-dimensional pressure model
showed good accuracy and outperformed those from
a pressure model using the conventional constant K,
when compared with the measured casing wall pres-
sure of an adjustable-speed centrifugal pump. Ghalan-
dari et al. (2019) quantitatively analyzed the underwater
model using a numerical approach with a boundary ele-
ment method-finite element method model. Based on
the proposed model, a code has been developed which
can be applied to any two- and three- dimensional water
tank with an arbitrarily shaped elastic underwater struc-
ture. Wang et al. (2021) proposed a rigid vortex transport
equation based on vorticity decomposition, which can be
used to distinguish rigid rotation from shear motion of a
local fluid. This equation provides a practical method for
the analysis and control of interstitial vortex flow. Yuan
et al. (2021) performed numerical simulations of three-
dimensional compressible flow in a water poppet valve
model and analysed three types of cavitation at different
locations within the valve based on vortex dynamics. It
was calculated that the vortex cavitation within the free
shear layer is due to vortex dynamics, while the additional
cavitation at the trailing edge of the poppet valve and in
the chamfered recess is caused by flow separation.
Many researchers have also optimized the geometric
characteristics and boundary conditions of the cavity
from the perspective of thermodynamics to investi-
gate the internal flow field and windage torque of the
adiabatic rotor–stator system cavity flow. Kielczewski
and Tuliszka-Sznitko (2013) used numerical methods to
study the effect of the rotor inlet jet on the heat transfer of
the rotor. Zhe and Fu (2018) adopted the large eddy sim-
ulation method to numerically study an enclosed annular
rotating static system. As the speed is incremented from
2000rpm to 10000 rpm, the flow structure varies from a
torsional Couette type to a Batchelor type. And the turbu-
lence near the rotor side and near the stator side is highly
anisotropic, as obtained by Reynolds stress analysis. Pelle
and Harmand (2006) studied the effect of an axial jet on
the surface temperature of a rotor in a rotor-stator system
using infrared thermography and obtained the local heat
transfer coefficient.
Based on the analysis of the flow characteristics in the
rotor-stator system cavity, few researchers have studied
the influence of the rotor profile on the flow field distri-
bution and rotor torque. Darvish Damavandi and Nejat
(2018, 2019) selected the SST k–ω turbulence model
and large eddy simulation for numerical calculations.
They increase the mass flow in the rotor-stator system
by changing the rotor profile to reduce the inlet static
pressure. In addition, they investigated that by creating a
curvature in the rotor disc, the contact area between the
rotor and the fluid is increased. This increases the energy
transferred from the rotor to the fluid and raises the total
outflow pressure. In this study, the clearance flow in fluid
machinery was simplified as a classical cylindrical axial
inlet rotor-stator system cavity flow. Rotors with different
profiles have been selected for unsteady calculations and
studied in terms of external rotor characteristics, inter-
nal flow patterns and vortex structure. In order to be
capable of monitoring the distribution of physical quanti-
ties within the turbulent boundary layer, shear strain rate
data was extracted close to the rotor wall for processing
 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTATIONAL FLUID MECHANICS 503

and ultimately quantifying the flow parameters within

the boundary layer. Under the action of high-speed rota-
tion and wall shear stress in the rotor-stator system, the
clearance flow characteristics directly affect the aerody-
namic performance and efficiency of the entire machine.
This is of vital importance for the optimal design of fluid
machinery with an interstitial flow.

2. Physical model and numerical method

2.1. Physical model and computational domain
Based on the windage torque experiment of the rotor-
stator system by Luo et al. (2015), the same cavity model
of the rotor-stator system was established. The fluid
flowed in the axial direction and out from the radial
direction. Among them, Case2 is the original model com-
pared with the test bed. Under the condition of constant
outlet clearance, Case1 and Case3 are rotated by 5° clock-
wise and counter clockwise, respectively, to obtain the Figure 1. Physical model of three cases.
numerical calculation geometric model. Figure 1 shows
a specific structure, where s is the outlet clearance, r is Table 1. Dimensionless parameters.
the radius of the rotating disk, rin is the inlet radius, and G Re /106 Cw /104
lin is the inlet length. 0.12 2.12 3.41
The relevant parameters of the model mainly involve
two variables: geometric structure and physical quantity.
Dimensionless parameters are defined to eliminate the (1994). It is less sensitive to the grid and improves com-
interference of other factors and display the characteristic putational efficiency. Mulu et al. (2015) comprehensively
quantities more intuitively and in detail. considered a variety of turbulence models for numeri-
The dimensionless parameters of the geometric struc- cally simulating hydroturbines. The SAS-SST turbulence
ture include the outlet clearance ratio G, which is defined model was used to calculate the accuracy of the near-
as follows: wall flow field to meet the requirements. The k and ω
s equations of the standard SST k–ω are defined as follows:
G= (1)
r
∂ ∂
where s = 27 mm and r = 225 mm. In addition to the (ρk) + (ρkui ) = P − β ∗ ρkω + Dk (2)
dimensionless parameters, rin = 20 mm and lin = 150 mm ∂t ∂xi
were also included.
The dimensionless parameters of physical quantities ∂ ∂
(ρω) + (ρωui ) = P − βρω2 + Dω + Cω (3)
include the rotational Reynolds number ReΦ = ρΩr
2
∂t ∂xi
μ ,
m
flow coefficient Cw = μr , and torque coefficient Cm = In equations (2) and (3), the first three terms on the
T right side of the equations are the turbulence generation,
1 2 5 , which are used to express the internal and exter-
2 ρΩ r dissipation, and diffusion terms, respectively, and the C
nal characteristics of the rotor-stator system. Here, ρ is term on the right side of the ω equation represents the
the air density,  is the rotor angular velocity, μ is the cross-diffusion term. The values of each closed constant
dynamic viscosity coefficient, m is the mass flow rate, coefficient in this equation are detailed in the literature.
and T is the single-side torque of the rotating disk. The Compared with the standard SST k–ω turbulence
dimensionless parameters used in this study are listed in model, SAS-SST only adds a QSAS to the source term of
Table 1. the ω equation, and equation (3) becomes
∂ ∂
2.2. Turbulence model (ρω) + (ρωui ) = P − βρω2 + Dω + Cω + QSAS
∂t ∂xi
The SAS-SST turbulence model, as a hybrid method of (4)
RANS and LES, is based on the scale-adaptive simulation For the SAS-SST turbulence model, the flow was divided
of the SST k–ω turbulence model proposed by Menter into the RANS region (QSAS = 0) and SAS region
504 J. SHI ET AL.
Figure 2. Grid of computational domain (take Case2 as an exam-
ple).
Table 2. Main parameters for different meshes.
Component Total elements Min angle (°) Max aspect ratio
1 3.14×106 45 64
2 5.94×106 45 349
3 7.68×106 45 558
(QSAS > 0). When the flow enters the separation state,
the QSAS increases; that is, the generation term of the ω
equation is increased and the turbulent viscous dissipa-
tion is intensified, thus promoting the development of
separated flow.
2.3. Grid independence verification
The grid of the computational domain is shown in
Figure 2. The first grid height of the rotor and sta-
tor was 0.005 mm. The number of grids and related
data in the grid independence verification are shown in
Table 2. In grid independence verification, the torque
coefficient is used to compare the influence of differ-
ent numbers of grids on the numerical results. Because
some conditions are not considered in the numeri-
cal computation, the torque coefficient is larger than
the experimental value. As shown in Figure 3, with
an increase in the grid number, the torque coefficient
Cm decreases to different degrees at different rotational
Reynolds numbers. When the grid number was increased
from 5.94×106 –7.68×106 , the change in Cm value was
within 1%. Considering the calculation accuracy and
efficiency, 5.94×106 grids were selected for calculation.
2.4. Computational setup
The flow field of rotor-stator system was solved using
ANSYS-CFX in this article. The working medium in the
Figure 3. Verification of grid independence.
Quality
computational domain was set as air at 298.15 K. Bound-
0.65
0.58 ary conditions were set in accordance with the real exper-
0.49 iment conditions in the rotor-stator system. According to
the experiment, the inlet condition is set as a subsonic
mass flow, and the outlet is open. All walls in the geo-
metric model are set to the no-slip wall condition. The
computational domain was set as a stationary part, and
the disc was set as a rotating wall. The timestep selected
for use is based on the size of the Courant number. After
verification, it is concluded that a rotation of 1 degree
per step can ensure that the root mean square Courant
number is below 5, which can improve the efficiency of
the calculation and also make the data more stable. The
total time of the unsteady calculation was 0.1 s and the
timestep was 2.78×10−5 s. The process file was saved
every five timesteps in the last four rotation cycles, so that
the time average value of the physical quantities in use
could be counted more accurately.
The numerical simulation adopted SST k-ω and SAS-
SST turbulence models and performed unsteady cal-
culations for the flow coefficient Cw = 3.41×104 . The
average value of the torque coefficient Cm of the last
two rotation periods is processed, and it can be seen
from Figure 4 that the calculation results of different
turbulence models are compared with the torque coef-
ficients of the experiment. The simulation results were
compared with experimental results based on the error
analysis method. The relative error between the SAS-SST
numerical calculation and the experimental result was
3.3%, and the relative error of SST k–ω was 4.9%. There-
fore, the SAS-SST turbulence model was selected for the
calculation.
The number of boundary layer grids and the value of
+
y are important in observing the formation and devel-
opment of vortices in the rotor–stator system. Blocken
 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTATIONAL FLUID MECHANICS
Figure 4. Comparison of turbulence models and experiment.
et al. (2007) analyzed the selection of y+ value for high
Reynolds number flow. To ensure the accuracy of the
near-wall fluid calculation, when y+ < 5, the flow law
of the viscous sublayer can be obtained more accurately.
The y+ value of the rotor wall is shown in Figure 5.
3. Results and discussion
To investigate the flow characteristics in the cavity of
the rotor-stator system, we began with the flow field dis-
tribution characteristics, and then analyzed the torque
coefficients, Reynolds stress, and vortex structure in the
rotor-stator system. Combined with the characteristics of
the external characteristics, the internal flow was ana-
lyzed in a targeted manner, and the reasons and laws
that cause the changes in the external characteristics were
summarized.
As shown in Figure 6, the monitoring line for the sta-
tistical physical quantity was arranged (consider Case1
as an example). The intersection line LR between the r-z
plane and the rotor wall was drawn, and the intersection
was divided into three equal parts, which were denoted
as LR1 , LR2 , and LR3 . These monitoring lines were used
to count the radial variation of torque on the disc and
Figure 5. Contour map of y+ . (a) Case1. (b) Case2. (c) Case3.
505
Figure 6. Location diagram of LR .
the contribution of each component to the disc torque.
The plane was divided into five parts along the radial
direction on the r-z plane, and named LA1 , LA2 , LA3 , and
LA4 as the axial monitoring lines. These were statistics
of the distribution of circumferential velocities along the
axial direction at different positions and monitoring of
changes in the rotor boundary layer and reflux zone. A
monitoring line (recorded as LRB ) 1.5 mm away from the
rotor profile line in the + z direction was created to count
the changes in the shear strain rate of the rotor boundary
layer. This monitoring line is used to count the distribu-
tion of shear strain rate along the radial direction within
the turbulent boundary layer and to determine the dom-
inant factor generating the rotor torque. The midpoints
of the two line segments were connected with r = 0 and
506 J. SHI ET AL.
Figure 7. Flow structures in the r-z plane for different rotor profile cavities. (a) Re = 2.12×106 . (b) Re = 2.82×106 . (c)
Re = 3.53×106 . (d) Re = 4.23×106
r = 225 on the r-z plane to monitor the physical quantity
changes in the middle flow channel of the cavity.
3.1. Flow field distribution characteristics
Under the calculation conditions of Cw = 3.41×104 , the
streamline distributions in the cavity of the three different
rotor profiles are compared in Figure 7. Because the cavity
of the rotating static system is a geometric model with
central symmetry, the r-z plane streamline is selected for
display. The legend represents the absolute velocity V tan
of the fluid microelement at this point.
1 is flattened by the squeezing effect of the cavity, and the
Vtan =(Vr2 + Vz2 ) 2 (5)
Here, V r is the radial component of the velocity vector
and V z is the axial component of the velocity vector.
When Re = 2.12×106 , the flow distribution of the
three rotor profiles in the r-z plane is shown in
Figure 7(a). By comparing several schemes, it can be
observed that the vortex in the cavity can be roughly
divided into a ring-shaped swirling vortex and laminar
vortex near the rotor wall. The entrainment effect caused
by the rotation of the rotor was obvious. Two vortex cores
can be observed in Case1, and one vortex core can be
observed in Case2 and Case3. The vortex generated by
entrainment is in the same position where the center
of the vortex core appears in the rotor boundary layer
where the absolute velocity V tan gradient is maximum.
The cavity of Case1, close to the rotating shaft, has a
small rotating static gap, the shape of the main vortex
position of the vortex is closer to the rotation axis than in
Case2. The recirculation vortex was formed by entrain-
ment at the outlet of Case1. The absolute velocity of the
rotor boundary layer in Case3 is lower than that in Case1
and Case2. The vortex core appeared near the outlet of
 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTATIONAL FLUID MECHANICS
Figure 8. Distribution of circumferential velocity on monitoring lines. (a) LA1 . (b) LA2 . (c) LA3 . (d) LA4 .
the cavity, and the main vortex interfered with the flow
field of the rotor boundary layer. It can be seen from the
enlarged region in Case3 that the streamline of the rotor
boundary layer has an obvious wavy shape, and has a ten-
dency for boundary layer separation from the attached
flow to the separated flow.
As the rotor speed increases, the flow distribution in
the Case1 cavity in the r-z plane does not show a large
change. The swirling vortex in Case2 is influenced by
an increase in the rotational Reynolds number, which
creates a tendency to separate at Re = 3.53×106 . The
vortices with a tendency to separate in Case3 largely
begin to separate at Re = 2.82×106 , and as the rotating
velocity continues to increase, the flow within the tur-
bulent boundary layer is increasingly influenced by the
separating vortices.
Figure 8 shows the distribution of the circumferen-
tial velocity along the axis of the rotor-stator system on
the monitoring line. The abscissa indicates the position
of a certain point on the line, and the ordinate indicates
the circumferential velocity component of the fluid at
507
that point. The abscissa and ordinate are subjected to the
following dimensionless processing:
z
z∗ = (6)
h
Vu
Vu∗ = (7)
Ωr
where z is the distance between the point on the mon-
itoring line and the stator wall, h is the length of the
monitoring line, V u is the circumferential velocity of the
point on the monitoring line, and r is 1/5r, 2/5r, 3/5r, and
4/5r. In the dotted line box of Figure 8, the circumferen-
tial velocity V u ∗ of LA1 first decreases and then increases.
As the position of the monitoring line moves toward the
outlet direction, the gradient of V u ∗ in this area gradu-
ally decreases until in the box of LA4 and the V u ∗ of Cases
1, 2, and 3 increases monotonously. Because LA1 is close
to the inlet of the cavity, the fluid in the rotor boundary
layer is subject to the inertia of the incoming flow and has
a large radial velocity, while the position of the main vor-
tex in the recirculation zone is relatively stable and does
508 J. SHI ET AL.
Figure 9. Distribution of shear strain rate in LRB and LRC . (a) LRB . (b) LRC .
not flow with the fluid in the boundary layer to the out-
let; therefore, there is a large velocity gradient at LA1 . The
radial velocity of the fluid in the rotor boundary layer
gradually decreases under the action of viscosity. At LA4 ,
the fluid in the rotor boundary layer is strongly affected
by the rotating wall of the rotor. The fluid at the interface
between the rotor boundary layer and the recirculation
zone had almost the same circumferential velocity and
did not produce a large velocity gradient similar to that
in LA1 .
When the fluid is in motion, owing to the adhesion
between the fluid and the solid surface and the inter-
action between the molecules in the fluid, the fluid is
produced shear deformation. The shear strain rate rep-
resents the gradient of fluid velocity along the thickness
direction of the fluid. The distribution law of the shear
strain rate of Cases 1, 2, and 3 along the LRB and LRC is
shown in Figure 9.
In Figure 9 (a), Case1 in the rotor boundary layer
has a peak value at r∗ = 0.24. Because the axial flow is
squeezed by the main vortex near the stator, the flow
channel gradually becomes smaller, and the velocity of
the fluid with inertial force reaches a maximum near
this point. When the fluid moves along the radial direc-
tion, the V tan generated by the inertial force in the rotor
boundary layer gradually decreases, but the influence of
the circumferential velocity induced by the rotor surface
adhesion on the flow in the rotor boundary layer grad-
ually increases, thus generating a trough at r∗ = 0.58.
The V tan of the fluid in the rotor boundary layer grad-
ually decreases in the radial direction, and the shear
strain rate characterizes the velocity change caused by the
movement of the fluid under the action of Newton inner
friction force. In Figure 8, as the monitoring line goes
from LA1 to LA4 , the circumferential velocity close to the
rotor gradually increases. When r∗ > 0.58, the rotation of
the rotor in the boundary layer of the rotor in Case1 plays
a leading role in the change in the shear strain rate. The
variation trend of the shear strain rate in the boundary
layer of the Case2 rotor is similar to that of Case1, except
that the positions of the wave crest and valley are closer to
the outlet of the cavity than those of Case1, and the peak
valley value is also small. The vortex core of the main
vortex is closer to the outlet of the rotor-stator system
than that of Case1, and its interference effect on the flow
in the boundary layer is relatively weak. The rotor pro-
file of Case3 is an easily induced vortex separation from
the axial flow, and the flow in the rotor boundary layer is
more complex. In Figure 8 (c), some vortices tend to sepa-
rate from the attached vortex layer to the free vortex layer;
therefore, the shear strain rate in the rotor boundary layer
fluctuates more disorderly along the radial direction.
The radial variation of the shear strain rate at the cen-
ter of the cavity is shown in Figure 9 (b). Obvious wave
peaks are observed at r∗ = 0.12, for all three cases, and
the order of peak values is: Case1 > Case2 > Case3. The
peak value is because of the velocity gradient between the
fluid in the recirculation zone and the inlet flow. It can be
observed from Figure 8 (a) that the V u ∗ near the inlet
of Case1 is smaller than that of Case2 and Case3. There-
fore, the most important reason for the peak value is that
the V tan gradient between the fluid flowing into the cavity
and the interface of the reflux region is large. According to
the distribution of V tan in the r-z plane in Figure 7(a), the
difference between the peak values of Case2 and Case3
can be explained.
3.2. Torque distribution characteristics of the rotor
wall
The unsteady calculation results for the time-averaged
distribution of the wall shear stress on the rotor wall are
shown in Figure 10. The LR length in the three cases
is dimensionless obtaining l∗. It can be seen from the
 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTATIONAL FLUID MECHANICS
Figure 10. Distribution of wall shear stress on LR .
figure that different rotor profiles have a considerable
impact on the wall shear stress, and the relationship
between shear stress and torque is provided below. While
Re = 2.12×106 , the shear stress on LR increases grad-
ually along the radial direction and decreases slightly
near the outlet. The shear stress of Case2 and Case3
increases almost linearly with the same gradient when
l∗ < 0.2, while the shear stress of Case1 is the largest
before l∗ < 0.4. When l∗ = 0.58, Case1 and Case3 have
the same shear stress, and the value of Case3 exceeds that
of Case1 after this point. To combine the shear stress with
the torque, the shear stress was integrated on the LR , and
the formula is as follows:
 
T = r · τ · 2πrdr = 2π τ · r2 dr (8)
In the formula, τ is the shear stress.
The torque generated on LR1 , LR2 , and LR3 is trans-
formed into a dimensionless torque coefficient, Cm , as
shown in Figure 11. It can be seen from the figure that
the contribution of shear stress was generated by fluid vis-
cosity and the wall action to the torque was generated by
the rotor in different regions. The torque coefficient grad-
ually increases along the radial direction. It can be seen
from the positions of LR1 and LR2 that the torque is dis-
tributed according to Case1 > Case3 > Case2, and the
torque of Case3 is greater than that of Case1 at LR3 .
3.3. Reynolds stress analysis
For the stress generated by the turbulent movement of
the fluid, in addition to the viscous stress, the Reynolds
stress is expressed by a second-order tensor, and the
Reynolds stress represents the influence of the turbu-
lent pulsation on the momentum equation. Among them,
the normal Reynolds stress includes Rθ θ , Rrr , and Rzz ,
509
Figure 11. Radial distribution of torque coefficient C m .
and the tangential Reynolds stress includes Rrθ , Rzr , and
Rzθ . According to Darvish Damavandi and Nejat (2019),
the r-z plane Reynolds stress of the rotor-stator cavity is
analyzed for the study of the windage torque of the rotor-
stator cavity. It was concluded that Rrθ has a significant
influence on the wall shear stress, and thus the Reynolds
stress, which has a major influence on the torque, is as
follows:
Vr Vθ
Rrθ = (9)
(Ωr)2
Here, Vr  Vθ  is the momentum in the θ direction trans-
mitted through the unit area of the r-z plane per unit
time. The Reynolds stress distributions of Cases 1, 2, and
3 on the r-z plane are shown in Figure 12. The sign of
the tangential Reynolds stress value represents only the
direction and is unrelated to the magnitude.
Each case has a large absolute value of different
Reynolds stresses at the interface between the axial
incoming flow and recirculation flow. From Figure 12(d),
the rotor wall surface of the three cases has a large Rrθ .
Equation (8) only considers the shear stress generated by
the fluid viscosity, resulting in the integral torque being
slightly smaller than the rotor torque in the numerical
calculation results. Therefore, the location where the tan-
gential Reynolds stress Rrθ is larger will also have a partial
effect on the rotor torque.
The Reynolds stress of the fluid in the cavity in Case1
was mainly distributed in the area of r∗ < 0.35. When
r∗ > 0.35, the Reynolds stress in all directions is weak-
ened to varying degrees as the radius increases. The tan-
gential Reynolds stress in the cavity of Case2 was greater
than that of the other two cases. Because the recirculation
zone is strongly affected by the stator wall, there are larger
Rrθ , Rzr , and Rzθ near the stator wall. In Case3, there is a
510 J. SHI ET AL.
Figure 12. Contour maps of Reynolds stress in r-z plane
region with a large tangential Reynolds stress in the tur-
bulent boundary layer of the rotor. Owing to the tendency
of vortex separation in the fluid in the boundary layer, the
degree of internal velocity pulsation is greater than that
outside the boundary layer.
3.4. Vortex structure characteristics
The distribution of the vortex core in the cavity of the
rotor-stator system is shown in Figure 13. In this study,
the λ−2 method was used to extract the vortex struc-
ture on the isosurface, and the surface contour map of the
vortex structure shows the vortex viscosity coefficient.
In Case1, the main vortex develops in a short radial
direction, and the recirculation vortex caused by entrain-
ment can be observed at the outlet of the cavity. The
generation of radial vortices is caused by the rotation of
the rotor, which causes the fluid in the viscous sublayer
to periodically form tiny vortices. Under the action of
inertia, the fluid in the rotor boundary layer has a rel-
atively large radial velocity, causing the tiny vortices to
evolve into radial vortices. The main vortex in Case2 has
a large radial dimension, and the vortex formed by the
secondary flow on the inlet section and stator wall can
be observed at the inlet of the cavity. In Case3, it can be
seen intuitively that the prototype of the vortex rope is
 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTATIONAL FLUID MECHANICS 511

Figure 13. Vortex structure in cavity. (a) Case1. (b) Case2. (c) Case3.

attached to the surface of the rotor without reaching the

boundary conditions of the separation vortex in the rotor
boundary layer. The vortex near the outlet is completely
separated from the boundary layer. Owing to the influ-
ence of entrainment and the adhesion of the stator wall,
the shape is no longer regular, inevitably affecting the flow
pattern of the outlet of the rotor-stator system.
The Reynolds stress and the average flow field are con-
nected through the viscosity of the vortex, which reflects
the stress generated when the fluid is in turbulent motion.
The areas with larger vortex viscosity coefficients in Cases
1 and 2 were mainly concentrated on the surface of the
main vortex and gradually increased along the radial
direction. In Figure 13(c), the vortex viscosity coefficient
of the vortex structure in Case3 is relatively small, indi- Figure 14. Average vorticity distribution within the cavity for
cating that the stress generated by the vortex viscosity is different rotor profiles.
relatively small under this working condition. It is clear
from the Case3 curve in Figure 9(b) that the amplitude
of the shear strain rate in the center of the cavity and the The figure shows that when the rotational Reynolds
rotor boundary layer is smaller than that of Case1 and 2. number is constant, the ωave in the Case3 cavity is smaller
The vorticity of the vortex structure within the cav- than the other two cases. As the rotor rotation speed
ity of the rotor-stator system is also part of the analysis. increases, the ωave also gradually increases. Since there
As the rotors have different profiles, direct comparison of is no obvious main vortex in Case3, the fluid particles
vorticity is not an accurate representation of vortex inten- near the vortex core rotate around their center with a
sity in the cavity. By varying the vorticity in Equation (10) small angular velocity and therefore have a small vortex
we can obtain the vorticity per unit volume of fluid par- intensity.
ticle and compare the conditions with different profiles
and rotational Reynolds numbers. 4. Conclusions

V ωv dV In this study, the clearance flow inside the fluid machine
ωave = (10)
V was simplified into a rotor-stator system cavity, and the
where ωv is the time-averaged vorticity in the cavity, V experimental torque was compared with the numeri-
is the volume of the cavity and ωave is the time-averaged cal results. The SST-SAS turbulence model was selected
vorticity per unit volume of fluid particle. The variation to study the influence of different rotor profiles on the
in the amount of vorticity within the cavity of the rotor- flow characteristics in the cavity. The numerical model
stator system formed by different rotor profiles is shown is expressed in a cylindrical coordinate system, and the
in Figure 14. main conclusions of this research are as follows:
512 J. SHI ET AL.

(1) As the rotating Reynolds number Re = 2.12×106 , Nomenclature

Case1 is strongly entrained, and two obvious vor-
h length of the monitoring line, mm
tex cores are produced in the cavity. Case2 was also
k turbulent kinetic energy, m2 /s2
subjected to entrainment, and a vortex that occu-
m mass flow rate, kg/s
pied approximately 2/3 of the cavity volume was
R Reynolds stress, s−2
observed on the r-z plane. In Case3, a separation
r radius of the disk, mm
vortex prototype was formed at the rotor boundary
rin , lin inlet section radius and length of computa-
layer.
tional domain, mm
(2) The circumferential velocity of the fluid in the
s outlet width of computational domain, mm
boundary layer of the rotors with different profiles
T torque of the rotor, N·m
gradually increased along the radial direction. In the
V Cavity volume, m3
boundary layer, the radial flow with inertial force
Vr radial velocity, m/s
plays a major role and is transformed into the cir-
V tan absolute velocity in r-z plane, m/s
cumferential motion dominated by the rotor rota-
Vu circumferential velocity, m/s
tion.
Vz axial velocity, m/s
(3) The areas with the largest shear strain rates of the
z distance between the point on the monitoring
different cases appeared on the cavity wall and the
line and the stator wall, mm
interface between the recirculation and main flow.
The adhesion force at the wall causes the viscous
fluid to produce a large shear strain rate, which is Greek Symbols
disturbed by the micro-element of the fluid with dif-
ferent velocity vectors at the interface between the μ dynamic viscosity coefficient, Pa·s
recirculation and the main flow. ρ air density, kg/m3
(4) The order of torque on different profiled rotors is as τ shear stress, Pa
follows: Case3 > Case1 > Case2. In addition to the  rotor angular velocity, s−1
viscous stress of the fluid, the Reynolds stress Rrθ ω specific dissipation rate, s−1
also contributed to the rotor wall torque. ωave volume average vorticity, s−1
(5) The vortex structure of the static system cavity shows ωv vorticity, s−1
that there are tiny vortices in the viscous sublayer
of Cases 1, 2, and 3. The main vortex and recircula-
tion vortex of entrainment in Case1 and 2 were more Dimensionless Groups
obvious. In Case3, the circumferential vortex ropes Cm torque coefficient
mainly appear in the layer of the logarithmic law and Cw flow coefficient
tend to separate. G outlet clearance ratio
Re rotational Reynold number
V u∗ dimensionless circumferential velocity
5. Improvements and future direction r∗ dimensionless radius of the disk
l∗ Dimensionless LR length
The limitation of this article is that there were fewer types
of profile changes. Optimum profile had not been found
to achieve improved internal flow patterns and reduced Disclosure statement
energy dissipation. Due to the limitation of computing No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
resources, more turbulence models could be compared
to better fit the experiment result and reduce errors. Sec-
ondly, this article did not study the quantitative analysis Funding
of different stresses on the components of disc torque. In This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation
the future, the study of intracavity flow in terms of vortex of China (grant number 52009115), the Open Research Subject
dynamics and energy transport, as well as improvements of Key Laboratory of Fluid and Power Machinery (Xihua Uni-
versity), Ministry of Education (grant number LTDL2021-003)
to the geometric model, could lead to a reduction in and Talent Fund of Xihua University (grant number Z212007).
turbulent dissipation energy. In addition, the working
medium can be changed to water in the future, which will
provide certain help to the optimal design of hydraulic ORCID
machinery. Yongxin Jin http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4623-2507
 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTATIONAL FLUID MECHANICS 513

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