CARIBBEAN SECONDARY EXAMINATION COUNCIL

SCHOOL BASED ASSESSMENT

CARIBBEAN HISTORY

YEAR 2022-2023

Area of Research: Why was the Berbice Revolt in 1763 deemed a failure whereas
the Haitian Revolution in 1791 was considered a success?

Candidates:
Makai Clarke: 0300043384
Isaiah Corbin: 0300041384
Dominic Blades: 0300043074
Jayden Cox: 0300043694
Vetorri Layne: 0300042582

CENTRE NO: 030004

SCHOOL: Christ Church Foundation School

TERRITORY: Barbados

TEACHER: Mrs. T. Pounder

Table Of Contents
Acknowledgments Page 2

Area of Research Page 3

Rationale Page 4

Introduction Page 5

What caused the start of the Berbice Revolt in 1763? Page 7

What factors led the slaves in St. Domingue to revolt in 1791? Page 9

What factors led to the Berbice Revolt (1763 to 1764) resulting

in failure? Page 12

In what way were the causes, course, leadership and outcome

of the Haitian Revolution similar or different from the
Berbice Revolt? Page 15

Conclusion Page 19

Bibliography Page 21

Appendices Page 22

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Acknowledgements

The members of this group would like to thank our teacher for providing us with a

guide to further aid us in our work, as well as showing us how our research should

be conducted. Our teacher gave us the opportunity to take part in the CXC for

Caribbean History this year and for that, we are also thankful.

We also give a great appreciation to our parents for their help and assistance in

acquiring and providing the necessary items and tools which were needed to

complete our SBA. They gave their time and resources in order to ensure that our

project was completed.

Finally, we would like to thank our group members for their contribution to this

group project, their cooperation towards the completion of the SBA, their

capability in gathering accurate information, and their commitment to producing

the final product.

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Area of Research

Why was the Berbice Revolt in 1763 deemed a failure whereas the Haitian

Revolution in 1791 was considered a success?

We hope to answer the following questions:

- What caused the start of the Berbice Revolt in 1763?

- What factors led the slaves in St. Domingue to revolt in 1791?

- What factors led to the Berbice Revolt (1763 to 1764) resulting in failure?

- In what way were the causes, course, leadership, and outcome of the Haitian

Revolution similar or different from the Berbice Revolt?

3
Rationale

As a group of aspiring young historians, we find slavery and the experiences of our

ancestors exciting. When introduced to the topic of Resistance and Revolt, we

learned that a consequence of oppression is always resistance. Therefore, slave

uprisings and their responses to injustice are compelling to us.

We understood that the factors encouraging slaves to revolt were mostly similar

but we aimed to find out what occurred in the Haitian and Berbice contexts and

why one failed, while the other was successful.

Thus, in order for us to gain further knowledge on the causes and consequences of

resistance strategies, we turned to research the topic. We hoped the knowledge

gained would help us to be more informed about the events which shaped the

history of our Caribbean neighbors.

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Introduction

Whenever there is oppression the result is always resistance. Slave revolts,

throughout History, have always been due to the slaves’ desire for freedom.

The Berbice Revolt also called the Berbice Rebellion, began on 23 February 1763

and ended on 15 April 1764. It was one of many serious slave revolts to occur in

Caribbean History. The fight was led by a rebel slave called Cuffy in conjunction

with Akara and Atta, Cuffy’s generals.

Most slaves in Berbice were African born and would have experienced the joys of

freedom in their native land and this made them resent the planters for taking that

right away. Cuffy himself was shipped to Berbice as a child.

The slaves in Berbice endured barbaric conditions. Female slaves were raped.

There was an outbreak of disease. The slaves were underfed and malnourished and

were given meagre rations. They were constantly punished and tortured by the

plantation owners as well as by ‘bombas’ who were the privileged slaves.

Similar to the Berbice rebellion, the Haitian uprising started largely as a result of

slave mistreatment. This revolution began on 21 August 1791 and ended on 1

January 1804, lasting 12 years. In addition to slave maltreatment, the Haitian

Revolution was also influenced by the French Revolution of 1789.

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There were notable divisions of class and colour in St. Domingue. There were

three social classes which included the whites with full privileges, the free

coloured (mulattoes) with few privileges, and the enslaved blacks with no

privileges. Each social group felt aggrieved, especially the blacks who wanted their

freedom. The mulattoes, born to mixed parents and known as the “gens de

couleurs” wanted the same rights as the whites and were still mistreated.

According to William Claypole and John Robottom in the book Caribbean Story

Book 1, most of the wealth was in the hands of the absentee plantocracy. The

French planters had little control over their own affairs and until 1787 had no

assemblies. When these assemblies were set up, they could only advise, but not

make laws. French coloureds, although they were able to own property were still

treated as less than the whites. There was mistrust and hatred among the social

classes. The slaves were oppressed and mistreated and wanted their freedom.

The Haitian Revolution was led by Toussaint L’Ouverture before he was captured;

then his general Jean-Jacques Dessalines claimed his role and achieved

independence.

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What caused the start of the Berbice Revolt in 1763?

Berbice, a former Dutch colony, experienced a revolt that began on 23 February

and ended on 15 April 1764. The revolt broke out on a plantation along the Canje

River and by March it had spread all across the Berbice River. Cuffy (Kofi), an

African-born slave was regarded as the leader as it was believed that he led the

initial revolt at Canje River and thus named himself the Governor of Slaves.

Ultimately the slaves wanted freedom for themselves and the ability to manage

their own affairs and take an active part in the affairs of the colony

One of the main reasons for this revolt was the shortage of food supplies.

According to authors William Claypole and John Robottom in the text Caribbean

Story Book 1, the slave owners, in an effort to reduce costs and save money, did

not import sufficient supplies to feed the slaves properly, as a result, the slaves

were underfed and malnourished. The Wikipedia article called Berbice Slave

Uprising notes also that hunger and malnutrition were the result of the Seven

Years' War which caused food shortages in the colonies.

Many of the slave estates also had absentee owners and left cruel overseers in

charge. As a result, slaves were beaten and tortured, raped and killed. Years of

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oppression and ill-treatment saw the slaves rebelling, protesting against the

planters and these harsh and inhumane conditions.

In the CXC Study Guide, Caribbean History for CSEC it is stated that additional

factors which led to the Berbice Rebellion were, an increase of new slaves from

Africa who wanted to be free again, the fact that there were earlier uprisings,

including a Maroon uprising in Suriname, as well as an outbreak of dysentery in

the colony between 1756 and 1765. As a result of this outbreak, many soldiers

died or became ill. The whites were severely weakened and the slaves took

advantage of this.

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What factors led the slaves in St. Domingue to revolt in
1791?

St. Domingue currently known as Haiti experienced a revolution from 1791-1804.

Among the reasons for revolt were: the slaves wanted an end to the cruel and harsh

living conditions which they endured including the “rape of the women, the

hunger, beatings and splitting up of families” as stated by Dorothy Hamilton-

Willie at page 46 of her book Lest You Forget (Resistance and Revolt).

As previously stated there were noticeable divisions in class and race in the French

colony. Each group had its own quarrel with each other as well as the French

plantocracy. The CXC Study Guide, Caribbean History for CSEC notes that the

whites were displeased because the French government did not allow them to

manage their own affairs, similar to their counterparts in the British colonies. The

mulattoes resented the whites. Even though they were able to own land they were

still treated like slaves. They were unable to hold public office or legal positions

and had to wear different clothes from the whites. The slaves were subjected to

inhuman and degrading treatment. They were overworked and underfed leading to

a high death rate among their population. As a result of this, they were determined

to get rid of the whites.

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The French Revolution in 1789 was an important influence on the Haitian

Revolution. In France, the middle class had no real power and was upset with the

government’s mismanagement. High taxes, rent, and expensive food caused the

labourers and peasants to become disgruntled. This caused growing discontent

which led to the French Revolution.

In addition, the National Assembly issued the “Declaration on the Rights of Man”

which insisted on the freedom and equality of man. The news of the French

Revolution spread the idea of freedom and equality in the colonies and it became

the stimulus and inspiration necessary for the Haitian Revolution. The aggrieved

classes of mulattoes and slaves saw this as an opportunity to get better conditions

for themselves. The coloureds wanted legal equality and the same rights as the

whites. The working class wanted to improve their position and the slaves wanted

their freedom

The coloureds revolted in 1790 with Vincent Oge as they took up arms against the

whites. However, they were defeated in 1791.

Leadership played an important part in the Haitian Revolution. The first slave

revolt was led by a slave called Boukman in 1791. According to the text History

for CSEC Examinations, Emancipation to Emigration, Boukman led the slaves

to down their tools and strike until the whites agreed to pay them wages as free

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workers. Boukman led strikes on many plantations and slaughtered about 2000

whites while destroying over 180 sugar estates and 900 coffee and indigo

plantations. Boukman was eventually captured and killed.

There was no help for the planters. The whites were outnumbered by the slaves,

thus giving the slaves an advantage over the whites and they utilised this advantage

by revolting. The slaves wanted their freedom from the whites and embraced the

declaration of man which is liberty, equality, and fraternity; so they began planning

for the revolt by storing necessities such as food, guns, and gunpowder from the

French plantation owners.

Toussaint L’Ouverture was considered to be the leader of the Haitian Revolution.

He wanted freedom and by 1795 he was leading 20,000 black soldiers in St.

Domingue against the invading British. He trained his soldiers well they were well-

disciplined. He received the support of the United States President and Vice -

President which allowed him to import guns for his troops and oust the British

invaders. Toussaint then turned on the coloureds and slaughtered them. By 1799

the French government saw that he was in control and appointed him Governor-

General. In 1801 Toussaint issued a Constitution which allowed St. Domingue to

govern itself and cleared the path for independence on 1 January 1804.

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What factors led to the Berbice Revolt (1763 to 1764)
resulting in failure?

A number of factors led to the failure of the Berbice Rebellion

Cuffy began to play “politics” by writing letters to the Governor of Berbice Van

Hoogenheim suggesting that they should divide the colony. The Governor stalled

Cuffy long enough to get reinforcement troops from neighbouring Suriname.

Dorothy Hamilton-Willie in Lest You Forget (Resistance and Revolt) tells us,

“The one hundred troops from Suriname helped the governor to take over a

plantation on the Berbice River and turn it into a military stronghold from which

to defeat the rebels.”

The Governor’s stalling tactics allowed more enforcements to arrive from

Barbados and Amsterdam which sent six ships to Guyanae to support the Dutch

colonists.

The Governor was also assisted by the Amerindians. With their sound knowledge

of the terrain and their experience in using weapons including firearms, the

Amerindians teamed up with the Dutch to fight off the rebels.

There were also power struggles among the leaders (Cuffy, Akara and Atta). Cuffy

faced challenges from one of his right-hand men Akara. Cuffy appeared unsure of

12
what to do and it seemed that Cuffy’s only chance at success was through

negotiation with the Governor who did not negotiate in good faith. Akara did not

agree with all of Cuffy’s tactics and realized that the longer the delay the more

powerful the whites will become. As a result, he attacked Dageraad, without

Cuffy’s permission but his attacks were ineffective.

There was no agreement among the leaders as to the aims of the rebellion and as

such there was no agreement on strategy and tactics. Rifts grew between the slaves

and the Creoles which led to internal quarrels and fighting.

The Governor never waivered from his tactics. He utilised as many reinforcements

as he could. Meanwhile, Cuffy suffered a shortage of arms and ammunition.

Cuffy’s tactic seemed to be indecisive as well. He did not attack the Dutch at

points when they were at their weakest. Further, Cuffy could not get the revolt to

spread beyond Berbice and garner the support of surrounding territories.

Cuffy simply could not manage the territory. There were already food shortages

and during the uprising, supplies were destroyed. The slaves had no knowledge of

how to run a plantation system and maintain trade. He had no international allies

with whom he could establish trade. In the end, the rebels’ situation became worse

13
and they were still suffering and starving. They had few options and many started

to return to the Dutch.

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In what way were the causes, course, leadership, and
outcome of the Haitian Revolution similar or different from
the Berbice Revolt?

There are various ways in which the Haitian Revolution is similar or different to

the Berbice Rebellion. These are set out below.

Firstly, in both the Haitian and the Berbice revolutions slaves wanted their freedom

from their white oppressors. One factor similar to the cause of both revolts was the

maltreatment of the slaves. The inhumane treatment of slaves, beatings, torture,

and malnutrition were common factors in both the Berbice Rebellion and the

Haitian Revolution. In both instances, the slaves saw that the only way in which

they could be free and improve their situation was to kill their white masters.

However, one varying factor was that the driving force of the Berbice revolt

occurred due to a lack of food supplies while the Haitian Revolution was heavily

influenced by the French Revolution and the ideas of equality and freedom. Cuffy

and his rebels seemed to want a short-term solution to their problems while the

goal of the Haitian Revolution was long-term.

The Berbice revolt was led by Cuffy and his generals Atta and Akara, Cuffy

showed great leadership, considered himself the Governor of the Negroes, and

planned the revolt. Similarly, the Haitian revolution was led by Toussaint

15
L’Ouverture with his generals Jacques Dessalines and Henri Christophe. Toussaint

was selected due to his military experience and ability to command and as such he

trained the slaves in guerilla warfare. The Berbice Revolution, unfortunately,

ended with slaves being slaughtered and Cuffy committing suicide. Cuffy,

although he started strong, had no strategies or tactics to sustain an attack. Once

resources ran out, he started to lose some of his fighters. The Haitian revolution

was successful in seeing the slaves achieve independence. In addition, they

expelled the whites. However, there were some problems for instance: population

decrease resulting from the loss of lives, the economy was destroyed and there was

ongoing political instability.

The Berbice revolt lasted from 23 February 1763 to 15 April 1764 and they lost

due to Cuffy’s errors, while the Haitian revolution which lasted from 21 August

1791 to 1 January 1804, was successful in ejecting the whites and the slaves

claiming their independence thereby becoming the first Black Republic in the

Caribbean. Cuffy seemed indecisive in his strategy and tactics which led to internal

fighting. The Haitian Revolution was a sustained attack. When one leader died,

such as Boukman, this did not end the revolt. Instead, it continued and other

leaders such as Toussaint L’Ouverture took over to lead the slaves to victory.

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The Berbice Rebellion was isolated to one geographical area. The Haitian

Revolution occurred throughout the colony of St. Domingue. In addition, the

Haitian revolution saw the coloureds rising up as well. Although they had reasons

different from the slaves for their uprising, these uprisings occurred around the

same time which did not allow the French planters time to get help. Therefore, the

planters were suffering continuous attacks from more than one faction around the

same time.

Unlike Toussaint, Cuffy had no outside help. In fact, outside help was given to the

Dutch Governor who also made alliances with the Amerindians. Cuffy had to

attack to get weapons and supplies which was not always successful. Toussaint

was able to get help from the United States in the form of weapons and

ammunition. In addition, he was recognised by the French Government as the

Governor-General of St. Domingue and after independence, he was able to enter

into treaties with other governments, build roads and schools and get former slaves

to work on the estates. Cuffy never saw independence.

Finally, the use of the words “revolution” and “revolt” show the difference

between the two uprisings. A revolution seeks to gain rights and power from an

oppressor while a revolt seeks to overthrow that power. The Haitian Revolution

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brought about freedom, independence and a new State which governed its own

affairs. It can be said that it achieved the purpose of a revolution. However, the

Berbice revolt never became a revolution. It started as an attempt to overthrow the

Dutch power but then Cuffy wanted to negotiate and share the island. Because of

this, it was not successful as a revolution or a revolt.

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Conclusion

The Berbice rebellion was short-lived while the Haitian revolution lasted for years.

The sheer number of slaves in Haiti and the fact that they outnumbered the whites

contributed to their success. Cuffy although able to attack strong at first, was

unable to lead a sustained rebellion due to a lack of supplies, food, arms,

ammunition, and reinforcements. Unlike Toussaint, he had no outside help.

The Haitian Revolution saw the whites totally expelled from the French colony

thus allowing the slaves to achieve victory, freedom, and independence. However,

in Berbice, the Governor was able to bring reinforcements and forge an alliance

with the Armerindians in order to quell the uprising, kill many of the rebels and

regain control.

The issue of leadership must be noted. Cuffy in Berbice sought to position himself

as a leader amongst the slaves and sought to negotiate with the Governor. Perhaps

he thought himself an equal to the Governor but clearly, the Governor thought

otherwise and used this to his advantage. Toussaint L’Ouverture as a military man

understood the meaning of war and understood that in order to gain freedom from

their oppressor the slaves had to fight and kill. You could not seek to engage and

negotiate with someone who did not see you as an equal and who was, ultimately,

19
your oppressor. Consequently, Toussaint used his military training and knowledge

to plan a strategic revolt which was ultimately successful in allowing the slaves to

gain freedom. The economic fall-out that endures to this day is another matter

altogether.

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Bibliography

Beckles, H., Shepherd, V. Liberties Lost (Caribbean Indigenous

Societies and Slave Systems) Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Claypole, W and Robottom, John Caribbean Story (New Edition),

Pearson Education Limited, 2001.

Dyde, B., Greenwood, R., Hamber, S. Emancipation to Emigration

(3rd Edition), Macmillan Publisher Ltd, 2008

Hamilton-Willie, D. Lest You Forget (Resistance and Revolts),

Jamaica Publishing House Ltd, 84p., 2003

“Berbice slave uprising.” Wikipedia, 17 March 2023. Accessed 4

April 2023
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbice_slave_uprising

“The Revolt That Almost Overthrew Slavery”, Black Perspectives, 29 April

2021. Accessed 4 April 2023
https://www.aaihs.org/the-revolt-that-almost-overthrew-slavery/

“Why did the Uprising fail?”, Stabroek News, 27 February 2013. Accessed 4
April 2023.
https://www.stabroeknews.com/2013/02/27/news/guyana/why-did-the-
uprising-fail/

21
Appendices

Figure 1:
The 1763 Monument also called the Cuffy Monument in Georgetown, Guyana

22
Figure 2:
Bust of Toussaint L’Ouverture in Montreal, Canada

Figure 3:
The revolution in St. Domingue

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Figure 4:
Map showing the geographical location of the Berbice revolt

Figure 5:
Map showing the geographical location of the Haitian revolution

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Figure 6:
An article written in the Dutch newspaper about the Berbice Revolt in 1763

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Figure 7:
The Haitian Declaration of independence dated January 1st, 1804

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Figure 8:
A slave fighting in the Berbice Revolt (1763-1764)

Figure 9:
Cuffy’s correspondence with the Dutch Administrator which is preserved in the
Dutch National Archives

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