Module 3

1. Write about nutrients for food substances?

Classification of essential nutrients
Based on the amount of the nutrients that each person needs to consume on a daily basis, these
nutrients are categorised into two groups. These are macronutrients, which should be consumed
in fairly large amounts, and micronutrients, which are only required in small amounts.
Macronutrients
‘Macro’ means large; as their name suggests these are nutrients which people need to eat
regularly and in a fairly large amount. They include carbohydrates, fats, proteins, fibre and
water. These substances are needed for the supply of energy and growth, for metabolism and
other body functions.
acronutrients provide a lot of calories but the amount of calories provided varies, depending on
the food source. For example, each gram of carbohydrate or protein provides four calories, while
fat provides nine calories for each gram.
Micronutrients
As their name indicates (‘micro’ means small) micronutrients are substances which people need
in their diet in only small amounts. These include minerals and vitamins.
Although most foods are mixtures of nutrients, many of them contain a lot of one nutrient and a
little of the other nutrients. Foods are often grouped according to the nutrient that they contain in
abundance
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are referred to as energy-giving foods. They provide energy in the form of
calories that the body needs to be able to work, and to support other functions.
Carbohydrates are needed in large amounts by the body. Indeed, up to 65% of our energy comes
from carbohydrates. They are the body’s main source of fuel because they are easily converted
into energy. This energy is usually in the form of glucose, which all tissues and cells in our
bodies readily use.
For the brain, kidneys, central nervous system and muscles to function properly, they need
carbohydrates. These carbohydrates are usually stored in the muscles and the liver, where they
are later used for energy.
The main sources of carbohydrates are bread, wheat, potatoes of all kinds, maize, rice, cassava,
‘shiro’, pasta, macaroni, ‘kocho’, banana, sweets, sugar cane, sweet fruits, and honey. Other
foods like vegetables, beans, nuts and seeds contain carbohydrates, but in lesser amounts.
Classification of carbohydrates
Based on the number of sugar units, carbohydrates are classified into three groups; these are
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. You need to know the classes of
carbohydrates to enable you to give relevant advice to patients with special needs
like diabetes (when someone has problems regulating the amounts of glucose in their body).
Monosaccharides and disaccharides are referred to as simple sugars or simple carbohydrates that
our body can easily utilise. For this reason, people with diabetes mellitus shouldn’t eat too many
of these carbohydrates. Examples include sugar, honey, sweet fruits and sugar cane.
Polysaccharides are called complex carbohydrates and they need to be broken down into simple
sugars to be used by our body. They can be consumed by diabetic patients without restriction.
Examples include starch and cellulose.
proteins
About 10–35% of calories should come from protein. Proteins are needed in our diets for growth
(especially important for children, teens and pregnant women) and to improve immune functions.
They also play an important role in making essential hormones and enzymes, in tissue repair,
preserving lean muscle mass, and supplying energy in times when carbohydrates are not
available.
Pregnant women need protein to build their bodies and that of the babies and placentas, to make
extra blood and for fat storage. Breastfeeding mothers need protein to make breastmilk.
Sources of protein
The main sources of proteins are meats, chicken, eggs, breastmilk, beans, ground nuts, lentils,
fish, cheese and milk.
All animal foods contain more protein than plants and are therefore usually better sources of
body building foods. However, even though plant proteins (see Figure 2.1) are usually not as
good for body-building as animal proteins, they can become more effective nutritionally when
both are mixed with each other.
Fats and oils
Fats and oils are concentrated sources of energy and so are important nutrients for young
children who need a lot of energy-rich food. Fats can also make meals more tasty and satisfying.
Fat is found in meat, chicken, milk products, butters, creams, avocado, cooking oils and fats,
cheese, fish and ground nuts.
Classification of fats
Fats are classified into saturated and unsaturated fats. The classification is important to enable
you to advise your community about which fats can be consumed with less risk to people’s
health. Saturated fats are not good for a person’s health.
Saturated fats are usually solid at cool temperatures. Eating too much saturated fat is not good
for a person’s health, as it can cause heart and blood vessel problems.
Unsaturated fats are usually liquid at room temperature. These types of fats are healthy fats.
Examples include fats from fish, oil seeds (sesame and sunflower), maize oil and ground nut oil
and breastmilk.
As a general rule, plant sources of fats are better for a person’s health than the animal sources,
because animal fats contain more saturated fats.
Water
Water is essential for life. We need water for a number of reasons:
For the body to make cells and fluids such as tears, digestive juices and breastmilk
For the body to make sweat for cooling itself
For essential body processes — most take place in water
For keeping the lining of the mouth, intestine, eyelids and lungs wet and healthy
For the production of urine, which carries waste from the body.
Fibre
Fibre is a mixture of different carbohydrates which are not digested like other nutrients but pass
through the gut nearly unchanged. Foods rich in fibre are ‘kocho’; vegetables like cabbage,
‘kosta’, carrots, cassava; fruits like banana and avocado; peas and beans; whole-grain cereals like
wheat flour and refined maize or sorghum.
Including fibre in the diet
Fibre should be included in the diet for the following reasons:
Fibre makes food bulky or bigger — this can help a person who is overweight to eat less food
Fibre makes the faeces soft and bulky; this can help prevent constipation
Fibre slows the absorption of nutrients, so it helps nutrients to enter the blood stream slowly.
This is important for patients with diabetes mellitus.
Micronutrients in detail
Vitamins
Vitamins are groups of related substances present in small amounts in foodstuffs and are
necessary for the body to function normally. Vitamins are also called protective foods. They are
grouped together because, as their name implies, they are a vital factor in the diet.
Classifications of vitamins
Vitamins are classified into two groups:
Fat soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K) are soluble in fats and fat solvents. They are
insoluble in water. So these are utilised only if there is enough fat in the body.
Water soluble vitamins (vitamins B and C, and folic acid) are soluble in water and so they cannot
be stored in the body.
The best sources of micronutrients in our diets are fruits and vegetables. These two food groups
contain essential vitamins and minerals. Animal sources of foods are also both good sources of
micronutrients. However, an adequate micronutrient intake can only be achieved through
sufficient intake of a balanced diet that includes plenty of fruits and vegetables. Table 2.1
overleaf sets out the functions of some of the important vitamins and examples of sources of
food for each of these.

Functions and sources of vitamins.

Vitamins Function Food sources

Vitamin A Night vision Breastmilk, tomatoes, cabbage, lettuce, pumpkins

Healing epithelial cells Mangoes, papaya, carrots
Normal development of teeth and Liver, kidney, egg yolk, milk, butter, cheese cream
bones

Vitamin D Needed for absorption of calcium Ultra violet light from the sun
from small intestines Eggs, butter, fish
Calcification of the skeleton Fortified oils, fats and cereals

Vitamin K For blood clotting Green leafy vegetables

 Fruits, cereals, meat, dairy products

B comple Metabolism of carbohydrates, Milk, egg yolk, liver, kidney and heart
x proteins and fats Whole grain cereals, meat, whole bread, fish,
bananas

Vitamin C Prevention of scurvy Fresh fruits (oranges, banana, mango, grapefruits,

Aiding wound healing lemons, potatoes) and vegetables (cabbage,
Assisting absorption of iron carrots, pepper, tomatoes)
Breastmilk

Epithelial cells form the thin layer of tissue lining the gut, respiratory and genitourinary systems.
Calcification refers to the hardening of bones by calcium deposits.
Scurvy is a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency which leads to sore skin, bleeding gums and
internal bleeding.
Minerals
Minerals are the substances that people need to ensure the health and correct working of their
soft tissues, fluids and their skeleton. Examples of minerals include calcium, iron, iodine,
fluorine, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, selenium, and sodium. Table 2.2 outlines the functions of
some of these important minerals and examples of sources of food for each of these.

Functions and sources of common minerals.

Minerals Function Food sources

Calcium Gives bones and teeth rigidity and strength Milk, cheese and dairy products
Foods fortified with calcium, e.g. flour, cereals.
eggs, fish cabbage

Iron Formation of haemoglobin Meat and meat products

Eggs, bread, green leafy vegetables, pulses,
fruits

Iodine For normal metabolism of cells Iodised salt, sea vegetables, yogurt, cow's milk,
eggs, and cheese
Fish; plants grown in iodine-rich soil
Zinc For children to grow and develop normally; Maize, fish, breastmilk, meat, beans
for wound healing

Fluorine Helps to keep teeth strong Water

2. Write a note on balanced diet?

 A balanced diet
Eating a balanced diet means choosing a wide variety of foods and drinks from all the food
groups. It also means eating certain things in small amounts, namely saturated fat, cholesterol,
simple sugar, salt and alcohol. The goal is to take in all of the nutrients you need for health at the
recommended levels and perhaps restrict those things that are not good for the body. Figure 2.2
shows you some good sources of micronutrients in a selection of food at a market.
the diet is balanced and to plan a balanced diet you have to think about two things: the mixture of
foods and the amount of food a person eats.
Helping families to have good balanced diet
The best way to help individuals in your community prepare a balanced diet is to learn which
foods people use, the amount of different foods available, and how they prepare their meals.
Then you can decide if people need help or further support or information to improve the balance
of things they eat.
Fat and added sugars come mostly from fats, oils and sweets, but can be part of or added to food
from the other food groups as well.
a food pyramid.
It helps us identify the food groups people should combine in order to make a balanced diet. The
food groups at the top of the pyramid should be eaten in moderation (small amount) but food
groups at the bottom of the pyramid should be eaten in larger amounts.
The mixture of foods to use
The staple food is the common type of food that is consumed by the community. It should be
part of a balanced diet because it’s the main part of most meals. The staple diet may vary from
region to region. For example, ‘injera’ is the staple diet in many sites, maize in other areas, and
‘kocho’ in the southern part of the country. These foods are usually cheap, and provide most of
the energy, protein and fibre in a meal, as well as some vitamins.
Adding other foods to the staple food
In order to have a good balanced diet, people in your community will need to eat other foods in
addition to the staple foods. The additional foods are important because they:
Provide nutrients that may not be available in the staple food. For example, legumes such as
peas, beans and lentils add protein, iron and other minerals and fat; green and yellow vegetables
and fruits add vitamins A and C, folate, and fibre
Make the food less bulky
Make the diet more tasty and interesting to eat.
A diet which is composed of staples, legumes and vegetables or fruits is a good, balanced diet
because this combination of foods will provide most of the nutrients that the people in your
community need. The problem with the diet above is a lack of animal sources of food. Animal
sources are good because they contain plenty of protein, have high energy (due to the fats), and
the iron is easily absorbed compared with the iron sourced from plants. Therefore adding small
amounts of animal products like meat, milk and eggs to staples, legumes and vegetables will
improve the balanced diet. As well as protein, animal foods will also provide fat (for energy) and
vitamins (especially vitamin A and folate), iron and zinc. But these foods may not be easily
available and even if they are, they are usually expensive.

3. Explain the parts of digestive system?

Human Digestive system includes Gastrointestinal Tract and other accessory parts like the
liver, intestines, glands, mouth, stomach, gallbladder. There are 6 main functions of the
Human Digestive System Process: Ingestion, Motility, Secretion,
Digestion, Absorption, Excretion. The food that you eat gives you not only the required
energy and nutrients to the body but also is used for cell growth and repair.

 Human digestive system, there are many parts that work together. The food that you eat
has biomacromolecules, which are nothing but the carbohydrates (such as sugars), proteins, lipids
(such as fats), and nucleic acids. These have to be converted to their simpler forms so that your
body can absorb it. These biomacromolecules are the building blocks that you require to maintain
your body, which is also made of these large biological molecules, along with water!
This process of converting complex food substances (molecules) into simpler forms to facilitate
absorption is called Digestion. In humans, this system consists of many parts and organs, including
the alimentary canal, digestive glands, and a few accessory organs such as the teeth, salivary glands,
tongue, pancreas, liver, gallbladder etc.
digestive System Process:
From the Mouth to the Large Intestine and Anus. The Human digestive system process can be
divided into stages, namely:
 Ingestion
 Motility
 Secretion
 Digestion
 Absorption
 Excretion
The whole process starts in the oral cavity, where the saliva from the salivary glands mixes with the
food and starts to begin the breakdown of food. From the mouth, the food passes to the hollow tube-
like organ the esophagus. From the esophagus, food then travels to the stomach, where it breaks
down further with the help of the acids and powerful enzymes secreted by the stomach.
This semi-digested food then travels down to the small intestine, where secretions from the liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas further act on the food particles.  The small intestine is divided into three
parts called the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Most of the digestion takes place here in the small
intestine, where absorption also occurs. Once most of the absorption of water and digested nutrients
is completed in the small intestine, the remaining waste products move to the large intestine. The
large intestine divides into appendix, caecum, colon, and rectum. The faecal matter from the large
intestine comes out through the anus.
Digestive System Parts:
Mouth
The anterior opening of the alimentary canal is the mouth. It leads to a buccal cavity or oral cavity,
where teeth, tongue and salivary glands are present. Here, ingestion, mastication, and swallowing of
food occur. In humans, there are a total of 32 permanent teeth. There are four different types of
teeth, namely, incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. These help in the chewing of food.
(Source: Wikipedia)
Salivary Glands
They are exocrine glands that produce saliva in the oral cavity. They secrete an enzyme called
amylase, which helps in the breakdown of starch into maltose. There are three types of salivary
glands, namely:
 Parotid gland
 Submandibular gland
 Sublingual gland
Stomach
The esophagus leads to a sac-like organ called the stomach. It is a muscular, hollow organ, having a
capacity of 1 litre. The stomach holds food and also is a mixer and grinder. It secretes strong acids
and powerful enzymes that help in the process of breaking down of food. Food is generally in a
liquid or pastes consistency when it leaves the stomach.

Small Intestine
The small intestine is a long tube, which loosely coils in the abdomen area. Here, enzymes from the
pancreas and liver further break down the food. Three segments make up the small intestines, which
are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The contractions of the small intestine help in the movement
of food, along with its breakdown, after mixing with the digestive secretions. The jejunum and
ileum areas of the small intestine are responsible for the absorption of food into the blood, though
their villi.
Pancreas, Liver and Gall Bladder
These organs also play a significant role in the human digestive system. The pancreas secretes
enzymes which help in the breakdown protein, fat, and carbohydrate. The liver secretes bile and
cleanses and purifies the blood coming from the small intestine.  The gallbladder stores the bile that
the liver produces. It releases bile into the small intestine to aid in the digestion process.
Large Intestine
The large intestine is a long muscular tube that has different parts, which are caecum, colon, and
rectum. The waste that is left over after digestion of food, reaches the rectum through the peristaltic
movements of the colon.
Digestive System Controls
Hormones and nerves control the human digestive system. The walls of the alimentary canal have
many sensors which regulate the digestive functions. Even hormones are involved in the digestion
process. The main digestive hormone, gastrin is secreted in response to the presence of food.
Gastrin again stimulates the gastric acid secretion. All these regulate the digestion process.

4. Write about respiratory system?

The respiratory system is the chain of organs and tissues that helps living beings breathe
properly. It includes the nasal passage, mouth, lungs, and blood vessels. The muscles
responsible for the contraction and relaxation of the lungs are also a part of the respiratory
system.
Respiratory System
The respiratory system is a biological system in animals and plants that consists of distinct
organs and structures required for gas exchange. The respiratory system is a network of organs
and tissues that aid in breathing and respiration. The process in which organisms exchange
gasses between the body cells and the environment is known as respiration. The process of
inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide is known as breathing. It consists of your
airways, lungs, and blood arteries.
Features of the Human Respiratory System
The structure of the lungs is created in such a way that it helps the exchange of gasses. The
other parts of the respiratory system include the nose, larynx, pharynx, trachea or the windpipe,
bronchi, lungs, blood vessels, the airways for the passage of air, and the muscles that support the
breathing.

All these parts together form the respiratory tract that starts from the external nostrils and nasal
chamber and goes up to the lungs. Warms and moisturizes the air to the appropriate humidity
level for your body. Your body's cells are supplied with oxygen. When you exhale, you remove
waste gasses from your body, including carbon dioxide. Protects dangerous substances and
irritants out of your airways.

Respiratory System Parts and Functions

 Nose
We inhale air through our nose which is the first step in the process of respiration. The
nose and nasal cavity are the initial segment of the body's airway—the respiratory tract
through which air moves—and are the principal external opening for the respiratory
system. The nose is a cartilage, bone, muscle, and skin structure on the face that supports
and protects the nasal cavity's anterior section. Before being expelled into the
environment, air leaving the body through the nose returns moisture and heat to the nasal
cavity.

 Larynx
These are two cartilaginous chords, situated at the joining pointof the pharynx and
trachea. They are also called the voice box. The laryngopharynx and the trachea are
connected by a brief piece of the airway. The larynx is found in the anterior part of the
neck, slightly below the hyoid bone and above the trachea. The form of the larynx is
determined by various cartilage components. The larynx has specific structures termed
 vocal folds, which allow the body to produce speaking and singing sounds in addition to
cartilage. Vocal folds are mucous membrane folds that vibrate to make vocal sounds. The
pitch produced by the vocal folds can be altered by altering the tension and vibration
speed of the vocal folds.

 Pharynx
The pharynx is a common path for the passage of both air and food, to their respective
organ systems. The pharynx, often known as the throat, is a muscular funnel that runs
from the nasal cavity's posterior end to the esophagus and larynx's superior end. The
nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx are the three parts of the pharynx. The
nasopharynx is the upper part of the pharynx that is located in the back of the nasal
cavity. The nasopharynx receives inhaled air from the nasal cavity and transports it to the
oropharynx, which is positioned in the back of the oral cavity. At the oropharynx, air
inhaled through the mouth cavity enters the pharynx. The epiglottis is a flap of elastic
cartilage between the trachea and the esophagus that serves as a switch between the two.

 Trachea
The trachea or the windpipe is like a long tube that takes the inhaled air into the further
process. It is divided into left and right bronchi. The trachea, or windpipe, is a 5-inch long
tube coated with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium and formed up of C-
shaped hyaline cartilage rings. The trachea's primary role is to maintain a free airway for
air to enter and exit the lungs. Furthermore, the mucus produced by the epithelium lining
the trachea collects dust and other impurities, preventing them from reaching the lungs.
Mucus is moved superiorly toward the throat by cilia on the surface of epithelial cells,
where it can be eaten and processed in the gastrointestinal system.

 Bronchi
Bronchi are further subdivided into small, finer channels called bronchioles. These
bronchioles have balloon or bag-like structures at their ends that are known as alveoli.
The airway splits into left and right branches at the inferior end of the trachea, known as
the main bronchi. Before branching off into smaller secondary bronchi, the left and right
 bronchi enter each lung. The secondary bronchi—two in the left lung and three in the
right lung—carry air into the lobes of the lungs. Within each lobe, the secondary bronchi
branches into several smaller tertiary bronchi. The tertiary bronchi are divided into
several smaller bronchioles that travel throughout the lungs. Each bronchiole then
differentiates into multiple smaller branches, known as terminal bronchioles, with a
diameter of less than a millimeter. Finally, the air is carried to the lungs' alveoli by
millions of small terminal bronchioles.

 Lungs
Then there are lungs. The inhaled air is purified, and the oxygen necessary for all the
body functioning is passed to various organs through the blood vessels. The exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in small bags, alveoli. And the impure air of the
carbon dioxide is exhaled out of the body through the same tract. The lungs are a pair of
big, spongy organs located in the thorax, above the diaphragm, and lateral to the heart. A
pleural membrane surrounds each lung, providing space for it to expand as well as a
negative pressure area relative to the rest of the body. As the lungs relax, they passively
fill with air thanks to the negative pressure.

 Respiratory Tract
The respiratory tract of the human respiratory system is a series of organs, starting from
the external organs and going up to the internal ones. Each of these organs performs a
distinct role in the respiratory system function.

Respiratory System Functions

The respiratory system function is a very important metabolic process in our body that plays a
crucial role in all living beings.
 Inhalation and Exhalation:
It begins by breathing and ends by exhalation, that’s the simplest explanation. But during
and after these two acts, several processes are going on endlessly in our bodies.

 Exchange of Gasses Between Lungs and Bloodstream:

 The oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide and is pumped through the bloodstream.
Hundreds of millions of small sacs called alveoli are used to carry out the breathing
process. The oxygen inhaled by the alveoli diffuses into the pulmonary capillaries that
surround them. It attaches to hemoglobin molecules in red blood cells and then circulates
around the body.

 Exchange of Gasses Between Bloodstream and Body Tissues

The oxygen-carrying blood releases oxygen into body tissues, through the walls of
capillaries. Internal respiration, another important function of the respiratory system,
transports oxygen to cells and eliminates waste carbon dioxide. Red blood cells transport
oxygen received from the lungs around the body via the vasculature in this respiratory
process. When oxygenated blood enters the small capillaries, red blood cells release
oxygen. It diffuses into body tissues through capillary walls. Carbon dioxide diffuses
from the tissues into red blood cells and plasma in the meantime. Deoxygenated blood
carries the carbon dioxide back to the lungs.

 The Vibration of the Vocal Cords

The larynx muscles move when we speak, creating sound and vibration. The same
process happens during the exhalation also.

 Olfaction or Smelling
When we inhale air, the chemicals present in the air activate the receptors of the nervous
system on the cilia, and we can identify the smell. The sense of smell, or olfaction, is
another particular sense that is affected by chemical stimuli. In the superior nasal cavity,
the olfactory receptor neurons are integrated into a small area of the nasal epithelium.

Respiration in Humans
Respiration in humans is divided into two types –
1. The External Respiration
The exchange of gasses between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries that border
the alveolar walls is known as external respiration. The partial pressure of oxygen in the air that
 enters the lungs from the atmosphere is higher than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the
blood in the capillaries. The gasses diffuse passively through the simple squamous epithelium
lining of the alveoli due to the difference in partial pressures. The passage of oxygen from the air
into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood into the air is the end consequence of external
respiration. After then, the oxygen may be carried to the body's tissues, while the carbon dioxide
is exhaled and discharged into the atmosphere.

2. Internal Respiration
It involves the exchange of gasses between the blood and cells in the body. Lungs are the largest
organ in the respiratory system. The exchange of gasses between the blood in capillaries and the
body's tissues is known as internal respiration. Capillary blood has a higher oxygen partial
pressure and a lower carbon dioxide partial pressure than the tissues through which it travels.
Gasses diffuse through the endothelial lining of capillaries along pressure gradients from high to
low pressure due to the difference in partial pressures. The diffusion of oxygen into the tissues
and the diffusion of carbon dioxide into the blood are the end results of internal respiration.

tissues Affecting the Respiratory System in Health

It is evident that something is obstructing our ability to exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen.
Allergies, asthma, pneumonia, and lung cancer are just a few of the health issues that can cause
respiratory problems. Infection (bacterial or viral), environmental exposure (pollution or
cigarette smoke, for example), genetic inheritance, or a mix of variables are among the causes of
these problems. We don't seek medical help till the problem has progressed because the onset is
so slow. Symptoms may appear gradually, as in the case of alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency
(A1AD), and are frequently misunderstood or underdiagnosed. A1AD genetic risk can be
detected through DNA health testing.

5. What is meant by respiratory cycle?

Respiratory cycle includes Inspiration and expiration
Inspiration
 Inspiration or inhalation is the process of bringing air from outside the body into the lungs.
 It is carried out by creating a pressure gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere.
 When air enters the lungs, the diaphragm contracts toward the abdominal
cavity, thereby increasing the space in the thoracic cavity for accommodating the inhaled air.
 The volume of the thoracic chamber in the anteroposterior axis increases with the simultaneous
contraction of the external intercostal muscles.
 This causes the ribs and the sternum to move out, thereby increasing the
volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorsoventral axis.
 The overall increase in the thoracic volume leads to a similar increase in the pulmonary volume.
 Now, as a result of this increase, the intra-pulmonary pressure becomes
lesser than the atmospheric pressure. This causes the air from outside
the body to move into the lungs.
DEFINITION
Expiration
 It occurs due to reverse movements of the ribs and diaphragm.
 The external intercostal muscles relax and thus the ribs becomes depressed.
 The diaphragm is relaxed and moves upward to its original position.
 Thus the thoracic cavity becomes small and lungs are compressed, which forces air out of the
lungs.
DEFINITION
Difference between inspiration and expiration
Part of the
Inspiration Expiration
respiratory system  
Contracts and flattens
Diaphragm Relaxes and moves upwards
downwards
External
intercostal muscles Muscles contract Muscles relax  
 
Internal intercostal Relaxed Contracts
muscles
Rib cage and sternum Move upwards and outwards Move downwards and inwards
Thoracic cavity Increases Decreases
 Decrease inside thorax and
Air pressure Increase inside thorax and lungs
lungs
Extreme air pressure drives air Air forced out of lungs by thorax
Air movement
into lungs at low pressure compression and elastic recoil of lungs

DEFINITION
Inspiratory muscle
 Contraction of these muscles brings about inspiration.
 For example, diaphragm muscle and external intercostal muscle.
DEFINITION
Expiration
 It occurs due to reverse movements of the ribs and diaphragm.
 The external intercostal muscles relax and thus the ribs becomes depressed.
 The diaphragm is relaxed and moves upward to its original position.
 Thus the thoracic cavity becomes small and lungs are compressed, which forces air out of the
lungs.

6. Explain about the process of excretory system?

Parts and Function of Human Excretory System
The generation of energy from food leads to the generation of waste too in the human body. The
bi-products of the various chemical and physiological processes which are no longer needed for
the human body need to be eliminated from the body. For simple organisms such as unicellular
organisms, excretion is also simple and takes place by the elimination of gases and water or by
diffusion. Inside the complex bodies of human beings, excretion is also a complex process that
takes place through an organ system composed of various organs.
 
The process of digestion and metabolism helps us absorb nutrients and generate energy in our
bodies. These chemical reactions and processes lead to the production of toxic substances.
Following metabolic responses, the body begins to separate helpful and hazardous molecules in
an individual. Toxin buildup, as we all know, may be dangerous, and the body eliminates all
metabolic wastes through a process known as excretion.
 
These toxic substances, if kept inside the body for a long time, will start affecting it. Hence, they
need to be thrown out from the body regularly. The process of excretion makes sure that the
body gets rid of the toxic substances from the body time to time.
 
There are various modes of excretion. Depending upon the morphology of the organism, the
habitat where it lives, or the kind of waste products generated, excretion takes place in various
ways by various means. 
 
Excretion can be carried out by lungs, skin, kidneys, etc.
 
Aquatic creatures, for example, fishes, have abundant availability of water, hence the waste
generated in fishes is ammonia, which is highly soluble in water. Humans generate urea as a
waste product that is fairly soluble in water. That is also why we are suggested to drink plenty of
water, so that elimination of waste from our body takes place smoothly. In the case of birds, they
hardly have the availability of water, and the waste generated in their bodies is uric acid, which
requires less water to keep the process of excretion going.
 
Let us take a closer look at the excretory system notes to learn more about the excretory system
in humans, distinct organs of the excretory system, and the excretory mechanism in humans.
 
Human Excretory System
A dedicated system of organs that removes waste products from the human body is called the
human excretory system. The major waste product generated in the human body is urea. Along
with which some other toxins are also generated. Urea is eliminated by kidneys in the form of
liquid by the process of urination and solid wastes are removed from the body by the intestines.
 
Organs of the Excretory System
Organs of the human excretory system include:
  A set of kidneys
 A ureter and a uretero-uretero-uretero
 A bladder that stores urine
 The urethra
 
Excretory System Organs
The main organs of the human excretory system are-
 Kidneys
 Ureters
 bladder
 urethra

These organs work together to remove nitrogenous waste- urea from our bodies.
 
The kidney's structure is described below: 
Kidneys
The kidneys are bean-shaped organs that are positioned on either side of the backbone and are
protected by the ribs and back muscles. They are primarily responsible for the production of
urine. Kidneys collect waste from our bloodstream and turn that waste into a simpler form
(urine) which is then eliminated from the body. Kidneys are present in the abdomen, just below
the diaphragm. Each adult human kidney measures 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in breadth, and
weighs 120-170g.
 
The kidneys have a concave inner structure. The blood vessels, ureter and nerves enter the
kidneys through the hilum, which is a notch at the inner concave surface of the kidney. The renal
pelvis, a large funnel-shaped space that is present inner to the hilum, has many projections
known as calyces.
 
Kidneys are made up of a number of subunits called nephrons. The kidney is divided into two
major structures-
Capsule
The capsule refers to the outer layer. The kidney is divided into two zones: the cortex on the
outside and the medulla on the inside. As renal columns are known as columns of Bertin, the
cortex spreads between the medullary pyramids.
a. Outer renal cortex
The outer part of the kidneys consists of the glomerulus and convoluted tubules from the
outer cortex. The outer cortex is surrounded by the renal capsule. The renal cortex
provides the space for the renal artery and veins and glomerular capillaries. Apart from
providing a protective layer it also manufactures the hormone Erythropoietin, which is
necessary for the synthesis of new blood cells. 
b. Inner renal medulla
The inner smooth part of the kidney which consists of the Loop of Henle and renal
pyramids forms the Renal Medulla.
 
Nephrons
The functioning units of the kidney are known as nephrons. Each of our kidneys has as many as
1 million nephrons in each human kidney. The basic functions of nephrons are to carry out
secretion as well as the process of excretion. Each nephron is made up of two parts: the
glomerulus and the renal tubule. 
 Glomerulus - Glomerulus is a mass of capillaries Glomerulus is a collection of
capillaries created by afferent arterioles which absorb protein from the blood that travels
through the Malpighian Body. Different arterioles transport blood out from the
glomerulus.
 Renal Tubule - Bowman's capsule, which encloses the glomerulus, forms the beginning
of the renal tubule. The malpighian body is made up of the glomerulus and the Bowman's
capsule. The proximal convoluted tubule is the heavily coiled structure in the tubule
adjacent to Bowman's capsule. Renal Tubule is composed of a Proximal convoluted
tubule that lies in the cortex and absorbs water, sodium, and glucose back into the blood,
a distal convoluted tubule that reabsorbs sodium into the blood and absorbs potassium
and acid from blood and Loop of Henle. 
Henle's loop
Henle's loop is the long ‘U tubule’ which has an ascending and descending limb and is the next
section of the tubule. As a distal convoluted tubule, the ascending loop continues. Many
nephrons have distal convoluted tubules that open into the collecting duct. It is primarily
involved in the recovery of water and sodium chloride from urine is Loop of Henle. The Loop of
Henle produces very concentrated urine. Therefore, desert animals have a highly efficient Loop
of Henle to carry out excretion with a very less amount water. The Loop of Henle lies in the
medulla region.       
 
Nephrons are of two types, namely
1. Cortical Nephrons - The nephrons which are at a higher position in the cortex with a
Short Loop of Henle which does not penetrate into the medulla are called Cortical
Nephrons.
2. Juxtamedullary Nephrons - Juxtamedullary nephrons have a longer Loop of Henle
which runs deeper into the Renal Medulla.

Ureter
Each kidney is connected to the renal pelvis by a thin and muscular tube. This tube is called the
Ureter. The function of the ureter is to propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder from
time to time.
 
Urinary Bladder
Urinary bladder is the organ that controls the passage of urine. It is a muscular sac-like structure
present above the pubic bone that stores urine. The average capacity of a human bladder is 400-
600 ml. It holds urine until its capacity and expels it by the process of micturition when it is full.
The bladder is lined by muscular tissue, which squeezes during micturition allowing the urine to
flow out.
 
Urethra
The urethra is a tube made up of fibro-muscular tissue and emerges from the lower opening of
the urinary bladder and extends through urogenital and pelvic diaphragms and opens out of the
body through an external urethral orifice. It aids in the removal of urine from the body. In males,
it carries the sperms as well. The Urethra is guarded by the sphincter which relaxes during
urination.
 
The function of the Human Excretory System
The main function of the human excretory system is to eliminate wastes from the body which are
generated as the bi-products of metabolism. The excretory system works in order to maintain
homeostasis. Homeostasis is maintaining an equilibrium in the body by keeping the temperature
and fluid balance stable. Apart from the metabolic wastes, there are other chemical and hormonal
wastes too which are generated in the body and are excreted by various processes. The urinary
system, however, filters the blood of nitrogenous waste- urea, salts, and excess water and
excretes them out of the body in the form of urination. Kidneys also help in the reabsorption of
useful substances.
 
The filtration of blood occurs in the nephrons in kidneys. Millions of nephrons work together to
absorb minerals like glucose, amino acid, salts and let the pure blood flow to other parts of the
body. Urea and excess water are converted into urine which is passed to the bladder through the
ureters and expelled from the body through the urethra. The Urinary bladder holds the urine for
some time, till it's full and receives signals from the brain. Upon receiving the signal, the
sphincters at the opening of the bladder relax and urine is expelled. 
 
Excretion Mechanism in Humans : Process of Urine formation
In humans, Urine is generated in the nephrons and the elimination process is divided into the
following steps:
 Glomerular Filtration
 Tubular Reabsorption
 Secretion

Glomerular Filtration
The first step of urine formation occurs in the glomerulus of the kidneys. The blood enters the
glomerular capillaries by afferent arteriole and leaves by an efferent arteriole. In this process
excess water, ions, glucose, and waste products are eliminated from the blood into the urine
collection which is then eliminated from the body.
 
The glomerular filtrate consists of water, glucose, ions along urea. Therefore, these necessary
substances need to be reabsorbed into the body. It happens by tubular reabsorption.
 
The rate at which the glomerulus filters blood and produces a filtrate is called the glomerular
filtration rate.
 
Tubular Reabsorption 
It is the second step of urine formation and is a very important step, as it makes sure that
essential substances and ions are excreted from our bodies. In this process, ions and substances
such as sodium ions, glucose, amino acids, water, etc are absorbed. It also ensures less water
loss. There are two types of transport taking place during tubular reabsorption. 
1. Active transport- Glucose and Ions are absorbed by active transport.
2. Passive transport- Water is absorbed by passive transport.
 
Various tubules that carry out the process of reabsorption are as follows. 
a. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) - The PCT reabsorbs ion, water, and nutrients
from the filtrate. By secreting potassium, hydrogen, and ammonia to filtrate and
reabsorbing bicarbonate ions from the filtrate. It also eliminates toxins from the filtrate
aid in regulating the ionic balance and pH of bodily fluids. thus maintaining the pH of the
filtrate.
b. Ascending loop of Henle - Allows the reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions from the
filtrate.
c. Descending Loop of Henle is impervious to water but permeable to electrolytes. The
passage of electrolytes from the filtrate to the medullary fluid dilutes the filtrate. It allows
the reabsorption of water. 
d. Distal Tubule - Reabsorbs selective ions from the filtrate including sodium chloride ions.
The Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) is responsible for the reabsorption of water and
 sodium ions. It also aids in the maintenance of pH and ionic equilibrium by the secretion
and reabsorption of ions such as PCT.
e. Collecting duct - Connect the nephrons to the minor calyx or renal pelvis and reabsorbs
a substantial amount of solutes and water from the filtrate.
 
Secretion
Along with the formation of urine, the waste ions like hydrogen and potassium, and ammonia are
secreted out which are then mixed with the urine and expelled from the body. This is called
secretion.
 
After a series of these processes, the bladder gets filled with urine. Upon signaling from the
brain, the bladder relaxes and releases urine from the body by the process of micturition or
urination.
 
Micturition
The bladder is stretched and filled with urine produced by the nephrons. The receptors on the
urinary bladder walls convey signals to the Central Nervous System, allowing the sphincter
muscles to relax and discharge urine. This is referred to as micturition.
 
Human Urine Excretion:
Excretion
Excretion is the process through which all metabolic wastes are eliminated from the organism.
Excretion in humans occurs via a succession of procedures that include various bodily
components and internal organs.
 
Diffusion: Diffusion is the most prevalent excretory mechanism in lower species. A human body
is a remarkable mechanism in which several living activities (respiration, circulation, digestion,
and so on) occur at the same time. As a result, many waste products created in our bodies take
numerous forms, such as carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogenous compounds such as urea,
ammonia, and uric acid. In addition, toxins and other hazardous components derived from
pharmaceuticals and hormonal products are created. Simple diffusion will not suffice to remove
these wastes from our bodies. Kidneys, which separate beneficial substances via reabsorption
from poisonous substances via urine production.
 
The nephron is a structural filtration unit of the kidney where blood is filtered. A million
nephrons are found in each kidney. Capillaries in the kidneys filter the blood, reabsorbing vital
chemicals such as glucose, amino acids, salts, and the appropriate quantity of water before
returning the blood to circulation.
 
In humans, urine is formed from excess water and nitrogenous waste. The ureters transport the
generated urine to the urinary bladder. The urine bladder is controlled by the Central Nervous
System. The brain causes the urinary bladder to contract, and urine is excreted through the
urinary opening known as the urethra.
 
Dialysis
The kidneys fail to fulfil their tasks under specific conditions, such as insufficient blood supply
to the kidneys, infections, trauma, and so on. In such cases, artificial kidneys are employed for
blood filtering, a process known as dialysis.
 
Aside from the urinary system, the skin, lungs, and even the eyes aid in the excretion of waste
items in various forms. Sweating is a method of excretion in which water, urea, and other salts
are expelled via the skin. Lungs assist us in exhaling gaseous wastes such as carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and others.
 
7. Write about respiratory organs?
Respiratory System Parts and Functions
 Nose
We inhale air through our nose which is the first step in the process of respiration. The
nose and nasal cavity are the initial segment of the body's airway—the respiratory tract
through which air moves—and are the principal external opening for the respiratory
system. The nose is a cartilage, bone, muscle, and skin structure on the face that supports
and protects the nasal cavity's anterior section. Before being expelled into the
 environment, air leaving the body through the nose returns moisture and heat to the nasal
cavity.

 Larynx
These are two cartilaginous chords, situated at the joining pointof the pharynx and
trachea. They are also called the voice box. The laryngopharynx and the trachea are
connected by a brief piece of the airway. The larynx is found in the anterior part of the
neck, slightly below the hyoid bone and above the trachea. The form of the larynx is
determined by various cartilage components. The larynx has specific structures termed
vocal folds, which allow the body to produce speaking and singing sounds in addition to
cartilage. Vocal folds are mucous membrane folds that vibrate to make vocal sounds. The
pitch produced by the vocal folds can be altered by altering the tension and vibration
speed of the vocal folds.

 Pharynx
The pharynx is a common path for the passage of both air and food, to their respective
organ systems. The pharynx, often known as the throat, is a muscular funnel that runs
from the nasal cavity's posterior end to the esophagus and larynx's superior end. The
nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx are the three parts of the pharynx. The
nasopharynx is the upper part of the pharynx that is located in the back of the nasal
cavity. The nasopharynx receives inhaled air from the nasal cavity and transports it to the
oropharynx, which is positioned in the back of the oral cavity. At the oropharynx, air
inhaled through the mouth cavity enters the pharynx. The epiglottis is a flap of elastic
cartilage between the trachea and the esophagus that serves as a switch between the two.

 Trachea
The trachea or the windpipe is like a long tube that takes the inhaled air into the further
process. It is divided into left and right bronchi. The trachea, or windpipe, is a 5-inch long
tube coated with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium and formed up of C-
shaped hyaline cartilage rings. The trachea's primary role is to maintain a free airway for
air to enter and exit the lungs. Furthermore, the mucus produced by the epithelium lining
 the trachea collects dust and other impurities, preventing them from reaching the lungs.
Mucus is moved superiorly toward the throat by cilia on the surface of epithelial cells,
where it can be eaten and processed in the gastrointestinal system.

 Bronchi
Bronchi are further subdivided into small, finer channels called bronchioles. These
bronchioles have balloon or bag-like structures at their ends that are known as alveoli.
The airway splits into left and right branches at the inferior end of the trachea, known as
the main bronchi. Before branching off into smaller secondary bronchi, the left and right
bronchi enter each lung. The secondary bronchi—two in the left lung and three in the
right lung—carry air into the lobes of the lungs. Within each lobe, the secondary bronchi
branches into several smaller tertiary bronchi. The tertiary bronchi are divided into
several smaller bronchioles that travel throughout the lungs. Each bronchiole then
differentiates into multiple smaller branches, known as terminal bronchioles, with a
diameter of less than a millimeter. Finally, the air is carried to the lungs' alveoli by
millions of small terminal bronchioles.

 Lungs
Then there are lungs. The inhaled air is purified, and the oxygen necessary for all the
body functioning is passed to various organs through the blood vessels. The exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in small bags, alveoli. And the impure air of the
carbon dioxide is exhaled out of the body through the same tract. The lungs are a pair of
big, spongy organs located in the thorax, above the diaphragm, and lateral to the heart. A
pleural membrane surrounds each lung, providing space for it to expand as well as a
negative pressure area relative to the rest of the body. As the lungs relax, they passively
fill with air thanks to the negative pressure.

 Respiratory Tract
The respiratory tract of the human respiratory system is a series of organs, starting from
the external organs and going up to the internal ones. Each of these organs performs a
distinct role in the respiratory system function.
 Structure of respiratory system

8. Write the structure of nephron?

A nephron is the basic functional and structural unit of a kidney. Each human kidney has more
than eight lakh nephrons. A nephron is made up of renal corpuscles and kidney tubules or renal
tubules. Let’s understand in detail the structure and function of the nephron.
Nephron is the structure that produces urine during the excretion of waste. It is done in the
process of removing waste and the excess substances present in the blood. There are around a
million nephrons present in each human kidney. The primitive form of nephrons is found in the
kidneys or pronephros of primitive fishes, larvae of amphibians, and also in the embryos of
higher vertebrates. The nephrons found in mesonephros or the kidneys of amphibians and most
fish, in late embryos of the higher vertebrates differ slightly in structure. The advanced forms of
nephrons occur in the adult kidneys which are termed as the metanephros. It is present in land
vertebrates such as birds, reptiles, and mammals.

Structure of Nephron
Every nephron that is found in the kidneys of mammals is a long tubule or a fine long tube
measuring about 30-35 mm i.e. 1.2 to 2.2 inches long. The one end of the tube is closed and
folded in a cuplike structure. This folded structure is called the Bowman’s capsule which is also
called the renal corpuscle capsule. It encloses a cluster of blood vessels or capillaries which are
known as the glomerulus. This capsule and the blood capillaries make the renal corpuscle. Blood
flows in and out of the way from the glomerulus through tiny arteries called the arterioles. These
leave the glomerulus through an opening presentation at the end of the capsule. In the renal
corpuscles, the fluid is filtered out from the blood. This is done through the inner wall of the
capsule into the nephron tubule. The composition of this filtrate is altered by the secretion of
substances, addition of other constituents, and also due to the reabsorption of water selectively.
The final product is called the urine which is transferred through the collecting tubules and into
the renal pelvis.

In mammals, a nephron structure is extended into a U-shaped loop called the loop of Henle. The
only difference between the nephron in mammals and that in other vertebrates is the loop. 

Let’s explain the structure of the nephron in detail:

 The glomerulus is a set of a net of blood capillaries contained in a capsule-shaped
structure called the glomerular capsule or the Bowman’s capsule. 
 The extension of the Bowman’s capsule forms the proximal convoluted tubule or PCT.
  The PCT is extended to form the loop of Henle which opens further into the distal
convoluted tubule. 
 The distal convoluted tubule opens into the collecting duct.
 From the collecting duct, everything is drained out into the urinary bladder.

Different parts of the nephron structure are made up of distinct cell types that help in water
absorption and retention of water molecules in the renal tubules. The arrangement of the cells in
the structure of a nephron is in a manner that cells with more concentrated substances are placed
at the bottom and cells containing less concentrated substances are placed at the top. High
concentration cells reabsorb the maximum amount of water as possible from the ultrafiltrate
before it is drained into the urinary bladder.
Function of Nephron
The main functions of the nephron include blood filtration, reabsorption of water, and other
essential smaller molecules from the ultrafiltrate. Another important function of the nephron is
the secretion of glutamate. Let’s look at each function of the nephron in points:

Ultrafication: 
Under this process, the working of the nephron is as follows:
 A nephron is the regulator of the entire waste removal process from the blood in the
body.
 It separates the different components in the blood for its filtration.
 It removes the toxic and waste substances from the blood and adds the required
molecules to the blood.
 Ultrafication occurs when the water molecules and other smaller molecules are forced out
of pores in the capillary walls due to blood pressure.
 This liquid that passes out is called ultrafiltrate.
 The ultrafiltrate moves through the tubules of the nephron and collects into the collecting
duct before moving onto the bladder.
 The ultrafiltrate does not have red blood cells and other essential giant molecules.

Helps in the Functioning of the Kidney

Another critical nephron function is the working of the kidney. The nephron has a special set of
capillaries that help in the functioning of a kidney. Only the vertebrates have a well-developed
and fully functional kidney. A single kidney in the vertebrates consists of hundreds of millions of
nephrons. Each nephron helps in the process of urine formation and its collection in the urinary
bladder. 

Glutamate Secretion: 
The nephron helps in the secretion of glutamate which is a neurotransmitter that plays an
important role in sending excretory function signals.

Reabsorption and Urine Formation 

 The Bowman’s capsule is lined by different layers, separating it from the glomerulus. 
 One of these layers is known as the basement membrane. It is made up of collagen and
fibers consisting of glycoproteins that form a net or a mesh to filter the blood through the
process of ultrafiltration. The mesh acts as a filter and allows only the smaller molecules
to pass through
 During the process of blood filtration, several important solutes like glucose also get
filtered. They are later reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate. Hence, the process of
reabsorption is extremely important. 
 The filtered liquid is contained in the proximal tubule and is reabsorbed in the peritubular
capillaries. 
 At this stage, the important solutes that were earlier filtered out are added to the blood. 
 This increases the solute concentration in the blood and it is balanced by an equal amount
of water absorption from the proximal tubule. 
 The fluid now collects into the distal convoluted tubule and from there it moves into the
collecting duct. 
 In the collecting duct, this fluid undergoes another round of ultrafiltration and drains into
the bladder through the uterus. 
 From the urinary bladder, the urine passes out of the body.  

Structure of nephron