W.war of The Austrian Succession

War of the Austrian Succession
War of the Austrian Succession

Part of the French–Habsburg rivalry and the Austria–
Prussia rivalry
Left to right:
The Capture of the Nuestra Señora de Covadonga (20
April 1743) · The Battle of Fontenoy (11 May 1745) ·
The Battle of Hohenfriedberg (4 June 1745) · The
Siege of Bergen op Zoom (14 July – 18 September
1747)
Date 16 December 1740 – 18 October 1748

(7 years, 10 months and 2 days)
Location Europe, North America, South America,
South India
Result Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
Territorial
Prussian control of Silesia confirmed.
changes
Duchies of Parma, Piacenza and
Guastalla ceded to the Spanish
Bourbons.
All other territories restored to pre-
war owners
Belligerents
France Habsburg Monarchy
Prussia (1740–42, Great Britain
1744–45) Hanover
Spain Dutch Republic
Bavaria (1741–45) (1744–48)
Saxony (1741–42) Saxony (1743–45)
Sardinia (1741–42) Sardinia (1742–48)
Genoa (1745–48) Russia (1741–43,
Sweden (1741–43) 1748)
Duchy of Modena
Commanders and leaders

Louis XV of France Maria Theresa
Maurice, Count of Francis I
Saxony Ludwig Khevenhüller
François-Marie, 1st Charles of Lorraine
duc de Broglie
Otto von Traun
Ulrich Lowendal
George II
Frederick II (personal union)
Leopold of Anhalt- Sir Robert Walpole
Dessau
Spencer Compton
Leopold II
Henry Pelham
Philip V of Spain George Wade
Infante Philip
Duke of Cumberland
Count of Gages
Thomas Mathews
Emperor Charles VII
Anthonie van der
Maximilian Joseph Heim
Frederick I William IV
Charles Lewenhaupt Prince of Waldeck
Lorenzo De Mari Isaac Cronström
Francesco III d'Este Frederick Augustus II
Count Rutowsky
Charles Emmanuel III
Elizabeth I
Peter Lacy
Strength
1740: 1747:
200,000 204,000[2]
1742: 120,000[3][a]
120,000[1] 127,000 [b]
70,000[1] 55,000 [6]
40,000[1] 1742:
35,000[1] 30,000[1]
Casualties and losses
France: Habsburg monarchy:

158,400 killed and 148,000 killed and
wounded[7] wounded [7]
Naval losses: 20 ships
of the line, 16 frigates, Great Britain:
20 minor ships, 2,185 26,400 killed and
wounded [7]
merchant ships and
1,738 naval guns[2] Naval losses: 14 ships
of the line, 7 frigates, 28
Prussia: minor ships, 3,238
23,100 killed and merchant ships and
wounded [7] 1,012 naval guns[2]
Spain: Dutch Republic:

3,000 killed and 14,630 killed and
wounded [7]
wounded[7]
Naval losses: 17 ships of
Savoy-Sardinia:
the line, 7 frigates, 1,249
7,840 killed and
merchant ships and 1,276
wounded[7]
naval guns[2]
Total 750,000 dead or wounded[8]
The War of the Austrian Succession (German: Österreichischer Erbfolgekrieg) was a European conflict
that took place between 1740 and 1748. Fought primarily in Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands,
Italy, the Atlantic and Mediterranean, related conflicts included King George's War in North America, the
War of Jenkins' Ear, the First Carnatic War and the First and Second Silesian Wars.
The pretext for the war was the right of Maria Theresa to succeed her father, Emperor Charles VI, as ruler
of the Habsburg monarchy. France, Prussia and Bavaria saw it as an opportunity to challenge Habsburg
power, while Maria Theresa was backed by Britain, the Dutch Republic and Hanover, collectively known
as the Pragmatic Allies. As the conflict widened, it drew in other participants, among them Spain, Sardinia,
Saxony, Sweden and Russia.
Prussia occupied Silesia in 1740 and repulsed Austrian efforts to regain it, although Austria and Sardinia
defeated Spanish attempts to regain their territories in Northern Italy. By early 1748, France had conquered
most of the Austrian Netherlands but a British naval blockade was crippling their trade and the state was
close to bankruptcy. The stalemate led to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) which confirmed Maria
Theresa in her titles but failed to resolve underlying tensions between the signatories, many of whom were
unhappy with the terms. France achieved minimal gains for vast expenditure, while the Spanish failed to
recover Menorca or Gibraltar, ceded to Britain in 1713.
The clearest winner was Prussia, which acquired Silesia from Austria, an outcome that undermined the
long-standing Anglo-Austrian Alliance, since Maria Theresa deeply resented Britain's insistence she cede
Silesia to make peace and made it her main objective to regain it. The war also demonstrated the
vulnerability of Hanover, then held in personal union with the British Crown, while many British
politicians felt they had received little benefit from the enormous subsidies paid to Austria. The result was
the realignment known as the Diplomatic Revolution, in which Austria and France ended the French–
Habsburg rivalry which had dominated European affairs for centuries, while Prussia allied with Great
Britain. These changes set the scene for the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756.
Background
The immediate cause of the war was the death in 1740 of Emperor Charles VI (1685–1740) and the
inheritance of the Habsburg Monarchy, often collectively referred to as Austria. The 1703 Mutual Pact of
Succession provided that if the Habsburgs became extinct in the male line, these possessions would go first
to Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia, daughters of Emperor Joseph I, then those of Charles, his younger
brother. Since Salic law excluded women from the inheritance, this agreement required approval by the
various Habsburg territories and the Imperial Diet.[9]
Charles succeeded Joseph in 1711 and two years later issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which
confirmed the principle of female inheritance. However, it also modified the 1703 agreement by placing the
rights of his own children first and after his first child Maria Theresa was born in 1717, Charles' internal
and external policy was dominated by ensuring her succession ahead of his two nieces.[10] Prior to their
respective marriages to Frederick Augustus of Saxony and Charles Albert of Bavaria in 1719, both nieces
were obliged to formally renounce their rights to the inheritance. Charles assumed the rivalry between
Saxony and Bavaria would secure his daughter's throne, since neither would be prepared to allow the other
to inherit, but instead he gave his two greatest rivals a legitimate claim to the Habsburg lands.[11]
Charles was also seeking to ensure the succession of Maria Theresa not just
to her family lands but the titles and powers of the Holy Roman Emperor.
Although held by a Habsburg for over 300 years, it was theoretically an
elective position which had never been held by a woman, and this element
turned an internal dynastic dispute into a European one. The problem was
exacerbated by tensions within the Holy Roman Empire, caused by
dramatic increases in the size and power of Bavaria, Prussia, and Saxony,
mirrored by the post-1683 expansion of Habsburg power into lands
previously held by the Ottoman Empire. These were the centrifugal forces
behind a war that reshaped the traditional European balance of power; the
various legal claims were largely pretexts and seen as such.[12]
Bavaria and Saxony refused to be bound by the decision of the Imperial

Diet, while in 1738 France agreed to back the 'just claims' of Charles Albert
Maria Theresa, Queen
of Bavaria despite previously accepting the Pragmatic Sanction in 1735.[13]
regnant of Hungary and
Attempts to offset this involved Austria in the 1733–1735 War of the Polish
Bohemia and Archduchess
Succession and the Russo-Turkish War of 1735–1739, and it was
of Austria, Holy Roman
weakened by the losses incurred. The situation was compounded by a
Empress
failure to prepare Maria Theresa for her new role, and many European
statesmen were sceptical Austria could survive the contest that would
follow Charles' death, which finally occurred in October 1740.[14]
Military overview and strategies

The war consisted of four primary theatres, Central Europe, Italy, the Austrian Netherlands and the seas,
which can be divided into three separate but connected conflicts. The first involved Prussia and Austria in
the Silesian Wars; in the second, Austria and Sardinia defeated Spanish attempts to regain territories in
Northern Italy, while the third featured an increasingly global contest between Britain and France. In the
end, French conquest of the Austrian Netherlands gave them clear dominance on land, while Britain's
victories at sea cemented its place as the dominant naval power.
For much of the 18th century, French military strategy focused on potential threats on its eastern and
northern borders, which required a strong land army.[15] Its colonies were left to fend for themselves, or
given minimal resources, anticipating they would likely be lost anyway.[16] This strategy was driven by a
combination of geography, and the superiority of the British navy, which made it difficult for the French
navy to provide significant supplies and support to French colonies.[17] The expectation was military
victory in Europe would compensate for any colonial losses; in 1748, France recovered possessions like
Louisbourg, in return for withdrawing from the Austrian Netherlands.[18]
The British tried to avoid large-scale commitments of troops on the Continent.[19] They sought to offset the
disadvantage this created in Europe by allying themselves with one or more Continental powers whose
interests were antithetical to those of their enemies, particularly France. In the War of the Austrian
Succession, the British were allied with Austria; by the time of the Seven Years' War, they were allied with
its enemy, Prussia. In contrast to France, once Britain became engaged in the war, it took advantage of the
Royal Navy to expand it into the colonies.[20] The British pursued a dual strategy of naval blockade and
bombardment of enemy ports, and also utilized their ability to move troops by sea to the utmost.[21] They
would harass enemy shipping and attack enemy outposts, frequently using colonists from nearby British
colonies in the effort. This plan worked better in North America than in Europe, but set the stage for the
Seven Years' War.
Methods and technologies
European warfare in the early modern

period was characterised by the widespread
adoption of firearms in combination with
more traditional bladed weapons.
Eighteenth-century European armies were
built around units of massed infantry armed
with smoothbore flintlock muskets and
bayonets. Cavalrymen were equipped with
sabres and pistols or carbines; light cavalry
were used principally for reconnaissance,
screening and tactical communications,
while heavy cavalry were used as tactical
reserves and deployed for shock attacks.
Smoothbore artillery provided fire support
Europe after the Treaty of Vienna (1738), Habsburg Monarchy
and played the leading role in siege
in gold
warfare.[22] Strategic warfare in this period
centred around control of key fortifications
positioned so as to command the surrounding regions and roads, with lengthy sieges a common feature of
armed conflict. Decisive field battles were relatively rare, though they played a larger part in Frederick's
theory of warfare than was typical among his contemporary rivals.[23]
The War of the Austrian Succession, like most European wars of the eighteenth century, was fought as a
so-called cabinet war in which disciplined regular armies were equipped and supplied by the state to
conduct warfare on behalf of the sovereign's interests. Occupied enemy territories were regularly taxed and
extorted for funds, but large-scale atrocities against civilian populations were rare compared with conflicts
in the previous century.[24] Military logistics was the decisive factor in many wars, as armies had grown too
large to support themselves on prolonged campaigns by foraging and plunder alone. Military supplies were
stored in centralised magazines and distributed by baggage trains that were highly vulnerable to enemy
raids.[25] Armies were generally unable to sustain combat operations during winter and normally
established winter quarters in the cold season, resuming their campaigns with the return of spring.[22]
Campaign of 1740
Frederick II succeeded his father Frederick William as king of
Prussia on 31 May 1740 at the age of 28. Although Prussia had
increased in importance over the past few decades, its disparate and
scattered territories prevented it wielding significant power, a reality
Frederick intended to change.[26] The death of Emperor Charles VI
on 20 October 1740 provided him with an ideal opportunity to
acquire Silesia [27] but he needed to do so before Augustus of
Saxony and Poland could pre-empt him.[28]
With a population of 16 million, Austria had an authorised standing

army of 157,000, although financial restraints meant its true size
Lands of the Bohemian Crown; in was considerably less than that in 1740.[29] Since they had a much
1742, most of Silesia was ceded to greater area to defend, their army was more of "a sieve" than a
Prussia shield against foreign invasion.[30] In contrast, the Prussian Army
was better trained and led than its opponents, while its standing
army of 80,000 was disproportionately large, at around 4% of its
2.2 million population. [31] To add to these advantages, in April 1739 Frederick ensured Austria faced war
on two fronts when Louis XV of France agreed to attack from the west, while Prussia did so from the
north.[32]
In early December 1740, the Prussian army assembled along the Oder river and on 16 December invaded
Silesia without a formal declaration of war.[33] Since Austrian military resources were concentrated in
Hungary and Italy, they had fewer than 3,000 troops in Silesia, although this increased to 7,000 shortly
before the invasion. They held onto the fortresses of Glogau, Breslau, and Brieg, but abandoned the rest of
the province and withdrew into Moravia, with both sides taking up winter quarters.[34] In under two weeks
Prussia had occupied most of the richest province in the Holy Roman Empire, containing a population of
over one million, the commercial centre of Breslau along with mining, weaving and dyeing industries.[35]
However, Frederick underestimated Maria Theresa's determination to reverse her loss, while the retention
of Austrian fortresses in Southern Silesia meant a quick victory could not be achieved.[36]
Campaign of 1741
Early in the year, an Austrian army under von Neipperg relieved Neisse, and marched on Brieg, threatening
to cut the Prussians off. On 10 April, just outside Brieg, they were defeated at the Battle of Mollwitz;
Frederick made serious mistakes in his first battle, and was so close to defeat that his subordinates ordered
him to avoid capture and leave the battlefield. His deputy von Schwerin managed to drag out a victory,
both sides losing nearly 25% of their strength.[37]
On 5 June, Frederick signed an alliance against Austria with France, who crossed the Rhine on 15 August.
[38] A combined Franco-Bavarian force now advanced along the
Danube, towards Vienna, capturing Linz
on 14 September. [39] Joined by a Saxon army of 20,000, they advanced on Prague from three different
points, initially meeting little resistance. Before long, the Austrians had an army at Tábor, while Neipperg
was recalled from Silesia to defend Vienna.[40]
Apparently close to defeat, on 21 September Maria
Theresa made an emotional speech to the
Hungarian Diet in Pressburg. They approved a
levée en masse, which ultimately produced 22,000
troops, rather than the promised 60,000, but was an Brieg Mollwitz
assertion of loyalty long remembered.[41] Prague Neisse
Tábor
Maria Theresa was also helped by deep divisions Munich Linz Vienna
among her opponents and Frederick's duplicity. [42]
Tyrol Budapest
Hoping to weaken Saxony, on 9 October he signed
the Klein–Schnellendorf agreement with Neipperg
and in what is now considered a memorable act of Central European campaign, 1741
diplomatic subterfuge, the Austrians surrendered
Neisse after a mock defence. Under the prevailing
rules of war, this allowed them to receive a pass to the nearest friendly territory and thus be used against
Prussia's allies elsewhere, rather than being taken prisoner.[43] Her best general, von Khevenhüller
incorporated them into an army being assembled for a winter offensive to retake Upper Austria, and attack
Bavaria.[44]
While Frederick completed his conquest of Silesia, a French force under Maurice de Saxe took Prague on
26 November 1741, allowing the Bavarian elector, Charles Albert, to be crowned King of Bohemia. The
year ended with Khevenhüller decisively defeating a bigger Franco-Bavarian army at Sankt Pölten and
advancing up the Danube towards Linz, while a second column under Johann Bärenklau moved through
the Tyrol, towards Munich.[44]
Campaign of 1742
On 17 January, von Khevenhüller defeated a Bavarian army at Schärding while seven days later 10,000
French soldiers surrendered at Linz. On 12 February, Charles Albert of Bavaria was crowned Emperor
Charles VII, the first non-Habsburg to hold the position in 300 years, although Bärenklau captured Munich
the same day. Although technically all allies, Prussia, Saxony and Bavaria had no desire to see France
established in the Empire, nor to see one another gain relative ground. Maria Theresa ended Austria's secret
truce with Frederick, first releasing the details. The Austrians assembled a second army of 28,000 to retake
Prague, under Charles of Lorraine.[45]
News of the secret truce badly damaged the

relationship between Frederick and his allies, but
Emperor Charles asked him to relieve the pressure by
Kłodzko invading Moravia. Frederick had used the interval to
Prague Kutná Hora reorganise his cavalry, previously neglected in favour
Chotusice
Olomouc of the infantry, and who performed poorly at Mollwitz;
they would prove more effective in the 1742
Židlochovice
Zahájí campaign.[46]
Schärding In December 1741, von Schwerin had captured

Bohemia and Moravia, 1742 Olmütz; Frederick took Glatz, before moving onto
Groß Seelowitz in March 1742. This allowed him to
threaten Vienna; a few Prussian patrols even appeared
in the suburbs, before withdrawing.[47] In early May, he took the offensive, and moved into north-east
Bohemia; by 16 May, he had 10,000 infantry at Kuttenberg, and another 18,000 men under Leopold of
Anhalt-Dessau a day's march behind.[48]
On the afternoon of 16 May, Charles of Lorraine's cavalry ran into Leopold's rearguard. Leopold
recognized he was in contact with the Austrian main force and so accelerated his march ahead to close the
gap with Frederick. At 2:00 am on 17 May, his exhausted troops stopped at the small village of Chotusitz,
still three hours from Kutná Hora.[49] Fought later the same day, the Battle of Chotusitz was inconclusive,
but technically a Prussian victory, since the Austrians withdrew. On 24 May, French Field Marshal de
Broglie won a minor action at Sahay. The two victories left the strategic situation unchanged, since Charles
was still able to move against Prague, while the Prussian presence in Moravia remained a threat to Vienna.
However, Habsburg policy was generally to avoid fighting on too many fronts at the same time; Prussia
was the most dangerous, and most difficult to defeat. Although recovering Silesia remained a priority for
decades, Maria Theresa was willing to agree a temporary truce with Prussia to improve her position
elsewhere.[50] This suited Frederick, who was short of money and men and also suspected France was
preparing a separate peace. In June, the Treaty of Breslau ended the First Silesian War; Prussian troops
withdrew from Bohemia, and Austria recaptured Prague in December.[51]
Campaign of 1743
At the beginning of the year, Louis XV
insisted Broglie be given command of the
Franco-Bavarian forces, creating tension with
the Bavarians, and their general von
Seckendorff.[52] With most of his lands
occupied by the Austrians, Charles VII fled to
Augsburg, from where he initiated talks with Mainz Dettingen Prague
Vienna and London, feeling he had been Worms
abandoned by his French allies.[53] Divided at Augsburg Simbach
the top, and their troops weakened by disease, Munich Vienna
the Franco-Bavarian forces offered limited Budapest
resistance to the Austrian advance; on 9 May,
Milan
the Bavarians were defeated outside Simbach,
by Charles of Lorraine.[54] Key locations, 1743
In mid-June, the Pragmatic Army arrived at

Aschaffenburg, on the north bank of the River Main. Here they were joined by George II, who was
attending the enthronement of a new Elector of Mainz in Wiesbaden.[54] By late June, the Allies were
running short of supplies and withdrew towards the nearest supply depot at Hanau, the road to which ran
through Dettingen, now known as Karlstein am Main, where 23,000 French troops blocked the road.
Despite a strong position, mistakes made by their commander Gramont, allowed the Allies to win a narrow
victory.[55]
While the Pragmatic Army were able to continue their retreat, they had to abandon their wounded, and
although reinforced by Charles of Lorraine were unable to agree what to do next. Charles later described
Allied headquarters as a 'republic', while Adrien Maurice de Noailles told Louis XV he was 'heavily
indebted to the irresolutions of George II.' They ended by doing nothing, and in October, took up winter
quarters in the Netherlands.[56]
Frederick had responded to Dettingen by renewing his search for allies, and
building up his army once again. In July, the Russian court discovered an
alleged plot to overthrow Empress Elizabeth, and restore three-year old
Ivan VI, with his mother Grand Duchess Anna Leopoldovna as his
regent.[57] Whether this amounted to anything more than drunken gossip is
disputed; one suggestion is that it was a fabrication by Frederick, designed
to remove anti-Prussian opponents, chiefly Chancellor Bestuzhev-
Ryumin.[58]
Anna Bestuzhev, wife of his brother Mikhail, and her friend Natalia
Lopukhina, confessed to the plot after 25 days of torture; they were
publicly flogged, and had their tongues removed before being exiled to
Charles Emmanuel III of Siberia. Fredrick's supporters referred to it as the "Botta Conspiracy",
Sardinia, who entered the alleging the involvement of Austrian envoy Antoniotto Botta Adorno.[59]
war by the September When Tsarina Elizabeth demanded Botta be punished, Maria Theresa
Treaty of Worms refused, and the episode poisoned the relationship between Austria and
Russia. Frederick managed to divide his two main opponents, but Alexey
Bestuzhev-Ryumin remained in place, leaving the overall position
unchanged.[58]
On 13 September, Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, Maria Theresa and Britain agreed the Treaty of
Worms, intended to expel Spain from Italy. In return for Sardinian support in Lombardy, the Austrians
ceded all their territories west of the Ticino River and Lake Maggiore, along with lands south of the Po
river. In return, Charles Emmanuel renounced his claim to the strategic Duchy of Milan, guaranteed the
Pragmatic Sanction, and provided 40,000 troops, paid for by Britain.[60]
France and Spain responded with the Second Pacte de Famille in October, and Louis XV began plans to
invade the Austrian Netherlands. The year ended with Saxony agreeing a pact of mutual defence with
Austria, leaving Prussia isolated, and facing a renewed offensive as Maria Theresa sought to regain
Silesia.[61]
Campaign of 1744
Under the 1743 Treaty of Fontainebleau, Louis XV and his uncle, Philip V
of Spain agreed on joint action against Britain. This included a proposed
invasion of Britain, aimed at restoring the exiled Stuarts, and over the
winter, 12,000 French troops and transports were assembled at Dunkirk.[62]
In the February 1744 Battle of Toulon, a combined Franco-Spanish fleet

fought an indecisive action with a British naval force commanded by
Admiral Mathews. Although Mathews prevented them exiting the
Mediterranean and supporting the invasion attempt, he was forced to
retreat, which led to his dismissal.[63] Success allowed Spain to land troops
in Northern Italy, and in April they captured the important port of
Villefranche-sur-Mer, then part of Savoy.[64] Louis XV of France by
Maurice Quentin de La Tour
However, storms sank or severely damaged many French ships, while most
of Louis' ministers opposed what they considered an expensive and futile
diversion of resources. The invasion was cancelled on 11 March, Louis formally declared war on Britain,
and in May, a French army invaded the Austrian Netherlands.[65] As in 1744, they were greatly helped by
divisions between the Pragmatic Allies, making it very difficult to formulate a consistent strategy. The
British and Hanoverians detested each other, Austrian resources were focused in Alsace, while the Dutch
were reluctant to declare war on France, and unsuccessfully tried to persuade Louis to withdraw.[66] The
Dutch however did want to protect their Barrier fortresses and Isaac Cronström thus argued to engage the
French in the open field. George Wade, supreme commander of the allied army, disagreed. He was under
strict orders of the British government to not risk losing his connection to Ostend and not to risk British or
Hanoverians troops becoming prisoners of war, which also meant that he refused to put them on garrison
duty. The British feared another Jacobite uprising and therefore wanted to be able to send their troops home
in time.[67]
As a result, the French made rapid progress, quickly capturing most of the Dutch-held Barrier fortresses
along the border, including Menen and Ypres. When an Austrian army under Prince Charles of Lorraine
invaded Alsace in early June, Louis went on the defensive in the Southern Netherlands, and travelled to
Metz to meet this threat. In early August, he fell dangerously ill with smallpox, a disease often fatal at the
time; although he later recovered, this temporarily paralysed the French command system.[68]
With the bulk of the Austrian army occupied in Eastern France, Frederick launched the Second Silesian
War on 15 August, and by the end of the month, all 80,000 of his troops were in Bohemia.[69] Although
Maria Theresa's main objective was to regain Silesia, the speed of the Prussian advance took the Austrians
by surprise. On 23 August, Prince Charles withdrew from Alsace to defend Bohemia, with little
interference from the French due to Louis' illness.[70]
By mid-September, Frederick had captured Prague, Tabor, Budweis and

Frauenberg; he now advanced up the Moldau river, hoping to catch the
Austrians between his forces, and the Franco-Bavarian army he assumed
was in pursuit. However, the Bavarians contented themselves with re-
occupying Munich, while the French settled down to besiege Freiburg im
Breisgau, a town of far less importance to Maria Theresa than Bohemia.[71]
Frederick was left dangerously exposed, a situation worsened in early

October when Saxony joined the coalition against him as an active
belligerent. Under pressure from Charles of Lorraine and a combined
Austro-Saxon force under Count Traun, the Prussians were forced to
retreat; by the time they entered Silesia in late November, Frederick's army
Frederick the Great, by was reduced to 36,000, half of whom then died of dysentery.[72]
Wilhelm Camphausen; his
position at the end of 1744 Despite the surrender of Freiburg and French advances in the Southern
was extremely precarious Netherlands, Austria seemed well-positioned at the end of 1744. Frederick's
retreat damaged his reputation and weakened his army, but the most
significant impact was on Franco-Prussian relations, with Louis accused of
failing to support Prussia.[73]
In Italy, an Austrian attack on the Kingdom of Naples was unsuccessful, largely due to the incompetence of
their commanders. In the north, arguments over strategy, and Spanish accusations of French cowardice at
Toulon prevented them from taking full advantage of their victories earlier in the year. This was offset by
similar divisions among their opponents; Charles Emmanuel was reluctant to see the Bourbons expelled
from Italy, leaving the Habsburgs as the dominant power, while his territorial ambitions could only be
achieved at Austrian expense. As a result, neither side could make significant progress in this area.[74]
Campaign of 1745
Frederick's position continued to deteriorate; on 8 January, Austria, Britain,
the Dutch Republic and Saxony signed the Treaty of Warsaw, which was
clearly aimed at Prussia.[75] This was accompanied by ominous signs of
Russian military activity in Livonia, followed by the death of Emperor
Charles VII on 20 January. Since Maria Theresa's husband, Grand Duke
Francis, was the best-supported candidate to replace him, this was a major
setback for the Franco-Prussian alliance.[76]
Charles' son and heir, Maximilian III Joseph made one last effort to drive
the Austrians out of Bavaria, but his demoralised and ill-equipped army
was out-manoeuvered by Count Batthyány, while a Franco-Bavarian army
was defeated at Pfaffenhofen on 15 April.[77] With most of his electorate
once again occupied, on 22 April he signed the Treaty of Füssen, in which Maria Theresa's husband,
he agreed to vote for Francis Stephen as Emperor, and made peace with Francis I, elected Holy
Austria.[78] Prussia was now isolated; attempts by Frederick to divide his Roman Emperor on 13
opponents by supporting Frederick Augustus of Saxony for Emperor were September 1745
unsuccessful, while neither Britain or Russia was willing to mediate for him
with Austria.[79]
Bavaria's exit allowed France to focus on the Low Countries, which Saxe persuaded Louis XV provided
the best opportunity of defeating Britain, whose financial backing was crucial to the Pragmatic Alliance. He
proposed to attack Tournai, a vital link in the trading network for Northern Europe, and strongest of the
Dutch Barrier Forts, this forcing the Allies to fight on ground of his own choosing.[80] On 11 May, he won
a hard-fought victory at Fontenoy, a success that established French dominance in the Netherlands, and
caused bitter disputes between the British and Dutch.[81]
On 4 June, Frederick won a major victory at Hohenfriedberg, but despite this, Austria and Saxony
continued the war. Prussian requests for French support were ignored; Louis had been warned by his
ministers state finances were increasingly strained, making it important to focus their efforts. One area was
the Netherlands, particularly after British troops were recalled to deal with the Jacobite rising of 1745. The
other was Italy, where a Franco-Spanish army under Maillebois and Infante Philip defeated the Sardinians
at Bassignano on 27 September, then captured Alessandria, Valenza and Casale Monferrato.[82]
As a result, France made no effort to block the election of Duke

Francis, who was proclaimed Emperor Francis I on 13
September.[83] Bolstered by this significant political victory,
Maria Theresa continued her attempts to regain Silesia, only to
be defeated once again at the Battle of Soor on 30
September.[84] On 15 December, the Prussians forced Saxony
out of the war with victory in the Battle of Kesselsdorf, leading
to the Treaty of Dresden on 25th. Austria accepted Frederick's
Victory at Fontenoy in May 1745 re- ownership of Silesia, while Saxony paid him an indemnity of
established French confidence one million crowns; in return, Prussia accepted the Pragmatic
Sanction, acknowledged Francis as Emperor, and evacuated
Saxony.[85]
After 1745, Germany ceased to be an active military theatre; although Frederick knew Maria Theresa still
intended to regain Silesia, both sides needed a period of peace in order to re-organise. French objectives
were less clear; for centuries, the central plank of its foreign policy was weakening the Habsburgs, but it
began the war due to concern at British commercial growth post-1713. Since the war in Northern Italy was
largely fought to support Spanish aims, this left the Netherlands as the only remaining theatre where France
could achieve strategic victory.[86]
Another significant development was the start of the realignment of alliances that became the Diplomatic
Revolution in 1756. Under the August 'Convention of Hanover', Frederick and George II mutually
guaranteed the borders of Hanover and Prussia to each other, and British diplomats tried to persuade
Austria to end the Second Silesian War. Franco-Prussian relationships were marked by mutual distrust,
while Maria Theresa resented British attempts to persuade her to accept the loss of Silesia.[87]
Italian Campaigns, 1741–1747

In central Italy an army of Spaniards and Neapolitans was
collected for the purpose of conquering the Duchy of
Milan. In 1741, the allied army of 40,000 Spaniards and
Neapolitans under the command of the Duke of
Montemar had advanced towards Modena, Francesco III
d'Este, Duke of Modena had allied himself with them, but
the vigilant Austrian commander, Count Otto Ferdinand
von Traun had out-marched them, captured Modena and
forced the Duke to make a separate peace.[40]
The aggressiveness of the Spanish in Italy forced Empress

Maria Theresa of Austria and King Charles Emmanuel of
Sardinia into negotiations in early 1742.[88] These Philip V of Spain's family by Louis-Michel van
negotiations were held at Turin. Maria Theresa sent her Loo
envoy Count Schulenburg and King Charles Emmanuel
sent the Marquis d'Ormea. On 1 February 1742,
Schulenburg and Ormea signed the Convention of Turin which resolved (or postponed resolution) many
differences and formed an alliance between the two countries.[89] In 1742, field marshal Count Traun held
his own with ease against the Spanish and Neapolitans. On 19 August 1742, Naples was forced by the
arrival of a British naval squadron in Naples' own harbour, to withdraw her 10,000 troops from the
Montemar force to provide for home defence.[90] The Spanish force under Montemar was now too weak to
advance in the Po Valley and a second Spanish army was sent to Italy via France. Sardinia had allied
herself with Austria in the Convention of Turin and at the same time neither state was at war with France
and this led to curious complications, combats being fought in the Isère valley between the troops of
Sardinia and of Spain, in which the French took no part.[91] At the end of 1742, the Duke of Montemar
was replaced as head of the Spanish forces in Italy by Count Gages.[92]
In 1743, the Spanish on the Panaro had achieved a victory over Traun at Campo Santo on 8 February
1743.[93] However, the next six months were wasted in inaction and Georg Christian, Fürst von
Lobkowitz, joining Traun with reinforcements from Austria, drove back the Spanish to Rimini. Observing
from Venice, Rousseau hailed the Spanish retreat as "the finest military manoeuvre of the whole
century".[94] The Spanish-Savoyard War in the Alps continued without much result, the only incident of
note being the first Battle of Casteldelfino (7–10 October 1743), when an initial French offensive was
beaten off.[91]
In 1744 the Italian war became serious. Prior to the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) Spain and
Austria had been ruled by branches of the same (Habsburg) royal house. Consequently, the foreign policies
of Austria and Spain in regards to Italy had a symmetry of interests and these interests were usually
opposed to the interests of Bourbon controlled France.[95] However, since the Treaty of Utrecht and the
end of the War of the Spanish Succession, the childless last Habsburg monarch (Charles II) had been
replaced by the Bourbon grandson of the French king Louis XIV Philip of Anjou, who became Philip V in
Spain. Spain's dominance of Italy and Italian territories subsequently passed to Austria. Now the symmetry
of foreign policy interests in regards to Italy existed between Bourbon France and Bourbon Spain with
Habsburg Austria usually in opposition.[96] King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia had followed the long-
established foreign policy of Savoy of opposing Spanish interference in northern Italy.[97] Now in 1744,
Savoy was faced with a grandiose military plan of the combined Spanish and French armies (called the
Gallispan army) for conquest of northern Italy.
However, in implementing this plan, the Gallispan generals at the front were hampered by the orders of
their respective governments. For example, the commander of the Spanish army in the field, the Prince of
Conti, could not get along with, or even reason with, the Marquis de La Mina, the Supreme commander of
all Spanish forces.[98] The Prince of Conti felt that the Marquis "deferred blindly to all orders coming from
Spain" without any consideration of the realities on the ground.[98] In preparation for the military campaign
the Gallispan forces sought to cross the Alps in June 1744 and regroup the army in Dauphiné uniting there
with the army on the lower Po.[99]
The support of Genoa allowed a road into central Italy.[98] While the Prince
of Conti stayed in the north, Count Gages followed this road to the south.
But then the Austrian commander, Prince Lobkowitz took the offensive and
drove the Spanish army of the Count de Gages further southward towards
the Neapolitan frontier near the small town of Velletri. From from June
through August 1744, Velletri became the scene of extensive military
maneuvering between the French-Spanish army under the command of the
Count Gages and the Austrian forces under the command of Prince
Lobkowitz[100] The King of Naples (the future Charles III of Spain) was
increasingly worried about the Austrian army operating so close to his
borders and decided to assist the Spaniards. Together a combined army of
French, Spanish and Neapolitans surprised the Austrian army on the night
Charles III of Spain by of 16–17 June 1744. The Austrians were routed from three important hills
Anton Raphael Mengs around the town of Velletri during the attack.[101] This battle is sometimes
called the "Battle of Nemi" after the small town of Nemi located nearby.
Because of this surprise attack, the combined army was able to take
possession of the town of Velletri. Thus, the surprise attack has also been called the "first Battle of Velletri".
In early August 1744, the King of Naples paid a visit in person to the newly captured town of Velletri.[101]
Hearing about the presence of the King, the Austrians developed a plan for a daring raid on Velletri. During
the predawn hours of 11 August 1744, about 6,000 Austrians under the direct command of Count Browne
staged a surprise raid on the town of Velletri. They were attempting to abduct the King of Naples during his
stay in the town. However, after occupying Velletri and searching the entire town, the Austrians found no
hint of the King of Naples. The King had become aware of what was happening and had fled through a
window of the palace where he was staying and rode off half-dressed on horseback out of the town.[102]
This was the second Battle of Velletri. The failure of the raid on Velletri meant that the Austrian march
toward Naples was over. The defeated Austrians were ordered north where they could be used in the
Piedmont of northern Italy to assist the King of Sardinia against the Prince of Conti. Count de Gages
followed the Austrians north with a weak force. Meanwhile, the King of Naples returned home.
The war in the Alps and the Apennines had already been keenly contested before the Prince of Conti and
the Gallispan army had come down out of the Alps. Villefranche and Montalbán had been stormed by
Conti on 20 April 1744. After coming down out of the Alps, Prince Conti began his advance into Piedmont
on 5 July 1744.[103] On 19 July 1744, the Gallispan army engaged the Sardinian army in some desperate
fighting at Peyre-Longue on 18 July 1744.[104] As a result of the battle, the Gallispan army took control of
Casteldelfino in the second Battle of Casteldelfino. Conti then moved on to Demonte where on the night of
8–9 August 1744, (a mere 36 hours before the Spanish army in south of Italy fought the second Battle of
Velletri, [as noted above]) the Gallispan army took the fortress of Demonte from the Sardinians in the Battle
of Demonte.[105] The King of Sardinia was defeated yet again by Conti in
a great Battle at Madonna dell'Olmo on 30 September 1744 near Coni
(Cuneo).[106] Conti did not, however, succeed in taking the huge fortress at
Coni and had to retire into Dauphiné for his winter quarters. Thus, the
Gallispan army never did combine with the Spanish army under Count of
Gages in the south and now the Austro-Sardinian army lay between them.
The campaign in Italy in 1745 was also no mere war of posts. The
Convention of Turin of February 1742 (described above), which
established a provisional relationship between Austria and Sardinia had
caused some consternation in the Republic of Genoa. However, when this
provisional relationship was given a more durable and reliable character in
the signing of the Treaty of Worms (1743) signed on 13 September The Prince of Conti by
1743,[107] the government of Genoa became fearful. This fear of Alexis Simon Belle
diplomatic isolation had caused the Genoese Republic to abandon its
neutrality in the war and join the Bourbon cause.[108] Consequently, the
Genoese Republic signed a secret treaty with the Bourbon allies of France, Spain and Naples. On 26 June
1745, Genoa declared war on Sardinia.[108]
Empress Maria Theresa was frustrated with the failure of

Lobkowitz to stop the advance of Gage. Accordingly,
Lobkowitz was replaced with Count Schulenburg.[109] A
change in the command of the Austrians, encouraged the
Bourbon allies to strike first in the spring of 1745.
Accordingly, Count de Gages moved from Modena towards
Lucca, the Gallispan army in the Alps under the new
command of Marshal Maillebois (Prince Conti and Marshal
Maillebois had exchanged commands over the winter of
1744–1745[110]) advanced through the Italian Riviera to the The Genoese charge during the Battle of
Tanaro. In the middle of July 1745, the two armies were at Bassignano in 1745
last concentrated between the Scrivia and the Tanaro.
Together Count de Gage's army and the Gallispan army
composed an unusually large number of 80,000 men. A swift march on Piacenza drew the Austrian
commander thither and in his absence the allies fell upon and completely defeated the Sardinians at
Bassignano on 27 September 1745, a victory which was quickly followed by the capture of Alessandria,
Valenza and Casale Monferrato. Jomini calls the concentration of forces which effected the victory "Le plus
remarquable de toute la Guerre".[111]
The complicated politics of Italy, however, are reflected in the fact that Count Maillebois was ultimately
unable to turn his victory to account. Indeed, early in 1746, Austrian troops, freed by the Austrian peace
with Frederick II of Prussia, passed through the Tyrol into Italy, capturing Genoa after a siege. The
Gallispan winter quarters at Asti, Italy, were brusquely attacked and a French garrison of 6,000 men at Asti
was forced to capitulate.[112] At the same time, Maximilian Ulysses Browne with an Austrian corps struck
at the allies on the Lower Po, and cut off their communication with the main body of the Gallispan army in
Piedmont. A series of minor actions thus completely destroyed the great concentration of Gallispan troops
and the Austrians reconquered the Duchy of Milan and took possession of much of northern Italy. The
allies separated, Maillebois covering Liguria, the Spaniards marching against Browne. The latter was
promptly and heavily reinforced and all that the Spaniards could do was to entrench themselves at
Piacenza, Philip, the Spanish Infante as supreme commander calling up Maillebois to his aid. The French,
skilfully conducted and marching rapidly, joined forces once more, but their situation was critical, for only
two marches behind them the army of the King of Sardinia was in pursuit, and before them lay the principal
army of the Austrians. The pitched Battle of Piacenza on 16 June 1746 was hard-fought but ended in an
Austrian victory, with the Spanish army heavily mauled. That the army
escaped at all was in the highest degree creditable to Maillebois and to his
son and chief of staff. Under their leadership the Gallispan army eluded
both the Austrians and the Sardinians and defeated an Austrian corps in the
Battle of Rottofreddo on 12 August 1746.[113] Then the Austrian army
made good its retreat back to Genoa.[114]
Although the Austrian army was a mere shadow of its former self, when
they returned to Genoa, the Austrians were soon in control of northern
Italy. The Austrians occupied the Republic of Genoa on 6 September
1746.[115] But they met with no success in their forays towards the Alps.
Soon Genoa revolted from the oppressive rule of the victors, rose and
drove out the Austrians on 5–11 December 1746. As an Allied invasion of
Infante Philip of Spain by Provence stalled, and the French, now commanded by Charles Louis
Laurent Pécheux Auguste Fouquet, duc de Belle-Isle, took the offensive (1747).[116] Genoa
held out against a second Austrian siege.[117] As usual the plan of
campaign had been referred to Paris and Madrid. A picked corps of the
French army under the Chevalier de Belle-Isle (the younger brother of Marshal Belle-Isle[116]) was ordered
to storm the fortified pass of Exilles on 10 July 1747. However, the defending army of the Worms allies
(Austria and Savoy) handed the French army a crushing defeat at this battle, which became known as the
(Colle dell'Assietta).[118] At this battle, the chevalier, and with him much of the elite of the French nobility,
were killed on the barricades.[118] Desultory campaigns continued between the Worms allies and the
French until the conclusion of peace at Aix-la-Chapelle.[119]
The Low Countries, 1745–1748

The British and their allies withdrew from Fontenoy in
good order but Tournai fell to French forces and through
a swift advance, Ghent, Oudenarde, Bruges, and
Dendermonde soon followed. By the end of July, the
French stood on the threshold of Dutch Flanders, the
south-western corner of the Dutch Republic.[120] The
French-backed Jacobite rising of August, 1745 forced the
British to transfer troops from Flanders to deal with it.
This prompted the French to seize the strategic ports of
Ostend and Nieuwpoort, threatening Britain's links to
Map of the Low Countries; Bergen op Zoom, mainland Europe.[121]
upper center
During 1746, the French continued their advance into the
Austrian Netherlands, taking Antwerp and then clearing
Dutch and Austrian forces from the area between Brussels and the Meuse. After defeating the Jacobite
Rebellion at Culloden in April, the British launched a diversionary raid on Lorient in an unsuccessful
attempt to divert French forces, while the new Austrian commander, Prince Charles of Lorraine, was
defeated by Saxe at the Battle of Rocoux in October.[122]
The Dutch Republic itself was now in danger. In April 1747, the French began reducing the Barrier
Fortresses along the border with the Austrian Netherlands and invaded Dutch Flanders, which they swiftly
captured. A general anger and panic broke out under the Dutch population, who still remembered the
French invasion of 1672, and they demanded that William IV should be appointed stadtholder. The regents
of Zeeland and Holland, fearing violence against them, soon appointed William stadtholder. The remaining
provinces followed and by 10 May the Second Stadtholderless Period had ended. William was also
appointed head of all the Dutch armed forces.[123] The strategic situation,
however, failed to change and at Lauffeld on 2 July 1747, Saxe won another
victory over a British and Dutch army under the Prince of Waldeck and
Cumberland; the French then besieged Maastricht and Bergen op Zoom,
which fell in September.[122] Although the Dutch fleet was in the poorest
condition it had ever been in, its positioning in the estuaries and rivers of
Zeeland and Holland, however, prevented French incursions into those
provinces.[124]
The French advance lent greater urgency to ongoing peace talks at the
Congress of Breda, which took place to the sound of French artillery firing on
William IV, became
Maastricht. Following their 1746 alliance with Austria, an army of 30,000
stadtholder of all the
Russians marched from Livonia to the Rhine, but arrived too late to be of use.
Dutch provinces after the
Maastricht surrendered on 7 May and on 18 October 1748, the war ended with
bloodless Orangist
the signing of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.[125] revolution
The Peace of 1748

Negotiations between Britain and France had been taking place at
Breda since June 1746; the terms they agreed were then imposed
on the other parties at Aix-la-Chapelle. Despite their victories in
Flanders, French Finance Minister Machault repeatedly warned of
the impending collapse of their financial system. The British naval
blockade led to the collapse of French customs receipts and caused
severe food shortages, especially among the poor; after Cape
The surrender of Maastricht, 7 may Finisterre in October, the French Navy could no longer protect their
1748 colonies or trade routes.[126]
This was followed in November by a convention between Britain

and Russia; in February 1748, a Russian corps of 37,000 arrived in the Rhineland.[127] Although the Dutch
city of Maastricht surrendered to French forces in May 1748, ending the war was increasingly urgent.
Louis XV therefore agreed to return the Austrian Netherlands, whose acquisition had cost so much. Few of
his countrymen understood this decision; combined with the lack of tangible benefits for helping Prussia, it
led to the phrase "as stupid as the Peace".[128]
A commission to negotiate competing territorial claims in North America was set up, but made very little
progress. Britain regained Madras, in return for restoring Louisbourg, in Nova Scotia, much to the fury of
British colonists. Neither of the two main protagonists appeared to have gained much for their investment
and both viewed the Treaty as an armistice, not a peace.[129]
In Austria, reactions were mixed; Maria Theresa was determined to regain Silesia and resented British
support for Prussia's occupation.[130] On the other hand, the Treaty confirmed her right to the Monarchy,
while the Habsburgs had survived a potentially disastrous crisis, regained the Austrian Netherlands without
fighting and made only minor concessions in Italy.[131] Administrative and financial reforms made it
stronger in 1750 than 1740, while its strategic position was strengthened through installing Habsburg allies
as rulers of key territories in Northwest Germany, the Rhineland and Northern Italy.[132]
Of the other combatants, Spain retained its predominance in Spanish America and made minor gains in
Northern Italy, gaining the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza for Infante Philip. With French support, Prussia
doubled in size with the acquisition of Silesia but twice made peace without informing their ally; Louis XV
already disliked Frederick and now viewed him as untrustworthy.[133] In the Dutch Republic the signing of
the peace terms, the elevation of the Prince of
Orange and the birth of his son caused great
joy, but dissatisfaction towards the ruling
regime remained. William IV had changed
little, did not reckon with his political
opponents and, like them, was accused of
French sympathies. Many began to think that
improvements would not be obtained unless
they were violently demanded; and so riots
arose.[134] The war confirmed the decline of
the Dutch Republic, and the dismantlement of
the Barrier fortresses marked the end of its
period as a great power; combined with a
sense they received little value for the
Europe in the years after the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in
subsidies paid to Maria Theresa, Britain
1748
moved to align itself with Prussia, rather than
Austria, in order to protect Hanover from
French aggression.[135]
These factors led to the realignment known as the 1756 Diplomatic Revolution and the 1756 to 1763 Seven
Years' War, which was even grander in scale than its predecessor.
North America
The war was also conducted in North America and India. In North America the conflict was known in the
British colonies as King George's War, and did not begin until after formal war declarations of France and
Britain reached the colonies in May 1744. The frontiers between New France and the British colonies of
New England, New York, and Nova Scotia were the site of frequent small scale raids, primarily by French
colonial troops and their Indian allies against British targets, although several attempts were made by British
colonists to organise expeditions against New France. The most significant incident was the capture of the
French Fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island (Île Royale) by an expedition (29 April – 16 June
1745) of colonial militia organised by Massachusetts Governor William Shirley, commanded by William
Pepperrell of Maine (then part of Massachusetts), and assisted by a Royal Navy fleet. A French expedition
to recover Louisbourg in 1746 failed due to bad weather, disease, and the death of its commander.
Louisbourg was returned to France in exchange for Madras, generating much anger among the British
colonists, who felt they had eliminated a nest of privateers with its capture.
India
The war marked the beginning of a powerful struggle between
Britain and France in India and of European military ascendancy
and political intervention in the subcontinent. Major hostilities
began with the arrival of a naval squadron under Mahé de la
Bourdonnais, carrying troops from France. In September 1746
Bourdonnais landed his troops near Madras and laid siege to the
port. Although it was the main British settlement in the Carnatic,
Madras was weakly fortified and had only a small garrison, Flag of the East India Company
reflecting the thoroughly commercial nature of the European (founded in 1600)
presence in India hitherto. On 10 September, only six days after the
arrival of the French force, Madras surrendered. The terms of the
surrender agreed by Bourdonnais provided for the settlement to be
ransomed back for a cash payment by the British East India
Company. However, this concession was opposed by Dupleix, the
governor general of the Indian possessions of the Compagnie des
Indes. When Bourdonnais was forced to leave India in October
after the devastation of his squadron by a cyclone Dupleix reneged
on the agreement. The Nawab of the Carnatic Anwaruddin
Muhammed Khan intervened in support of the British and
British Admiral Edward Boscawen
advanced to retake Madras, but despite vast superiority in numbers
besieged Pondicherry in the later
his army was easily and bloodily crushed by the French, in the first
months of 1748.
demonstration of the gap in quality that had opened up between
European and Indian armies.[136]
The French now turned to the remaining British settlement in the Carnatic, Fort St. David at Cuddalore,
which was dangerously close to the main French settlement of Pondichéry. The first French force sent
against Cuddalore was surprised and defeated nearby by the forces of the Nawab and the British garrison in
December 1746. Early in 1747 a second expedition laid siege to Fort St David but withdrew on the arrival
of a British naval squadron in March. A final attempt in June 1748 avoided the fort and attacked the weakly
fortified town of Cuddalore itself, but was routed by the British garrison.
With the arrival of a naval squadron under Admiral Edward Boscawen, carrying troops and artillery, the
British went on the offensive, laying siege to Pondichéry. They enjoyed a considerable superiority in
numbers over the defenders, but the settlement had been heavily fortified by Dupleix and after two months
the siege was abandoned.[137]
The peace settlement brought the return of Madras to the British company, exchanged for Louisbourg in
Canada. However, the conflict between the two companies continued by proxy during the interval before
the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, with British and French forces fighting on behalf of rival claimants to
the thrones of Hyderabad and the Carnatic.[138]
Naval operations
The naval operations of this war were entangled with the War of Jenkins' Ear, which broke out in 1739 in
consequence of the long disputes between Britain and Spain over their conflicting claims in America.[119]
The war was remarkable for the prominence of privateering on both sides. It was carried on by the
Spaniards in the West Indies with great success, and actively at home. The French were no less active in all
seas. Mahé de la Bourdonnais's attack on Madras partook largely of the nature of a privateering venture.
The British retaliated with vigour. The total number of captures by French and Spanish corsairs was in all
probability larger than the list of British—as the French wit Voltaire drolly put it upon hearing his
government's boast, namely, that more British merchants were taken because there were many more British
merchant ships to take; but partly also because the British government had not yet begun to enforce the use
of convoy so strictly as it did in later times.[139]
West Indies
War on Spain was declared by Great Britain on 23 October 1739, which has become known as the War of
Jenkins' Ear. A plan was laid for combined operations against the Spanish colonies from east and west. One
force, military and naval, was to assault them from the West Indies under Admiral Edward Vernon.
Another, to be commanded by Commodore George Anson, afterwards Lord Anson, was to round Cape
Horn and to fall upon the Pacific coast of Latin America. Delays, bad preparations, dockyard corruption,
and the squabbles of the naval and military officers concerned caused the
failure of a hopeful scheme. On 21 November 1739, Admiral Vernon did,
however, succeed in capturing the ill-defended Spanish harbour of Porto
Bello in present-day Panama. When Vernon had been joined by Sir
Chaloner Ogle with massive naval reinforcements and a strong body of
troops, an attack was made on Cartagena de Indias in what is now
Colombia (9 March – 24 April 1741). The delay had given the Spanish
under Sebastián de Eslava and Blas de Lezo time to prepare. After two
months of skilful defence by the Spanish, the British attack finally
succumbed to a massive outbreak of disease and withdrew having suffered
a dreadful loss of lives and ships.[140]
The war in the West Indies, after two other unsuccessful attacks had been Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon
made on Spanish territory, died down and did not revive until 1748. The
expedition under Anson sailed late, was very ill-provided, and less strong
than had been intended. It consisted of six ships and left Britain on 18 September 1740. Anson returned
alone with his flagship the Centurion on 15 June 1744. The other vessels had either failed to round the
Horn or had been lost. But Anson had harried the coast of Chile and Peru and had captured a Spanish
galleon of immense value near the Philippines, completing a circumnavigation of the world. His cruise was
a great feat of resolution and endurance.[139]
After the failure of the British invasions and a Spanish counter invasion of Georgia in 1742, belligerent
naval actions in the Caribbean were left to the privateers of both sides. Fearing great financial and
economic losses should a treasure fleet be captured, the Spanish reduced the risk by increasing the number
of convoys, thereby reducing their value. They also increased the number of ports they visited and reduced
the predictability of their voyages.
In 1744 a British force of 300 men accompanied by two privateers from Saint Kitts successfully captured
the French half of neighbouring Saint Martin, occupying it until the 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. In late
May 1745 two French royal frigates of 36 and 30 guns respectively under Commodore La Touché, plus
three privateers in retaliation sailed from Martinique to invade and capture the British colony of Anguilla
but were repelled with heavy loss in the Battle of Anguilla.
The last year of the war saw two significant actions in the Caribbean. A second British assault on Santiago
de Cuba which also ended in failure and a naval action which arose from an accidental encounter between
two convoys. The action unfolded in a confused way with each side at once anxious to cover its own trade
and to intercept that of the other. Capture was rendered particularly desirable for the British by the fact that
the Spanish homeward-bound fleet would be laden with bullion from the American mines.[139] The
advantage lay with the British when one Spanish warship ran aground and another was captured but the
British commander failed to capitalise and the Spanish fleet took shelter in Havana.
Mediterranean
While Anson was pursuing his voyage round the world, Spain was mainly intent on the Italian policy of the
king. A squadron was fitted out at Cádiz to convey troops to Italy. It was watched by the British admiral
Nicholas Haddock. When the blockading squadron was forced off by want of provisions, the Spanish
admiral Don Juan José Navarro put to sea. He was followed, but when the British force came in sight of
him Navarro had been joined by a French squadron under Claude-Élisée de Court de La Bruyère
(December 1741). The French admiral told Haddock that he would support the Spaniards if they were
attacked and Haddock retired. France and Great Britain were not yet openly at war, but both were engaged
in the struggle in Germany—Great Britain as the ally of the Queen of Hungary, Maria Theresa; France as
the supporter of the Bavarian claimant of the empire. Navarro
and de Court went on to Toulon, where they remained until
February 1744. A British fleet watched them, under the
command of Admiral Richard Lestock, until Sir Thomas
Mathews was sent out as commander-in-chief and as Minister
to the Court of Turin.[140]
Sporadic manifestations of hostility between the French and

British took place in different seas, but avowed war did not The Franco-Spanish fleet commanded by
begin until the French government issued its declaration of 30 Don Juan José Navarro drove off the
March, to which Great Britain replied on 31 March. This British fleet under Thomas Mathews near
formality had been preceded by French preparations for the Toulon in 1744.
invasion of England, and by the Battle of Toulon between the
British and a Franco-Spanish fleet. On 11 February, a most
confused battle was fought, in which the van and centre of the British fleet was engaged with the Spanish
rear and centre of the allies. Lestock, who was on the worst possible terms with his superior, took no part in
the action. Mathews fought with spirit but in a disorderly way, breaking the formation of his fleet, and
showing no power of direction, while Navarro's smaller fleet retained cohesion and fought off the energetic
but confused attacks of its larger enemy until the arrival of the French fleet forced the heavily damaged
British fleet to withdraw. The Spanish fleet then sailed to Italy where it delivered a fresh army and supplies
that had a decisive impact upon the war. The mismanagement of the British fleet in the battle, by arousing
deep anger among the people, led to a drastic reform of the British navy.[140]
Northern waters
The French scheme to invade Britain was arranged in combination with the Jacobite leaders, and soldiers
were to be transported from Dunkirk. In February 1744, a French fleet of twenty sail of the line entered the
English Channel under Jacques Aymar, comte de Roquefeuil, before the British force under Admiral John
Norris was ready to oppose him. But the French force was ill-equipped, the admiral was nervous, his mind
dwelt on all the misfortunes which might possibly happen, and the weather was bad. De Roquefeuil came
up almost as far as The Downs, where he learnt that Sir John Norris was at hand with twenty-five sail of
the line, and thereupon precipitately retreated. The military expedition prepared at Dunkirk to cross under
cover of De Roquefeuil's fleet naturally did not start. The utter weakness of the French at sea, due to long
neglect of the fleet and the bankrupt state of the treasury, was shown during the Jacobite rising of 1745,
when France made no attempt to profit by the distress of the British government.[140]
The Dutch, having by this time joined Great Britain, made a serious addition to the naval power opposed to
France, though the Dutch Republic was compelled by the necessity for maintaining an army in Flanders to
play a very subordinate part at sea. Not being stimulated by formidable attack, and having immediate
interests both at home and in Germany, the British government was slow to make use of its latest naval
strength. Spain, which could do nothing of an offensive character, was almost neglected. During 1745 the
New England expedition which took Louisburg (30 April – 16 June) was covered by a British naval force,
but little else was accomplished by the naval efforts of any of the belligerents.[140]
In 1746 a British combined naval and military expedition to the coast of France—the first of a long series of
similar ventures which in the end were derided as "breaking windows with guineas"—was carried out
during August and October. The aim was the capture of the French East India Company's dockyard at
Lorient, but it was not attained.[141][140]
From 1747 until the close of the war in October 1748, the naval policy of the British government, without
reaching a high level, was more energetic and coherent. A closer watch was kept on the French coast, and
effectual means were taken to intercept communication between France and her American possessions. In
the spring information was obtained that an important convoy for the East and West Indies was to sail from
Lorient.[140] The convoy was intercepted by Anson on 3 May, and in the First Battle of Cape Finisterre,
British admiral George Anson's fourteen ships of the line wiped out the French escort of six ships of the
line and three armed Indiamen, although in the meantime the merchant ships escaped.
On 14 October, another French convoy, protected by a strong squadron, was intercepted by a well-
appointed and well-directed squadron of superior numbers—the squadrons were respectively eight French
and fourteen British—in the Bay of Biscay. In the Second Battle of Cape Finisterre which followed, the
French admiral, Henri-François des Herbiers, Marquis de l'Estenduère, succeeded in covering the escape of
most of the merchant ships, but Hawke's British squadron took six of his warships. Most of the
merchantmen were later intercepted and captured in the West Indies. This disaster convinced the French
government of its helplessness at sea, and it made no further effort.[140]
Indian Ocean
In the East Indies, attacks on French commerce by a British squadron under Curtis Barnett in 1745 led to
the despatch of a French squadron commanded by Mahé de la Bourdonnais. After an inconclusive clash off
Negapatnam in July 1746, Edward Peyton, Barnett's successor, withdrew to Bengal, leaving Bourdonnais
unopposed on the Coromandel Coast. He landed troops near Madras and besieged the port by land and sea,
forcing it to surrender on 10 September 1746. In October the French squadron was devastated by a
cyclone, losing four ships of the line and suffering heavy damage to four more, and the surviving ships
withdrew. French land forces went on to make several attacks on the British settlement at Cuddalore, but
the eventual replacement of the negligent Peyton by Thomas Griffin resulted in a return to British naval
supremacy which put the French on the defensive. Despite the appearance of another French squadron, the
arrival of large-scale British reinforcements under Edward Boscawen (who considered but did not make an
attack on Île de France on the way) gave the British overwhelming dominance on land and sea, but the
ensuing siege of Pondichéry organised by Boscawen was unsuccessful.
Strength of armies, 1740

Horse
Belligerent Foot Artillery Engineers Others Militia Sources
Dragoons
Austria 76,000 32,000 2,600 150 0 .. [142]
Bavaria 36,000 4,000 200 0 0 .. [143]
France 111,000 19,000 3,000 .. 0 30,000 [144]
Great Britain 19,000 7,000 2,000 .. 6,000[c] 130,000 [145]
Hanover 18,000 5,000 360 23 0 0 [146]
Hesse- [147]
18,000 4,000 900 .. .. 0
Kassel
Cologne 1,000 0 0 0 0 0 [148]
Palatinate 9,000 1,000 200 15 0 0 [149]
Prussia 76,000 22,000 1,200 43 0 0 [150]
Sardinia 41,000 5,000 .. .. 0 0 [151]
Saxony 20,000 8,800 600 0 0 0 [152]
a. The amount of British troops on the Continent however never reached above 48,000 men[4]
b. Authorised strength in 1747, actual closer to 90,000 men[5]
c. Royal Marines
Related wars
First Silesian War (1740–1742) – Prussian invasion and ensuing Central European theatre
of the war
Second Silesian War (1744–1745) – Renewed Prussian invasion and continuation of First
Silesian War
First Carnatic War – Anglo-French rivalry in India often seen as a theatre of the War of the
Austrian Succession.
Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743) – Swedish and Russian participation in the War of the
Austrian Succession.
King George's War – American participation in the War of the Austrian Succession.
War of Jenkins' Ear – Anglo-Spanish war which merged into the War of the Austrian
Succession.
Jacobite rising of 1745 – France provided limited support to Charles Edward Stuart's
invasion of Great Britain.
Gallery
The Prussian infantry during the King George II at the Battle of

Battle of Mollwitz, 1741 Dettingen, 1743
The Duke of Lorraine and Imperial View of the British landing on the
troops crossing the Rhine before island of Cape Breton to attack the
Strasbourg, 1744 fortress of Louisbourg, 1745
The British fleet bombarding the The Battle of Fontenoy, 11 May

Corsican port of Bastia in 1745 1745
Colonels of the French Guards The Battle of Rocoux in 1746,
and British guards politely between the French and the
discussing who should fire first at British, Dutch and Austrians
the battle of Fontenoy, 1745
The Battle of Cape Finisterre, Marshal Maurice de Saxe at the

1747 Battle of Lauffeld, 1747
Taking and looting of the fortress of

Bergen-op-Zoom in 1747
References
1. Van Nimwegen 2002, p. 403.
2. Clodfelter 2002, p. 78.
3. Dwyer 2001, p. 14.
5. Van Nimwegen 2002, p. 12 & 103.
6. Hanlon 1997, p. 120.
7. Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Eighteenth Century (http://necrometrics.
com/wars18c.htm#AusSucc)
8. Clodfelter 2002, p. 81.
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115. Browning, pp. 287–288
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120. Browning: Austrian Succession, 219
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136. George W. Forrest, "The Siege of Madras in 1746 and the action of La Bourdonnais."
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 2 (1908): 189–234. DOI:
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War of the Austrian Succession

War of the Austrian Succession

Date 16 December 1740 – 18 October 1748

Commanders and leaders

France: Habsburg monarchy:

Spain: Dutch Republic:

Bavaria and Saxony refused to be bound by the decision of the Imperial

Military overview and strategies

Methods and technologies

European warfare in the early modern

With a population of 16 million, Austria had an authorised standing

News of the secret truce badly damaged the

Schärding In December 1741, von Schwerin had captured

In mid-June, the Pragmatic Army arrived at

In the February 1744 Battle of Toulon, a combined Franco-Spanish fleet

By mid-September, Frederick had captured Prague, Tabor, Budweis and

Frederick was left dangerously exposed, a situation worsened in early

As a result, France made no effort to block the election of Duke

Italian Campaigns, 1741–1747

The aggressiveness of the Spanish in Italy forced Empress

Empress Maria Theresa was frustrated with the failure of

The Low Countries, 1745–1748

The Peace of 1748

This was followed in November by a convention between Britain

Sporadic manifestations of hostility between the French and

Strength of armies, 1740

Austria 76,000 32,000 2,600 150 0 .. [142]

Bavaria 36,000 4,000 200 0 0 .. [143]

France 111,000 19,000 3,000 .. 0 30,000 [144]

Great Britain 19,000 7,000 2,000 .. 6,000[c] 130,000 [145]

Hanover 18,000 5,000 360 23 0 0 [146]

Cologne 1,000 0 0 0 0 0 [148]

Palatinate 9,000 1,000 200 15 0 0 [149]

Prussia 76,000 22,000 1,200 43 0 0 [150]

Sardinia 41,000 5,000 .. .. 0 0 [151]

Saxony 20,000 8,800 600 0 0 0 [152]

The Prussian infantry during the King George II at the Battle of

The British fleet bombarding the The Battle of Fontenoy, 11 May

The Battle of Cape Finisterre, Marshal Maurice de Saxe at the

Taking and looting of the fortress of

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