Laboratory 1

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

Matina, Davao City

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in

EBIO314L (6608): Terrestrial Ecology

BALLENER, ADRIANE

CUAMAG, JESSA MAE

OCLARIT, EUNICE FAYE

LINSAG, LANIE JEAN

NULLADA, ALLIAH FAITH

FEBRUARY 2023
 I. Introduction

The scientific method is critical to the development of scientific theories, which

explain empirical (experiential) laws in a scientifically rational manner. In a typical

application of the scientific method, a researcher develops a hypothesis, tests it through

various means, and then modifies the hypothesis on the basis of the outcome of the tests and

experiments. The modified hypothesis is then retested, further modified, and tested again,

until it becomes consistent with observed phenomena and testing outcomes. In this way,

hypotheses serve as tools by which scientists gather data. From that data and the many

different scientific investigations undertaken to explore hypotheses, scientists are able to

develop broad general explanations, or scientific theories (Britannica 2021).

Objectives

 Identify the parts of a scientific method

 Apply the concept of scientific method in a scientific article

II. Materials and Procedure

Materials

 Pen

 Activity sheet

 Journal articles
Procedures

1. Find three research articles about specific terrestrial ecosystem study (Example: Identification

of Heavy Metals in Several Soil Location in Philippines)

2. In a separate sheet, make one scientific method regarding the chosen topic of yours based from

a terrestrial ecology concept.

3. Create the parts of the scientific method such as the hypothesis, date, etc.

4. Submit the articles with your scientific method.

Post - Lab Questions:

1. Why are the importance of researching and discovering things about the ecosystem?

A community of living organisms interacting with one another as well as the physical

components of an environment such as water, soil, and climate is defined as an ecosystem. Many

if not all organisms rely on an ecosystem as it provides them with a habitat as well as a source of

food. Ecosystems must maintain a delicate balance to be viable. The ecosystem is considered an

important part of biological science. Human activities have the potential to have a global

influence, affecting the environment and, as a result, the species that populate it. While more

research and understanding of the numerous ecosystems around us allows us to properly protect

and preserve them and the species that inhabit them, it also allows us to utilize the products and

services that an ecosystem can provide while properly managing these exploits to avoid resource

overuse. An ecosystem’s structure and processes can support human well-being, for example, by

pollinating crops, filtering pollutants from water, and offering plant-based medicinal resources
(MEA, 2005). According to James Boyd (2007), Final ecosystem services are components of

nature, directly enjoyed, consumed, or used to yield human well-being. However, ecological

components such as livestock and human pests and diseases may have a negative impact on

human health. So, research on ecosystems not only lets us know of the positives but also the

negatives, allowing us to potentially mitigate any threats or risks that come from certain

ecosystems.

References: Assessment, M. E. (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: wetlands and water.

World Resources Institute. Boyd, J., Banzhaf, S., 2007. What are ecosystem services? The need

for standardized environmental accounting units. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.01.002.

2. What are some of the disadvantages that research can bring to the ecosystem?

Research in general is a beneficial process which helps to establish facts and reach reasonable

conclusions, however, it does have some possible disadvantages when it comes to the ecosystem.

Firstly, is that only a certain area in an environment can be measured, as it is almost impossible

to measure the entirety of the environment, unless there is sufficient time and manpower to

accomplish such a task. Another disadvantage is the disturbance of researchers to the

surroundings. Because there are various equipment needed to measure certain quantifiable

factors in an environment, there is a chance that the natural flow in the inhabitants of the

ecosystem might get disrupted such as with audible disturbances, and inconsiderate groups of

researchers whom litter and disregard the safety of the ecosystem. Lastly, is when false

information is published after the research paper is completed, which will be read by future

researchers, leading to misunderstood information that may be applied to the ecosystem and lead

to negative impacts to the environment.

3. What are some of the research gap that researchers should focus on in studying the

ecosystem?

There are many topics when it comes to research gaps about the study of the ecosystem, as it is

not something that can be perfectly controlled by human beings. One possible research gap is

when a research is conducted that involves studying areas of an ecosystem that is out of reach for

the researchers depending on their available equipment and time, such as with arboreal habitats.

An arboreal habitat is one that is composed of tree canopies. Animals that live in these types of

environments rarely visit the ground and are adapted for a life of climbing and swinging among

branches (Keathley, 2022). This is a possible research gap for the researchers as it requires the

observation of species within a specific elevation and concealed area in order to not disturb the

organisms. The understory would not be sufficient enough in order to get a proper observation

regarding arboreal habitats. Additionally, this also depends on the expense of the researchers, as

they may need to invest in specific equipment necessary for such a study.

Reference: Keathley, C. (2022) Arboreal Habitats and Animals. Retrieved from

https://study.com/learn/lesson/arboreal-habitat-characteristics-types-examples.html

ARTICLE 1

THE RESPONSE OF TROPICAL RAINFORESTS TO DROUGHT – LESSONS FROM

RECENT RESEARCH AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

Damien Bonal, Benoit Burban, Clément Stahl, Fabien Wagner & Bruno Hérault

Identification of the Problem

Seasonal soil droughts and the influence of these droughts on tree mortality and growth, as well

as ecosystem functioning.

Statement of the Problem

Tropical rainforest ecosystems are characterized by high annual rainfall. Nevertheless, rainfall

regularly fluctuates during the year and seasonal soil droughts do occur. Drought plays a major

role in shaping tropical rainforests and the response mechanisms are highly diverse and complex.

Gathered Information/Data

Research articles related to drought and tropical rainforest data from 2000 to 2015 are used for

information and data gathering. There are general data to more specific ones which involve tree

mortality, tree growth, and chemical factors such as carbon fluxes and carbon balance. All

research articles have some or have direct correlation towards the topic at hand, which will serve

as guides for the researchers in their pursuit of the responses that tropical rainforests have

towards drought.

Formulation of Hypothesis

The researchers claim in their article that tropical rainforests are well-adapted to recurrent

seasonal variations in soil water availability.

Data Gathering

In this context, a considerable effort is being made worldwide to better understand the effect of

drought on carbon and water cycles in tropical ecosystems at different spatial (forest stand to

region) or temporal (seasonal to yearly) scales. Major research programmes have been and are

being conducted in Central and South America, Asia and Africa.

Data Analysis

Tropical rainforest ecosystems are characterized by high annual rainfall. Nevertheless, rainfall

regularly fluctuates during the year and seasonal soil droughts do occur. Over the past decades, a

number of extreme droughts have hit tropical rainforests, not only in Amazonia but also in Asia

and Africa. The influence of drought events on tree mortality and growth or on ecosystem

functioning (carbon and water fluxes) in tropical rainforest ecosystems has been studied

intensively, but the response mechanisms are complex.

Conclusion

This review emphasizes the progress made over recent years and the importance of the studies

conducted under extreme drought conditions or in through-fall exclusion experiments in

understanding the response of these ecosystems. It also points to the great diversity and

complexity of the response of tropical rainforest ecosystems to drought.

Recommendation

The numerous gaps identified here require the international scientific community to combine

efforts in order to conduct comprehensive studies in tropical forest regions. These results are

essential to simulate the future of these ecosystems under diverse climate scenarios and to predict

the future of the global earth carbon balance.

ARTICLE 2

Herpetofaunal Endemism and Diversity in Tropical Forests

of Mt. Hamiguitan in the Philippines

 Richel E. Relox, Emmanuel P. Leano, and Fritzie B. Ates-Camino

Identification of Problem

The endemicity of reptiles and amphibians in lowland dipterocarp montane, and mossy forests is

factored into threats from anthropogenic disturbances and habitat conversion.

Statement of the Problem

As the Philippines' forests vanish and its human population grows, this unique island nation loses

a disproportionate quantity of species (Conservation International 2006). Near Mindanao is one

of the Philippines' largest surviving forest tracts. It has a lot of forest cover in the eastern section,

with a lot of it atop Mt. Hamiguitan (1500–1800 m). The study sought to further define the

herpetofauna and its diversity of the forests near Mindanao in the Philippines.

Gather Information’s/Data’s

Several research articles from 2006 to 2008 with qualitative and quantitative designs were

synthesized to gather information and data. This research studies contains important details and

updated profiles of the herpatofaunal species richness. Hence, this information were assessed and

synthesized.

Formulation of Hypothesis

It is hypothesized that lowland forests are critical for endemic species because these areas have

significantly higher species richness and diversity than those found in tropical forests at higher

elevations.

Data Gathering
It was surveyed at eight sites in the tropical forest of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Eastern

Mindanao, Philippines, from July 2006 to March 2007. The area is divided into four identified

types of habitats: lowland dipterocarp forest (sites 1–4 and 7), lower, mid to upper montane

forest (sites 5–6), and mossy pygmy and dipterocarp forest in the higher elevation (site 8). It was

examined at the site for 3–4 days. In addition, it uses line transects to sample each site,

photographs all vouchers, and then preserves them in 70% ethanol at the University of the

Philippines in Mindanao.

Data Analysis

A total of 140 herptile species are documented, and 21 of these are certified Philippine endemic

species, whereas two of these are listed as endemic to the Mindanao Faunal Region. The bagged

species are abundant in lowland dipterocarp forest vegetation, encompassing 93.3 percent

reptilian endemics, mostly snakes and lizards from the Order: Squamata. All of the reptiles

encountered are of unknown conservation status based on the 2007 IUCN Red Data List.

Inversely, amphibians were commonly encountered, accounting for 82. 1 percent are found in

all vegetation types. There are 90 captures belonging to nine species in lowland dipterocarp

forests, 16 captures in montane forests belonging to four species, and two captures in mossy

forests belonging to two species. The data covered a total of 77.8 percent of endemic amphibians

and three of the endemic species listed on the IUCN Red Data List with vulnerable conservation

status. Notably, all of the encountered amphibians belong to the Order: Anura.

The data has shown the dominance of reptilian endemism found in all vegetation types and

harboring the most in lowland dipterocarp forests in Mt. Hamiguitan and Davao Oriental, where

amphibians are lowly captured. The species composition, distribution, and abundance indicate
patterns of growth captured on different vegetation types. The forests are defined in higher and

lower elevations, and it only assesses that herpetofauna endemism prevails and is more

dependent on lowland forests than in upper elevations. The diversity of the subjects may have

factored distinguishable phenotypic characters and vegetation into sustaining their adaptation.

The data could be constituted for lower captures of amphibians and may be in some cases of

habitat adaptation and mechanisms.

Conclusion

The findings of the study and thorough observations reveal that lowland dipterocarp forests have

a great diversity of endemic species of amphibians and reptiles in Mindanao's Mt. Hamiguitan

Region. The species diversity is threatened by degradation as lowland vegetation habitats are

reachable and vulnerable to spatial interference of human intervention, anthropogenic

disturbances , habitat destruction, temperature fluctuations, and other surmounting effects of

degradation. The results are essential for advancing macro efforts in protecting the Herpetofauna

endemic species.

Recommendation

There is no recommendation that was stated in the article.

ARTICLE 3

Avifaunal assemblage in Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Mindanao Island, Philippines

Richel E. Relox, Emmanuel P. Leaño and Fritzie A. Camino

Identification of problem

Avifaunal distribution and vegetation may be interrupted by habitat disturbances as

environmental stresses. Hence, general pattern of avifaunal distribution across elevational

gradients was qualitatively characterized. Vegetation ranging from lowland, montane and mossy

forest was explored for bird utilization.

Statement of the Problem-

A need to assess the species composition, diversity and endemism of birds at all levels of a

mountain range with tropical forest whether they live in various habitats since they these species

in a forest ecosystem serve as good biological indicators of its ecological state.

Gather Information/Data

Various research articles and journals from 2000 to 2011 are used to gather information and data

for the research articles. The articles contains every information of Avifauna from different

places. This serves as a guide for the researchers to gather data and ideas on assessing the species

composition, diversity and endemism of birds at all levels of a mountain range with tropical

forest whether they live in various habitats

Formulation of Hypothesis

The researchers claims that there is a direct relationship between vegetation and niche breadth of

birds.

Data Gathering
Field sampling was conducted using both line transect survey following existing trail and mist-

netting method in vertical forest stratum in Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Mindanao. Census

was done from three to four days every month which began on July 2006 to March 2007 for

seven consecutive months. Species-effort curve increases continuously from the start of the

sampling period up to the end employing both methods. The list of birds per vegetation is limited

by the unequal length of sampling in each habitat across elevational gradients.

Data Analysis

The accumulation of bird species in a tropical forest is limited by the altitudinal isolation of

forest vegetation. Vertical stratification, feeding guilds, endemism and diversity of avifauna in

Mt. Hamiguitan can be inferred from both vegetation and elevation. Therefore, most of the

documented birds are spatially and temporally isolated in areas with potential breeding, foraging

and roosting areas concentrated in the remaining forest in different elevations. Mt. Hamiguitan

harbours rare, endemic and threatened avifauna. However, continuing operations of logging and

mining in their habitats may strongly lead these documented and undiscovered species to local

eventually to global extinction.

Conclusion

A combination of participatory line transect survey and mist-netting technique were used to

sample bird species in eight sampling sites in Mt. Hamiguitan Range from July 2006 to March

2007. There were a cumulative of 53 species of birds assigned to 26 families and 11 orders.

Twenty species (37.8%) of which are Philippine endemics and 10 species (18.9%) are confined

in Mindanao. With the altitudinal isolation of vegetation, the number of species, abundance and

endemism increase as elevation decreases. Hence, there is a direct relationship between

vegetation and niche breadth of birds. Thus, the higher affinity of the location of vegetation, the

greater number of similar species occurred between them. Species of birds are highly similar

between proximate habitats like lowland dipterocarp forest and montane forest as well as

montane and mossy forest than in vegetation with greater elevational gradient. Therefore,

communities of birds with reference to diversity, abundance and endemism are distributed based

on vegetation at increasing elevation in a tropical rainforest.

Recommendation

There is no recommendation that was stated in the journal.