Plant Cell Biotechnology and Molecular Biology 22(13&14):136-156; 2021 ISSN: 0972-2025

PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY IN ETHIOPIA: CURRENT

STATUS, OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES
PARAMESH HANUMANTHAIAH* AND ABREHAM CHEBTE ALEMU
Department of Biotechnology, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Debre Berhan University,
Post Box 445, Debre Berhan, Ethiopia [PH, ACA].
[*For Correspondence: E-mail: hparamesh@gmail.com]

Article Information

Editor(s):
(1) Fatemeh Nejatzadeh, Islamic Azad University, Iran.
Reviewers:
(1) Chet Ram, ICAR-Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, India.
(2) Sherif Fathy Eid El-Sayed El-Gioushy, Benha University, Egypt.

Received: 01 December 2020

Accepted: 06 February 2021
Published: 04 March 2021 Review Article
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

ABSTRACT
Biotechnology in the Agriculture sector covers indigenous plant and animal breeding to the choice
of individuals and hybridization including technically complicated techniques of genetic
engineering. The beneficiaries are farmers, manufacturers and consumers. Ethiopia has been
regarded as one among the ancient countries of the world and also richer in natural resources and
wide diversity in the crop has been recorded. Plant biotechnology portrays immense capacity for
manipulation of crops to conclude with the use of least inputs, increased yield and productivity. It is
a smart choice and very much necessary for the introduction of latest biotechnological tools to
Ethiopian agricultural sector. Careful examination of crop varieties of Ethiopia through the usage
of modern tools and techniques of biotechnology could certainly assist in unraveling genes that
harness traits of colossal economic significance. Quite a few research and academic institutes of
Ethiopia are conducting basic, advanced and related fields of research in biotechnology with
limitations in tools, techniques and management. This review intends to update the information on
status of research, opportunities and challenges in plant biotechnology and it will help the
researchers, academicians, industrialists and students to know about the current status of Ethiopian
plant biotechnology. Besides, it will be helpful for the policy maker to guide them further for plans
and developments.

Keywords: Genetically Modified Crops (GMO); molecular markers; non-transgenic application; plant
tissue culture; transgenic application.

INTRODUCTION manufacturing, industrial sectors including

Biotechnology is studied as a branch of applied
science with technological assistance, hands-on
exposure in applying components of cells and
living organisms across agricultural, medicinal,
management of environment [1]. This discipline
integrates multiple basic disciplines of science like
Chemistry, Biochemistry, Microbiology, Genetics,
Molecular biology, Chemical and Process
Engineering for its successful application.

136

Plant Biotechnology comprises three broader
study fields of applications namely plant cell,
tissue and organ culture, genetic engineering and
molecular markers assisted plant breeding varying
from simple to complicated technological
interventions [2]. It aids not only in the
preparation of diagnostic kits for diseases both at
the laboratory and field level, but also helps in the
identification of unique feature of DNA
specificity to protein in diagnosing disease-
causing microbes [3]. The benefits can be
harnessed better and huge if the proper
blending of modern biotechnology is done with
plant breeding.
Research and development in the biotechnological
sector of Ethiopia are still at progressing stage
with seven institutions and 24 centers mostly
working on plant tissue culture, microbial
biotechnology and molecular markers [4]. Even a
considerable expansion and new biotechnology
laboratories have been established in universities
and research institutions up till now. The facilities
open up large opportunities for the research in
more crops, generates huge information,
employment and results generated can support in
the crop production and nation development. At
the same time, these developments pose
challenges in breakthrough biotechnological
research and development in terms of lack of
funding and supplies in governmental institutions,
poor administrative autonomy in maintenance,
technical and administrative problems, limited
capacity, improper networking and collaborations
leading to material, technological and financial
difficulties. The purpose of this review is to give
updated information on the overall research
work carried out in plant biotechnology areas
such as In vitro plant culture studies, genetic
engineering and plant molecular markers to the
researchers and students for the future
technological improvements and developments in
this area.
APPLICATION AND CURRENT STATUS
OF PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY IN
ETHIOPIA
A single invention or discovery, an experimental
result, an individual effort or a sole creation will
not define or signify plant biotechnology. It is
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Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
a resultant of effective culmination of practices
followed in agriculture indigenously and latest
technologies based on genetics which is known
specifically as genetically modified plants (GMPs)
and transgenic plants [5].
Non-transgenic Application and Current Status
in Ethiopia
Marker-assisted selection: Molecular markers
assisted selection can be used in plant breeding for
increasing the accuracy and response of the
selection process with the usage of molecular
markers. This in turn bolsters the speed with
efficiency in novel genes introduction via marker-
assisted introgression, studies in taxonomic
relationship among and between species of plants,
genetic diversity and biological process studies
[6]. Updated research studies carried out in
molecular markers study in crops of Ethiopia have
been presented here under specific molecular
markers.
RANDOM AMPLIFIED POLYMORPHIC
DNA (RAPD) AND SIMPLE SEQUENCE
REPEATS (SSR)
Sorghum: The earliest studies on the
determination of extent and patterns of
distribution in genetic variation have begun in the
year 2000 with over 80 sorghum germplasm
accessions from Ethiopia and Eritrea using RAPD
marker [7]. This study reported an intermediate
level of overall variation with different levels of
variation in the origin of accessions. Majority
(94%) of total variation was observed within the
adaptation zones in contrast to among adaptation
zones (6%). The results reveal a fragile distinction
of sorghum together regional and agro-ecological
bases might have asserted to upper outcrossing
in cultivated sorghum with open natural
hybridization combining its wild and weedy
relatives and also seed movement by humans. The
analysis with cluster failed to pool accessions
from similar regions and adaptation zone further
affirming the poor differentiation of studied
material.
Similar studies by Amsalu and his team [8] on
genetic variation assessment in wild sorghum
from five various geographic regions of Ethiopia

using RAPD represents the degree and distribution
of genetic variation in the wild sorghum of
Ethiopia. Genetic variation range among the
populations and geographical region was low to
moderate in ninety-three individuals comprising
11 populations tested by 9 decamer primers
despite greater polymorphism for each primer.
Low levels of differentiation equally in
population and regional bases from wild sorghum
populations were confirmed by the estimates of
genetic distance through cluster analysis. This
study indicated the weak differentiation among
the population studied and based on the origin of
the region in wild sorghum populations due to
two reasons. One is the use of lesser size
population of wild sorghum of Ethiopia and the
other by subjecting of wild sorghum population of
Ethiopia to genetic drift when compared with the
same country cultivated sorghum germplasm.
SSR markers are codominant and highly
informative. Thus, are very useful in studies
related to DNA fingerprinting in population. A
study conducted using SSR and RAPD to
estimate the similarity in genetics among sorghum
diverse genotypes stresses the importance of SSR
markers in genetic similarity estimation. Sorghum
germplasm analysis for comparing the suitability
for genetic diversity quantification was applied
using both SSR and RAPD by Agrama and
Tunistra [9]. Assaying for the polymorphism of
agronomic traits was done in twenty-two
genotypes of sorghum with diverse germplasm
sources using 32 primers of RAPD and 28
Sorghum SSR primers set. SSR markers resulted
in greater polymorphism with each primer (4.5
alleles) in contrast to primers of RAPD with
weak polymorphism of 40% monomorphic
bands. Genetic diversity analysis among sorghum
lines portrayed a huge correlation with genetic
distances based on geographical origin with
classifications of race upon calculation of genetic
distances from SSR data.
Of late, a study on degree and patterns of genetic
diversity estimation of 200 accessions of sorghum
from different parts of Ethiopia in gene bank has
been done by Alemu and his coworkers [10]. The
ranges of Dice’s similarity coefficient and
Polymorphism Information Content (PIC) values
were ranged from 0.062 to 0.96 and 0.06 to 0.81,
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Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
respectively. Three major clusters have been
revealed with unclear distinction among
geographical origins from UPGMA analysis.
AMOVA results indicate 99.62% of variations
among accessions and a minute of 0.38%
difference in various regions was observed.
With these results, the study has disproved the
consideration of geographical origin as a useful
guide for following germplasm collection instead
preferring the method for collecting aim is by
classifying on the agro-ecological basis.
Orobanche crenata: Orobanche crenata is a
weed with parasitic nature causing substantial
losses in yield on legume food crops in the regions
of Ethiopia and the Mediterranean. Management
of this weed through resistance breeding was
attempted with molecular techniques for
generating information useful in managing was
approached in understanding genetic diversity
[11]. Thirty O. cumana SSR markers were
utilized for studying genetic diversity. Eleven
SSRs were functional and higher (0.48) genetic
distance reported between North Wollo and South
Gondar, whereas lowest (0.12) genetic distance
among samples from South Wollo and South
Gondar. Observation from two major groups
regardless of collection area was found from
analyzing the genetic structure of the population.
A major with a strong genetic correlation amongst
collected samples in a radius of 28 km
was resultant of spatial autocorrelation
computation.
Sesame: Genetic variation pattern study among
and within 50 populations of sesame from
collections of Ethiopia using 10 SSR primers
resulted in Polymorphism Information Contents
(PICs) average range of 0.393 to 0.820 [12]. Fast
(Fixation index) values of cultivars (0.26) and
landraces (0.427) indicated a smaller divergence
in genetics among populations than within
populations. The fact that the cultivars and
landraces are segregants and line mixtures of
previous results of outcross was realized by high
outcrossing percentage of both landraces and
cultivars. Thus, the researchers report that
established SSR markers are most useful for
analysis of diversity among large Ethiopian
sesame landrace collection and for core collection
establishment.

Lupin: Lupin forms one among several
significant grain legume crops in a farming system
of Ethiopia. Among four species of Lupinus genus
of economic importance, white lupinus is of much
importance and has the least efforts in research for
characterization of Ethiopian white lupin
landraces. The assessment of population structure
and genetic diversity for Lupinus albus (Ethiopian
white lupin) landraces (212) and 2 genotypes of
other species (Lupinus mutabilis and Lupinus
angustifolius) as outgroup was attempted with
15 polymorphic SSR markers [13]. A total of
108 various alleles with 6.5 average alleles per
locus of which 98 of 212 landraces and ten of the
out-grouped genotypes were reported. Rare alleles
(77) with fewer than 5% frequency accounting
78.6% of all detected alleles were reported.
An UPGMA dendrogram, cluster formation at
similarity level (70%) was about 13 clusters
between landraces (2 – 136) with genotypes
outgrouped and separate without grouping in five
landraces. Grouping of populations other than all
white lupin landraces of Ethiopia, except
landraces collection from Awi (44%) and
Australians (77%) were categorized as significant
admixtures. Thus, 34 accessions were marked as
core collections from the study representing 16%
of all accessions to maintain 100% of SSR
diversity.
Napier grass (Cenchrus purpureus syn.
Pennisetum purpureum): The assessment of the
richness of alleles and genetic diversity of the
germplasm accessions (171) of Napier grass
collections study with twenty SSR markers for
determination of specific accession in
introducing enhancement of diversity in every
genebank collection [14]. Unique alleles were
found from International Livestock Research
Institute (ILRI) (55) and Brazilian Agricultural
Research Corporation (EMBRAPA) (8)
collections whereas 85 alleles shared between the
collections. Up to 23 alleles per marker with 7.4
averages were observed in both collections with
0.000 to 0.808 heterozygosity per locus. Three
main groups were deduced from the principal
coordinate analysis in contrast to an indication of
4 main clusters from hierarchical cluster analysis.
These marker profile results were used in the
selection and acquirement of distinct lines to the
ILRI and EMBRAPA collections. Thus, the
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Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
results conclude that the generation of the profile
of an expanded marker for Napier grass collection
can be used for enhancement of conservation and
usage with available genetic resources
management.
INTER SIMPLE SEQUENCE REPEATS
(ISSR)
Coffee: Ethiopia is being regarded as a homeland
for coffee and genetic diversity center for Coffea
arabica L. Several research findings have
reviewed on importance of genetic diversity and
breeding programs of Ethiopian coffee for
improving yield and disease resistance.
Investigation on genetic variation in forest
coffee trees of 4 Ethiopian regions using ISSR
markers was attempted by Esayas and his
coworkers [15]. A sampling of 160 individuals
deducing 16 populations using 11 ISSR primers
yielded around 25%, polymorphic bands. Genetic
variation partitioned as between and within
populations on Shannon’s index exhibited high
(0.80) differentiation between populations to
(0.20) within populations. Comparison of weak
polymorphism detection with ISSR marker than
RAPD for the same population in previous studies
was justified as a substitution method for
molecular characterization of Coffee populations.
Another study on the assessment of genetic
diversity within and between three each cultivated
rice and wild populations of Ethiopia coffee was
attempted using 6 primers of ISSR [16]. Out of
total variation, populations within groups were
sharing 49.4%, among groups was 26.4% and
within populations was 24.2%. The results from
genetic diversity displayed higher gene diversity
(0.14) from wild rice populations compared to
cultivated rice populations. Also found that
wild rice had high overall gene diversity and
percent polymorphisms than the cultivars (0.11).
Broad diversity assessment is reported upon using
9 (di and tri-nucleotide) primers of ISSR from
across Ethiopia with characteristic set of forest
coffee landraces and populations [17].
Observation of existence of different related
genotypic groups in few Ethiopian geographical
areas is shown upon tree building analysis of
amplification for 125 Coffea arabica individuals
with 84 polymorphic loci. Studies using several

marker traits (morphological and molecular
markers) show that the existence of coffee (Coffea
arabica L.) genetic diversity at Ethiopia.
Rice: Study for genetic diversity assessment and
relationship using ISSRs for three wild rice
populations and three cultivated rice populations
of Ethiopia reports 93 conspicuous and
distinguishable bands with primers of four
dinucleotide and two tetra nucleotides [18]. A
clear indication of six distinct groups through trees
and principal coordinated analysis (PCO) was
observed based on populations of origin. Wild
rice exhibited higher (0.14; 38.3) overall gene
diversity and percent polymorphisms than
cultivars (0.11; 28.3). Variations among
population were major (63%) observation only
after further splitting the Shannon’s diversity. In
the same lines AMOVA validated highly
significant differences in genetics among
populations (72.9) compared to within populations
(27.1).
Enset: An investigation of the genetic variation of
71 plants of cultivated enset from 2 areas of
southwestern Ethiopia (Kefficho and Essera)
among populations was attempted utilizing 2
primers (834 and 826) of ISSR [19]. The tree
group proposed two separate clusters b a s e d
o n population’s origin and was observed few
samples mixed between regions. Both areas
clones were more diverse from all the parameters
studied. The study has concluded by confirmation
of all parameters of diversity about presence of
higher genetic diversity within the populations
studied and successful suitability of ISSR marker
for species genetic diversity assessment.
Niger (Guizotia abyssinica): Genetic diversity
analysis of Ethiopian populations in Guizotia
abyssinica (37) both within and among population
using 5 ISSR primers resulted in 118 fragments of
total 370 individuals [20]. The average (21.2) of
polymorphic bands per primer with 89.86 %
polymorphism with more bands by UBC 888
primer. High (0.3738) variability within the
population was observed than among population
(0.03776). Study has reported narrow (0.0696)
genetic distance between neighboring regions
(Shewa and Jimma) and wider (01148) between
other regions of Jimma (Hararghe and Jimma).
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Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
The UPGMA clustering used on the ISSR basis
with genetic distances matrix too plotted
populations of regions neighboring nearer
compared to those far areas. In contrast, UPGMA
clustering on the regional basis with standard
genetic distances gave 3 clusters resulting in
contiguity and the proximity of the regions.
Finger millet: Out of six ISSR primers used for
genetic diversity investigation of 80 accessions in
finger millet resulted in 45 clear and conspicuous
bands. AMOVA results shown higher genetic
diversity (58.54%) within than among populations
(41.45%). Sharing of genetic diversity shown
higher (55.79%) within populations, moderate
(38.33%) among groups and least (5.88%) was
within groups. Eventually the results affirmed the
genetically diverse accessions could be used for
improving the productivity, collection,
conservation and sustainable use. Evaluation of
138 finger millet accessions from Ethiopia (96),
Zimbabwe (13), Zambia (9), Eritrea (8) and
Kenya (7) along with 5 improved varieties has
been attempted to undertake association mapping
by assessing genetic variation and population
structure [21]. Amplification for specific alleles in
34 accessions with about 61% rare alleles was
obtained. 138 accessions clustered to 4 major
clusters are not based on the geographical origins
after combining molecular and phenotypic trait
data clustering. Sixteen significant associations
were observed for Genome-wide association
studies in connotation between thirteen
microsatellite markers and six agronomic traits.
The results stressed the need for stringent
selection process in genome-wide association
studies for future to encompass the involvement of
rare alleles in important agronomic traits.
Sugarcane: Sugarcane is a source crop for
varietal improvement due to its huge demand in
sugar yield, biomass and biofuel production.
Despite such economic importance, the genetic
complexity of the crop has invited minute
research interest and thus, molecular markers are
of very recent introduction. Twelve ISSR markers
have been used in this crop for evaluation of
genetic diversity and establishment of
relationships between populations and genotypes
on 82 sugarcane introduced genotypes of Ethiopia
[22]. At genotypic level the percentage

polymorphic loci (PPL) was 83.22%. The
polymorphic loci marker number ranged from 7 to
16 with 90.91% polymorphism. The range of
Intra- population diversity was from 28.86 to
47.65% with a mean of 38.35%. The partitioning
of genetic variation by AMOVA exhibited genetic
variation of about 63.56% (within population) and
36.4% (among population). The genotypes with
highest diversity (Cuba and France), while lower
(South Africa and Barbados) were deduced from
parameters from diversity index. Clustering of
majority of the genotypes was observed with
their particular origin of geography region
proving that the ISSR markers used were robust
amplifiers in sugarcane.
Plectranthus edulis (Vatke) Agnew: Agnew is an
Ethiopian edible tuber crop and a significant
contributor to millions of Ethiopian farmer’s
livelihood. Despite being indigenous and
imparting its backing during scarcity for food it is
not being researched for its capacity. Genetic
diversity assessment of 67 accessions comprising
9 populations pooled from different agro-
ecologies has been tried with ISSR markers for
generating the baseline information to assist MAS
and efforts in management (conservation and
germplasm) [23]. Population screened with 10
polymorphic ISSR markers and optimization
revealed high polymorphism (95%) and 7.4
average bands scorable for each marker.
Population from Gurage administrative zone has
exhibited huge potential for future breeding and
conservation efforts, same line pairwise genetic
estimation has stressed the significance of
population (cross breeding) from Awi zone
administration than other populations. The work
suggests through the AMOVA hierarchical results
that clonal mode of propagation and farmers
selection pressure for important agronomic traits
maintain true heterozygosity of the crop. Thus,
reports show that ISSR markers are ideal in
portraying the genetic diversity pattern and extent
in populations of Plectranthus edulis.
Hot pepper (Capsicum spp.): Hot pepper is
widely cultivated and economically significant
spice crop in Ethiopia. Due to less information on
molecular genetic diversity and to characterize the
cultivars for conservation of genetic resources and
utilization in breeding is reported by Alayachew
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Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
Shiferaw Alemu and coworkers [24]. The use of 5
ISSR primers and 73 accessions of hot pepper
seeds from 4 regional states displayed around
94.6% polymorphism. Robust correlation among
the genetic diversity and geographic distance of
hot pepper cultivars of Ethiopia was due to the
closely related species. The researchers report
molecular markers as valid tags to evaluate the
genetic diversity of cultivars of Capsicum spp.
Another study of Hot pepper for cultivars
characterization has formed an imperative link in
utilization and conservation of Plant Genetic
Resources in several breeding projects.
Determination of the amount of genetic diversity
of hot peppers cultivars of Ethiopia using 5 ISSR
primers resulted in 94.6% polymorphic bands
[25]. Of all the diversity parameters, diversity
in populations found the higher were in amhara2
and lower in Oromia2. The researchers indicate
that the higher genetic diversity areas must be
treated as prime sites in designation of
conservation areas. Jaccard’s pairwise similarity
coefficient results depict that most related (0.956
similarities) populations were Oromia1 and
Oromia2 and most distantly (0.827 similarities)
related populations were Semen Omo and
Amhara2. Robust correlation among genetic
diversity and geographic distance of hot peppers
cultivars of Ethiopia was portrayed with clustering
together of geographically closely related species.
SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism): SNP
marker is deployed for screening wheat seedlings
resistant to yellow stripe rust disease. In Ethiopian
highlands, Puccinia striiformis f.sp. tritici (Pst)
causes Stripe rust (Yellow rust) is worse
devastating among wheat diseases. Loss of
resistance in improved cultivars as a result of
new virulent races occurrence in overcoming
genes and out produce cultivars has led to
identification of novel genes resistant to combat
yellow stripe rust of wheat and increase wheat
production in Ethiopia. A study by Alemu SK and
his coworkers [26] with 300 durum lines of wheat
(cultivars & landraces) has screened with 3
virulent isolates (Pst_Is1, Pst_Is4 and Pst_Is8) for
seedling resistance by scoring method of Infection
Type (IT). For screening lines, use of 16 KASP-
based SNP markers already identified and linked
to 7 Yr genes in several studies is done. All three

isolates recorded high level of resistance
constantly observed by 124 lines. 96.8% resistant
lines were landraces whereas 3.2% (4) were
commercial cultivars (Obsa, Yerer, Dire and
Cocorit/71). Frequency of detection was higher
(58.7%) in landraces than in cultivars (32.8%).
The study had prompted the detection of potential
candidate genes Yr15 and YrSp, in wheat for
breeding assisted with markers to impart Pst
resistance. Additionally, they have indicated that
detection and identification of resistant source
genes can be assisted via amalgamation of
molecular screening and phenotyping.
Plant Tissue Culture
Plant tissue culture deals with culturing plant cells
In vitro under controlled conditions for growth of
cells under a specific medium. The initiation of
this technique is done by an excised piece of plant
tissue called “explant” after proper treatment with
disinfecting/sterilizing agent. Up till now several
plant tissue culture researches have been
conducted in Ethiopia across several crops to
overcome practical difficulties at the field or
laboratory level. An effort to present the
highlights of all the available literatures on plant
tissue culture has been made here in the order of
crops studied.
Enset (Ensete ventricosum): Enset is an essential
food crop in several parts of East Africa
including Ethiopia. Thus, there is increasing
demand for the crop simultaneously ensuring the
food security. Investigation for In vitro culture
studies have been reported for number of times.
Micropropagation and regeneration potential via
In vitro culture using 3 Enset clones (Ensete
ventricosum Welw. Cheesman) from Keffa-Shaka
zone (Southwestern Ethiopia) has been attempted
by Negash and his team [27]. Explants from In
vitro germinated plants of corm, leaf tissue and
zygotic embryos were used. Regeneration and
multiple shoots were recorded with 10 μM or 20
μM BAP from both corm and embryo
explants. Successful rooting was observed
using activated charcoal medium 1 g/l with 5 μM
IBA and 1 μM BAP. Determination of optimal
conditions for clonal propagation was done with 3
enset genotypes for regeneration and In vitro
micropropagation. The study concludes that the
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Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
optimized protocol helps for rapid propagation,
breeding procedures with high efficiency and
selected disease-free enset clones conservation of
germplasm.
A review on the In vitro culture studies
reported on the germination of zygotic embryo,
culture of shoot tip, regeneration of adventitious
shoot and development of multiple shoots and
somatic embryo cultures has been documented by
Diro M and Van Staden J [28]. Problems
encountered like widespread blackening of
explants, unwanted callus formation and
necrosis were observed from culturing of Enset
ventricosum has also been depicted very well.
This article represents different aspects of In vitro
micropropagation of ensete important for
multiplication of clones and conservation of
germplasm. Enset crop is worst affected by enset
bacterial wilt varying the production levels.
Efforts on developing plantlets free from multiple
diseases from affected suckers of 3 clones with
explants (shoot tip) (Mazia, Arkiya and
Digomerza) on MS medium with multiple
concentrations of BAP and NAA has been done
by Genene Gezahegn and Firew Mekbib [29].
Examination of parameters on shoot growth
response for effect of growth regulators
yielded with highest (23.00) number of shoots
by less (11.66) days duration for multiple shoot
induction in Mazia at 4.5 mg/l (BAP) and 1.5
mg/l (NAA). In contrast to this highest (8.1 cm)
length of shoot was achieved with NAA (at both 3
& 1 mg/l). Successful and highest (3.8) root
induction was observed on 2 mg/l IBA in less
(10.5) days on IBA (1.5 mg/l) for Mazia. YPSA
(yeast peptone sucrose agar) – a semi selective
medium was utilized to culture the regenerated
shoots from diseased suckers for overcoming the
pathogen Xanthomonas. Results of Pathogenicity
test concludes that hygienic suckers are reported
from clones susceptible to pathogen and colonies
developed were due to endophytic microbes.
Another study on highly efficient regeneration to
micropropagate in large quantities of plantlets
with discs of corm comprising tissues (intercalary
meristem) is reported by Jaindra Tripathi and his
team [30]. More shoot buds were observed in
“Bedadeti” enset cultivar on MS nutrient medium
with 2, 4-D (1.5 mg/l), Zeatin (0.216 mg/l) and

activated charcoal (2 g/l). Regeneration of shoot
buds to plantlet was on MS medium supplemented
with BAP (1 mg/l) and activated charcoal (2 g/l).
Each in vitro plantlet gave rise to more than 100
plantlets in about 4 months duration from corm
discs. Successful rooting and acclimatization of
plantlets without any apparent phenotypic
abnormalities in glass house we r e recorded.
Thus, the team claims this as efficient
regeneration system in rapidly multiplying the
hygienic and pathogen-free planting material.
A review on focusing on the enset seed systems
for improving and exploring opportunities in
Ethiopia with propagation methodologies by
farmers is reported [31]. This study reports the
reproduction of enset plant using seed by farmers
in highlands of Gardula and their less vigor
compared to propagate by suckers. Also they
stress the preference of sucker production by
rhizomes of immature plants aged from 2 to 6
years old. Depending on varying factors and
conditions mentioned 40 to 200 suckers from a
rhizome could be produced. Eventually concludes
that both modes of propagation (micro and macro)
were benefiting technologies for advancing the
efficiency of sucker production and for delivering
hygienic saplings as a replacement in venues
affected by diseases or can also for local
multiplication of newly introduced cultivars for
distribution.
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.):
Sugarcane is a sweet industrial and commercial
cash crop from Poaceae family. Vowing to the
economic contribution and commercial
importance in the agro-processing industry for the
nation, Government of Ethiopia planned
strategically for expansion of the cultivation of
sugarcane area and sugar processing factories.
Mostly, it is propagated through conventional
methods, unless efforts are made to multiply and
propagate through tissue culture techniques for
various reasons like increasing the rate of
multiplication obtaining disease free stock
material. A study carried out on optimization of
multiplication of shoot via In vitro system for 2
chosen varieties of sugarcane (N14 and B41-
227) grown widely in the sugar estates of
Ethiopia in aiding hand in hand with the
indigenous method of propagation [32]. The
optimum multiplication responses for B41-227
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Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
and for N14 were with MS medium supplemented
with BAP (1.5 mg/L) and IAA (0.5 mg/L) and
BAP (2 mg/L) and IAA (0.25 mg/L). The same
medium combination yielded for each explant
around 15.5 ± 2.90 shoots, average of 5.93 ± 0.57
cm shoot length with each shoot bearing 6.4 ±
1.49 leaves for B41-227. In contrast for N14
shoots per explant were 11 ± 00 with average
length of shoot to 0.32 ±0.23 cm bearing 5.8 ±
0.06 leaves. With these standardized results, the
study recommended that the use of this speedy
mass multiplication of varieties of sugarcane in
reducing the shortage of sugarcane planting
materials.
To achieve more cane production, higher rate of
propagation, sugar yield and to make more profit
in sugar industry, the use of tissue culture
technology was enacted in sugarcane production
for Ethiopian Sugar Industry since 2012 was
compared to conventional seed source [33]. A
study conducted in Matahara Sugar Estate in
comparing 2 sources of seed from three
sugarcane genotypes tested resulted in poor
performance concerning cane parameters. The
study concludes that from results deduced
irrespective of cost comparison, plants generated
conventionally from seed sources outperformed
than plants derived from tissue culture.
Explanations marked for these results were
probably due to altered acclimatization for
plantlets in secondary stage with added burden on
plants besides primary acclimatization.
Additionally, tissue culture generated plants might
require isolated agronomic management practice
in the initial stages, missing quality control
measures for testing genetic fidelity and disease
indexing in several stages of micropropagation
pooling to limitations in performance.
Following the same objective of showing the
applied advantages of plants generated via
tissue culture over indigenous seed sources in
Ethiopian conditions another study is reported by
Ibrahim M and his team [34]. Their evaluation of
dual seed sources of two sugarcane genotypes
(B52-298 and NCo-334) exhibited high
significance response in all the tested variables.
Equally both the seed sources displayed
differences significantly for all responses
excluding stalk height, number of live buds and
two bud setts numbers produced each stalk.

Comparison in rates of propagation from seed
source using tissue culture with the indigenous for
both sugarcane genotypes tested was considerably
higher with tissue culture. For sugarcane genotype
B52-298 it is 1:44.68 against 1:13.72 whereas for
NCo-334 genotype it is 1:40 than 1:13 over its
indigenous seed source. These results are
evidenced with cost comparison with direct net
benefits per hectare of US$ 5448 (from B52-298)
and US$ 3999 (from NCo-334). This indicates
the realistic results and appropriate alternative
for indigenous source of seed of sugarcane from
tissue culture source in the development project of
Tendaho Sugar Company.
To portray the effects of propagation methods on
reducing varietal deterioration and increasing cane
yield in sugarcane, Belete G [35] has reviewed an
article citing that the propagation In vitro is the
suitable alternative for combating the problems of
disease-free and adequate supply of planting
material. It provides finer details on sugarcane
micropropagation technique, aseptic conditions
followed from establishment of source plant to
acclimatization. Eventually, the study concludes
by stressing the importance of knowledge on
sensitivity assessment of work in overcoming
contamination and economic importance of tissue
culture in supporting conventional propagation.
Another detailed review [36] reports on technical
highlights in Ethiopia on realization of sugarcane
plant tissue culture with comparative sugarcane
production both utilizing micropropagation
technology and indigenous propagation. Because
of the demand for sugarcane production and
importance provided for multiplication of planting
material in rapid scale in sugarcane optimization
of In vitro micropropagation for 2 varieties of
sugarcane (C86-165 and C86-12) with explants -
shoot apical meristem [37] has been attempted.
Statistically significant differences responding to
several treatments of hormones to study
parameters have been recorded. Murashige Skoog
medium augmented with BAP (1.0 mg/l and 0.5
mg/l) for initiation stage, BAP (2.0 mg/l) + NAA
(0.5 mg/l) for multiplication stage and BAP (1.5
mg/l) + NAA (0.5 mg/l) for shoots number and
length of shoot per explant after four weeks
culture has been reported as best for both the
varieties used for study. Both the varieties
responded well with root induction and all rooting
parameters after 4 weeks with ½ MS basal
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Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
medium reinforced with 2.0 and 1.0 mg/l NAA. A
study conducted at Mekelle University, College of
Veterinary Medicine and Tigray Biotechnology
center to tackle the contamination problem in In
vitro culture of sugarcane by isolating the
contaminants and were subjected them to drug
susceptibility tests [38]. The results were
reported as Escherichia isolate was resistant to all
antibiotic agents tested and other two bacterial
isolates (Bacillus and Micrococcus).
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz): Cassava is
a woody herb with perennial nature. It is
cultivated in Asia, Latin America and Sub-
Saharan Africa for its edible roots rich in starch
and can withstand marginal climatic conditions.
Stem cuttings are used by farmers for propagation
of cassava because of its high seed dormancy and
poor germination rate. Propagation through stem
cuttings is the major reason for hosting bacterial
and viral diseases and the loss of superior
genotypes. Two cassava varieties (“Qulle” and
“Kello”) were investigated for developing a
rapid In vitro micropropagation protocol [39].
MS medium reinforced with BAP (0.5 mg/l)
and GA (1 mg/l) with NAA (0.01 mg/l) were
very suitable for shoot multiplication with each
explant bearing mean shoots of 12.23 for Qulle
and 7.22 for Kello cultivar. Rooting ability was
better at 1mg/l of IBA with MS medium and
shoots survival in acclimatization was successful
with 89.1% of “Qulle” and 75% of “Kello”. Thus,
the authors recommend for use of this protocol
for large scale multiplication.
Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.): In vitro
propagation of 2 cultivars of grapevine
(Canonannon and Chenine Blanc) using single-
node shoots was attempted by Getachew K
and Tileye F [40] to investigate salt tolerance
ability through incorporation of NaCl in MS
medium. Hyperhydricity was tackled by using
various concentrations of CaCl2. Significant
decrease was reported in number and shoot
length, nodes, leaves, root, nodal length and
weight (fresh and dry) of root and shoot
consistently in line with increase in NaCl
concentration. Significantly, high tolerance to
NaCl was observed in “Canonannon” cultivar
than “Chenine Blanc” for all parameters. At
0.25% CaCl2 lowest percent of hyperhydric
shoots were recorded. So, the study recommends

cultivation of “Canonannon” cultivar in
moderately saline soils than “Chenine Blanc”.
Potato: Potato is one of the important tuber food
crops ranked after cereals like wheat, rice and
maize crop with immense capacity to meet the
food security. Average yield of potato is low due
to several factors like late blight disease
susceptibility of varieties, shortage of good
quality disease free seed tubers, local varieties
with disease susceptibility and less yielding
capacity. Of all the techniques to overcome
diseases, tissue culture technique can help to
achieve virus free potato. Tissue culture assisted
quick propagation of planting material supports
plants regeneration irrespective of location and
season of the year. A review report by Aderajew
A T [41] represents micropropagation techniques
of potato, problems associated with it,
methodologies of producing disease free potato
and factors affecting potato tissue culture with
experience in potato tissue culture in Ethiopia.
Advancement of Ethiopia in potato
micropropagation techniques through investment
in potato tissue culture R&D at South and
Amhara Regional Agricultural Research
Institution, Melikassa Agricultural Research
Center and Holetta Agricultural Research
Center been discussed well. Also details on
major works on practicing on diagnosis and
elimination of potato virus from potato varieties of
Menagesha, Zengena and Jelenie with In vitro
conservation of potato varieties namely Guassa,
Jalenie and Awash at Holetta Agricultural
Research Center have been detailed. The review
also recommends that potato plantlets produced
in Agricultural Research Centers have to be
provided in large number and to be made easily
available to the consumer.
Another study on stressing the importance of
multiplication of seed via tissue culture, sand
hydroponics and aeroponics in accelerating supply
of disease free potato seed across nation is
discussed [42]. This alternative option was
proposed due to more demand for food, poor yield
in small scale farmers of Ethiopia like other
developing countries with inadequate access for
good seed quality and lesser knowledge on crop
husbandry. Lack of appropriate phytosanitary
schemes and use of seed from informal seed
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Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
system, reasons for less productivity of potatoes
like poor nature of multiplication and recurrent
degenerative nature of seed have been reported in
the country. Use of these technologies based on
pre-basic seed potato multiplication for
enhancing advantages of improving the yield
capability of potato should be verified and utilized
to levering the potato yield.
Sweet potato: Sweet potato is another important
edible tuber crop extensively used across
Ethiopia as food in the form of evening snacking
source. Viral disease is an important limiting
factor for loss in yield in sweet potato. In vitro
culture techniques for production of disease free
clones can uplift the tuber yield and thereby
farmer’s income. In this interest, 3 sweet potato
varieties were cultured In vitro using meristem
explants with assorted combinations of BAP, GA3
and NAA [43]. Highest shoot induction
(66.67%) in both Awassa-83 and Guntute,
followed by 63.33% in Awassa local was
observed at BAP (1 mg/l) and GA3 (1 mg/l) with
NAA (0.01 mg/l) combinations. Cent percent
virus elimination was recorded in all 3 varieties
through culturing meristem by NCM-ELISA
technique. Shoots thermotherapy was performed
at 37°C for 31 days for Awassa-83 and Awassa
local eliminated 89% and 100% SPFMV and
SPCSV virus. Effective multiplication of shoot per
explant was achieved in Murashige Skoogs
medium with BAP (2 mg/l) in Awassa-83 (5.26)
and Awassa local (5.12). Similarly on 3 mg/l BAP
(2.48) observed in Guntute. Basal ½ MS medium
could induce healthy roots with 11.03 cm, 9.68 cm
and 9.5 cm root length for Guntute, Awassa local
and Awassa-83, respectively. The roots numbers
were highest (6.34) in Awassa-83 using IBA (0.1
mg/l) medium and plants acclimatized well with
more than 90% results in all varieties. Thus, this
work promotes the applicability in reality for
culturing meristem in plant tissue culture and
applying thermotherapy for producing sweet
potato planting material free from virus.
Yeheb (Cordeauxia edulis Hemsl.): Yeheb
(Cordeauxia edulis Hemsl) is an evergreen and
multipurpose shrub very much prevalent in
Ethiopia and Somalia (each South Eastern corner).
The adaptive ability to irregular and scanty
rainfall makes it to survive under long dry season

and it has huge role in securing food and
economic security to the Somali pastoralist in
Ethiopia. Overexploitation and its weak natural
regeneration capacity have pushed this plant to
threat of extinction. Besides, yeheb plants possess
severe sensitive for germination conditions,
flowering and shelf life of seed with narrow
reproductive capacities. To counteract these
challenges Yohannes S and Firew Mekbib [44]
has experimented to optimize a procedure for
regeneration In vitro using cotyledonary node.
Of all combinations of media tried, Gamborg
(B5) medium was found best with 26.67%
germination along MS medium added with BAP
(2.0 mg/l) yielded higher (89%) initiation of shoot
after 9 weeks. Whereas, the length and fresh
weight of shoot was recorded highest at BAP (6
mg/L). The MS culture medium including GA3 (2
mg/l + 6 mg/l) and GA3 (6 mg/l) responded with
highest shoot multiplication (4.56) and elongation
(2.97 cm). Although, none of the shoots elongated
tried for rooting induced roots the experiment is
treated as a first attempt and needs another
successful challenge in the future.
Ere Meraat (Aloe percrassa Tod.): Aloe
percrassa Tod. is commonly referred to as “ere
meraat” and In vitro micropropagation using
offset explants has been tried for development of
an efficient and reproducible protocol [45].
Collection of mother plants was from localities in
the rural Southeastern Adigrat, northern Ethiopia.
Shooting responses were best in Murashige and
Skoog media accompanied with BAP (1 mg/l) and
NAA (0.5 mg/l) in 14.1 days for shooting with
mean number of shoots of 8.60 and mean length
of shoot to 5.20 cm after culturing for one month.
Rooting response was better in ½ basal MS
medium after 4 weeks culturing with 14.4 days to
root having 8.4 mean root numbers and 6.6
cm mean root length. Complete survival of
regenerated and rooted plants was reported after
transferring to medium with cocopeat alone unlike
with different substrates for hardening.
Artemisia (Artemisia annua L.): Development of
propagation protocol In vitro for cultivar A-3
(anamed) of Artemisia using shoot tip and nodal
explants has been attempted for enabling large
scale commercial production and to promote the
genetic improvement [46]. Sterilization of
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explants was optimal at 2% and 1.5% of NaOCl
treatment in 10 and 20 minutes. Shoot induction
was maximum % (98.75 ± 2.50) at MS culture
media augmented with BAP(0.8 mg/l) + IBA (0.1
mg/l) from nodal explants whereas 82.50 ± 2.88%
shoot induction was observed on same
concentration medium additionally TDZ (0.8
mg/l) on shoot tip explants. An overall higher
(8.05 ± 0.66/explant) number of shoots
regenerated on MS medium including BAP (1
mg/l) + IBA (0.1 mg/l) and best induction of roots
per explant (18.25) and length of root (6.35 cm)
was found with ½ MS basal medium with IBA
(0.5 mg/l). The best survival (80%) of plants were
reported on soil mixture ratio of decomposed
coffee husk: forest soil: sand (2: 1: 1) ratio upon
acclimation and transplanting.
Pineapple (Ananas comosuss, var. Smooth
cayenne): Pineapple is a thorny and tropical fruit
very popular and available throughout the year. It
is vegetatively propagated and propagation
methods via conventional means do not
accomplish hygienic and sufficient planting
material demand in Ethiopia. Of late,
multiplication In vitro method is a prospecting
technique for production on large scale.
Nevertheless, acclimatizing to the outer
environment hinders the survival efficiency
demanding optimization of acclimatization
techniques. Optimization of primary and
secondary stage methods of hardening for
generating pineapple plantlets In vitro have been
reported by Ayelign M and his colleagues [47].
Jiffy-7 peat pellet in the primary interest
permitted vigorous growth and could
accommodate 8% survival rate than soil mix.
However, the cheaper availability of soil mix and
easy access locally in Ethiopia is the reality.
Thus, primary establishment is needed for better
hardening and acclimatization leading to good
field survival. Evaluation of poly sleeve pots and
black polybag with soil mix at greenhouse had
significant difference between substrate weight
and pots for the number of roots. Higher root
number in polybags than poly sleeve could save
27% of substrates per plant reducing total
transportation cost to 25%. Eventually, for
acclimatization of In vitro pineapple soil mix and
polybags would be more preferred than substrates
and pots.

Securidaca longipedunculata (Fresen):
Securidaca longipedunculata is an indigenous
African plant of medicinal importance finding a
significant part in indigenous and modern
medicine. Overexploitation, low germination rate
and high seed dormancy has endangered this
plant and micropropagation technique could be
answer to these problems. Micropropagation
protocol was developed using shoot tip
explants of S. longipedunculata [48]. Clorox -10%
for 10 minutes for seeds sterilization was
successful in decontamination and germination to
85% and 80%. Decoating of seeds with transverse
slit in the tip and culturing on MS nutrient
medium supported full germination. Shoot
initiation was maximum (87%) on MS nutrient
medium with BAP (1 mg/l) and highest (8.5)
mean number of shoots each explant was on MS
medium with BAP (1.5 mg/l) + IBA (1 mg/l).
Rooting was highest (3.73) at IAA (2 mg/l). 60%
of plantlets were survived after acclimatization
after transfer to greenhouse. The protocol
developed can be used effectively for
micropropagation of S. longipedunculata for
achieving conservation and genetic improvement.
Aloe vera: Aloe vera Linn. is one of the
ever-present and common garden plants
in all household with its inhabitation in
dry and warm climates of Africa. Male
sterility and poor propagation rate of
axillary shoots hamper its effective propagation.
Thus, an optimization of an efficient
propagation protocol In vitro for Aloe vera was
reported by Shibru S and group [49]. Higher
(2.90) mean number of shoots and (2.87)
multiplication factor was recorded on MS culture
media with IBA (0.2 mg/l) & BAP (1.0 mg/l).
Complete rooting was achieved in the study, and
survival percentage of 92.59 was attained by filter
cake and sand during acclimatization with mixture
ratio of 3:1 filter cake and sand after 5 weeks.
Using this procedure for propagation in Aloe vera
plants assists to obtain large number from few
mother plants in a year.
Development of protocol specific and
reproducible for In vitro micropropagation of Aloe
adigratana Reynolds using offshoot explants was
aimed by Mulu N and his coworkers [50] with
often used plant growth regulators. Initiation of
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Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
explants was achieved with MS media reinforced
with BAP and NAA (each 0.2 mg/l). The best
shooting response of explant was on MS media
with BAP (1.0 mg/l) + NAA (0.5 mg/l) with
shortest (14.00 ± 2.30 days) mean number of
days for shooting and highest (4.00 ± 3.40) mean
shoot number. Rooting response was higher at
IBA (1.0 and 1.5 mg/l) and same response was at
NAA (1.0 and 1.5 mg/l). Acclimatization at
primary and secondary level was using composted
and ripened soil media at both conditions in
nursery and open field with a survival rate of
88 to 93%. Although study demonstrated
successful enhancement of micropropagation of
plant, further studies on fine tuning of the protocol
for commercial and large scale in future was
highlighted.
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.): Ginger being
most extensively grown spice across Ethiopia,
after chilies due to its huge demand in day to day
culinary and medicinal usage. Consistent and
increasing demand for clean planting material
from improved cultivars of ginger is persistent.
Supplying to the required demand through
indigenous techniques of propagation is
incompetent owing to inefficient production and
transmission of disease. In this regard, to evaluate
the potential of shoot tips and axillary buds and to
determine the appropriate growth regulators for
propagation In vitro was attempted in two ginger
cultivars [51]. From the study, it is reported that
the better shoot multiplication of average for each
explant was 7 shoots after culturing for 6 weeks
attained on BA (2 mg/l) and kinetin (1 mg/l) with
a huge significant difference in observation
between explant source and growth regulator
used. Successful root induction (8.75) in 4 weeks
of culture and well acclimatization and field
survival was noticed in the plantlets generated. A
study by Berihu Mengs [52] has stressed more on
disinfection of ginger sprout buds and disease
screening with tests has resulted with disease free
plantlets of ginger through mass propagation and
commercialization to customers. Series of
washing steps with CuSo4 with Tween 20 with
different time intervals and flashing with sterile
water has resulted in effective disinfection.
Biochemical examination and serological test via
NCM-ELISA for cleaning of disease In vitro and
mass propagation of ginger for samples tried

and yielded successful raising ginger sample In
vitro.
Another study on In vitro micropropagation of
shoot tip explants by Selam T and team [53]
using Ethiopian ginger cultivar (Deribo) to
overcome the problem of unclean and unhealthy
ginger planting material is published of late. The
wilt disease due to Ralstonia solanacearum
Biovar 3 Race 4 has resulted in obtaining masses
of profuse planting materials free from disease.
The study aims at revealing the effect of three
sterilization agents namely RBK (0.25% w/v),
NaOCl (0.50% v/v) and ethanol (70% v/v) in
mixture with HgCl2 (0.25%). Study of efficacy
for 4 antibiotics (broad-spectrum) in combination
to control contaminants of bacteria with shoot tip
explants of ginger and the effect of antibiotics
performance on shooting of explants of cultivar
have been studied. Live explants (70%) with 80%
free from contamination were obtained after 3
weeks of incubation from 20 min exposure to
0.50% v/v NaOCl continued by 0.25% HgCl2. Of
all the combinations tried the highest (7.10 ± 0.36
and 7.51 ± 0.27, respectively) mean micro shoots
per explant and mean length of shoot (4.2 and 3.56
cm) were obtained at Cefotaxime (50 mg/l) and
cefotaxime with streptomycin (25 mg/l). The
results presented in this study could provide some
basic foundation for optimizing protocols in
sterilizing explants and can effectively control the
bacterial contaminants in Deribo ginger cultivar
for large scale micropropagation.
Jatropha: Jatropha curcas L. is an important
prospecting biofuel crop with huge interest
alluring investors in Ethiopia. Lack of quality
propagation material in huge number and creation
of variation is very much demanding In vitro.
Thus, a study to develop the mass propagation
protocol In vitro using 3 Jatropha accessions of
Ethiopia (Adami Tulu, Shewa Robit and Metema)
has been tried by Hundessa F and his colleagues
[54] via nodal explant through direct
organogenesis. Highest (86-90%) induction of
shoot has been resulted from MS nutrient medium
with 1 mg/l of BAP and 0.5 mg/l of IBA in all
accessions. Shoot numbers were highest (6) for
Metema (0.5 mg/l) individually both Kinetin and
BAP. In contrast to this highest (3.2 cm) length of
shoot was observed in Shewa Robit using Kinetin
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Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
(0.5 mg/l). MS nutrient media augmented using
IBA (0.25 mg/L) could induce highest (84.8-88%)
rooting and maximum (5.43) roots for Shewa
Robit and Metema. Effective establishment of
plantlets in greenhouse with 86.67% survival rate
in Shewa Robit and Metema (73.33%) and Adami
Tulu (66.67%) was observed. The protocol
provides ideal micro-propagation technique for
accessions of Jatropha via direct organogenesis for
enhancing the production in manifolds.
Transgenic Application and Research in
Ethiopia
A transgenic or genetically modified organism
refers to the individual altered using recombinant
DNA technology, involving either joining DNA of
other genomes or pushing up of alien DNA into
a genome. The potential benefits from transgenic
crops are in lessening poverty and hunger by
improving productivity in agriculture, without
exception of food security and health sectors.
Thus, every developing country with aspiring
development in agriculture put forward its effort
to understand and enact the transgenic
technology either through direct cultivation or
through technological development in association
with other developed nations. Similarly, Ethiopia
has been in this way since very recently with
three important crops namely cotton, enset and
maize. On May 19, 2020 experts and officials
from department of Agriculture has appraised
about the present time benefits of transgenic crops
in combating the chronic diseases in Ethiopia. In
a forum discussion on the benefits of Genetically
Modified (GM) crops in Ethiopia, Director of
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
(EIAR) Tadesse Daba (PhD) expresses that the
bollworm and herbicides affecting the crops can
be solved via introduction of genetically modified
crops. The benefits of this could increase the
productivity, reduce drought and prohibit diseases.
Of now in Ethiopia, Bt-cotton (pest resistant
cotton) has been licensed for commercial
cultivation since 2018 after granting the
permission from Confined Field Trial (CFT) in
2016. Two other crops with permission for
research on contained laboratory and CFT are
Enset for bacterial wilt and maize for insect
resistance and tolerance to drought. These

developments are due to lack of solutions
through classical research for existing problems
of bacterial wilt in enset and insect resistance
and drought tolerance in maize. Thus,
genetically modified crops can be a very suitable
option for solving the problems in agriculture
sector.
LABORATORY INFRASTRUCTURE FOR
PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH IN
ETHIOPIA
A research survey study conducted reports that
seven institutions spanning twenty four branches
involved in teaching, research and development of
biotechnology in several stages [4]. For now, the
following Institutions are having well equipped
biotechnology laboratories in Ethiopia with active
research projects and significant progresses.
1. Addis Ababa University, College of Natural
and Computational Sciences.
2. National Agricultural Biotechnology
Research Center.
3. University of Gondar- Institute
Biotechnology, Gondar.
4. Tigray Biotechnology Centre – Mekele
Institute of Technology (MIT).
5. Jimma University - Plant and Animal
Biotechnology Research Center.
6. Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute (EBTi)
7. Ethiopian Environment and Forest
Research Institute and
8. Some other public Universities.
OPPORTUNITIES OF PLANT
BIOTECHNOLOGY IN ETHIOPIA
Plant biotechnology is being an important
agriculture discipline in the development of
nation. Ethiopia offers ample opportunities for
trained staff with enhanced skills in the
techniques, farmers with economic cultivation for
increased productivity and public with safer
produce in terms of health and environment. The
areas providing more avenues for major
developments are education/academics in terms
Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
of skilled manpower with employment
possibilities, laboratory facilities with high
infrastructure/throughput machinery, funding for
international level funding to scale up the
research projects, an excellent platform for
conducting and execute the trials on already
genetically modified crops to assess the suitability
and success rates to the native conditions.
Moreover, Ethiopia is rich in particularly
agricultural biodiversity evidenced by global
recognition as Vavilov centres of the world in
terms of crop diversification and domestication. It
is known for its high crop biological diversity
with mammals (277), birds (861), butterflies
(324), reptiles (201), (150) fish and amphibians
(63). Ethiopia is center of origin and genetic
diversity for several crop plants and huge
diversity is observed here for gene pools of other
country crops. The area protected schemes
accounts for nearly 14 % consisting of 58 national
forest priority areas, 18 controlled hunting areas,
11 wildlife reserves, 9 national parks (2 gazetted)
and 3 sanctuaries. Genetic resources center in
Ethiopia holds nearly 60,000 accessions from 101
of crop/plant species. This enormous amount of
natural resources and diversity in Ethiopia
requires the need of the technological intervention
to encounter the food security and malnutrition
problems. The successful implementation of
plant biotechnological tools will overcome the
problems and challenges associated with
agricultural biotechnology.
CHALLENGES
Growth of any entity/nation will be associated
with potential limitations to progress in the right
direction before falling into right track with
repeated efforts in line with time. Similarly,
developments in plant biotechnology sector in
Ethiopia also have capable challenges in various
streams vowing to the below mentioned reasons.
Technological Factors
Plant biotechnology is still a budding subject
in Ethiopian context both as an academic
subject and industrial applications with its nascent
application prospects. This is evidenced with
introduction of basic courses, funding up for
new laboratories at the universities level and
149

permission for young startups in biotechnology
sectors. Even though, the lagging point for the
development of this subject in the immediate
future could be lack of availability of technology
in the country. This could be overcome by
producing well trained manpower, providing
infrastructure for Research and Development with
proper planning of funding for purchasing the
machinery required for basic needs in the initial
period and progressing with the procurement of
applied tools and technical machinery in the later
stages once the trained manpower is sufficiently
available. Limitation of infrastructure retards the
introduction of the latest biotechnology research
both for higher education and research
institutions. Besides this, genetic contamination
from transgenic plants can pose severe threats to
wild, weedy relatives and landraces especially
important for crop diversity centers like Ethiopia.
Socioeconomic Factors
Socio-economic condition is unstable in Ethiopia
despite being considered as one of the oldest
nations of the world. Political instability, repeated
public chaos, food insecurity, malnutrition,
catastrophic famines and drought, protracted and
devastating conflicts are adding to economic
imbalance. Adoption of Genetically modified
(GM) crops can overcome the problem of pest
incidence and harvesting losses. Thus, this can
lead to increase crop productivity than
conventional crops, but again benefiting rich
farmers due to huge number of peasant farmers
(up to 12 million). Sustainable use and rapid
adoption of transgenic crops can be achieved upon
assurance of positive socio-economic impacts on
society.
The socio-economic concerns of transgenic crops
contain social impact components such as
vulnerability, gender equity, acceptability, access,
loss of traditional knowledge, culture,
appropriateness, religion, and ethics. On the other
hand, components of economic impact include the
planting materials cost, probable GM crops
incompatibility for small- scale farm operations
and for farmers with poor resources, cost of
compliance with biosafety regulations, impact on
trade, accessibility and higher seed price due to
fees of technology, want of research
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Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
infrastructure, goods demand in developing
countries and developing countries consuming
food rejected by others. There is a need for right
framework for assessment of these impacts to
have accessibility, transparency, reproducibility,
predictability and concept-based on the safer
development and products transfer to end-user.
Also there is a requirement of thorough discussion
and analysis in detail about benefits with risks in
apparent association with GM crops as done for
any other new technologies. Given these
challenges, the following factors can be
enacted to bring about the expected impact on
society.
Dissemination of Research Outputs
Research outcomes obtained up till now with
plant biotechnology are outcome of several
difficulties faced in their respective crops and field
of specialization. Although the observed results
are insufficient with the international standards,
by weighing the pro and cons of the research
output with the existing limitations it is very
much essential to disseminate the research outputs
to the grass root level. There is a lack of
application of technology aspiring for too high
expectations in maximum cases instead of
applying the existing, thus bringing about the gap
in the growth and development. Proper training
and extension activities by technology
development and implementation institutes with
state governmental agencies can surpass this
challenge.
Policy Issues
The approval of very controversial Bill “A
Proclamation to Amend the Biosafety
Proclamation” that relaxes the strict policy
enforced on genetically modified organisms
(GMO) on May 19, 2015 by the House of
Peoples‟ representatives is a very good example
for policy issues. This bill was successful only
after in process for 8 months before its approval.
The stringency of the earlier proclamation was not
allowing the local researchers‟ involvement in
association with international researchers since
the complete responsibility was to be taken care
by exporting country on “competent national
authority” with the “informed agreement” on the

completeness and accuracy of the information
provided. The newly amended proclamation was
with a slight provision on allowing the Ethiopian
scientists involvement in “the completeness and
accuracy of the information provided” excluding
the signed confirmation to run any research or use
of the technology, in the process of production or
use only through a simple “application of advance
informed agreement”. This decision led to have
research exercise on GMOs and work on the
imported GMOs from abroad. So, policymaking
will be a long process with a waiting period
demanding approval from the concerned
committees with several political interventions
and intricacies. For instance also reminds of the
national biotechnology policy and strategy first of
its kind to the country that was prepared in 2002
was not approved.
Research Priorities
A substantial adverse economic growth impact on
Ethiopia in 2021 post COVID-19 will be due to
surge in price of basic foods, raised
unemployment, elevated poverty and slog in the
growth. These can aggravate the food security
issue and worse affect the millions of citizens in
Ethiopia. The effective way to overcome this sort
of unprecedented situation is to strategize the
research plan and executing with suitable
priority areas. Food security area has to be
secured by prioritizing the yield and its attributing
parameters for the crops under demand and
research finding with onus has to be made on the
productivity of the crop.
Public Perception
Public perception forms the eventual step for
accepting and applying the technology in
practice. The main parameter influence in this
case is the literacy rate. This limitation can be
overcome by training the man power at the
institution level with the help of organizing
training, workshop, national seminars,
conferences, demonstrations and imparting the
information to public with lead speakers,
interviews in television and radio, creating
awareness through practical demos and educating
officers at base level with essential training with
tools and techniques.
151
Hanumanthaiah and Alemu
CONCLUSIONS
Agriculture is the major occupation and backbone
of the country in Ethiopia. It contributes to the
country gross domestic product to about 33.88 %,
industrial contribution to about 24.77% while the
service sector is accounting for about 36.87%
(2019). Crop production is the major source of
employment, food, feed, income and earnings
from foreign exchange across African countries
including Ethiopia. Fluctuations in crop yield and
low yield are common problems. Weather and
climatic changes, less input usage, poor fertility
of soils, weed, pest, and disease incidence,
limited high yielding varieties and recently the
locust invasion are some of the major reasons
for weak performance in crop production
resulting in weakening the food security sector.
Enormous potential of plant biotechnology has to
be harnessed in terms of uplifting productivity of
crops, creating sustainability and stability in crop
production through development of resistant
cultivars to biotic and abiotic stresses,
environment friendly and usage of less essential
inputs. The convenient way left for achieving this
is through use of plant biotechnological tools and
areas such as tissue culture, molecular markers
and introduction of genetically modified crops
than conventional methods. Globally, current
literature with facts and figure depicts agricultural
biotechnology optimistic impacts in saving gross
margins (114%), reduction in pesticide cost (62-
96%), safe benefits on human with environment
and improvement in yield (18-29%) than
conservative crops in response to pressure by pest
are recorded for African farmers growing
commercial GE crops in small scale [55].
Commercial cultivation of GM crops has been
since as early as 1998 in Africa. In South Africa
commercial cultivation begun in 1998 amounting
to 2.1 million hectares of Bt maize, by 2014.
Burkina Faso and Egypt begun in 2008 while
Sudan introduced commercial GM cotton in 2012,
now with 0.2 mha with biotech crops by 2018
majority with Bt cotton. Latest by Kenya’s
approval for field trials of Bt cotton cultivation
and Bt maize field trials was already approved in
2016. More other African countries are expected
soon with approval of GM crops for commercial
cultivation. Similarly, even Government of

Ethiopia’s (GOE) approved for commercial
cultivation of GM cotton (JKCH1050 and
JKCH1947) and confined field trials on GM
maize with a spark of debate on usage of GM
seeds. The decision on GM cotton cultivation
approval has concern by Ethiopian
government over the generation of job
opportunity for cotton sub-sector value chain and
to cater the needs of fast growing textile
industry.
Crop biotechnology research in Ethiopia is at the
core of crop development, making it one of the
best thriving sectors in Africa. With the National
Biotechnology Roadmap in right place the country
is anticipating for latest biotechnology
development in crop sciences. Even though, all
these progresses are in line, more emphasis
has to be given on infrastructure development,
proper funding, administrative co-operation and
training of skilled manpower. This will
boost for the rapid growth in the plant
biotechnology sector to bring about vast
transformations in academic institutions, research
centers and industries.
AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS
This work was carried out in collaboration
between both authors. Author PH designed the
study, performed the literature search, wrote the
first draft of the manuscript and discussed for final
submission. Author ACA designed the study,
managed the discussion and analyzed of the study.
Both authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing interests
exist.
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