AUTOMOBILE DEPENDENCY IN POST-MODERN AMERICAN CITIES:

MAKING THE CASE FOR WALKING, PUBLIC TRANSIT, AND RESILIENCY

Master of Science (Advanced Sustainable Design)
Edinburgh College of Art
The University of Edinburgh
Word Count: 14,272
 Uncontrolled speed has usurped the great variety of tempos and rhythms,
cornering the market of pace of life. Speed vilifies slowness. Slowness is viewed
as tedious; it holds back progress. Slowness is pedestrian, in the mean sense of
the word- dull, unimaginative, stupid. In a city of speed, there is no room for the
pedestrian and certainly not the rambler, the saunterer, or the wanderer.
-Randy Hester
Table of Contents
Table of Illustrations.......................................................................................v

Preface.............................................................................................................vi

Acknowledgements.........................................................................................viii

Glossary of Terms...........................................................................................ix

Abstract...........................................................................................................x

1. Introduction...............................................................................................1

Part I: Tangled Connections

2. History of Urban Planning..................................................................4

3. Resilient Urban Policy........................................................................10

4. Health in the Urban Environment.......................................................15

5. The Natural Environment...................................................................21

Part II: Research Strategies

6. Case Study 1: Anchorage, Alaska.......................................................25

7. Case Study 2: Portland, Oregon..........................................................29

Part III: Analysis

8. Guidelines for Municipalities.............................................................32

9. Conclusions...............................................................................................38

Appendix.........................................................................................................40

Reference List.................................................................................................41
ILLUSTRATIONS
Title and Photographer Page
1. Palmer in the Fall (Taylor Berberich).................................................vi

2. Seattle Freeway (Taylor Berberich)....................................................2

3. Walking Cities (Newman and Kenworthy).........................................4

4. Transit City (Newman and Kenworthy)..............................................5

5. Auto City (Newman and Kenworthy).................................................6

6. Embarcadero, San Francisco CA (Taylor Berberich).........................7

7. Towards the Chicago Waterfront (Taylor Berberich)..........................9

8. “Shopping Arcade” Victoria Street, Edinburgh (John V. Keogh).......11

9. Complete Streets, Chicago Illinois (Taylor Berberich).......................13

10. Walkable Riverfront, Portland (Taylor Berberich).............................16

11. Portland Greenspace (Taylor Berberich)............................................21

12. The Bean, Chicago (Taylor Berberich)...............................................24

13. Atlas: The Bean, Chicago (Taylor Berberich)....................................24

14. Alaskan Street in Winter (Taylor Berberich)......................................27

15. Port of Portland Interior (Taylor Berberich).......................................30

16. Port of Portland Greenroof (Taylor Berberich)...................................30

17. Future Nodal City (Newman and Kenworthy)....................................37

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Preface
The motivation for this project comes from being raised in automobile dependent
cities. Suburban cities and towns in south-central Alaska simply cannot be walked.
In my city the downtown has a quaint central strip of tourist shops and the like, with
a historical visitor’s center and central green. Moving outwards from there, a row
of churches and a few colonial houses can be found- remnants from the original
settlements established in the 1930s. This small bit of town can be easily navigated
by foot, but ironically only after driving there from home. The rest of the small city
is set up on four-lane asphalt roads, most of which have only recently integrated
walking paths. Residential areas are nearly all located outside the city center. The
hospitals, grocery stores, fuel stations, schools, and other important locations are
miles apart from each other and without public transportation available, cars become
even more necessary. In America, if someone does not own a vehicle they simply
cannot live comfortably. It is commonplace throughout the United States to spend on
average over an hour each day in a vehicle on average (Frank et al., 2004).
Background
Five years in the Future Farmer of America (FFA) organization gave me an
appreciation for not just agriculture, but my personal interest in floriculture and
landscape design. Four years at Washington State University followed, in the
undergraduate landscape architecture program. My time there took my interest in
landscape to a passion and opened my eyes to the glaring issues in American city

Figure 1- Palmer in the Fall

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planning and development. I particularly enjoyed learning the psychology of the
way people move through a space and their motivations to do so, and specific design
interventions that influence that movement. What I thought was an elevated type of
landscape design program turned out to be a profession that plays a pivotal role in
changing what it looks like to live, move, and commute in urban areas.
New Beginnings
In the fall of 2014 I began the Advanced Sustainable Design Masters Programme
at the University of Edinburgh. Growing up in a small town in Alaska and then
moving to Scotland came as no small systemic shock. The fact that a grocery store
was less than a mile from my flat was incomprehensible considering that back in
Alaska that distance would be at least five miles. Shops with residences rising
above them were also a foreign idea, something I had only seen in old American
cities. Even busses into the city center just seemed too easy. I wouldn’t need a car
to live here? I wouldn’t have to include fuel costs in my weekly budget? Many
elements of this ancient city I was adapting to made it so much easier to navigate and
experience by foot.
When I returned to the US for a summer visit, the concepts I had been researching
about post-modern cities had become painfully glaring issues. The airport was a
20-minute drive from the nearest residential zone, a 35-minute drive for the little
group I was travelling with. I was surrounded by ten lanes of freeway traffic that no
one in their right mind would attempt to cross on foot. Once on the surface streets
again, sidewalks abruptly end with no alternative route for pedestrians. Most of
my days were spent driving from one location to the next, only walking if it the
destination shared a parking lot with our current location. If we wanted to go for
a walk, we still had to drive to the park or a location that was comfortable and safe
to walk, since the streets outside the places we were staying were uninteresting and
unsafe. For the ten months I had been living in Edinburgh I was able to comfortably
walk from my flat to the city center with ease. Now back in my country of origin, I
knew I wouldn’t be walking anytime soon.
Every day I am learning new ways of life that never would have been possible
without leaving my country’s borders. There are aspects of my heritage that make
me incredibly proud and appreciative of what I have; there are also many things I
have seen in Edinburgh, in England, and in Europe that make me rethink how cities
can work. If I make anything of the time I have spent in Edinburgh, I want to make
an influence in the way people move about their cities and the chance that Americans
can drastically reduce their daily carbon footprint.

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Glossary of Terms
Community: A group of people living in the same place or having a particular
characteristic in common b) The people of a district or country considered
collectively, especially in the context of social values and responsibilities; society
(Oxford Dictionary, 2015)
Gentrification: the process of renewal and rebuilding accompanying the influx of
middle-class or affluent people into deteriorating areas that often displaces poorer
residents. (Merriam-Webster, 2015)
Greenspace: An area of grass, trees, or other vegetation set apart for recreational or
aesthetic purposes in an otherwise urban environment. (Oxford Dictionary, 2015)
Postmodern: of, relating to, or being any of various movements in reaction to
modernism that are typically characterized by a return to traditional materials and
forms (as in architecture) or by ironic self-reference and absurdity (as in literature)
(Oxford Dictionary, 2015)
Resilient: An ability to recover from or adjust easily to misfortune or change.
(Merriam-Webster, 2015)
Suburb: a town or other area where people live in houses near a larger city- sub-
urban development. (Merriam-Webster, 2015)
Sustainable: Able to be maintained at a certain rate or level. b) Conserving an
ecological balance by avoiding depletion of natural resources (Oxford Dictionary,
2015)
Walkable: Capable of being walked. (Merriam-Webster, 2015) b) The extent to which
walking is readily available as a safe, connected, accessible and pleasant mode of
transport (Walkability Scoping Paper, 2005)
c) Re-definition as applied to post-modern American cities: walking that is
readily available as a safe, connected, accessible and pleasant mode of transport
that considers inter-city and suburban public transit, overall transit times, transit
environment and experience, and user incentive.
Urbanization: the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger
as more and more people begin living and working in central areas. See also Urban
Development. (Merriam-Webster, 2015)

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Abstract
Automobile dependency in the United States has led to a population of unhealthy
people. Obesity, depression, anxiety, insomnia, and cardiovascular diseases have
all been linked to this problem, to the lack of exercise that comes when the primary
mode of transportation and lifestyle calls for hours of sitting each day.
This body of research aims to determine the historical background of the situation
and to discover what can be done to reverse the trend. By looking at policy, health
effects, and the natural environment as a framework for the study, guidelines are
given for municipalities to develop a sense of resiliency and to decrease automobile
dependence.

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Sense the City
The American city is an infinite conglomeration of lives intermingling to create
the heartbeat of the city, a collection of cultures and histories. According to the
2014 United Nations World Urbanization Prospects Report, the majority of people
on Earth live in cities as opposed to rural areas (UN, 2014). With 7.2 billion people
on the planet and with 54%, or over 3.8 million (US Census Bureau, 2015), living
in urban areas, it is a major concern to know how those people move about within
the city. Are they able to walk everywhere they need to go? Do most of them have
automobiles they drive and park regularly throughout the city? Is there a public
transit system in place for people to use if the other two modes of transportation are
unavailable, or unfeasible?
These questions have become alarmingly pertinent for post-modern American
cities. According to a publication by the University of British Columbia (Elliot,
2015), a post-modern city can be defined by three factors: despatialization,
fragmentation, and privatization. Despatialization refers to the globalization of
consumption, an increase in international stores and food chains for example.
Fragmentation is defined as increased social, physical, spatial and ethnic diversity,
and less homogeny in each area. Privatization simply refers to more businesses,
parks, and buildings coming under private ownership. Privitization also refers to
the voluntary social interaction brought about by less dependence on public services
as well as the advent of smartphones and social media (UBC, 2000, Pawley, 1973).
These three factors with the help of history have melded to create a city-type
that defies logic and ignores the environment. Post-modern American cities are
dependent on automobiles and travel by foot, bicycle, or public transit is erratic.
1.2 Walkability
In an age where oil production is declining, the ability of a city’s people to
travel without the need of a vehicle has become a vital concern. Merriam-Webster
dictionary (2015) lists ‘walkable’ as ‘capable of or suitable for being walked’ but

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the concept goes so much deeper.
The Walkability Scoping Paper out
of Christchurch, New Zealand has
a much more rounded definition,
stating ‘the extent to which walking
is readily available as a safe,
connected, accessible and pleasant
mode of transport’ (Abley, 2005).
Most American cities do not fit within
this definition of walkable. Not only
that, but their current fragmented
configurations make it nearly
impossible to reach this definition. If
walkability is going to be applied to
post-modern American cities, the term
needs to be defined to adapt to the
unique characteristics associated with
these cities. Figure 2: Seattle Freeway
1.3 Sustainability Criteria
To frame the discussion, a list of criteria specific to the goals of this project has
been adapted from Peter Newman and Jeffrey Kenworthy’s book Sustainability and
Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence. The authors list many fantastic ideas
on what makes a city sustainable (1999), but there are a few that pertain specifically
to this study:
• Increase amount of greenspace in local and regional parks per capita,
particularly in “greenbelt” around city
• Increase number of specially zoned transit-oriented locations
• Increase density of population and employment in transit-oriented locations
• Reduce car use per capita
• Increase transit, walk/bike, and carpooling
• Reduce average commute to and from work
• Increase kilometers/ miles of separated cycle ways
• Increase local leisure opportunities
• Increase kilometers/ miles of pedestrian-friendly streets (based on specific
indicators) in city and sub-centers
• Increase proportion of city allowing mixed-use, higher-density urban villages

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 These criteria do not fundamentally bring about change on their own, but they
can be used as starting points for discussion with special interest groups and policy
makers in cities across America. The criteria aim to address the biggest roadblocks
to walkable cities in America, such as outdated roads, pedestrian and public transport
systems, obesity, zoning laws, the urban environment and public awareness.
1.4 Dissertation Structure
This study will be done through several methods including extensive literary
research in the UK and USA as well as on-the-ground research in the United States.
The history of city planning in the United States will be studied to understand the
context and causation surrounding the current condition. This project will follow
the main themes of policy and legislation, health, and the natural environment as
influential factors to American walkability and potential tools to find solutions. The
discussion will be followed with a set of guidelines for planners and municipalities
before moving to final conclusions.
1.5 Expectations and goals
The main expectation of this dissertation is to unearth solutions to improve
walkability that can be employed by city municipalities. The intention is to find
tangible, innovative solutions to automobile-dependence that can be introduced now
and developed over time, in order to significantly reduce, or perhaps even phase
out, the need for private vehicles in the US. This may include policies regarding
pedestrian-only pathways, increased greenspace for alternative routes apart from
roadways, clearly marked streets for navigation and bike or walk to work initiatives.
The primary goal at the end of this process is to cultivate an easily reproduced
set of guidelines that cities can utilize to alter the current development scheme. In
addition the study will aim to find approaches to lessen America’s dependence on
personal vehicles, and to motivate Americans to take an active role in their personal
health and broader community.

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CHAPTER TWO: HISTORY OF URBAN PLANNING
“Automobiles are often conveniently tagged as the villains responsible for the
ills of the cities and the disappointments and futilities of city planning. But the
destructive effects of the automobile are much less a cause than a symptom of our
incompetence at city building. Of course planners, including the highwaymen
with fabulous sums of money and enormous powers at their disposal, are at a
loss to make automobiles and cities compatible with one another. They do not
know what to do with automobiles in cities because they do not know to plan for
workable and vital cities anyhow- with or without automobiles” (Jacobs, 1961,
17).
2.1 History of city development
Pre-War City Design
In Peter Newman and Jeffrey Kenworthy’s book ‘Sustainability and Cities:
Overcoming Automobile Dependence,’ the idea of “walking cities” is discussed in
contrast to “transit cities” of the twentieth century.
“Between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, the first cities were settled in the Middle
East. From then until the middle of the nineteenth century, the form of cities
everywhere was based on walking…In Walking Cities, destinations can be
reached on foot in half an hour on average, and rarely are these cities more than
five kilometers across (an average trip being 2.5 kilometers)” (Newman and
Kenworthy, 1999).
This configuration has faded except in a select few American cities. It can
be seen in some newer developments where the value of dense housing has been
realized, but overall the disjointed and overextended characteristics of the post-
modern city hold fast (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999).

Figure 3-Walking Cities (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999)

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Shifts in thinking- The Industrial Age
The middle of the nineteenth century saw a shift as urban populations rose and
more jobs became available in industry. The cities expanded to accommodate the
necessary changes for industrial production. In order to retain the same transit
times as before, trains, trams and streetcars were introduced. “The trains generally
created sub centers at railway stations that were small ‘cities’ with walking-scale
characteristics. Trams, on the other hand, created linear development that followed
the routes in corridors or ‘main streets.’”(Newman and Kenworthy, 1999). According
to the authors, this new style of development allowed cities to spread between twenty
and thirty kilometers across, and density dipped from 100-200 people per hectare in
walking cities, down to 50-100 people her hectare in transit cities.

Transit City
routes • Mixed Density
railway track • Mixed Use

parks • Grid Based

• Centralized
city/towns
tram suburbs

rail transit
“pedestrian pockets”
high density Tram
Suburbs
middle suburb (grid based)
post 60’s residential cul de sacs
Rail Transit
ex-urban or special rural “Pedestrian Pockets”
industrial uses

Figure 4-Transit City (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999)

Post-war changes and planning for the automobile

America went through many changes as the people adapted to life after the pain
of World War II. No longer were there food and fuel rations; there were no more
restrictions on the purchase of clothing either. Wives who worked as riveters and
other industrial positions during the war returned to running the household (history.
com, 2010).Men became the principle income earners again. After the loss of so
much life Americans were itching to live life as fully as possible. There was a need
to show the rest of the world how well the American population could recover and
truly live the American Dream.
Between the years of 1909 and 1927 the Ford Motor Company produced over
15 million Ford Model T cars (modelt.ca, 2012). By the end of World War II the

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automobile was the main influence to how cities were designed. “It became possible
to develop in any direction, first filling in between train lines and then going out as
far as fifty kilometers for the average half-hour journey” (Newman and Kenworthy,
1999). This ease of movement and new development led to the phenomenon of sub-
urban zones outside the main urban area, or suburbs.
The United States shifted to a society that could move independently of its city
centers, primarily on account of the personal automobile. Fuel was readily available
and didn’t appear to be seeing a shortage anytime soon. Road infrastructure
expanded and connected not just suburbs, but cities. Families wanted to leave
apartment living for more spacious homes outside the city. Husbands would drive
to work from their single-family detached homes in the suburbs, still maintaining a
30-minute transit time or less (Baxandall and Ewen, 2000). There was much more
freedom to move and travel independently of the train or bus schedules.
2.2 Cities where walking works
Walkscore.com rated New York, San Francisco, and Boston as the top three most
walkable and transit-friendly cities in America for 2015. One of the most influential
factors as to why these cities have a high walking score is their concentrated
downtown areas that make short transit times between home, work, and play. They
all have bountiful public transit options with bus systems (and subways in the cases
of New York and Boston). All three have public greenspace for pedestrians and
bikers, separated from automobile traffic. These cities all fall into Newman and
Kenworthy’s description of walkable cities with old town centers that retained their
walkable core.

Automobile
Dependent City
• Low Density
• Separate Uses
• Arterial grid and cul de
sac based
• Decentralized
routes
railway track
parks
city/towns
tram suburbs

rail transit
“pedestrian pockets”
high density
middle suburb (grid based)
post 60’s residential cul de sacs
ex-urban or special rural
industrial uses

Figure 5-Auto City (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999)

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2.3 Influences from Schools of Thought
Modernism and post-modernism are terms that vary broadly depending on
the source. As schools of thought the terms apply to a wide spectrum of topics
including literature, philosophy and art, in conjunction with architecture and
urban planning; the time frames for each period are also incredibly subjective and
depend on the context. For this specific discussion, the definitions of modernism
and post-modernism will be used as described by David Harvey (1989) in his book
The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change.
Harvey also notes that defining these terms is incredibly subjective, as they relate
to practically any aspect of society and culture. That being said, Harvey chooses to
define one as a contrast to the other. Modernism was a response to Enlightenment
ideas that opt for cleanliness, homogeneity and centralization. In terms of
architecture, decoration was seen as superfluous and the focus was on clean, succinct
lines. Modern planning worked in much the same way: efficient, large scale, and
executable city layouts. Post-modernism rejects these ideas as well as those of
the Enlightenment; it chose instead to move towards a fragmented view instead
of centralized- heterogeneous instead of homogenous. Decoration is considered
meaningful and beautiful instead of excessive. Newman and Kenworthy quote Cook
in saying “Postmodernism delights in uncertainty; it thrives on the lack of absolutes.
It is a celebration of difference, but it
is cynical about the future, it suggests
that progress is unlikely (Newman and
Kenworthy, 1999).
It can be said that these two schools
of thought combined with post-war
development are what led American
cities to the disasters they are today.
Policies of the time, economics, and
even competition between world leaders
(both imperialistic and militaristic)
all contribute to the current condition.
This chaotic tangle has created huge
environmental and health concerns along
with little to no options for walking or
public transit.
Figure 6-Embarcadero, San Francisco CA

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 Randolph T. Hester makes a provocative statement in his book Design for
Ecological Democracy addressing what lies ahead for the next generation of planners
and activists
“The vicious iterative cycle in which insecure and unrooted individuals make
insecure and unrooted cities which make even more insecure and unrooted
individuals, was generations in the making and will be generations in the
undoing. Shifts that disrupt the unhealthy cycle are essential. This is the great
challenge of our time” (Hester, 2006).
Undoing over 150 years of degradation is a daunting task, one that will take time
to resolve. Attacking the problem from the ground to re-work street infrastructure
into a cohesive system for all users is a logical point to start.
2.4 A Voluntary Desertion
Humans are social creatures that were not meant to exist alone. With the advent
of the personal vehicle, more and more people spend hours of each day alone. What
began as a sense of new-found freedom and ability to travel further and faster quickly
became a crippling addiction. The relatively recent introduction of the personal
mobile phone is creating the same effect the personal vehicle did- initial freedom
followed by complete dependence.
“Western society is on the brink of collapse not into crime, violence, madness or
redeeming revolution, as many would believe- but into withdrawal. Withdrawal
from the whole system of values and obligations that have historically been the basis
of public community and family life… a voluntary almost enthusiastic abandonment
of [values] by people who are learning to live private lives of an unprecedented
completeness with the aid of the momentum of a technology which is evolving more
and more into a pattern of socially atomizing appliances” (Pawley, 1975).
Newman and Kenworthy (1999) note that our society is so dominated by
electronics and internet convenience that we have no need for the public realm
anymore. In this way social contact has effectively been removed from society.
There isn’t even a need to keep up with friendships by constant interaction. Now
there is the world of social media, and it has completely crippled relationships in the
same manner as texting has removed social contact. There is now a desperate need
to return to the values Pawley has alluded to if a healthy society is to be restored.
What can be done to restore a sense of community to American neighborhoods? If
the people have voluntarily given it up to isolation, what can planners, landscape
architects, and policy makers do to encourage Americans to come out of their
smartphone haze?

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2.5 Defining the Study
American history paired with the current conditions of post-modern cities has
framed a new definition of walkable in America. Abley’s definition of walkable
from chapter one is indeed a good working definition for what a city needs in order
to be purely walkable, but one that is simply not feasible with the fragmented nature
of American cities. An area may be technically walkable but lacks significant
considerations such as safety and convenience. In fact, research shows that
most people try to have a commute time of thirty minutes or less (Newman and
Kenworthy, 1999) and in order to achieve this transit time in America there are more
factors that need to be applied:
• Improving city walkability
• Improve the walking experience for pedestrians
• Create incentives to encourage residents to walk
• User safety (as applied to walking routes and transit)
• Improving public transit routes and times
• Creating city sub-centers as hubs of activity
• Reverse isolationism
The means to achieve these goals as defined by this study can be found in chapter
eight: Guidelines for Municipalities on page 32.

Figure 7- Towards the Chicago Waterfront

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CHAPTER THREE: RESILIENT URBAN POLICY
“It may be that we have become so feckless as people that we no longer care how
things do work, but only what kind of quick, easy outer impression they give. If
so, there is little hope for our cities or probably for much else in our society. But
I do not think this is so. Specifically, in the case of planning for cities, it is clear
that a large number of good and earnest people do care deeply about building
and renewing… they have gone to great pains to learn what the saints and sages
of modern orthodox planning have said about how cities ought to work and what
ought to be good for people and businesses in them.” (Jacobs, 1961)
3.1 Zoning Policies
Cities and suburbs the United States typically separate all land uses from each
other. Unlike in Europe and the UK where it is common to see ground floor
businesses with housing units built above them, American suburbs are built as strictly
residential zones. In fact, additional mixing of uses is seen as an encroachment
on the suburban way of life, as described by Martin Pawley: “The inhabitants of
a suburb will band together to fight the invasion of their seamless web of private
houses by bars, restaurants, laundromats; any kind of communal or public structure
that capable of generating ‘noise’, ‘disturbance’, or interference with steadily rising
property values. (Pawley, 1973). What factors led not only to this separation of land
use, but the complete abhorrence of re-combining them into more cohesive hubs?
The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) played a sizable role in the way cities
grew and developed since its creation in 1934. Andrew H. Whittemore writes that
“In requiring standards for the density, bulk, and use of buildings, zoning has an
effect on everything from concentration of population, to distance between uses and
commute times, to the supply and affordability of residences, business, and industrial
property” (Whittemore, 2012, 620).
Whittemore states that even though the policies reflected American interests (and
advice from urban economists and the Home Owners Loan Corporation) it missed
the mark on several fronts. “Kenneth Jackson… revealed the maps with which the
Home Owner’s Loan Corporation (HOLC) graded neighborhoods from ‘best’ to
hazardous’ and cautioned lenders against making loans in areas of older construction,
mixed use, and importantly minorities” (Whittemore, 2012, 621). Whittemore
further references the FHA loan policies of the 1930s and noted that in order to
qualify for a housing loan, the dwelling had to be protected from anything that might
cause the property value to drop- including adjacent apartments, areas near minority
groups, and commercial properties. The language was directly written into the
documents to avoid these land uses.

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 Taking a closer look at this point in history, these concepts can be seen as a key
error in the thinking of the time and a contribution to the fragmentation evident in
cities later in time. Despite what we know now, this misconception grabbed hold and
many in the planning and development sector touted its merit. They saw it as “the
elevation of property values as promoting the proliferation of socially homogenous,
desirable developments in their communities” (Whittemore, 2012, 622). In reality,
this thinking is what led to urban sprawl and gentrification of minority groups.
With this information, it can be said that the FHA was not consciously trying to
break down the urban structure of the time with the creation of suburban housing
zones. Current research (at the time) for planning was used as an attempt to alleviate
the overpopulation of cities. The policies that resulted from the initial meetings and
conferences determined these solutions were the best plan of action to solve urban
overcrowding.
3.2 Mixed-mode zoning
The current model offers a solution to city overpopulation but brought another
set of problems related to automobile dependency. One solution would be to bring
commercial land uses into residential zones so suburbanites have less need to drive
into the city center, such as the Victoria Street example below.

Figure 8-”Shopping Arcade” Victoria Street, Edinburgh (John V. Keogh)

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 “Mixed land use is defined as a mixture of commercial, residential and industrial
land uses within a specified geographical area as opposed to the segregation of
residential land uses from non-residential uses. Among smart growth advocates,
mixed land use is often more narrowly defined as a diversity of compatible land uses
that serve the needs of the local population.” (Aurand, 2010, 1023).
If the concept of mixed-mode buildings alone could be applied to American cities
it could bring serious change to driving habits and encourage walkability (Barton,
1999). GFF Architects out of Dallas, Texas designed a prime example of this type
of hub with the Oak Park Mixed Use development. The complex includes shopping,
restaurants, and housing on a 3.24 acre infill site in Dallas (GFF.com, 2015). The
project was approved in April 2015 but no construction plans have moved forward.
Andrew Aurand argues that within these complexes a combination of housing
types and sizes will best suit a variety of family sizes and socioeconomic classes,
especially multi-unit structures (2010). He also notes the importance of ensuring
mixed-use areas include low income housing, and that housing is located within easy
walking distance of employment opportunities, services, and transit options.
3.3 Planning and Development Policies
Sungjin Park makes an interesting observation into road design and its disregard
to walkable streets. “The dominant documents shaping the walking environment
in postwar American cities were engineering road design manuals. The primary
purpose of the manuals was to create efficient traffic flow (Southworth and Ben-
Joseph, 2003), and thus early road design manuals paid less attention to the walking
environment” (Park, 2008, 9). With the main focus firmly on automobile traffic flow,
it is not surprising that the only literature on walking was in regard to roads.
Park hypothesizes that a solution to walkability planning may come if policy makers
can see scientific evidence to prove it really encourages people to walk. “If we can
accumulate scientific evidence to prove that environmental factors such as micro-
level path walkability can make a positive impact on travel behavior, policy makers
will have additional planning tools to use as incentives. For example, improving
path walkability near transit stations could be an effective, inexpensive approach
with less public opposition” (Park, 2008, 136). Park speculates that any increase in
automobile and parking taxes will be met with serious public opposition, but some
regulation may be necessary for change to occur. He feels that incentive rather than
taxation will see greater participation and benefit.
Newman and Kenworthy propose that a fuel tax will reduce the time people spend
driving. The authors state that a road tax (such as those attempted in London) has
too many loopholes and it will further drive the poor into more auto-dependent
situations. The funds from road taxes tend to go back into the existing infrastructure
through the building of new roads and the repair of existing ones. This neither
reduces the amount of time people spend on the roads nor resembles sustainable
development.

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Newman and Kenworthy offer up the idea of taxing fuel use, and using the funds to
improve (or implement) public transit options. According to their proposal, people
will drive less in order to avoid paying the extra taxes. This is not meant as a be-all-
end-all solution, but one that will help ease the transition into a model for sustainable
cities and out of the auto city trend (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999).
3.4 Traffic Calming Facilities
Traffic calming is a concept that means “to slow auto traffic and create more urban,
humane environments better suited to other transportation modes.” The goal is to
create visual cues to heighten awareness of drivers to the presence of pedestrians
and cyclists. “Traffic calming has the potential not only to lessen the direct negative
impacts of road traffic but to foster urban environments that are more human and
interactive, more beautiful, and more economically successful due to the greater
social vitality possible in a city’s public spaces” (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999).
Even more important than social vitality is the safety of all users and the effect traffic
calming can have to reduce pedestrian casualties. Traffic calming can be as visually
simple as a different paving material in pedestrian areas (such as brick or pavers)
which visually indicate a shift to a pedestrian zone, or physical barriers as pictured
below.

Figure 9- Complete Streets, Chicago Illinois

3.5 An Apathetic Population

The American people have become increasingly inactive in public policy and voting.
Voter statistics for 2014 national elections (US Census Bureau, 2015) show only a
38.5% voter turnout, and a general attitude of apathy towards the ability to contribute
in democratic change.
“Successful politics in the latter part of the twentieth century results from the skillful
selection of disguises for the private interests that any policy represents. The issues
are merely a wardrobe- about as important to the success of a political programme as
are the costumes for the success of a play” (Jacobs, 1961).

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In order to create spaces with people in mind, designers need feedback from the
people to understand their desires and personal needs. The problem is that this
necessary feedback also necessitates participation, but it is difficult today to get the
public involved. It is difficult to convince people of their own power. “Communities
have power because of their ethics and vision. They are not tied to the interests of
capital but can help with the vision of how market forces are needed to help reshape
our cities in a more sustainable way… they can help to envision how government
processes can be used to implement the sustainable city” (Newman and Kenworthy,
1999).
An engaged public may also come from the cross-involvement of multiple
government and NGO groups in city planning. Municipalities can make more
informed decisions about city policy if experts from multiple backgrounds have
a voice in the process. Involving more groups involves more and more people,
spreading the word and getting citizens to engage in city undertakings.

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CHAPTER FOUR: Health in the Urban Environment
4.1 The American Lifestyle
America’s dependence on the automobile has concerns much deeper than carbon
emissions and how much traffic there is on the morning commute. The health of the
American population is now facing the obesity epidemic, brought on in large part by
current lifestyle choices.
“The World Health Organization’ (WHO) campaign for healthy cities equates
health with general well-being and quality of life and takes the importance of
neighborhoods as axiomatic…” (Barton, 1999).
The American lifestyle has become increasingly sedentary. The daily schedule for
most of the middle class is to drive to work and sit at a desk for the majority of the
work day. Once the work day is over, traffic ensues and then dinner, either preparing
a quick meal or visiting the drive-through on the way home. After dinner is time to
relax and unwind with some TV while browsing Facebook on a smartphone.
There are several problems with this scenario: one, this indicates far less than
the daily recommended physical activity levels. Two, the lack of physical activity
paired with mental overstimulation leads to poor mental health; and three, that the
isolation involved not only degrades the community, but causes further mental health
concerns.
4.2 Physical Health: Obesity and Travel Habits
With an estimated 280,000 deaths of U.S. adults per year attributed to obesity,
overweightness and obesity have been found to be significantly associated with
diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, asthma, arthritis and poor health
status. Obesity- related morbidity was estimated to account for 9.1% of total annual
U.S. medical expenditures in 1998” (Frank et al, 2004).
The American Heart Association (2015) recommends walking at least ten thousand
steps each day, which is roughly five miles. The average daily walking distance for
Americans just barely makes it halfway, at 5,117 steps per day. However it is easy
to see why Americans do not walk as much as they need to when few cities allow for
easy pedestrian movement, such as the Portland Riverfront pictured on page 16.
According to Walkscore.com, there are only ten cities in the United States that
earn a walk score of 70 or better, which is considered “Very Walkable.” If the
category is expanded to include the cities that are considered “Somewhat Walkable”
the list grows to 32 cities. Any city with a walk score of 50 or less is considered
“Car Dependent” on the Walkscore.com scale. This statistic is truly appalling,

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especially if the most current census data indicates that this is only 8.2% of American
municipalities (NLC, 2013). This means that 91.2% of American cities have
either developed for the use of the car, or have adapted their city infrastructure to
accommodate the car.
Kate Booth et al. argue that the lack of physical activity is strongly connected to
the built environment. “The built environment can both facilitate and hinder physical
activity and healthful eating. For example, areas with few recreational facilities,
safety concerns, uneven and hilly terrain, or insufficient lighting can hinder physical
activity” (Booth et al., 2005). The article, Obesity and the Built Environment, found
that poorer neighborhoods tend to have fewer grocery stores but more fast food
restaurants. The authors propose to pair public health and planning to find solutions
to this problem and alleviate the obesity epidemic; however, they do state more
research is necessary before this kind of partnership will prove effective.
As America attempts to eradicate obesity and the sedentary lifestyle adopted
by 25-35% of the population (Blair, 2009), an article in the Journal of Behavioral
Nutrition and Physical Activity by Suzanne Audrey et al. discusses the benefits of
walking to work. The authors highlight the differences between passive travel such
as driving and public transit, and active travel such as walking and biking. The study
coordinators tracked employees who live two miles or less from their workplace.
This was done at 17 different locations in southwest England, using accelerometers
and global positioning system (GPS) trackers. The article states “There is increasing
evidence of the link between adult obesity levels and travel behavior, one indicator of
which is that countries with the highest levels of active travel have the lowest obesity
rates” (Audrey et al, 2014). What does this say about Americans and the fact that
over 34.9% of the nation (cdc.gov, 2015) is considered obese?

Figure 10- Walkable Riverfront, Portland

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 The study concluded that the participants who walked to work were 45% more
active than those who drove to work. There was not a significant difference between
the groups in terms of weekend activity, nor was there a notable difference in inactive
time. Still, this is a significant increase in physical activity levels simply in the
process of getting to and from the workplace. For example, if a person’s commute to
work is two miles, they are walking approximately four thousand steps. If the return
trip is added the total step count is eight thousand, which is already 80% of the daily
recommendation just in commuting.
The data collected from the study also suggested that those who walked to and
from work also remained more active throughout the day. In the charts comparing
activity levels between the two groups, physical activity levels in those who used
passive travel to get to work tended to drop through the middle of the day while
those participating in active travel tended to move more during business hours.
Walking had an impact on the workplace environment as well. “The suggested
benefits to employers of promoting active travel schemes include: increased
productivity, a reduction in sick leave, improved public image as a result of lowering
the workplace’s carbon footprint, and savings in providing car parking facilities”
(Audrey et al, 2014).
This study was specifically targeted at individuals who live within two miles of
their workplace. This cannot apply to suburban areas as they are located too far
away from the city center. Audrey’s research is yet further evidence in favor of
mixed land uses in post-modern cities.
4.3 Safety in the Streets
Safety is perhaps the most pressing concern to address in public transit use
and walkability, and is an especially important consideration for health. Lack of
sidewalks, inadequate lighting along pedestrian routes, walking distances, and
avoidance of dangerous neighborhoods are a few hindrances that keep people from
walking. The mentality tends to be “Why risk all these dangerous situations when
driving a car keeps me safe from the dangers associated with these other transit
options?”
“It does not take many instances of violence on a city street, or in a city district,
to make people fear the streets. And as they fear them, they use them less, which
makes the streets still more unsafe” (Jacobs, 1961).
Jacob makes an extremely valid point in her book The Death and Life of Great
American Cities, that the streets being unsafe is not the inherent problem- it is the
fact that people stop using them, which in turn leaves them fully in the hands of those

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who wish to commit violent acts. Users need assurance that they will not be harmed
during their journey, and will choose their mode of transportation as well as their
route in order to do so.
Awareness of general safety parameters may encourage people to walk or bike
more. In a study done by Chen et al. (2012) data was collected to compare the
number of pedestrian, bicycle, and vehicular injuries prior to and after the installation
of on-street bike lanes. The study showed a significant decrease in injuries for all
travel types after the installation, presumably because of the increased awareness of
other travel modes present on the road.
“The most likely explanations for the lack of increase in crashes are reduced
vehicular speeds and fewer conflicts between vehicles and bicyclists after
installation of these lanes” (Chen et al., 2012).
The authors concluded that the built environment had a significant impact on the
travel habits of the areas in the study, and that even though the number of cyclist
increased the number of related injuries did not increase. Awareness of these sorts of
studies could have a major impact on people’s choice of transportation.
4.4 Mental Health: Insomnia, Depression, and Anxiety
Active travel clearly has a high impact on improving physical health, and also
has been connected to improved mental health. The inability to fall and stay asleep
has become a common concern. Lack of movement does not allow the body to
become properly tired, and has been linked to disorders such as insomnia and sleep
apnea. “Exercise is endorsed by the American Sleep Disorders Association and,
in most discussions regarding sleep hygiene, is considered a non-pharmacological
intervention to improve sleep” (Driver and Taylor, 2000).
Getting the recommended amount of exercise each day has been shown to improve
sleep. Passos et al. conducted a study in individuals who have chronic primary
insomnia, or symptom such as “long-term difficulties with initiating and maintaining
sleep, waking up too early, non-restorative sleep, and daytime impairment, including
fatigue, poor mood, impaired concentration, and poor quality of life…This study
showed significant improvements in objective and subjective sleep, as well as quality
of life and mood measures, following exercise training in individuals with chronic
primary insomnia. The results are consistent with other research showing the benefits
of exercise training for individuals with disturbed sleep” (Passos et al, 2011).
Roger Walsh in his article Lifestyle and Mental Health (2011) makes the case
for eight therapeutic lifestyle changes: exercise, nutrition and diet, time in nature,
relationships, recreation, relaxation and stress management, religions and spiritual
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involvement, and contribution and service to others. Walsh argues that these lifestyle
changes have as much of an effect on health as the prescribed pharmaceuticals the
health care system typically offers. It is relevant to note that six of the eight lifestyle
changes mentioned in Walsh’s article are brought about when walkability principles
are employed in cities.
“In terms of prevention, both cross-sectional and prospective studies show that
exercise can reduce the risk of depression as well as neurodegenerative disorders
such as age-related cognitive decline, Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s
disease…Both aerobic exercise and nonaerobic weight training are effective
for both short-term interventions and long-term maintenance, and there appears
to be a dose–response relationship, with higher intensity workouts being more
effective” (Walsh, 2011, 581).
Walsh makes a profound statement here that should be incentive enough for
anyone to consider adding exercise to their day- that exercise not only improves
health but prevents degenerative disease.
4.4 Reversing Isolationism
Isolationism has already been discussed as a major problem to neighborhoods and
public communities, but there are also health concerns that come with distancing
oneself from contact with other people. The majority of drivers in America do
so alone, and individuals walking down the street rarely make eye contact. It is
common to see groups in restaurants sitting together, but where everyone has their
eyes on their phone. A new family dynamic is to watch television together while
everyone is on their phones. Relationships are becoming more fragmented than our
cities, all by personal choice.
“Social isolation is a potent but little understood risk factor for morbidity and
mortality, and its negative consequences are most profound among the elderly,
the poor, and minorities, some of the fastest growing segments of the U.S.
population” (Cacioppo and Hawkley, 2003).
Stress has been identified as a result of social isolation, and as studied by
John T. Cacioppo and Louise C. Hawkley in their report on social isolation and
health, stress “may weaken ongoing anabolic processes that serve to repair and
maintain physiological functioning, foster recovery from stress, and contribute
to the expansion of physiological capital and capacities as a function of adaptive
transactions with the environment” (Cacioppo and Hawkley, 2003). Their study
compared wound healing capabilities in students at a low-stress time of year and
then again before final exams, wherein healing took longer than in the initial data set.
They found that stress had a much greater effect on physical health than previously
understood.

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 Americans need to make a change in priorities and values in favor of their health,
as this is the first generation in American history that is expected to live a shorter
lifespan than the generation before them (National Institute of Health, 2005). The
sedentary, isolated lifestyle so many Americans have adopted is an insidious systemic
disease to the health of the nation, and will only claim more lives the longer it is
allowed to continue.

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Chapter five: The Natural Environment

5.1 Benefits of Urban Greenspace

The benefits of greenspace have been utilized as early as 3800 BCE (rashafim.org,
nd) in the form of Egyptian gardens. Even in these early times people recognized the
opportunities for healing and restoration that come from spending time around nature
and plant life. Indeed, the importance of gardens had a deep religious meaning for
the Egyptian people.
While it may not hold a religious importance, greenspace still plays a pivotal
role in the health of the city and its people. Eveline van Leeuwen et al. discuss the
different functions of greenspace in an article written for the International Journal of
Agricultural Sustainability:
“…urban greenspaces and urban vegetation moderate the impact of the negative
consequences of human activities by, for example, absorbing pollutants and
releasing oxygen. Furthermore, they maintain a certain degree of humidity in the
atmosphere; they regulate rainfall, moderate changes in temperature and curb soil
erosion, all contributing to a healthier
urban climate for both mankind and
nature” (van Leeuwen et al, 2010).
The writers give some great examples
of the power of plants. At the most crucial
level, plants photosynthesize to produce
oxygen, the basis of life on this planet.
Plants, animals, various organisms and
detritus brought together form balanced
ecosystems that maintain and sustain
healthy life on earth. These ecosystems
further add to the biospheres of the world
in which all life finds a natural habitat.
However, unchecked human consumption
Figure 11-Portland Greenspace has all but destroyed a vast amount of
these habitats.
5.2 Environmental Impact of Current Development Trends
It is a known fact that fossil fuels are a non-renewable resource and that the supply
is declining. It is also well-known that these fuel sources are incredibly detrimental
to the environment. Once oil deposits have been completely exhausted, what will be
left to power the earth?

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 Countless developments in the name of human progress have made balanced
ecosystems a thing of the past. Hugh Barton explains how current resource
consumption is affecting the environment in the book he edited, Sustainable
Communities: The Potential for Eco-Neighborhoods. First that energy consumption
is diminishing non-renewable fuel sources such as coal and fossil fuel reserves, as
well as emitting carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and sulfur dioxide into the air.
Second, the way American cities have spread out into the landscape has taken
valuable farmland, thus reducing the amount of food produced locally. Perhaps even
more important is the loss of habitat for native organisms and animals that contribute
to a balanced ecosphere. Most planning models also fail to include public open
space.
Third, unmitigated water use only exacerbates the loss of animal habitats and
drains the planet’s precious freshwater reserves on frequently unnecessary uses.
Fourth and finally Barton further credits the loss of habitat and agricultural land to
mineral extraction. This extraction causes irreversible damage to landscapes and
ecosystem. Most situations result in a cavernous pit being dug into the earth, and then
converted into a landfill for endless unwanted refuse (Barton, 1999).
These four trends in resource consumption have completely changed the balance
of the earth’s ecosystems to the point where it can no longer perform necessary
functions. Stream bank erosion and loss of riparian zones mean the rivers cannot
filter pollutants. The vast amount of paving put into roads and parking lots does not
allow water to re-absorb into the ground, but to run off into the waterways that have
already lost their ability to purify this contaminated water.
“Ensuring good accessibility to public transport, in combination with the
provision of walking and cycling networks, is crucial to reducing reliance on the
car and promoting more sustainable alternative travel patterns. [This] also makes
it possible to reduce the amount of parking for development, which in turn may
help to promote the use of public transport” (Barton, 1999).
Barton makes cogent arguments in favor of improved transit routes, but his
observation about parking lots has merit in the ecological realm as well. A reduction
in the massive amount of impervious pavement used for parking lots could also be
converted into greenspace for the city- both for the enjoyment of the residents and
the mitigation of environmental ills. This could also be utilized as alternate walking
routes that cut through the city grid, and thus shorten walking times, and aligns with
Newman and Kenworthy’s sustainability criteria discussed in chapter one.

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5.3 The Case for Increasing Urban Greenspace
Paving is also a contributor to the Urban Heat Island Effect, a phenomenon
defined by Brian Stone Jr. and Michael O. Rodgers: “large urbanized regions have
been shown to physically alter their climates in the form of elevated temperatures
relative to rural areas at their peripheries. Similar to the effects of global warming,
such “urban warming” can have substantial implications for air quality and human
health within affected regions” (Stone and Rodgers, 2001). This warming effect not
only holds harmful implications to the environment, but deters people from walking
outdoors. Those that want to enjoy urban greenspace limit their time to the early
morning or after the sun has set to avoid the unbearable heat, otherwise city dwellers
stay in their air-conditioned oases.
Trees and landscaping do much more than beautify driving corridors or enhance
city parks. Urban landscapes have a critical role to play as the global climate
continues to change. “Vegetation cools the environment actively by evaporation and
transpiration (evapotranspiration) and passively by shading surfaces that otherwise
would have absorbed short-wave radiation.” (Kleerekoper et al, 2012) Broadleaf
vegetation in the form of parks, street landscapes, green roofs, and vertical gardens
(to name a few options) are all viable ways to cool cities in the way Kleerekoper
explains. In addition, trees also help to dissipate the force of wind gusts and buffer
noise.
Greenspace brings with it a host of benefits besides physical changes to the
environment. When it comes in the form of street landscaping it acts as a buffer
between vehicles and pedestrians and equates to safer, more desirable walking paths.
Where there are minimal options to walking along streets, inter-city parks offer
alternative routes that take out the risk of injury due to errant vehicles. As mentioned
in the section about health, offering these safe routes as an alternative to driving can
have health benefits such as lowering risk for cardiovascular disease, lowering stress,
and decreasing weight. According to a study done by Virginia I Lohr et al., study
participants who simply had a plant in the office reported increased attentiveness
and productivity as well as reduced stress, as opposed to participants who were
not exposed to an office plant (Lohr et al., 1996). Research done by Weber et al.
(2013) found that plants are able to absorb and collect particulate matter, cleaning
the air even beyond our knowledge of their carbon dioxide absorption. Community
gardens and shared urban agriculture projects are methods to encourage community
interactions and reverse social isolation.

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 Lastly, urban greenspace can simply be a way to create beautiful outdoor spaces.
Landscaping can display healthy benefits in any city, but developing a sense of place
as an identifiable feature of a city can become something the people are proud of. A
sense of ownership follows where the space eventually achieves a modern sense of
sacredness, to which the people choose to love and protect their landscapes, such as
the Chicago Bean pictured below. Randolph T. Hester describes sacred places in his
book Design for Ecological Democracy:
“Sacred landscapes, then, are places that are consecrated by sacrifice and
special treatment and are endowed by a community with the power of highly
revered convictions, values, and virtues. These convictions, values, and virtues
are experienced through the ritual use of those places. The qualities of these
experiences range from the metaphysical (like transcendence, faith, and hope)
to the practical (like empathy, serenity, and charity) and to the earthly (like local
wisdom, sense of community, and orientation)” (Hester, 2006).

Figure 12-The Bean, Chicago

Figure 13-Atlas: The Bean,

Chicago

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Chapter SIX: Case Study 1- Anchorage, Alaska
6.1 The Purely Post-Modern City
Anchorage is located in south central Alaska on a glacial floodplain. Today it is
the largest city in the state with a population of 301,010 in 2014 (US Census Data,
2015) and an area of 2,517 square miles (Markon, 2008). It has long been a hub for
trade and nearly all the roads in Alaska stem from Anchorage.
6.2 History
Anchorage’s first inhabitants were the Dena’ina, a part of the Athabaskan tribe,
who arrived between 1,000 and 1,500 years ago. Russian fur traders arrived in the
1700s and took claim of the land, but James Cook is credited with the discovery of
Anchorage in 1778. In 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the United States for 7.2 million
dollars; which is a mere twelve cents per acre. Congress thought it was a huge
mistake, but in fact Alaska has proven to be incredibly profitable to the US economy.
Between 1861 and 1931 huge deposits of gold were discovered in Alaska and the
Canadian Yukon, where over 100,000 men flocked from all over the world to stake
their claims and hoped to find their fortunes. This brought money into the economy
and those who decided to settle (or couldn’t afford the journey home) boosted
the population. In 1915 the construction of the Alaska Railroad began, with its
headquarters in Anchorage. The city was incorporated in 1920 and officially became
a state in 1959 (Cook Inlet Historical Society, ND).
Catastrophe Strikes
Around 9:00 in the morning on Good Friday, March 27 1964, one of the largest
earthquakes in world history hit Alaska with a magnitude of 9.2 on the Richter scale.
It lasted 4.5, the epicenter only 80 miles from Anchorage, a close enough distance to
cause calamity in the city (USGS, 2011).
The city was nearly leveled by the quake and ensuing tsunamis, and a full-scale
rebuild was necessary. This could have been a great opportunity to rebuild the city
and correct any mistakes that were made before the earthquake. In actuality the city
was planned and rebuilt fully to the standards of the postmodern ideals of the time,
changes that were further exacerbated with the impending discovery of oil only four
years after the destruction.

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 OIL
Oil was discovered in Alaska in 1968 and was to the state what gold had been
in the 1800s- but this time, the development was permanent. Men flocked to the
farthest reach of Alaska, the North Slope, to earn good money in the oil fields. This
wage was earned through working in some of the most extreme weather on the planet
in long shifts each day, for two and three weeks at a time. In 1977 the Trans-Alaska
Oil Pipeline was completed to transport oil to Valdez, Alaska, where the oil is loaded
onto barges and sent out to refineries (Britannica, 2015). The oil industry made the
federal economy rise and the local economy skyrocket. Massive scale planning
projects took place statewide but particularly in Anchorage.
The timing of the city’s rebuild was an unfortunate combination of post-modern
ideals and unlimited funding. The city truly embraced the spread-out and fragmented
nature of the time and makes the vehicle absolutely necessary for life. The Glenn
Highway runs straight through the city and is crisscrossed by other huge roadways
such as the eight-lane Northern Lights Boulevard and the six lane Seward Highway.
Very few people, only those who find it absolutely necessary, walk along these
massive roadways as it is not only uncomfortable but very dangerous.
6.3 Commuter traffic
Anchorage is the center for industry, business, and commerce for the state. With
that comes a major influx every day of thousands of commuters. For a city of just
over three hundred thousand people, the traffic situation rivals that of a city four
times its size. People from the surrounding cities of Eagle River, Palmer, Wasilla,
Willow, and Sutton all funnel into the city each day. For example, Knik Goose
Bay is one of the fastest growing areas of development in Alaska. It is just across
the water from Anchorage by roughly ten miles, but the commute to the city is
75 miles and takes at least an hour and a half if traffic is moving well. This owes
more to the terrain than to the condition of the city, but only contributes to the need
for sub-centers and more commerce to reduce the carbon impacts this has on the
environment.

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 Figure 14- Alaskan Street in Winter

6.4 Environmental Constraints

Winter is another huge deterrent to walking in Anchorage. The winter lasts
anywhere from mid-September to June at the latest. The plow trucks are phenomenal
for getting snow and ice removed from the streets, but they rarely include sidewalks
and frequently pile the snow from the roads directly onto walking paths.
The city has reached its geographical limits of development with the ocean to the
south and west, a protected wildlife marsh and cliffs to the east, and the Municipality
of Eagle River to the north (Markon, 2008). There is no more land to develop and
real estate prices are soaring. Markon notes that a recent problem is the federal
parkland adjacent to the city edge and the interaction between humans and wildlife.
“With increased urban expansion to the park and forest boundaries, wildlife-human
interactions are becoming increasingly common, most often to the detriment of the
wildlife” (Markon, 2008, 21). City boundaries next to Potter’s Marsh, a protected
avian habitat area, are causing runoff to secrete into the water and contaminate what
is left of the birds’ habitat.
6.5 Efforts towards a more sustainable city
While Anchorage is struggling with automobile dependence and walkability, there
are groups working towards mitigating this trend with sustainable efforts. Alaska
Center for the Environment (ACE) is an advocacy group that works to conserve
Alaska’s unique ecosystems. They speak to the public on environmental issues,
provide camps for children to learn about nature, and run the Alaska Youth for
Environmental Action group, which gives teens a platform to advocate the issues
they care about (akcenter.org, 2015). Businesses such as Corvus Design, a landscape
architecture, planning and industrial design firm, have been a part of projects
statewide that put people in touch with their surroundings. Their mission includes

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the statement that they intend “to craft meaningful people-based places, facilitate
connections to our landscapes that respect ecological processes, and develop
opportunities for enjoyment, comfort and fun.” Providing this connection is key to
creating spaces that people have a desire to use (corvus-design.com, 2015).
There is one aspect where the early planners in the City of Anchorage made a
shrewd set of decisions. The city has a large network of greenspace available to
residents. Chester Creek Greenbelt Park boasts great biking and walking paths
that connect Goose Lake Park in Anchorage Midtown to Westchester Lagoon on
the coast. The four mile trail runs through downtown Anchorage and allows for
easy biking through the city. Lighting runs the length of the trail and it is mostly
independent of street crossings. Most crossings have underpasses for foot and cycle
traffic. Campbell Creek Greenbelt runs 7.5 miles from the University of Alaska
Anchorage campus to Tudor road, with only one major break at Seward Highway.
The Tony Knowles Coastal Trail runs along eleven miles of Anchorage’s coast,
providing incredible views across Cook Inlet (Trail Link, 2015).
These trails offer great options for walking recreationally as well as providing
alternate transit routes. It is important to note that the use of these trails drops
significantly during the harsh winter months that last from October to May. A
significant improvement to the walkability of Anchorage would be the transit options
that operate through the winter and provide shelter. This could include an improved
bus system, a commuter train or city tram system, and maintenance of walk and bike
paths through winter months.

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CHAPTER SEVEN: CASE STUDY 2- Portland Oregon
The Forward-Thinking City
7.1 Location
Portland is located in the northwest corner of Oregon on the border with
Washington State, along the Columbia and Willamette Rivers. The rivers are still
used to ship goods, and Portland remains one of the busiest ports in the western
United States. It is known for its beautiful landscape and close proximity to great
natural landmarks such as Multnomah Falls, Mount Hood, and the Columbia Gorge.
7.2 History
The vitality and richness of the region has been recognized for over 10,000 years,
firstly by the Native American tribes that made the Willamette valley their home.
In 1843 a land claim was filed by William Overton and Asa Lovejoy to create the
settlement that would be Portland. Initially lumber was the main industry and timber
was floated down the rivers to ports. The town was incorporated in 1851, and in
1859 became the 33rd state in the Union. It boomed during the civil war shipping
goods and food to San Francisco and still prospers as an industrial city today (u-s-
history.com).
Fires and floods have damaged the city throughout time, in some cases causing
severe damage. For example, on August second, the fire of 1873 burned for over
24 hours and required the aid of the Salem and Vancouver fire departments for
reinforcements. The estimated cost of the fire damage was $925,000 (ohs.org, 2012)
which in today’s currency is over $18 million.
The Willamette and Columbia rivers flooded on a regular basis before dikes and
dams were built. Today there are 12 dams on the Columbia River alone. 40% of the
hydroelectric energy used in the United States comes from the Columbia River Basin
(nwcouncil.or, 2013).
7.3 Municipal Government
Portland was quite forward thinking in their 1979 establishment of an urban
growth boundary to contain sprawl, and to protect farmland. The Metro, which was
an elected government over 24 municipalities in the area, was implemented around
the same time as the growth boundary was created. Early development showed the
city was simply sprawling within the boundary, which led to the development of a 50
year growth plan to increase density, promote mixed use developments, and promote
the development of a town sub-center in any area with a population of 20,000 people
or more (Stoel, 1999).
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7.4 Leader in Sustainability
Today when most people think of Portland they think of it as “green;” a city where
people ride bicycles, recycle, and drink ethically-sourced coffee. It is common to
find those practices in Portland, but they are only a tiny portion of an incredibly
broad and varied spectrum of sustainability options present in the city. At one
end of the scale there are community housing projects created with rammed-earth
construction principles and raising their own food. On the other end of the scale are
extremely cutting edge constructions such as the Port of Portland headquarters. The
building is LEED Platinum Certified with nearly every aspect of its construction
considered in terms of sustainability. The lobby hosts a living machine, which
processes waste materials into graywater which is then used for the building’s
flush toilets. The materials chosen, lighting specifications, floor plan, even the
recyclability of the furniture at the end of its lifespan have all been included in the
design of Port of Portland headquarters (portofportland.com, 2015).
The City of Portland embraces natural street drainage and infiltration instead of the
traditional city catchment system. Rain gardens are utilized instead of the traditional
catch basins and drains, and operate in the same manner. Water runs into the rain
garden and slowly filters through the plants back into the soil instead of being piped
to the nearest waterway. They are used to gather water from streets, in parking lots,
and off of impermeable surfaces throughout the city. This also adds to beautification
efforts and makes the streets, which are already well maintained with easy sidewalks,
nicer to walk along.

Figure 15- Port of Portland Interior Figure 16- Port of Portland Greenroof

Page | 30
7.5 Urban Challenges
Portland has been a forerunner of sustainable cities since before the development
of its urban growth boundary, but the city does not come without problems. The
population has grown much faster than planners expected, land values increase
as demand increases, and out-of-town long distance commuters increase traffic
congestion. As areas of the city are redeveloped and land values rise, the current
residents face gentrification (Stoel, 1999). Other municipalities can definitely take
from Portland’s example of sustainable development, but they should also consider
the challenges Portland has faced and adapt their land use planning as such.
7.8 Comparing Two Cities
Anchorage and Portland are two very different cities in terms of sustainability.
Where Anchorage has recognized it as a response to the problems it faces, Portland
predicted the challenges to come and made a concentrated effort to avoid the very
same struggle as Anchorage. Can Anchorage learn from its past and make a healthy
change for future generations, and can both cities find an innovative solution to the
demands for affordable housing?

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CHAPTER EIGHT: GUIDELINES FOR MUNICIPALITIES
After researching different aspects of the topic of walkability in post-modern
American cities, the following strategies were developed to address specific
sustainability criteria addressed in the project introduction. Martin Pawley gives a
vivid image into the current process and why our cities need change:
“…the process whereby the ‘sickness’ of the cities of the West is ‘cured’
by ‘cutting out the cancer’ of the slums and replacing the ‘lost tissue’ by an
arrangement of hotels, offices and businessmen’s pads, has exact analogies in
socialist countries… symptoms of the ‘disease’ of community collapse are also
dealt with similarly on either side of the ideological frontier, but in all cases the
significant thing is that the ‘treatment’ always fails” (Pawley, 1973, 40).
The guidelines in this chapter offer an alternate ‘treatment’ of city ills related to
walkability and automobile dependence.
Towards a Set of Guidelines

In chapter two, the term “walkable” was defined as to be adapted to post-modern

American cities: “walking that is readily available as a safe, connected, accessible
and pleasant mode of transport that considers inter-city and suburban public transit,
overall transit times, transit environment and experience, and user incentive.” These
guidelines are framed around that definition and also reflect the research carried out
in the document.
A. Improve City Walkability
B. Improve User Experience for Pedestrians
C. Incentives for People to Walk
D. User Safety
E. Improving Public Transit Routes and Times
F. Revitalize City Centers and Sub-Centers
G. Reverse Isolationism
H. Resilient Urban Policy
I. The Natural Environment
A. Improving City Walkability
Based on the research for this study, improving walkability comes with a host
of benefits and solutions to many problems that occur in auto cities. Improving
walkability can be as simple as ensuring there are sidewalks incorporated into
existing residential zones. For an even more progressive solution, mixed use zoning
(as discussed in section 3.2) encourages walking by dramatically shortening the

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transit times to necessary destinations. Increasing walkability and dense, mixed use
zoning are two sustainability criteria given by Newman and Kenworthy and in the
discussion in chapter one.
B. Improve the Walking Experience for Pedestrians
To address the priority of improving the walking experience, Sungjin Park’s
doctoral study delves into factors that impact walkability in American cities,
specifically sidewalk amenities, traffic impacts, street scale and enclosure, and
landscape elements. Park dedicates much of his research text to the quality of the
pedestrian’s experience. One of the results of his research is the adjacent table listing
the conditions for good path walkability.

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C. Incentives for People to Walk
Traffic calming principles, such as those discussed in section four of chapter three,
are also a great way to subliminally encourage walking. By manipulating the built
environment to be more pedestrian friendly the designers are telling users that the
space was created for ease of walking, not for the easy movement of vehicles.
In many ways Park’s conditions for good path walkability subtly create incentives
for walking, merely since the pedestrian environment is improved. However even
though they remove stumbling blocks, these conditions do not make an obvious
statement on their own.
Incentives such as bike/walk-to-work events, community fun runs, and step-
counting competitions in the workplace are more direct methods to generate interest
in walking. Additionally, these incentives inspire the community to come together
in the urban landscape, and make walking and a priority through healthy, fun
competition. The people take back ownership of their neighborhoods and regain a
vested interest in keeping the area safe, clean, and unified (Hester, 2006).
Americans who want to improve their health can use the statistics and findings
from chapter four to encourage them to walk. Simply walking to work (section 2 of
chapter 4) can have a dramatic impact on health and overall physical activity levels.

D. User Safety
Jane Jacobs gives a great example of safe streets with the example of the North
End of Boston. She claims the area’s safety is unprecedented, and that the crime rate
there is non-existent. She and the residents of North End credit this to the streets
being in constant use. The integral thought behind this kind of neighborhood is that
the people have claimed the streets as their own and for that reason alone, the streets
are safe.
“…the streets are also heavily and constantly used by people of every race
and background… some come to shop and stroll; many, including members of
minority groups who have inherited dangerous districts previously abandoned
by others, make a point of cashing in their pay cheques in North End stores and
immediately making their big weekly purchases in streets where they know
they will not be parted from their money between the getting and the spending”
(Jacobs, 1961).
This idea is cutting-edge, one frequently discussed in the landscape architecture
classroom. When designing public spaces the proverbial phrase “you can lead a
horse to water, but you can’t make him drink” is the perfect framework. Designers
can make the most beautiful park or walkway with the best materials and beautiful
landscaping, but the design itself will not make people use it. What must be done
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is to clearly convey that people were the driver for the project. Designers must
consider how people move through a space, what makes them feel safe, what makes
them feel comfortable. Without those considerations, the plan is just a waste of time
and funding.
E. Improving Public Transit Routes and Times
Public transit has a stigma surrounding it of being the “poor man’s option” or just
less convenient than driving. In order to dispel that stigma, transit routes need to
consider the average trip for city residents. As discussed in section three of chapter
three, the first step may be taxes on roads or fuel to discourage driving and encourage
the use of public transit.
Transit needs to be available within walking distance of main residential areas,
close to offices and main business hubs, and shopping districts (see discussion in
chapter three, section 3). If transit is not available where residents need to go, their
only option is to use a personal vehicle. Ensuring the routes connect residents
wherever they need to go will add to the convenience aspect and therefore could
increase user numbers. It is also very important to be timely and frequent so users
know they won’t have to waste time waiting for the tram or bus. In addition to more
intuitive routes, transit hubs that act as city centers need to be created to reduce the
need to drive to multiple areas of the city. As noted by Newman and Kenworthy,
train stations in transit cities traditionally created a hub of business for urbanites.
These hubs need to be reproduced in today’s cities to bring the broken fragments into
a more cohesive whole. This decreases strain on city centers while creating more
intuitive, localized, convenient, and inclusive areas throughout the city.
F. Revitalize City Centers and Sub-Centers

In post-modern city planning there is no concentrated town center; instead there

are fragmented nodes dispersed throughout the city limits. Restaurants and shopping
are typically lumped together with beauty services and other shops, often with
multiple of these shopping nodes spread out over the city. One option to address this
issue is to adopt the sustainability model as outlined by Newman and Kenworthy,
the idea for a futuristic nodal-city. This idea of generating sub-centers at transit hubs
will not only reduce the dependence on driving in from the suburbs, but will also
revitalize and reduce stress on city centers (see discussion in chapter three, section
three).

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G. Reverse Isolationism
It is critical to dispel the apathetic mentality outlined in chapters two (section four)
and three (section five). One method of facing isolationism and making a change is
with the Massive Small Movement, which is a group looking to make big change in
small communities worldwide. Engaged citizens recognize their community needs
then band together to make them happen on the local level, creating a “new normal”
for urbanism (Campbell, 2011). This type of bottom-up development puts the power
back into local communities and allows them to address their needs and shape their
neighborhoods exactly as they see fit. Having spaces to come together and enjoy the
company of other people (such as the sacred landscapes addressed in chapter five,
section five) is a necessary component of community.
H. Resilient Policy
Edward J. Jepson and Anna L. Haines offer a solution to the crippling nature
of zoning policies in America in an article titled Zoning for Sustainability which
was published in the Journal of the American Planning Association. The authors
address 53 regulatory items within nine sustainability criteria (such as higher density
development and mixed use) in terms of their application to current zoning laws. For
example, one of the nine principles is “VI. Preserve/create a sense of place” wherein
one of the eleven recommended regulatory items is “2. Grocery stores permitted
in standard residential districts” (Jepson and Haines, 2014, 242). They go on to
analyze whether or not 32 American cities currently hold to any of the regulatory
items in their municipal zoning codes. The cities in the study ranged in population
from 7,920 to 393,987 and were dispersed all across the country. The authors found
that out of a possible 93 points, the city that held to the most items was Burlington,
Vermont with a score of 33 points. The gradation falls fairly gradually down to the
lowest scorer, New London, Connecticut, with a score of one point.
While it may be disappointing that the scores were all under 35%, this system
of applying the new regulations to the existing codes makes change much more
likely than trying to introduce an entirely new system. This is the kind of phased-
in progress that over time could show significant changes to the zoning policies in
America1.
Paired with sustainable zoning is a mixed land use model. This is a concept that
will have considerable impact in the United States as it will bring city fragments out
as part of a cohesive network instead of a missing puzzle piece.

1 To view the sustainable zoning criteria written by Jepson and Haines, see the
Appendix.
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 “Resilient form turns density and smallness from scorn to advantage and limits the
extent of urbanization within the bounds of a region, thus enhancing sustainability
and providing healthy doses of natural magic for everyday life. The city becomes
adaptable and more financially secure. Resilient form fuels life, liberty, and the
pursuit of sustainable happiness (Hester, 9).”
One option is to adopt the sustainability model as outlined by Newman and
Kenworthy. The concept of generating sub-centers at transit hubs will not only
reduce the dependence on driving in from the suburbs, but will also revitalize and
reduce stress on city centers.
• Mixed Density
high -urban villages railway track routes
medium -800m around transit stops city/towns middle suburb (grid based)

low -demand responsive transit or cycle distance to transit tram suburbs post 60’s residential cul de sacs
rail transit ex-urban or special rural
“pedestrian
pockets” industrial uses

• Integrated- residential, commercial and

small scale industry
• Sub-centralized- linked to transit and
telecommunications

Figure 17- Future Nodal City (Newman and Kenworthy)

Newman and Kenworthy mention improving the city center as one of four critical
steps to create “The Future Sustainable City” in chapter 4 of Sustainable Cities:
Overcoming Automobile Dependence. Step one says to revitalize the inner city as this
zone is still transit friendly and walkable, and will take well to the introduction of
mixed land uses. Step two is to “focus development around the present rail system”
if the city has one, as these areas are reachable without the need of a vehicle. Step
three “is to discourage further urban sprawl.” This is achieved vicariously by steps
one and two, but also discontinuing the construction of highways and changing
zoning policies. Step four calls “to extend the transit system into poorly served

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suburbs, including cross-suburban and orbital rail lines, and to build new urban
villages around them.” One of the biggest problems in automobile dependency is
the disconnected nature of suburbs to cities, and how this nature makes it impossible
to walk between the two. Indeed, suburbia is potentially the biggest hindrance to
walkability in post-modern American cities. Step four in the creation of future
sustainable cities is paramount in reconnecting the urban fragments. Reclaiming auto
cities is essential to prepare for the future as it is only a matter of time before fossil
fuel can no longer be used as an energy source.
A final note for resilient policy is to bring all relevant groups, both governmental
and NGO, into the process of city planning. Municipalities will be able to make
better informed planning decisions if experts from many different groups are able to
collaborate to find solutions.
I. The Natural Environment
Chapter five provides many arguments in favor of bringing greenspace back to
the urban environment. The health benefits, cooling effects, weather regulation,
and ecosystem reparation are only a handful of concerns that urban greenspace can
remedy.
New outward development needs to stop in order to minimize sprawl and preserve
remaining farmland, ecosystems, and open spaces. Fossil fuel use needs to be
significantly reduced by means of taxation or other reduction policies. Water waste
and extraction needs to be regulated in order to protect the available reserves.
At the most basic level municipalities can require a certain percentage of new
developments to include greenspace for the well-being and health of city residents.
Rain gardens and bioswales are effective ways to manage stormwater. Perhaps most
importantly is that greenspace can balance the urban heat island effect by cooling the
cities down to more comfortable temperatures.
Cities can make it an option to create parks out of abandoned parking lots or
unused spaces. Further, the re-used areas can be landscaped with edible greenery,
such as salad greens, fruit trees and shrubs, and vegetables instead of traditional
landscape materials; these could be for residents to harvest as a means to procure
fresh food.

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Chapter NINE: Conclusion

Section One: Reflection

This study aimed to find a solution to automobile dependence in post-modern
American cities. The research, analysis, and final set of guidelines have led to a full
set of solutions to the problem and offer methods for cities to start the process of
sustainable development.
Among the sources pooled for this study, there are several that stood as the
foundation for the project. At the outset, abolishing zoning codes was expected to
be one of the only solutions to urban sprawl. However it was illuminating to find
Jepson and Haine’s study on phasing in sustainable regulatory items into current
zoning codes. This idea is much easier for municipalities to comprehend and
adopt than a complete halt of the zoning laws. Jane Jacobs’ writings offer such an
insightful look into what American cities are and what they could be, and what they
have the potential to be. Peter Newman and Jeffrey Kenworthy were an invaluable
resource to this project, as they cover many of the same problems in Sustainability
and Cities. Randolph Hester has been a go-to resource for years, as his call for
radical change is a refreshing outlook to the possibilities our cities can have.
Section Two: Reasons for Change
It is beyond apparent that without a massive change, America and her people
are headed towards a grim future indeed. One and a half centuries have slowly
entangled the current generation with a substantial mess to clean up. Current policy,
conventional urban planning, and exploitation of the natural environment have jointly
brought the United States to its knees. The planet is running out of resources to fuel
urban demands, and its ecosystems no longer exist to support life. The essentials to
live- oxygen, food and water- are dwindling to where the world’s population cannot
be sustained. Sustainability is no longer a chic idea for the wealthy- it is absolutely
necessary in order to guarantee a healthy life for future generations.
Sustainability is infinitely broader than walkability in post-modern American
cities, but it is a corner of the subject that also needs to see drastic change; even
so, the topics and issues involved with auto cities do not stop with those addressed
in this paper. The systemic challenge includes factors such as gentrification, rent
control, oil corporations involved in US politics, the proliferation of “cheap” fast
food and media influences. Automobile dependence in America is a problem that
will take many years to remedy and a complete lifestyle change for many people.

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Section Three: Inspiration for the Future
Not all post-modern American cities completely abandon sustainable concepts.
Portland, of course, is a leader in this regard, but others stand out as exemplary
sustainable cities. San Francisco, California is known as one of the most walkable
and transit friendly cities, but it also has recycling and composting ordinances that
aim to reduce city waste by eighty percent. Minneapolis, Minnesota has great bike
routes and also has a major campaign to promote tap water in order to reduce waste
from plastic bottles. Austin, Texas has an innovative energy program in place to
encourage green energy use. The mayor of Los Angeles, California (known to have
some of the worst air pollution in the country) is heading an initiative to improve
public transit and bikeways that has already seen an eighty percent reduction in truck
emissions for the Port of Los Angeles (Bill Moyers, 2015).
These city municipalities are showing their residents that they are dedicated to
improving the city for their families and generations to come. More and more cities
are seeing the benefit of sustainable development and moving towards a healthier
future.
Section Four: Take Action for Sustainable Cities
Each guideline in chapter eight holds a varying degree of impact on the built
environment and the people who use it. Some may take generations to implement
but there are many that can be applied to cities immediately. In order to reverse the
debilitating trends there need to be rapid, urgent changes in the urban environment.
These changes need to be cogent and local, applicable to each individual in each
community based on needs they have been able to express to the developers and
municipality. Humanity needs to be brought back into American cities.

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Appendix
Sustainable Zoning Criteria- Jepson and Haines

Sustainability Criteria Regulatory Items

I. Encourage higher density 1. Infill development
development 2. Maximum lot size/ minimum net density
3. Purchase or transfer of development rights
4. Small lot residential development permitted

II. Encourage Mixed Use 1. Commercial uses permitted in standard residential

districts
2. Housing of any kind permitted in standard commercial
districts
3. Live/ work units permitted in standard residential
districts
4. Mixed-use land development
5. Mixed-use buildings/ mixed occupancy permitted in
standard residential districts

III. Encourage local food 1. Agricultural uses permitted in standard residential

production commercial districts
2. Commercial gardens permitted in standar residential or
commercial districts
3. Community gardens permitted in standard residential or
commercial districts
4. Farmers markets permitted in standard residential or
commercial districts
5. Minimum lot size/ maximum net density (ag districts
only)
6. Urban Agriculture/ farming, includung animal keeping

IV. Protect ecosystems and 1. Conservation subdivisions/ cluster housing

natural functions 2. Conservation Landscaping
3. Green/ eco roofs
4. Green infrastructure/ on-site water management
5. Open space protection/ preservation, including
agriculture
6. Parking lot landscaping
7. Pervious surfaces
8. Steep slope and hillside protection
9. Water resources/ wellhead protection, including riparian
buffers
10. Wetlands and wildlife habitat protection

V. Encourage transportation 1. Picycle paths and/ or parking

alternatives 2. Complete streets/ woonerf
3. Parking maximums

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