FG Module

SCHOOL OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Course Overview
Course Code/Title: ENGCFP1/COFPRO1
Course Description: ( COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS AND PROGRAMMING)
This is an introductory course in programming which aims to develop skills and

concepts that are essential to good programming practice and problem solving. It covers
fundamental programming concepts of primitive data types, simple I/O, conditional
statements, iterative structures, arrays and functions. It also includes the use of testing and
debugging techniques. Fundamental to the software development practice is the ability to
develop programs that use appropriate constructs aside from achieving desired results to
solve computing problems. This course also serves as a preparation for intermediate
programming. At the end of the course, the students are expected to be able to make
judicious choices of programming constructs to solve computing problems using appropriate
coding standards..
Course Requirements: At the end of the course you are required to take quizzes,
assignments and self-reflection and major examinations.
.
Module Requirements:
At the end of each module, you are expected to complete each:
1. Self-check (Quiz), Seatwork , Assignment

2. Programming Exercises
3. Major Written Examinations
4. Hands-on Examinations
Contact Information:
jpascual@e.ubaguio.edu
Consultation Hours:
Class time
Table of Contents
Lesson : Introduction
1.1. Course Syllabus
1.2. Introduction to Computer
Programming 2.1. Introduction to
Programming Languages 2.2.
Program Development Life Cycle
2.3. Introduction to C Programming

2.4. Program Structure
2.5 Identifiers, keywords, literals
2.6 Data Types
2.7 Variables
2.8 Coding Guidelines
2.9 Testing and debugging techniques
2.10 Output statements
2.11 Compiling and executing C programs
2.12 Arithmetic Operators
2.13 Input / output statements
2.14 Relational & Logical operators
2.15 Decision control structures
- if
- if-else
- if-else if
2.16 Decision control structures
- nested if
- switch
2.17 Repetition control structures
- while loop
- do-while loop
- for loop
- nested loop
- break, continue
2.18 Repetition
control structures -
while loop
- do-while loop
- for loop
- nested loop
- break, continue
2.19 Introduction to arrays
2.20 One-dimensional array
2.21 Built-in functions
2.22 User-defined functions
Introduction to Computer Programming
Computer programming is the process of designing and writing computer programs. As a skill set,
it includes a wide variety of different tasks and techniques, but our tutorials are not intended to teach
you everything. Instead, they are meant to provide basic, practical skills to help you understand and
write computer code that reflects things you see and use in the real world.
What you need to know
Our computer programming tutorials assume that you have no programming experience
whatsoever. They do, however, require basic familiarity with the use of computers and web browsers.
For example, you should be comfortable downloading and opening files, and using text editing
software. If you don't feel confident in those skills, consider spending some time with these tutorials
first:
· Computer Basics
· Internet Basics
What is a computer?
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability to store,
retrieve, and process data. You may already know that you can use a computer to type documents,
send email, play games, and browse the Web. You can also use it to edit or create spreadsheets,
presentations, and even videos.
Hardware vs. software
Before we talk about different types of computers, let's talk about two things all computers have in
common: hardware and software.
· Hardware is any part of your computer that has a physical structure, such as the
keyboard or mouse. It also includes all of the computer's internal parts, which you
can see in the image below.

· Software is any set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do and how to do
it. Examples of software include web browsers, games, and word processors.
Everything you do on your computer will rely on both hardware and software. For example, right now
you may be viewing this lesson in a web browser (software) and using your mouse (hardware) to
click from page to page. As you learn about different types of computers, ask yourself about the
differences in their hardware. As you progress through this tutorial, you'll see that different types of
computers also often use different types of software.
What are the different types of

computers?
When most people hear the word computer, they think of a personal computer such as a desktop
or laptop. However, computers come in many shapes and sizes, and they perform many different
functions in our daily lives. When you withdraw cash from an ATM, scan groceries at the store, or use
a calculator, you're using a type of computer
Desktop computers
Many people use desktop computers at work, home, and school. Desktop computers are designed to
be placed on a desk, and they're typically made up of a few different parts, including the computer
case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse.
Laptop computers
The second type of computer you may be familiar with is a laptop computer, commonly called a
laptop. Laptops are battery-powered computers that are more portable than desktops, allowing you to
use them almost anywhere.
Tablet computers
Tablet computers—or tablets—are handheld computers that are even more portable than laptops.
Instead of a keyboard and mouse, tablets use a touch-sensitive screen for typing and navigation.
The iPad is an example of a tablet.
Servers
A server is a computer that serves up information to other computers on a network. For example,
whenever you use the Internet, you're looking at something that's stored on a server. Many businesses
also use local file servers to store and share files internally.
Other types of computers
Many of today's electronics are basically specialized computers, though we don't always think of
them that way. Here are a few common examples.
· Smartphones: Many cell phones can do a lot of things computers can do, including
browsing the Internet and playing games. They are often called smartphones.
· Wearables: Wearable technology is a general term for a group of devices—including
fitness trackers and smartwatches—that are designed to be worn throughout the
day. These devices are often called wearables for short.
· Game consoles: A game console is a specialized type of computer that is used for
playing video games on your TV.
· TVs: Many TVs now include applications—or apps—that let you access various types
of online content. For example, you can stream video from the Internet directly onto
your TV.
PCs and Macs
Personal computers come in two main styles: PC and Mac. Both are fully functional, but they have a
different look and feel, and many people prefer one or the other.
This type of computer began with the original IBM PC that was introduced in 1981. Other companies
began creating similar computers, which were called IBM PC Compatible (often shortened to PC).
Today, this is the most common type of personal computer, and it typically includes the Microsoft
Windows operating system.
The Macintosh computer was introduced in 1984, and it was the first widely sold personal computer
with a graphical user interface, or GUI (pronounced gooey). All Macs are made by one company
(Apple), and they almost always use the Mac OS X operating system.
Basic Parts of a Desktop
The basic parts of a desktop computer are the computer case, monitor, keyboard, mouse, and power
cord. Each part plays an important role whenever you use a computer.
The computer case is the metal and plastic box that contains the main components of the computer,
including the motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), and power supply. The front of the case
usually has an On/Off button and one or more optical drives.
Computer cases come in different shapes and sizes. A desktop case lies flat on a desk, and the
monitor usually sits on top of it. A tower case is tall and sits next to the monitor or on the floor.
All-in-one computers come with the internal components built into the monitor, which eliminates the
need for a separate case.
Computer Basics: About This Lesson
This lesson helps you understand how computers work and how to use them. We’ll talk about how to
set up a computer, the difference between hardware and software, and the types of computers you
can use. We’ll also explore operating systems, applications, the cloud, and a whole lot more.
Basic Parts of a Computer
The basic parts of a desktop computer are the computer case, monitor, keyboard, mouse, and power
cord. Each part plays an important role whenever you use a computer.
Computer case
Showing computer cases
The computer case is the metal and plastic box that contains the main components of the computer,
including the motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), and power supply. The front of the case
usually has an On/Off button and one or more optical drives.
Computer cases come in different shapes and sizes. A desktop case lies flat on a desk, and the
monitor usually sits on top of it. A tower case is tall and sits next to the monitor or on the floor.
All-in-one computers come with the internal components built into the monitor, which eliminates the
need for a separate case.
Monitor
Showing a computer monitor
The monitor works with a video card, located inside the computer case, to display images and text on
the screen. Most monitors have control buttons that allow you to change your monitor’s display
settings, and some monitors also have built-in speakers.
Newer monitors usually have LCD (liquid crystal display) or LED (light-emitting diode) displays. These
can be made very thin, and they are often called flat-panel displays. Older monitors use CRT (cathode
ray tube) displays. CRT monitors are much larger and heavier, and they take up more desk space.
Keyboard
The keyboard is one of the main ways to communicate with a computer. There are many different
types of keyboards, but most are very similar and allow you to accomplish the same basic tasks.
Print Screen, Scroll Lock, Pause/Break
The Print Screen, Scroll Lock, and Pause/Break keys are at the top-right corner of the keyboard. The
Print Screen key takes a picture of your screen (called a screenshot) that you can edit or save using a
graphics program. Scroll Lock and Pause/Break are rarely used today, so some keyboards don’t have
them.
Keyboard
Escape Key
The Escape (Esc) key allows you to stop a function or action. For example, if a webpage is taking a
long time to load, you can press the Escape key to stop loading it.
Keyboard
Function Keys
The function keys are labeled F1 through F12. Some programs use these keys as shortcuts for
common tasks. For example, in many programs, F1 opens the Help file.
Keyboard
Tab Key
The Tab key is used to create indents in word processing programs. Also, if you are filling out a form
online, you can use the Tab key to switch to the next field.
Keyboard
Alphanumeric Keys
The main part of the keyboard includes the alphanumeric keys (letters and numbers) and the
spacebar.
Keyboard
Ctrl, Alt, and Shift
The Control (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt), and Shift keys are designed to work in combination with other keys.
Typically, you hold down Ctrl, Alt, or Shift and then type another key to perform a specific task. For
example, in many programs, typing Ctrl+S will save a file.
Keyboard
Arrow Keys
The arrow keys are used for many different purposes, including moving the cursor, scrolling a
document, and controlling a game.
Keyboard
Numeric Keypad
The numeric keypad resembles a calculator keypad. Many users find that it is easier to type numbers
using this keypad. On some keyboards, these keys double as arrow keys.
Keyboard
Backspace Key
The Backspace key (also known as the delete key) erases the character to the left of the cursor.
Keyboard
Enter
The Enter key (also known as the return key) executes commands. For example, while on the Internet,
you can type a website address and then press Enter to go to the site. It is also used to start a new
line in word processing programs.
Keyboard
Home and End
These move the cursor to the beginning or end of the current line.
Keyboard
Insert and Delete
Insert: This switches between insert mode (which inserts new text without deleting anything) and
overtype mode (which deletes text after the cursor as you type).
Delete: This erases the character to the right of the cursor.
keyboard
Page Up and Page Down
These scroll a document or webpage up or down.
The mouse is another important tool for communicating with computers. Commonly known as a
pointing device, it lets you point to objects on the screen, click on them, and move them.
There are two main mouse types: optical and mechanical. The optical mouse uses an electronic eye to
detect movement and is easier to clean. The mechanical mouse uses a rolling ball to detect movement
and requires regular cleaning to work properly.
Mouse alternatives
There are other devices that can do the same thing as a mouse. Many people find them easier to use,
and they also require less desk space than a traditional mouse. The most common mouse alternatives
are below.
Trackball: A trackball has a ball that can rotate freely. Instead of moving the device like a mouse, you
can roll the ball with your thumb to move the pointer.
Touchpad: A touchpad—also called a trackpad—is a touch-sensitive pad that lets you control the
pointer by making a drawing motion with your finger. Touchpads are common on laptop computers.
Buttons and Ports on a Computer
Ethernet Port
This port looks a lot like the modem or telephone port, but it is slightly wider. You can use this port for
networking and connecting to the Internet.
PS/2
These ports are sometimes used for connecting the mouse and keyboard. Typically, the mouse port
is green and the keyboard port is purple. On new computers, these ports have been replaced by
USB.
Serial Port
This port is less common on today's computers. It was frequently used to connect peripherals like
digital cameras, but it has been replaced by USB and other types of ports.
Expansion Slots
These empty slots are where expansion cards are added to computers. For example, if your
computer did not come with a video card, you could purchase one and install it here.
Power Socket
This is where you'll connect the power cord to the computer.
Other types of ports
There are many other types of ports, such as FireWire, Thunderbolt, and HDMI. If your computer has
ports you don’t recognize, you should consult your manual for more information.
Peripherals you can use with

your computer
The most basic computer setup usually includes the computer case, monitor, keyboard, and
mouse, but you can plug many different types of devices into the extra ports on your computer. These
devices are called peripherals. Let's take a look at some of the most common ones.
· Printers: A printer is used to print documents, photos, and anything else that appears
on your screen. There are many types of printers, including inkjet, laser, and photo
printers. There are even all-in-one printers, which can also scan and copy
documents.
· Scanners: A scanner allows you to copy a physical image or document and save it
to your computer as a digital (computer-readable) image. Many scanners are
included as part of an all-in-one printer, although you can also buy a separate flatbed
or handheld scanner.
· Speakers/headphones: Speakers and headphones are output devices, which means
they send information from the computer to the user—in this case, they allow you to
hear sound and music. Depending on the model, they may connect to the audio
port or the USB port. Some monitors also have built-in speakers.
· Microphones: A microphone is a type of input device, or a device that receives
information from a user. You can connect a microphone to record sound or talk with
someone else over the Internet. Many laptop computers come with built-in
microphones.
· Web cameras: A web camera—or webcam—is a type of input device that can record
videos and take pictures. It can also transmit video over the Internet in real time,
which allows for video chat or video conferencing with someone else. Many
webcams also include a microphone for this reason.
· Game controllers and joysticks: A game controller is used to control computer
games. There are many other types of controllers you can use, including joysticks,
although you can also use your mouse and keyboard to control most games.
· Digital cameras: A digital camera lets you capture pictures and videos in a digital
format. By connecting the camera to your computer's USB port, you can transfer the
images from the camera to the computer.
· Mobile phones, MP3 players, tablet computers, and other devices: Whenever you
buy an electronic device, such as a mobile phone or MP3 player, check to see if it
comes with a USB cable. If it does, this means you can most likely connect it to your
computer.
Front of a computer case

Optical Disc Drive
Often called a CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive, this lets your computer read CD
Power Button
The power button is used to power the computer on and off.
Audio In/Audio Out
Many computers include audio ports on the front of the computer case that allow you to easily
connect speakers, microphones, and headsets without fumbling with the back of the computer.
USB (Universal Serial Bus)
Port
Most desktop computers have several USB ports. These can be used to connect almost any type of
device, including mice, keyboards, printers, and digital cameras. They will often appear on the front
and back of the computer.
Back of a computer case
The back of a computer case has connection ports that are made to fit specific devices. The
placement will vary from computer to computer, and many companies have their own special
connectors for specific devices. Some of the ports may be color coded to help you determine which
port is used with a particular device.
Audio In/Audio Out
Almost every computer has two or more audio ports where you can connect various devices,
including speakers, microphones, and headsets.
Monitor Port
This is where you'll connect your monitor cable. In this example, the computer has both a DisplayPort
and a VGA port. Other computers may have other types of monitor ports, such as DVI (digital visual
interface) or HDMI (high-definition multimedia interface).
USB Ports
On most desktop computers, most of the USB ports are on the back of the computer case. Generally,
you'll want to connect your mouse and keyboard to these ports and keep the front USB ports free so
they can be used for digital cameras and other devices.
Ethernet Port
This port looks a lot like the modem or telephone port, but it is slightly wider. You can use this port for
networking and connecting to the Internet.
PS/2
These ports are sometimes used for connecting the mouse and keyboard. Typically, the mouse port
is green and the keyboard port is purple. On new computers, these ports have been replaced by
USB.
Serial Port
This port is less common on today's computers. It was frequently used to connect peripherals like
digital cameras, but it has been replaced by USB and other types of ports.
Expansion Slots
These empty slots are where expansion cards are added to computers. For example, if your
computer did not come with a video card, you could purchase one and install it here.
Power Socket
This is where you'll connect the power cord to the computer.
Other types of ports
There are many other types of ports, such as FireWire, Thunderbolt, and HDMI. If your computer has
ports you don't recognize, you should consult your manual for more information.
Inside a computer
Have you ever looked inside a computer case, or seen pictures of the inside of one? The small parts
may look complicated, but the inside of a computer case isn't really all that mysterious. This lesson will
help you master some of the basic terminology and understand a bit more about what goes on inside
a computer.
Motherboard
The motherboard is the computer's main circuit board. It's a thin plate that holds the CPU, memory,
connectors for the hard drive and optical drives, expansion cards to control the video and audio, and
connections to your computer's ports (such as USB ports). The motherboard connects directly or
indirectly to every part of the computer.
CPU/processor
The central processing unit (CPU), also called a processor, is located inside the computer case on
the motherboard. It is sometimes called the brain of the computer, and its job is to carry out
commands. Whenever you press a key, click the mouse, or start an application, you're sending
instructions to the CPU.
The CPU is usually a two-inch ceramic square with a silicon chip located inside. The chip is usually
about the size of a thumbnail. The CPU fits into the motherboard's CPU socket, which is covered by
the heat sink, an object that absorbs heat from the CPU.
A processor's speed is measured in megahertz (MHz), or millions of instructions per second; and
gigahertz (GHz), or billions of instructions per second. A faster processor can execute instructions
more quickly. However, the actual speed of the computer depends on the speed of many different
components—not just the processor.
RAM (random access memory)
RAM is your system's short-term memory. Whenever your computer performs calculations, it
temporarily stores the data in the RAM until it is needed.
This short-term memory disappears when the computer is turned off. If you're working on a
document, spreadsheet, or other type of file, you'll need to save it to avoid losing it. When you save a
file, the data is written to the hard drive, which acts as long-term storage.
RAM is measured in megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB). The more RAM you have, the more things
your computer can do at the same time. If you don't have enough RAM, you may notice that your
computer is sluggish when you have several programs open. Because of this, many people add extra
RAM to their computers to improve performance.
Hard drive
The hard drive is where your software, documents, and other files are stored. The hard drive is
long-term storage, which means the data is still saved even if you turn the computer off or unplug it.
When you run a program or open a file, the computer copies some of the data from the hard drive
onto the RAM. When you save a file, the data is copied back to the hard drive. The faster the hard
drive, the faster your computer can start up and load programs.
Power supply unit
The power supply unit in a computer converts the power from

the wall outlet to the type of power needed by the computer. It
sends power through cables to the motherboard and other
components.
Introduction to Programming Languages
The basic components of a computer are:
1. Input unit
2. Central Processing Unit(CPU)
3. Output unit
The CPU is further divided into three parts-
· Memory unit
· Control unit
· Arithmetic Logic unit
Most of us have heard that the CPU is called the brain of our computer because it accepts data,
provides temporary memory space to it until it is stored(saved) on the hard disk, performs logical
operations on it and hence processes(here also converts) data into information. We all know that a
computer consists of hardware and software. Software is a set of programs that performs multiple
tasks together. An operating system is also software (system software) that helps humans to interact
with the computer system.
A program is a set of instructions given to a computer to perform a specific operation. a computer is a
computational device that is used to process the data under the control of a computer program. While
executing the program, raw data is processed into the desired output format. These computer
programs are written in a programming language which are high-level languages. High level
languages are nearly human languages that are more complex than the computer understandable
language which are called machine language, or low level language. So after knowing the basics, we
are ready to create a very simple and basic program. Like we have different languages to
communicate with each other, likewise, we have different languages like C, C++, C#, Java, python, etc
to communicate with the computers. The computer only understands binary language (the language of
0’s and 1’s) also called machine-understandable language or low-level language but the programs we
are going to write are in a high-level language which is almost similar to human language.
The piece of code given below performs a basic task of printing “hello world! I am learning
programming” on the console screen. We must know that keyboard, scanner, mouse, microphone, etc
are various examples of input devices, and monitor(console screen), printer, speaker, etc are
examples of output devices.
main()
clrscr();
printf(“hello world! I am learning to program");
getch();
At this stage, you might not be able to understand in-depth how this code prints something on the
screen. The main() is a standard function that you will always include in any program that you are
going to create from now onwards. Note that the execution of the program starts from the main()
function. The clrscr() function is used to see only the current output on the screen while the printf()
function helps us to print the desired output on the screen. Also, getch() is a function that accepts any
character input from the keyboard. In simple words, we need to press any key to continue(some
people may say that getch() helps in holding the screen to see the output). Between high-level
language and machine language, there are assembly languages also called symbolic machine code.
Assembly languages are particularly computer architecture specific. Utility program (Assembler) is
used to convert assembly code into executable machine code. High Level Programming Language is
portable but requires Interpretation or compiling to convert it into a machine language that is computer
understood.
Hierarchy of Computer language –
C Python C++
C# R Ruby
COBOL ADA Java
Altair
Fortran BASIC BASIC
Visual
BASIC
True
BASIC GW BASIC
QBASIC PureBASIC PASCAL
Turbo
Pascal GO ALGOL
Swift
LISP SCALA
Rust Prolog Reia
Racket Scheme Simula
Perl PHP Java Script
CoffeeScri VisualFoxP
pt ro Babel
Logo Lua
Smalltalk
Matlab F F#
Dart Datalog dbase
Haskell dylan Julia
ksh metro Mumps
Nim OCaml pick

TCL D CPL
ActionScrip
Curry t Erlang
DarkBASCI
Clojure C Assembly
Most Popular Programming Languages –
·C
· Python
· C++
· Java
· SCALA
· C#
·R
· Ruby
· Go
· Swift
· JavaScript
Characteristics of a programming Language –
· A programming language must be simple, easy to learn and use, have good readability,
and be human recognizable.
· Abstraction is a must-have characteristic for a programming language in which the ability
to define the complex structure and then its degree of usability comes.
· A portable programming language is always preferred.
· Programming language’s efficiency must be high so that it can be easily converted into
machine code and its execution consumes little space in memory.
· A programming language should be well structured and documented so that it is suitable
for application development.
· Necessary tools for the development, debugging, testing, maintenance of a program must
be provided by a programming language.
· A programming language should provide a single environment known as Integrated
Development Environment(IDE).
· A programming language must be consistent in terms of syntax and semantics.

// C program for sum of 2 numbers
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a, b, sum;
a = 10;
b = 15;
sum = a + b;
printf("Sum of %d and %d is: %d", a, b,
sum); // perform addition operation
return 0;
}
Program Development Life Cycle (PDLC)
Program Development Life Cycle (PDLC) is a systematic way of developing quality software. It
provides an organized plan for breaking down the task of program development into manageable
chunks, each of which must be successfully completed before moving on to the next phase.
The program development process is divided into the steps discussed below:
1. Defining the Problem –
The first step is to define the problem. In major software projects, this is a job for system
analyst, who provides the results of their work to programmers in the form of a program
specification. The program specification defines the data used in program, the
processing that should take place while finding a solution, the format of the output and
the user interface.
2. Designing the Program –
Program design starts by focusing on the main goal that the program is trying to achieve
and then breaking the program into manageable components, each of which
contributes to this goal. This approach of program design is called top-bottom program
design or modular programming. The first step involves identifying the main routine,
which is one of the program’s major activities. From that point, programmers try to
divide the various components of the main routine into smaller parts called modules.
For each module, the programmer draws a conceptual plan using an appropriate
program design tool to visualize how the module will do its assigned job.
Program Design Tools:
The various program design tools are described below:
· Structure Charts – A structure chart, also called Hierarchy chart, shows
top-down design of a program. Each box in the structure chart indicates a

task that the program must accomplish. The Top module, called the Main
module or Control module. For example:
· Algorithms –
An algorithm is a step-by-step description of how to arrive at a solution in the
easiest way. Algorithms are not restricted to the computer world only. In fact,
we use them in everyday life.
· Flowcharts
A flowchart is a diagram that shows the logic of the program. Flow charts are
diagrams showing the exact sequence of logical steps. They use
geometrical shapes and arrows to show processes, relationships, and
data/process flow. In other words, flowcharts depict decisions and results of
them. Flowcharts are useful tools in software development. In C
programming, flowcharts are often used to represent algorithms or
programs. They show the connections, flow of information, and processes
within an algorithm or a program. For example, here's an if else flowchart
that's often used in C programming.
Programmers use flowcharts in the program-planning, or the debugging process, often to solve
problems, even in complex programs.
A program might contain many flows of logic and processes, so flowcharts, using natural language and
symbols, can also help normal, non-technical people understand how the program works. Here are
some conventional symbols for a basic flowchart:
Here are some simple examples of flowcharts related to C programming:
Example 1: Print “Hello World.” On-screen
When you first learn a programming language, whether Python, Pascal, or C, your first program is
often a simple “Hello World” program. So, a chart of a simple program of printing a “Hello World”
message onto the screen should be like this:
Print "Hello World" on screen Flowchart

Example 2: Calculate The Average Of Two Numbers.
As you may have already known, to calculate the average of two numbers, you can sum up those two
numbers and divide the result by 2. In other words, the formula for calculating the average of two
numbers is: (number 1 + number 2)/2.
So the basic shapes of the chart should be like this:
Example 3: Input Number And Check If They Are Odd Or Even
Another relatively simple program is checking odd/even numbers. It is a basic conditional operation
that involves: inputting a number, determining whether it is odd or even, printing the result on-screen.
The chart should be something like this:
Input Number and Check If They Are

Odd or Even Algorithm Flowchart
Example 4: Controlling Algorithm For Toaster
There will be two inputs for this flowchart: the button you push to start the toaster and another input to
measure the toaster’s cooking temperature.
The heater is an output, which can be on or off. Your toaster will lower the bread inside to cook when
the heat is on, turn off the heat then eject the toast when it is done. The detailed chart should be as
follows:
Controlling Algorithm for Toaster

Flowchart Guidelines
To create a flowchart, you must follow the following current standard guideline:
● Step 1: Start the program.

● Step 2: Begin Process 1 of the program.
● Step 3: Check some conditions and make a Decision (“yes” or “no”).
● Step 4: If the decision is “yes”, proceed to Process 3. If the decision is “no”, proceed to
Process 2 and return to Step 2.
● Step 5: End of the program.
Building a standard flow chart
Additionally, the following can be helpful tips in creating flowcharts as well:

● You can only have one start and one end in your chart, no more, no less.
● On-page connectors are referred to by numbers, while off-page connectors are referred to by
alphabetical letters.
● The flow of processes is generally from top to bottom or left to right, not the other way
around.
● It would be best not to make the arrows cross each other.
Conclusion
It is important to plan ahead with coding. Coding is a process that can take a while and it is best to
plan ahead. One way of planning is by using a flowchart as a guide. This flowchart should indicate
which blocks of code will be used where, what the codes will do, and how they will interact with each
other. These are just some of the many methods programmers use to plan their coding before they
even start.
· Decision tables –A Decision table is a special kind of table, which is divided into four parts by a pair
of horizontal and vertical lines.
· Pseudocode –A pseudocode is another tool to describe the way to arrive at a solution. They are
different from algorithms by the fact that they are expressed in program language like constructs.
3. Coding the Program –Coding the program means translating an algorithm into a specific
programming language. The technique of programming using only well defined control structures is
known as Structured programming. Programmers must follow the language rules, violation of any rule
causes error. These errors must be eliminated before going to the next step.
4. Testing and Debugging the Program – After removal of syntax errors, the program will execute.
However, the output of the program may not be correct. This is because of a logical error in the
program. A logical error is a mistake that the programmer made while designing the solution to a
problem. So the programmer must find and correct logical errors by carefully examining the program
output using Test data. Syntax error and Logical error are collectively known as Bugs. The process of
identifying errors and eliminating them is known as Debugging.
5. Documenting the Program –After testing, the software project is almost complete. The structure
charts, pseudocodes, flowcharts and decision tables developed during the design phase become
documentation for others who are associated with the software project. This phase ends by writing a
manual that provides an overview of the program’s functionality, tutorials for the beginner, in-depth
explanations of major program features, reference documentation of all program commands and a
thorough description of the error messages generated by the program.
6. Deploying and Maintaining the Program – In the final phase, the program is deployed (installed)
at the user’s site. Here also, the program is kept under watch till the user gives a green signal to
it.Even after the software is completed, it needs to be maintained and evaluated regularly. In software
maintenance, the programming team fixes program errors and updates the software.
What is C Programming Language?
C is a general-purpose programming language that is extremely popular, simple, and flexible to use. It
is a structured programming language that is machine-independent and extensively used to write
various applications, Operating Systems like Windows, and many other complex programs like Oracle
database, Git, Python interpreter, and more.
It is said that ‘C’ is a god’s programming language. One can say, C is a base for programming. If you
know ‘C,’ you can easily grasp the knowledge of the other programming languages that uses the
concept of ‘C’
It is essential to have a background in computer memory mechanisms because it is an important
aspect when dealing with the C programming language.
History of C language
The base or father of programming languages is ‘ALGOL.’ It was first introduced in 1960. ‘ALGOL’ was
used on a large basis in European countries. ‘ALGOL’ introduced the concept of structured
programming to the developer community. In 1967, a new computer programming language was
announced called ‘BCPL’ which stands for Basic Combined Programming Language. BCPL was
designed and developed by Martin Richards, especially for writing system software. This was the era
of programming languages. Just after three years, in 1970 a new programming language called ‘B’
was introduced by Ken Thompson that contained multiple features of ‘BCPL.’ This programming
language was created using the UNIX operating system at AT&T and Bell Laboratories. Both the
‘BCPL’ and ‘B’ were system programming languages.
In 1972, a great computer scientist Dennis Ritchie created a new programming language called ‘C’ at
the Bell Laboratories. It was created from ‘ALGOL’, ‘BCPL’ and ‘B’ programming languages. ‘C’
programming language contains all the features of these languages and many more additional
concepts that make it unique from other languages.

‘C’ is a powerful programming language which is strongly associated with the UNIX operating system.
Even most of the UNIX operating system is coded in ‘C’. Initially ‘C’ programming was limited to the
UNIX operating system, but as it started spreading around the world, it became commercial, and many
compilers were released for cross-platform systems. Today ‘C’ runs under a variety of operating
systems and hardware platforms. As it started evolving many different versions of the language were
released. At times it became difficult for the developers to keep up with the latest version as the
systems were running under the older versions. To assure that ‘C’ language will remain standard,
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) defined a commercial standard for ‘C’ language in 1989.
Later, it was approved by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1990. ‘C’ programming
language is also called ‘ANSI C’.
C Basic Commands
C Basic Explanation
commands
#include <stdio.h> This command includes standard input output header file(stdio.h) from
the C library before compiling a C program
int main() It is the main function from where C program execution begins.
{ Indicates the beginning of the main function.
/*_some_comments Whatever written inside this command “/* */” inside a C program, it will
_*/ not be considered for compilation and execution.
printf(“Hello_World! This command prints the output on the screen.
“);
getch(); This command is used for any character input from the keyboard.
return 0; This command is used to terminate a C program (main function) and it
returns 0.
} It is used to indicate the end of the main function.
Where is C used? Key Applications
1. ‘C’ language is widely used in embedded systems.
2. It is used for developing system applications.
3. It is widely used for developing desktop applications.
4. Most of the applications by Adobe are developed using the ‘C’ programming language.
5. It is used for developing browsers and their extensions. Google’s Chromium is built using the
‘C’ programming language.
6. It is used to develop databases. MySQL is the most popular database software which is built
using ‘C’.
7. It is used in developing an operating system. Operating systems such as Apple’s OS X,
Microsoft’s Windows, and Symbian are developed using ‘C’ language. It is used for
developing desktop as well as mobile phone’s operating systems.
8. It is used for compiler production.
9. It is widely used in IOT applications.

Why learn C Language?
As we studied earlier, ‘C’ is a base language for many programming languages. So, learning ‘C’ as the
main language will play an important role while studying other programming languages. It shares the
same concepts such as data types, operators, control statements and many more. ‘C’ can be used
widely in various applications. It is a simple language and provides faster execution. There are many
jobs available for a ‘C’ developer in the current market.
‘C’ is a structured programming language in which a program is divided into various modules. Each
module can be written separately and together it forms a single ‘C’ program. This structure makes it
easy for testing, maintaining and debugging processes.
‘C’ contains 32 keywords, various data types and a set of powerful built-in functions that make
programming very efficient.
Another feature of ‘C’ programming is that it can extend itself. A ‘C’ program contains various functions
which are part of a library. We can add our features and functions to the library. We can access and
use these functions anytime we want in our program. This feature makes it simple while working with
complex programming.
Various compilers are available in the market that can be used for executing programs written in this
language.
It is a highly portable language which means programs written in ‘C’ language can run on other
machines. This feature is essential if we wish to use or execute the code on another computer.
How C Programming Language Works?
C is a compiled language. A compiler is a special tool that compiles the program and converts it into
the object file which is machine readable. After the compilation process, the linker will combine
different object files and create a single executable file to run the program. The following diagram
shows the execution of a ‘C’ program .Nowadays, various compilers are available online, and you can
use any of those compilers. The functionality will never differ and most of the compilers will provide the
features required to execute both ‘C’ and ‘C++’ programs.
Following is the list of popular compilers available online:
· Clang compiler
· MinGW compiler (Minimalist GNU for Windows)
· Portable ‘C’ compiler
· Turbo C
Summary
· ‘C’ was developed by Dennis Ritchie in 1972.
· It is a robust language.
· It is a low programming level language close to machine language
· It is widely used in the software development field.
· It is a procedure and structure oriented language.
· It has the full support of various operating systems and hardware platforms.
· Many compilers are available for executing programs written in ‘C’.
· A compiler compiles the source file and generates an object file.
· A linker links all the object files together and creates one executable file
· It is highly portable.
Program Structure
Before we study the basic building blocks of the C programming language, let us look at a bare
minimum C program structure so that we can take it as a reference in the upcoming chapters.
Hello World Example
A C program basically consists of the following parts −
· Preprocessor Commands
· Functions
· Variables
· Statements & Expressions
· Comments
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
/* my first program in C */
printf("Hello, World! \n");
return 0;
Let us take a look at the various parts of the above program −

· The first line of the program #include <stdio.h> is a preprocessor command, which tells
a C compiler to include stdio.h file before going to actual compilation.
· The next line int main() is the main function where the program execution begins.
· The next line /*...*/ will be ignored by the compiler and it has been put to add additional
comments in the program. So such lines are called comments in the program.
· The next line printf(...) is another function available in C which causes the message
"Hello, World!" to be displayed on the screen.
· The next line return 0; terminates the main() function and returns the value 0.
Compile and Run C Program
To compile and run a C language program, you need a C compiler. A compiler is a software that is
used to compile and execute programs. To set up a C language compiler in your Computer/laptop,
there are two ways:
1. Download a full-fledged IDE like Turbo C++ or Microsoft Visual C++ or DevC++, which
comes along with a C language compiler.
2. Or, you can use any text editor to edit the program files and download the C compiler
separately and then run the C program using the command line.
If you haven't already installed an IDE for the C language - Follow this step-by-step guide to Install
Turbo C++ for C Language
Using an IDE - Turbo C
We will recommend you to use Turbo C or Turbo C++ IDE, which is the oldest IDE for C
programming. It is freely available over the internet and is good for a beginner.
Step 1: Open turbo C IDE(Integrated Development Environment), click on File and then click on New
Step 2: Write a Hello World program that we created in the previous article - C Hello World program.
Step 3: Click on Compile menu and then on Compile option, or press the keys press Alt + F9 to
compile the code.
Step 4: Click on Run or press Ctrl + F9 to run the code. Yes, C programs are first compiled to
generate the object code and then that object code is Run.
Step 5: Output is here.
C Keywords and Identifiers

In this lesson, you will learn about keywords; reserved words in C programming that are part of the
syntax. Also, you will learn about identifiers and how to name them.
Character set
A character set is a set of alphabets, letters and some special characters that are valid in C language.
Alphabets
Uppercase: A B C ................................... X Y Z
Lowercase: a b c ...................................... x y z
Special Characters in C Programming
, < > . _
( ) ; $ :
% [ ] # ?
' & { } "
^ ! * / |
- \ ~ +
White space Characters
Blank space, newline, horizontal tab, carriage return and form feed.
C Keywords
Keywords are predefined, reserved words used in programming that have special meanings to the
compiler. Keywords are part of the syntax and they cannot be used as an identifier. For example:
int money;
Here, int is a keyword that indicates money is a variable of type int (integer).
As C is a case sensitive language, all keywords must be written in lowercase. Here is a list of all
keywords allowed in ANSI C.
C Keywords
auto double int struct
break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
continue for signed void
do if static while
default goto sizeof volatile

const float short unsigned
All these keywords, their syntax, and application will be discussed in their respective topics. However,
if you want a brief overview of these keywords without going further, visit List of all keywords in C
programming.
List of all Keywords in C Language
This tutorial provides a brief information on all 32 keywords in C programming.
Keywords in C Programming
auto break case char
const continue default do
double else enum extern
float for goto if
int long register return

short signed sizeof static
struct switch typedef union
unsigned void volatile while
Description of all Keywords in C
auto
The auto keyword declares automatic variables. For example:
auto int var1;
This statement suggests that var1 is a variable of storage class auto and type int.
Variables declared within function bodies are automatic by default. They are
recreated each time a function is executed.
Since automatic variables are local to a function, they are also called local
variables. To learn more visit C storage class.

break and continue
The break statement terminates the innermost loop immediately when it's
encountered. It's also used to terminate the switch statement.
The continue statement skips the statements after it inside the loop for the iteration.
for (i=1;i<=10;++i){
if (i==3)
continue;
if (i==7)
break;
printf("%d ",i);
Output
12456
When i is equal to 3, the continue statement comes into effect and skips 3. When i
is equal to 7, the break statement comes into effect and terminates the for loop. To
learn more, visit C break and continue statement
switch, case and default
The switch and case statement is used when a block of statements has to be
executed among many blocks. For example:
switch(expression)
case '1':
//some statements to execute when 1
break;
case '5':
//some statements to execute when 5

break;
default:
//some statements to execute when default;
Visit C switch statement to learn more.
char
The char keyword declares a character variable. For example:
char alphabet;
Here, alphabet is a character type variable.
To learn more, visit C data types.
const
An identifier can be declared constant by using the const keyword.

const int a = 5;
To learn more, visit C variables and constants.
do...while
int i;
do
printf("%d ",i);
i++;
while (i<10)
To learn more, visit C do...while loop
double and float

Keywords double and float are used for declaring floating type variables. For
example:
float number;
double longNumber;
Here, number is a single-precision floating type variable whereas, longNumber is a
double-precision floating type variable.
if and else
In C programming, if and else are used to make decisions.
if (i == 1)
printf("i is 1.")
else
printf("i is not 1.")

If the value of i is other than 1, the output will be :
i is not 1
To learn more, visit C if...else statement.
enum
Enumeration types are declared in C programming using keyword enum. For
example:
enum suit
hearts;
spades;
clubs;
diamonds;
};
Here, an enumerated variable suit is created having tags: hearts, spades, clubs, and
diamonds.
To learn more, visit C enum.
extern
The extern keyword declares that a variable or a function has external linkage
outside of the file it is declared.
To learn more, visit C storage type.
for
There are three types of loops in C programming. The for loop is written in C
programming using the keyword for. For example:

for (i=0; i< 9;++i){
printf("%d ",i);
Output
012345678
To learn more, visit C for loop.
goto
The goto statement is used to transfer control of the program to the specified label.
For example:
for(i=1; i<5; ++i)
if (i==10)
goto error;
printf("i is not 10");
error:
printf("Error, count cannot be 10.");
Output
Error, count cannot be 10.
To learn more, visit C goto.
int
The int keyword is used to declare integer type variables. For example:
int count;
Here, count is an integer variable.

short, long, signed and unsigned
The short, long, signed and unsigned keywords are type modifiers that alter the
meaning of a base data type to yield a new type.
short int smallInteger;
long int bigInteger;
signed int normalInteger;
unsigned int positiveInteger;
Range of int type data types
Data types Range
short int -32768 to 32767
long int -2147483648 to 214743648

signed int -32768 to 32767
unsigned int 0 to 65535
return
The return keyword terminates the function and returns the value.
int func() {
int b = 5;
return b;
This function func() returns 5 to the calling function. To learn more, visit C
user-defined functions.
sizeof
The sizeof keyword evaluates the size of data (a variable or a constant).

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
printf("%u bytes.",sizeof(char));
To learn more, visit C operators.
Output
1 bytes.
register
The register keyword creates register variables which are much faster than normal
variables.
register int var1;

static
The static keyword creates a static variable. The value of the static variables persists
until the end of the program. For example:
static int var;
struct
The struct keyword is used for declaring a structure. A structure can hold variables
of different types under a single name.
struct student{
char name[80];
float marks;
int age;
}s1, s2;
To learn more, visit C structures.

typedef
The typedef keyword is used to explicitly associate a type with an identifier.
typedef float kg;
kg bear, tiger;
union
A union is used for grouping different types of variables under a single name.
union student {
char name[80];
float marks;
int age;
}
To learn more, visit C unions.
void
The void keyword meaning nothing or no value.
void testFunction(int a) {
.....
Here, the testFunction() function cannot return a value because its return type is void.
volatile
The volatile keyword is used for creating volatile objects. A volatile object can be
modified in an unspecified way by the hardware.
const volatile number
Here, number is a volatile object.
Sincenumber is a constant, the program cannot change it. However, hardware can
change it since it is a volatile object.

C Identifiers
Identifier refers to name given to entities such as variables, functions, structures etc.
Identifiers must be unique. They are created to give a unique name to an entity to identify it during the
execution of the program. For example:
int money;
double accountBalance;
Here, money and accountBalance are identifiers.
Also remember, identifier names must be different from keywords. You cannot use int as an identifier
because int is a keyword.
Rules for naming identifiers
1. A valid identifier can have letters (both uppercase and lowercase letters), digits and
underscores.
2. The first letter of an identifier should be either a letter or an underscore.
3. You cannot use keywords like int, while etc. as identifiers.
4. There is no rule on how long an identifier can be. However, you may run into problems in
some compilers if the identifier is longer than 31 characters.
You can choose any name as an identifier if you follow the above rule, however, give meaningful
names to identifiers that make sense.

C Variables, Constants and Literals
In this tutorial, you will learn about variables and rules for naming a variable. You
will also learn about different literals in C programming and how to create
constants.
Variables
In programming, a variable is a container (storage area) to hold data.
To indicate the storage area, each variable should be given a unique name
(identifier). Variable names are just the symbolic representation of a memory
location. For example:
int playerScore = 95;
Here, playerScore is a variable of int type. Here, the variable is assigned an integer
value 95.
The value of a variable can be changed, hence the name variable.
char ch = 'a';
// some code
ch = 'l';
Rules for naming a variable
1. A variable name can only have letters (both uppercase and lowercase
letters), digits and underscore.
2. The first letter of a variable should be either a letter or an underscore.
3. There is no rule on how long a variable name (identifier) can be. However,
you may run into problems in some compilers if the variable name is longer
than 31 characters.
Note: You should always try to give meaningful names to variables. For example:
firstName is a better variable name than fn.
C is a strongly typed language. This means that the variable type cannot be
changed once it is declared. For example:
int number = 5; // integer variable
number = 5.5; // error
double number; // error
Here, the type of number variable is int. You cannot assign a floating-point (decimal)
value 5.5 to this variable. Also, you cannot redefine the data type of the variable to
double. By the way, to store the decimal values in C, you need to declare its type to
either double or float.
Visit this page to learn more about different types of data a variable can store.
Literals
Literals are data used for representing fixed values. They can be used directly in
the code. For example: 1, 2.5, 'c' etc.
Here, 1, 2.5 and 'c' are literals. Why? You cannot assign different values to these
terms.
1. Integers
An integer is a numeric literal(associated with numbers) without any fractional or

exponential part. There are three types of integer literals in C programming:
● decimal (base 10)

● octal (base 8)
● hexadecimal (base 16)
For example:
Decimal: 0, -9, 22 etc
Octal: 021, 077, 033 etc
Hexadecimal: 0x7f, 0x2a, 0x521 etc
In C programming, octal starts with a 0, and hexadecimal starts with a 0x.
2. Floating-point Literals
A floating-point literal is a numeric literal that has either a fractional form or an

exponent form. For example:
-2.0
0.0000234
-0.22E-5
Note: E-5 = 10-5
3. Characters
A character literal is created by enclosing a single character inside single quotation

marks. For example: 'a', 'm', 'F', '2', '}' etc.
4. Escape Sequences
Sometimes, it is necessary to use characters that cannot be typed or has special

meaning in C programming. For example: newline(enter), tab, question mark etc.
In order to use these characters, escape sequences are used.
Escape Sequences Character
\b Backspace
\f Form feed
\n Newline
\r Return
\t Horizontal tab
\v Vertical tab
\\ Backslash
\' Single quotation mark
\" Double quotation mark
\? Question mark
\0 Null character
For example: \n is used for a newline. The backslash \ causes escape from the
normal way the characters are handled by the compiler.
5. String Literals
A string literal is a sequence of characters enclosed in double-quote marks. For

example:
"good" //string constant
"" //null string constant
" " //string constant of six white space
"x" //string constant having a single character.
"Earth is round\n" //prints string with a newline
Constants
If you want to define a variable whose value cannot be changed, you can use the
const keyword. This will create a constant. For example,
const double PI = 3.14;
Notice, we have added keyword const.
Here, PI is a symbolic constant; its value cannot be changed.
const double PI = 3.14;
PI = 2.9; //Error
In C programming, data types are declarations for variables. This determines the
type and size of data associated with variables. For example,
int myVar;
Here, myVar is a variable of int (integer) type. The size of int is 4 bytes.
Basic types
Here's a table containing commonly used types in C programming for quick access.
Type Size (bytes) Format Specifier
int at least 2, usually 4 %d, %i
char 1 %c
float 4 %f
double 8 %lf
short int 2 usually %hd

unsigned int at least 2, usually 4 %u
long int at least 4, usually 8 %ld, %li
long long int at least 8 %lld, %lli
unsigned long int at least 4 %lu
unsigned long long int at least 8 %llu
signed char 1 %c
unsigned char 1 %c
long double at least 10, usually 12 or 16 %Lf
int
Integers are whole numbers that can have both zero, positive and negative values
but no decimal values. For example, 0, -5, 10
We can use int for declaring an integer variable.
int id;
Here, id is a variable of type integer.
You can declare multiple variables at once in C programming. For example,
int id, age;
The size of int is usually 4 bytes (32 bits). And, it can take 232 distinct states from
-2147483648 to 2147483647.
float and double
float and double are used to hold real numbers.
float salary;
double price;
In C, floating-point numbers can also be represented in exponential. For example,
float normalizationFactor = 22.442e2;
What's the difference between float and double?
The size of float (single precision float data type) is 4 bytes. And the size of double
(double precision float data type) is 8 bytes.
char
Keyword char is used for declaring character type variables. For example,
char test = 'h';
The size of the character variable is 1 byte.
void
void is an incomplete type. It means "nothing" or "no type". You can think of void as
absent.
For example, if a function is not returning anything, its return type should be void.
Note that, you cannot create variables of void type.
short and long
If you need to use a large number, you can use a type specifier long. Here's how:
long a;
long long b;
long double c;
Here variables a and b can store integer values. And, c can store a floating-point
number.
If you are sure, only a small integer ([−32,767, +32,767] range) will be used, you can
use short.
short d;
You can always check the size of a variable using the sizeof() operator.
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
short a;
long b;
long long c;
long double d;
printf("size of short = %d bytes\n", sizeof(a));
printf("size of long = %d bytes\n", sizeof(b));
printf("size of long long = %d bytes\n", sizeof(c));
printf("size of long double= %d bytes\n", sizeof(d));
return 0;
Run Code
signed and unsigned
In C, signed and unsigned are type modifiers. You can alter the data storage of a data
type by using them:
● signed - allows for storage of both positive and negative numbers

● unsigned - allows for storage of only positive numbers
For example,
// valid codes
unsigned int x = 35;
int y = -35; // signed int
int z = 36; // signed int
// invalid code: unsigned int cannot hold negative integers
unsigned int num = -35;
Here, the variables x and num can hold only zero and positive values because we
have used the unsigned modifier.
Considering the size of int is 4 bytes, variable y can hold values from -231 to 231-1,
whereas variable x can hold values from 0 to 232-1.
Derived Data Types

Data types that are derived from fundamental data types are derived types. For
example: arrays, pointers, function types, structures, etc.
We will learn about these derived data types in later tutorials.
● bool type
● Enumerated type
● Complex types
C Arithmetic Operators
An arithmetic operator performs mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,

division etc on numerical values (constants and variables).
Operator Meaning of Operator
+ addition or unary plus
- subtraction or unary minus
* multiplication
/ division
% remainder after division (modulo division)
Example 1: Arithmetic Operators
// Working of arithmetic operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 9,b = 4, c;
c = a+b;
printf("a+b = %d \n",c);
c = a-b;
printf("a-b = %d \n",c);
c = a*b;
printf("a*b = %d \n",c);
c = a/b;
printf("a/b = %d \n",c);
c = a%b;
printf("Remainder when a divided by b = %d \n",c);
return 0;
Run Code
Output
a+b = 13
a-b = 5
a*b = 36
a/b = 2
Remainder when a divided by b=1
The operators +, - and * computes addition, subtraction, and multiplication respectively as you might
have expected.
In normal calculation, 9/4 = 2.25. However, the output is 2 in the program.
It is because both the variables a and b are integers. Hence, the output is also an integer. The
compiler neglects the term after the decimal point and shows answer 2 instead of 2.25.
The modulo operator % computes the remainder. When a=9 is divided by b=4, the remainder is 1. The
% operator can only be used with integers.
Suppose a = 5.0, b = 2.0, c = 5 and d = 2. Then in C programming,
// Either one of the operands is a floating-point number
a/b = 2.5
a/d = 2.5
c/b = 2.5
// Both operands are integers
c/d = 2
C Increment and Decrement Operators
C programming has two operators increment ++ and decrement -- to change the value of an operand
(constant or variable) by 1.
Increment ++ increases the value by 1 whereas decrement -- decreases the value by 1. These two
operators are unary operators, meaning they only operate on a single operand.
Example 2: Increment and Decrement Operators
// Working of increment and decrement operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 10, b = 100;

float c = 10.5, d = 100.5;
printf("++a = %d \n", ++a);
printf("--b = %d \n", --b);
printf("++c = %f \n", ++c);
printf("--d = %f \n", --d);
return 0;
Run Code
Output
++a = 11
--b = 99
++c = 11.500000
--d = 99.500000
Here, the operators ++ and -- are used as prefixes. These two operators can also be used as postfixes
like a++ and a--. Visit this page to learn more about how increment and decrement operators work
when used as postfix.
C Assignment Operators
An assignment operator is used for assigning a value to a variable. The most common assignment
operator is =
Operator Example Same as
= a=b a=b
+= a += b a = a+b
-= a -= b a = a-b
*= a *= b a = a*b
/= a /= b a = a/b
%= a %= b a = a%b
Example 3: Assignment Operators

// Working of assignment operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 5, c;
c = a; // c is 5
printf("c = %d\n", c);
c += a; // c is 10
c -= a; // c is 5
c *= a; // c is 25
c /= a; // c is 5
c %= a; // c = 0

return 0;
Output
c=5
c = 10
c=5
c = 25
c=5
c=0
C Relational Operators
A relational operator checks the relationship between two operands. If the relation is true, it returns 1;
if the relation is false, it returns value 0.
Relational operators are used in decision making and loops.
Operator Meaning of Operator Example
== Equal to 5 == 3 is evaluated to 0
> Greater than 5 > 3 is evaluated to 1
< Less than 5 < 3 is evaluated to 0
!= Not equal to 5 != 3 is evaluated to 1
>= Greater than or equal to 5 >= 3 is evaluated to 1
<= Less than or equal to 5 <= 3 is evaluated to 0
Example 4: Relational Operators
// Working of relational operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10;
printf("%d == %d is %d \n", a, b, a == b);
printf("%d == %d is %d \n", a, c, a == c);

printf("%d > %d is %d \n", a, b, a > b);
printf("%d > %d is %d \n", a, c, a > c);
printf("%d < %d is %d \n", a, b, a < b);
printf("%d < %d is %d \n", a, c, a < c);
printf("%d != %d is %d \n", a, b, a != b);
printf("%d != %d is %d \n", a, c, a != c);
printf("%d >= %d is %d \n", a, b, a >= b);
printf("%d >= %d is %d \n", a, c, a >= c);
printf("%d <= %d is %d \n", a, b, a <= b);
printf("%d <= %d is %d \n", a, c, a <= c);
return 0;
Output
5 == 5 is 1
5 == 10 is 0
5 > 5 is 0
5 > 10 is 0
5 < 5 is 0
5 < 10 is 1
5 != 5 is 0
5 != 10 is 1
5 >= 5 is 1
5 >= 10 is 0
5 <= 5 is 1
5 <= 10 is 1
C Logical Operators
An expression containing a logical operator returns either 0 or 1 depending upon whether the
expression results true or false. Logical operators are commonly used in decision making in C
programming.
Operator Meaning Example
&& Logical AND. True only if all If c = 5 and d = 2 then, expression
operands are true ((c==5) && (d>5)) equals to 0.
|| Logical OR. True only if If c = 5 and d = 2 then, expression

either one operand is true ((c==5) || (d>5)) equals 1.
! Logical NOT. True only if the If c = 5 then, expression !(c==5) equals to
operand is 0 0.
Example 5: Logical Operators
// Working of logical operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10, result;
result = (a == b) && (c > b);
printf("(a == b) && (c > b) is %d \n", result);
result = (a == b) && (c < b);
printf("(a == b) && (c < b) is %d \n", result);

result = (a == b) || (c < b);
printf("(a == b) || (c < b) is %d \n", result);
result = (a != b) || (c < b);
printf("(a != b) || (c < b) is %d \n", result);
result = !(a != b);
printf("!(a != b) is %d \n", result);
result = !(a == b);
printf("!(a == b) is %d \n", result);
return 0;
Output
(a == b) && (c > b) is 1
(a == b) && (c < b) is 0
(a == b) || (c < b) is 1
(a != b) || (c < b) is 0
!(a != b) is 1
!(a == b) is 0
Explanation of logical operator program
● (a == b) && (c > 5) evaluates to 1 because both operands (a == b) and (c > b) are 1 (true).
● (a == b) && (c < b) evaluates to 0 because operand (c < b) is 0 (false).
● (a == b) || (c < b) evaluates to 1 because (a = b) is 1 (true).
● (a != b) || (c < b) evaluates to 0 because both operands (a != b) and (c < b) are 0 (false).
● !(a != b) evaluates to 1 because operand (a != b) is 0 (false). Hence, !(a != b) is 1 (true).
● !(a == b) evaluates to 0 because (a == b) is 1 (true). Hence, !(a == b) is 0 (false).
C Bitwise Operators
During computation, mathematical operations like: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc are
converted to bit-level which makes processing faster and saves power.
Bitwise operators are used in C programming to perform bit-level operations.
Operators Meaning of operators
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
~ Bitwise complement
<< Shift left
>> Shift right
Visit bitwise operators in C to learn more.
Other Operators
Comma Operator
Comma operators are used to link related expressions together. For example:
int a, c = 5, d;
The sizeof operator
The sizeof is a unary operator that returns the size of data (constants, variables, array, structure, etc).
Example 6: sizeof Operator
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a;
float b;
double c;
char d;
printf("Size of int=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(a));
printf("Size of float=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(b));
printf("Size of double=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(c));
printf("Size of char=%lu byte\n",sizeof(d));
return 0;
Output
Size of int = 4 bytes
Size of float = 4 bytes
Size of double = 8 bytes
Size of char = 1 byte

In C programming, printf() is one of the main output functions. The function sends
formatted output to the screen. For example,
Example 1: C Output
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
// Displays the string inside quotations
printf("C Programming");
return 0;
Run Code
Output
C Programming
How does this program work?
● All valid C programs must contain the main() function. The code execution
begins from the start of the main() function.
● The printf() is a library function to send formatted output to the screen. The
function prints the string inside quotations.
● To use printf() in our program, we need to include stdio.h header file using the
#include <stdio.h> statement.
● The return 0; statement inside the main() function is the "Exit status" of the
program. It's optional.
Example 2: Integer Output
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int testInteger = 5;
printf("Number = %d", testInteger);
return 0;
Run Code
Output
Number = 5
We use %d format specifier to print int types. Here, the %d inside the quotations will
be replaced by the value of testInteger.
Example 3: float and double Output
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
float number1 = 13.5;
double number2 = 12.4;
printf("number1 = %f\n", number1);
printf("number2 = %lf", number2);
return 0;
Output
number1 = 13.500000
number2 = 12.400000
To print float, we use %f format specifier. Similarly, we use %lf to print double values.
Example 4: Print Characters
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
char chr = 'a';
printf("character = %c", chr);
return 0;
Output
character = a
To print char, we use %c format specifier.
C Input
In C programming, scanf() is one of the commonly used function to take input from
the user. The scanf() function reads formatted input from the standard input such as
keyboards.
Example 5: Integer Input/Output
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int testInteger;
printf("Enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d", &testInteger);
printf("Number = %d",testInteger);
return 0;
Output
Enter an integer: 4
Number = 4
Here, we have used %d format specifier inside the scanf() function to take int input
from the user. When the user enters an integer, it is stored in the testInteger variable.
Notice, that we have used &testInteger inside scanf(). It is because &testInteger gets the
address of testInteger, and the value entered by the user is stored in that address.
Example 6: Float and Double Input/Output
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
float num1;
double num2;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%f", &num1);
printf("Enter another number: ");
scanf("%lf", &num2);
printf("num1 = %f\n", num1);
printf("num2 = %lf", num2);
return 0;
Output
Enter a number: 12.523
Enter another number: 10.2
num1 = 12.523000
num2 = 10.200000
We use %f and %lf format specifiers for float and double respectively.
Example 7: C Character I/O
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
char chr;
printf("Enter a character: ");
scanf("%c",&chr);
printf("You entered %c.", chr);
return 0;
Output
Enter a character: g
You entered g
When a character is entered by the user in the above program, the character itself
is not stored. Instead, an integer value (ASCII value) is stored.
And when we display that value using %c text format, the entered character is
displayed. If we use %d to display the character, it's ASCII value is printed.
Example 8: ASCII Value
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
char chr;
printf("Enter a character: ");
scanf("%c", &chr);
// When %c is used, a character is displayed
printf("You entered %c.\n",chr);
// When %d is used, ASCII value is displayed
printf("ASCII value is %d.", chr);
return 0;
Output
Enter a character: g
You entered g.
ASCII value is 103.
I/O Multiple Values

Here's how you can take multiple inputs from the user and display them.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a;
float b;
printf("Enter integer and then a float: ");
// Taking multiple inputs
scanf("%d%f", &a, &b);
printf("You entered %d and %f", a, b);
return 0;
Output
Enter integer and then a float: -3
3.4
You entered -3 and 3.400000
Format Specifiers for I/O

As you can see from the above examples, we use
● %d for int
● %f for float
● %lf for double
● %c for char
Here's a list of commonly used C data types and their format specifiers.
Data Type Format Specifier
int %d
char %c
float %f
double %lf
short int %hd
unsigned int %u
long int %li
long long int %lli
unsigned long int %lu
unsigned long long int %llu
signed char %c
unsigned char %c
long double %Lf
References:
https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/computer-programming-basics/introduction-to-computer-programming/1/
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/software-engineering-program-development-life-cycle-pdlc/
https://www.programiz.com/c-programming/c-keywords-identifier
https://www.programiz.com/c-programming/c-variables-constants
https://www.programiz.com/c-programming/c-data-types
https://www.programiz.com/c-programming/c-operators
https://www.programiz.com/c-programming/c-input-output

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SCHOOL OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Course Code/Title: ENGCFP1/COFPRO1

Course Description: ( COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS AND PROGRAMMING)

This is an introductory course in programming which aims to develop skills and

1. Self-check (Quiz), Seatwork , Assignment

1.2. Introduction to Computer

Programming 2.1. Introduction to

Programming Languages 2.2.

Program Development Life Cycle

2.3. Introduction to C Programming

Introduction to Computer Programming

What you need to know

Hardware vs. software

can see in the image below.

What are the different types of

Other types of computers

· Wearables: Wearable technology is a general term for a group of devices—including

fitness trackers and smartwatches—that are designed to be worn throughout the

day. These devices are often called wearables for short.

playing video games on your TV.

PCs and Macs

Windows operating system.

Basic Parts of a Desktop

usually has an On/Off button and one or more optical drives.

need for a separate case.

Computer Basics: About This Lesson

Basic Parts of a Computer

Showing computer cases

usually has an On/Off button and one or more optical drives.

need for a separate case.

Showing a computer monitor

settings, and some monitors also have built-in speakers.

Print Screen, Scroll Lock, Pause/Break

Ctrl, Alt, and Shift

example, in many programs, typing Ctrl+S will save a file.

document, and controlling a game.

line in word processing programs.

Home and End

Insert and Delete

Delete: This erases the character to the right of the cursor.

Page Up and Page Down

These scroll a document or webpage up or down.

and requires regular cleaning to work properly.

Buttons and Ports on a Computer

This is where you'll connect the power cord to the computer.

Other types of ports

Peripherals you can use with

to your computer as a digital (computer-readable) image. Many scanners are

· Speakers/headphones: Speakers and headphones are output devices, which means

· Microphones: A microphone is a type of input device, or a device that receives

webcams also include a microphone for this reason.

· Game controllers and joysticks: A game controller is used to control computer

images from the camera to the computer.

Front of a computer case

The power button is used to power the computer on and off.

Audio In/Audio Out

USB (Universal Serial Bus)

Back of a computer case

Audio In/Audio Out

including speakers, microphones, and headsets.

This is where you'll connect the power cord to the computer.

Other types of ports

RAM (random access memory)