Introduction to academic writing

DCU Writing Centre

Paula Lehane
Writing at University

－What does academic writing look like?

 Academic writing
Mindfulness may not only be applicable for the prevention of relapse
in depression, but also for the treatment of acute depressive
symptoms. Hofmann et al. (2015) conducted a meta-analytic review
of effect sizes in 39 studies evaluating the efficacy of mindfulness
based approaches in treating symptoms of depression. They found
that, overall, mindfulness based therapies for people with depression
had a large effect size (0.95). The study’s authors note that theirs
was the first large-scale and scientifically rigorous meta-analysis in
this field. Furthermore, the large effect size revealed here was
identical to that revealed previously for the efficacy of cognitive
behavioural therapy (Butler et al. 2016). This indicates that
mindfulness is potentially as effective as the commonly used and
broadly scientifically validated cognitive behavioural therapy
approach, and that more research is needed to compare the two
methods for long-term efficacy, cost benefits and appeal to patients.
What is different about academic writing?
Mindfulness may not only be applicable for the prevention of
1. Audience relapse in depression, but also for the treatment of acute
depressive symptoms. Hofmann et al. (2015) conducted a
2. Tone meta-analytic review of effect sizes in 39 studies evaluating
the efficacy of mindfulness based approaches in treating
symptoms of depression. They found that, overall,
3. Language mindfulness based therapies for people with depression had a
large effect size (0.95). The study’s authors note that theirs
4. Content was the first large-scale and scientifically rigorous meta-
analysis in this field. Furthermore, the large effect size
revealed here was identical to that revealed previously for the
5. Perspective efficacy of cognitive behavioural therapy (Butler et al. 2016).
This indicates that mindfulness is potentially as effective as
6. Aim the commonly used and broadly scientifically validated
cognitive behavioural therapy approach, and that more
research is needed to compare the two methods for long-term
efficacy, cost benefits and appeal to patients.
Keywords in academic writing:

• Planning;
• Critical thinking;
• Referencing;
• Well-supported points;
• Evidence-based arguments;
• Logical development;
• Grammar.
Steps in assignment writing
－Number these steps 1-7 in order:

References Plan of
attack

First draft Brainstorm

Choose +
analyse
question
Research
Revise &
Edit
7 steps to success
1. Analyse
2. Brainstorm
3. Research
4. Plan of attack
5. First draft
6. Revise and edit
7. References
Example

Critically evaluate the claim that the legalisation of

drugs in Ireland would be of more benefit than harm to
society.
Write down the
question

Break the question

down into the
necessary parts to
answer

Check key verbs or

use rewordify.com
to simplify the
language

Now write in your

own words what you
are being asked to
do
Step 1: Analyse the question

Write down the question

Use Student
Learning ‘key
essay verbs’ Break the question
handout from down into the necessary
website parts to answer

Check key verbs and

use rewordify.com to
simplify the language

Now write in your own

words what you are
being asked to do
Write It Out
Critically evaluate the claim that the legalisation of drugs
in Ireland would be of more benefit than harm to society.

Break It Down
Critically evaluate the claim that the legalisation of
drugs in Ireland would be of more benefit than harm
to society.
Simplify the Language
Account for Give reasons for; explain (note: give an account of; describe).

Analyse Break the information into constituent parts; examine the

relationship between the parts; question the information.
Argue Put the case for or against a view or idea giving evidence for your
claims/reasons for or against; attempt to influence the reader to
accept your view.
Balance Look at two or more viewpoints or pieces of information; give
each equal attention; look at good and bad points; take into
account many aspects and give an appropriate weighting to those
aspects.
Be critical Identify what is good and bad about the information and why;
probe, question, identify inaccuracies or shortcomings in the
information; estimate the value of the material.

Evaluate Appraise the worth of something in the light of its truth or

usefulness; assess and explain.

Source: University of Kent (2017)

In Your Own Words

Critically evaluate the claim that the legalisation of drugs in

Ireland would be of more benefit than harm to society.

This question is about drug policy. Specifically, it is asking

whether a change in drug policy in the Irish context to make
drugs legal would actually be more good than bad for
society. I must examine all the supporting information
without accepting it at face value and weigh up its value and
utility when forming my argument.
Step 2: Brainstorm
Example

Critically evaluate the claim that the legalisation of

drugs in Ireland would be of more benefit than harm to
society.
Rough Outline Structure

Introduction

Topic 1

Topic 2

Topic 3

Conclusion
Step 3: Research
• Research the key topics emerging from your brainstorm/initial reading
• Use key textbooks and articles from reading list
• Search the library system for further relevant sources
 Section Description
Intro (10% of word BROAD → SPECIFIC
of attack count) 300
Section 1 (600) 400 Summary
Self Determination
Theory 400 Apply it to occupational settings

Section 2 (600) 400 Wellbeing – what is it? Why is it important in the workplace?
Wellbeing at Work - Definitions (Kanning, 2013); other definitions available but this is
most suitable because it is applicable to a range of workplaces
not just office spaces (critical analysis)
- Value in the workplace (study by Lehane, 2013); v. good study,
Big sample size, experiment

400 SDT – assumption that SDT supports wellbeing at work

(motivations?)
- Thought paper by Murphy (2014)
Section 3 (1000) 400 – pro
Analysis of 500 – anti
Research linking 200 - gaps
SDT & Wellbeing
Conclusion (10% of
word count) 300 SPECIFIC → BROAD
Step 5: First draft

• Leave introduction and conclusion until the end

• One section at a time
• One point per section
• No matter what, just start writing, can always edit
• If struggling, record yourself talking through the point you wish
to make then write out the recording

Use the
academic
phrasebank for
writing
suggestions
Structure and Language
Paragraphs

Paragraphs give your writing structure. Each paragraph should

cover one idea or one aspect of an idea. A paragraph consists
of a topic sentence, a number of support sentences, and an
optional concluding sentence
Paragraph Structure

Topic sentence – outlines the issue / subject. (KEYWORD)

Supporting sentences – context and evidence on issue

References. examples stats. Must relate to topic sentence.

Concluding sentence and links to the next paragraph.

Example

Students require more recreational time in order to improve

their focus on lessons in class. In fact, studies have shown
that students who enjoy a recess of more than 45 minutes
consistently score better on tests immediately following the
recess period (Burke et al. 2003, Kline 2008). Clinical
analysis further suggests that physical exercise greatly
improves the ability to focus on academic materials (Walsh
2014). Longer periods of recess are clearly required to allow
students the best possible chances of success in their
studies. Clearly, physical exercise is just one of the
necessary ingredients for improving student scores on
standardised tests.

Source: Beare (2018)

Sentences

A sequence of words that begin with a capital letter and ends in

a full stop. The sentence must make sense as a single unit.
Sentence Writing Tips
1. Create an objective, confident voice

Use the third person (this means not using 'I')

•This essay discusses the importance of ...
•This research shows that ...
•It could be said that ...

Consider your use of tenses

You need to be clear about whether you are discussing something that
happened in the past or something that is having an impact upon the
present.

•Smith's (1914) argument illustrates that ...

•Freud's (1904) theory supports the view that...
•The Industrial Revolution had an impact upon society in a number of
different ways.
•The interviews were conducted with a group of parents in the
Leicestershire area. Adapted from the DeMontfort University Leicester (2010)
A little bit more about writing in the 3rd person…

In this essay, I will examine how gender and ethnicity are factors that can affect
buying behaviour among adolescents.

A careful examination of how gender and ethnicity are key factors that can
affect buying behaviour among adolescents.

In my opinion, assisting developing countries to grow crops such as tobacco

and opium poppies is not in their best interest long-term.

Assisting developing countries to grow crops such as tobacco and opium

poppies is not in their best interest long-term.
2. Use appropriate language for your audience and purpose

Academic writing need not be complicated, but it does need to

have an element of formality.

Avoid contractions
Avoid: 'don't', 'can't', 'it's', 'should've',

Avoid using informal words

Avoid: Smith's (2017) bit of research is ok.
Smith's research is significant because ...

Minimise you ruse of words like: 'get', 'got' or 'a lot'

Try: 'obtain', 'obtained' or 'many'

Adapted from the DeMontfort University Leicester (2010)

3. Be clear and concise

Keep words simple

Avoid: The denotation was obfuscated by the orator.
Try: The meaning was hidden by the speaker.

Aim for the right word for the right occasion:

Crusade against crime VS Campaign against crime

The word 'crusade' has connotations of a battle and is more aggressive in

tone than the word 'campaign'. 'Campaign' implies a more considered
approach

Make every word count:

Avoid: The theorist called Sigmund Freud wrote a significant piece of work
called On Narcissism which offers valuable insights into ...
Try: Freud (1914) offers valuable insights into ...

Avoid any vague words or phrases:

Ensure that your reader knows who or what you are referring to when you
use words such as: 'it', 'them', 'they' Adapted from the DeMontfort University Leicester (2010)
4. Use language sensitively

Avoid expressing strong opinions too directly

Academic writing is concerned with presenting your discussion in an
objective way, so there is no need to assert your opinions too
strongly
Avoid: Smith (1998) has an extremely important point to make
because
Try: Smith's (1998) view is significant because ...

Lean towards caution

Your use of language must show that we you making suggestions
which contribute to this wider discussion:
Avoid: 'This view is correct because ...'
Try: 'It could be said that ...', 'It appears that ...', 'It seems that ...'

Do not stereotype, generalise or make assumptions

•This especially applies to individuals or groups on the basis of their
gender, race, nationality, religion, physical and mental capacity, age,
sexuality, marital status, or political beliefs.
Adapted from the DeMontfort University Leicester (2010)
Useful phrases

Resource from the University of Manchester

http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/
Introductions Triangle
Example
Critically evaluate the claim that the legalisation of drugs
in Ireland would be of more benefit than harm to society.
So what?
For decades, the debate has raged worldwide as to how BROAD – why is this
best to deal with the illegal drug epidemic that has cost question of concern?
countless lives around the globe and fuelled illegal activity
and gang warfare. These exact issues are also relevant in
the Irish context, which has led to the question of whether what? (essay Q)
a change in drug policy, towards the legalisation of drugs MORE SPECIFIC –
in Ireland, might actually be of more benefit than harm to The central argument
society. In order to address this question, this essay will clearly expressed
firstly examine the potential impact of such a policy
change on health outcomes for drug users. Secondly, it
will explore the financial implications for the state, in Now what? (keywords)
particular in the areas of tax revenue and policing costs. SPECIFIC – How the
Finally, this essay will look at international comparisons central argument will
to see whether an equivalent policy alteration in other be tackled
states has had an overall positive or negative impact on
society.
Conclusion Triangle
Example
what? (essay Q)
In conclusion, the evidence suggests that the legalisation
of drugs in Ireland would likely be of more benefit than SPECIFIC - The main
harm to society. Firstly, the re-categorisation of drug point of the piece
addicts from criminals to patients would bring about
changes to the health system to reduce harm in a non-
Key words
judgemental fashion. Secondly, the legalisation of drugs
would be a financial boon to the state as it would allow BECOMING BROADER
regulation of controlled substances with an associated tax – The points that were
income and also reduce policing and incarceration costs. used to support
Finally, international comparisons demonstrate that, after argument
an initial turbulent period post-legalisation, the proposed
change in policy actually reduces drug deaths and helps BROAD – A concluding
undermine organised crime. What is required from here is sentence with a look to
further research investigating whether the proposed radical the future
change in policy would be palatable politically and socially Future
before attempting to introduce it. Remind of value
Policy/ society
Practical implications
Step 6: Revise & Edit
Technique Explanation
Voice • Is the voice appropriate to the audience and
purpose?

Cohesion • Do ideas in each sentence flow together?

• Do transitions between paragraphs show a
connection?
• Are sentences long/awkward?
Referencing • Have you introduced paraphrased material
and/or quotations and cited them correctly?

Criticality • Have you critiqued the sources you’ve referred

to?
• Have you based your critiques on other writers
or theories/models in the field?
Revising Example
Leadership is really important in nursing, says VOICE
Brown (2005). This is confirmed by the recent
requirements of the NHS Plan (DOH, 2002). COHESION: no
Smith (2001) explains that transformational explanation of
leadership is a leadership which involves the point being made
use of charisma and interpersonal skills to
enable achievement. In my own experience, a Criticality: vague
leader with transformational qualities can terms and claims
make any team member feel that they have a
useful part to play in the organization. This is not critiqued
confirmed by research which finds that REFERENCING:
transformational leadership increases feelings no reference
of self-worth and capability in their team
members.

Source: Modified from University of Cumbria (2017)

Step 7: Referencing
Library Resources:
－Citing and referencing workshops
－Cite Them Right resource
Summary: 7 Steps to Success

1. Analyse
2. Brainstorm
3. Research
4. Plan of attack
5. First draft
6. Revise and edit
7. References
Further support
• The DCU Writing Centre is open to all students at DCU, free of
charge.
• One-to-one session with a peer tutor who is an expert in the writing
process.
• Book online through the DCU Writing Centre website.

www.dcu.ie/studentlearning/writing-centre
References
Hilsdon, J. (2010). Critical thinking [Online]. Available from:
https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/uploads/production/document/path/1/1710/Critical_Thinkin
g.pdf [Accessed 2 November 2016].
Powell, E. (2013). The essay writing kit. Available at:
https://study.sagepub.com/node/22288/student-resources/sample-material (Accessed
10 October 2017).
Rewordify (2017). Understand what you read. Available at: https://rewordify.com/
(Accessed 11 October 2017).
Beare, Kenneth. (2018). Paragraph Writing. Available at:
https://www.thoughtco.com/paragraph-writing-1212367 (Accessed 18 June 2018).
University of Cumbria (2017). Critical writing. Available at:
https://my.cumbria.ac.uk/Student-Life/Learning/Skills-Cumbria/FAQs/What-is-critical-
writing/#d.en.59802 (Accessed: 10 October 2017).
University of Kent (2017). Instruction verbs in essay question. Available at:
https://www.kent.ac.uk/ai/ask/documents/step_1_Instruction_verbs.pdf (Accessed 10
October 2017).
University of Manchester (2017). Academic phrasebank. Available at:
http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/ (Accessed 11 October 2017).