2) Farming System

Summary Sheet – Helpful for Retention
For
Farming Systems
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Important Points
1. This Summary Sheet shall only be used for Quick Revision after you have
read the Complete Notes
2. For Building Concepts along with examples/concept checks you should

rely only on Complete Notes
3. It would be useful to go through this Summary sheet just before the

exam or before any Mock Test
4. Questions in the exam are concept based and reading only summary
sheets shall not be sufficient to answer all the questions

Table of Contents
1 Farming systems ................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Definition or Meaning of ‘Farm’ and ‘System’ .............................................................................. 7
1.1.1 Farm ...................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Definition or Meaning of Farming System .................................................................................... 7
1.3 Structure/Concept of Farm/Farming system ................................................................................ 7
1.4 Factors influencing Farming systems ............................................................................................ 7
1.5 Sustainability in a Farming system based on various factors involved ......................................... 8
1.6 Classification of Farming System .................................................................................................. 8
1.6.1 Traditional Farming System .................................................................................................. 9
1.6.2 Semi Commercial System ...................................................................................................... 9
1.6.3 Commercial system ............................................................................................................. 10
2 Types of Farming Systems in India ...................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Subsistence Farming System ....................................................................................................... 12
2.2 Conventional Farming System .................................................................................................... 12
2.3 Alternative Farming Systems ...................................................................................................... 12
2.3.1 Organic Farming .................................................................................................................. 12
2.3.2 Agro-ecological Farming system ......................................................................................... 12
2.3.3 Bio-intensive Farming System ............................................................................................. 13
2.3.4 Bio-dynamic Agriculture...................................................................................................... 14
2.3.5 Permaculture....................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.6 Natural Farming .................................................................................................................. 19
2.4 Specialised Farming System ........................................................................................................ 20
2.4.1 Advantages of Specialised Farming System ........................................................................ 20
2.4.2 Disadvantages of Specialised Farming System ................................................................... 21
2.5 Integrated Farming System ......................................................................................................... 21
2.5.1 Advantages of Integrated Farming System ......................................................................... 21
2.5.2 Components of Integrated Farming System ....................................................................... 22
2.5.3 Factors to be considered while selecting IFS ...................................................................... 22
2.5.4 Agronomic approaches for increasing overall productivity and sustainability of IFS ......... 23
2.5.5 Enterprises that can taken up as per different Agro ecosystems ....................................... 23

2.5.6 Integrated Farming System models .................................................................................... 24
3 Organic Farming – Meaning or Definition........................................................................................... 24
3.1 Need of organic farming ............................................................................................................. 24
3.2 Components of organic farming ................................................................................................. 25
3.2.1 Crop Rotation ...................................................................................................................... 25
3.2.2 Crop residue utilization ....................................................................................................... 25
3.2.3 Organic Manure .................................................................................................................. 26
3.2.4 Waste Management............................................................................................................ 26
3.2.5 Bio-Fertilizers ...................................................................................................................... 27
3.2.6 Bio-Pesticides ...................................................................................................................... 27
3.2.7 Vermicompost ..................................................................................................................... 27
3.3 The key characteristics of organic farming include .................................................................... 27
3.4 Principles of Organic Farming ..................................................................................................... 28
3.4.1 Principle of health ............................................................................................................... 28
3.4.2 Principle of ecology ............................................................................................................. 28
3.4.3 Principle of fairness ............................................................................................................. 29
3.4.4 Principle of care .................................................................................................................. 29
3.5 Basic Steps of Organic Farming ................................................................................................... 29
3.5.1 Habitat Management .......................................................................................................... 29
3.5.2 Crop Diversity ...................................................................................................................... 29
3.5.3 Conversion period ............................................................................................................... 30
3.5.4 Contamination control ........................................................................................................ 30
3.5.5 Soil and Water conservation ............................................................................................... 30
3.5.6 Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) - National Standards for Organic Production -
General Requirements ........................................................................................................................ 30
3.5.7 Marketing of agricultural products with organic tag .......................................................... 31
3.6 Organic Farming Vs Conventional Farming ................................................................................. 32
4 Modern Farming Meaning or Definition ............................................................................................. 32
4.1 Hydroponics system of Modern Farming.................................................................................... 33
4.2 Aeroponics system of Modern Farming methods ...................................................................... 33
4.3 Aquaponics system of Modern Farming methods ...................................................................... 33
4.4 Tissue culture system of Modern farming methods ................................................................... 34

4.5 Vertical Farming .......................................................................................................................... 34
4.6 Precision Agriculture ................................................................................................................... 34
4.6.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Precision Agriculture .................................................... 35
4.6.2 Technology involved/Tools required in Precision Agriculture ............................................ 35
4.7 Intensive Farming........................................................................................................................ 38
4.7.1 Advantages of Intensive Farming ........................................................................................ 38
4.7.2 Disadvantages of Intensive Farming ................................................................................... 38
4.8 Extensive Farming ....................................................................................................................... 39
4.8.1 Differences between Intensive and Extensive Farming system ......................................... 39
5 System of Crop Intensification ............................................................................................................ 39
5.1 Cropping Intensity ....................................................................................................................... 39
5.2 System of Rice Intensification (SRI)............................................................................................. 40
5.2.1 Benefits of SRI ..................................................................................................................... 40
5.2.2 Process flow of SRI cultivation in Rice................................................................................. 42
6 Crop Diversification ............................................................................................................................. 42
6.1 Strategies for Crop Diversification .............................................................................................. 42
6.2 Drivers of Diversification ............................................................................................................. 43
6.3 Challenges/Constraints in Crop Diversification .......................................................................... 43
6.4 Approaches to Crop Diversification ............................................................................................ 44
6.5 Impact of Crop diversification ..................................................................................................... 44
7 Dryland Agriculture ............................................................................................................................. 44
7.1 Categories ................................................................................................................................... 45
7.2 Crops mainly grown in dryland regions ...................................................................................... 45
7.3 Given below is the comparison study of dry farming, dryland farming and rainfed farming: ... 45
7.4 Given below is the crop regions in India that are classified based on average rainfall: ............. 46
7.5 The following is the list of aberrant weather conditions prevailing in Dryland areas/Problems
of Dryland Agriculture:............................................................................................................................ 46
7.5.1 Inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall .................................................................. 46
7.5.2 Late onset and early cessation of rains ............................................................................... 46
7.5.3 Prolonged Dry spells during the crop period ...................................................................... 46
7.5.4 Low moisture retention capacity ........................................................................................ 46
7.5.5 Low Fertility of Soils ............................................................................................................ 46

7.5.6 Small size of land holdings .................................................................................................. 47
7.6 All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) for Dryland Agriculture ................................... 47
7.6.1 The following is the mandate of the mission: ..................................................................... 47
7.7 Improved dryland technologies .................................................................................................. 47
7.7.1 Crop planning ...................................................................................................................... 47
7.7.2 Planning for weather........................................................................................................... 47
7.7.3 Crop substitution ................................................................................................................ 47
7.7.4 Cropping systems ................................................................................................................ 48
7.7.5 Integrated nutrient management (INM)............................................................................. 48
7.7.6 Integrated weed management and integrated pest management (IWM and IPM) .......... 48
7.7.7 Other technologies include ................................................................................................. 48

1 Farming systems
1.1 Definition or Meaning of ‘Farm’ and ‘System’
1.1.1 Farm
Farm is an area of land and its buildings which is used for growing crops and rearing animals. It is devoted
primarily to agricultural processes with the primary objective of producing food and other crops. It is
the basic facility in food production.
1.2 Definition or Meaning of Farming System

✓ Farming System is an appropriate mix of farm enterprises and the means available to the farmers to
raise them for profitability.
✓ It interacts adequately with environment without dislocating the ecological and socio-economic
balance on one hand and attempt to meet the national goal on the other.
✓ In its real sense it will help in lifting the economy of agriculture and standard of living of the farmers
of the country as a whole.
1.3 Structure/Concept of Farm/Farming system

Farming system can be viewed as a system, with INPUTS, PROCESSES, OUTPUTS and FEEDBACK.
This can be pictorially depicted as
Knowledge
1.4 Factors influencing Farming systems

Agricultural farming systems arise as a matter of necessity. Over the years many factors have influenced
farming systems. These factors include:
✓ Available water, land, grazing areas, arable lands, forest; climate, landscape etc.
✓ The dominant pattern of farm activities and household livelihoods. These include field crops,
livestock, trees, aquaculture, hunting and gathering, processing and off-farm activities. Also,

considering the main technologies used, which determine the intensity of production and integration
of crops, livestock and other activities.
1.5 Sustainability in a Farming system based on various factors involved

As you can see, from the below picture, sustainability of farming system is based on various Factors, viz.,
1. Environmental factors
2. Social factors
3. Economic Factors
These are all again interlinked and fuse to give rise to another set of factors that include
1. Environmental-Economic
2. Socio Economic
3. Social-Environmental
1.6 Classification of Farming System

As you can see from the below picture, Farming system can be classified into 3 major types.

1.6.1 Traditional Farming System
✓ As the name suggests, the farming is done in the most traditional way possible without any hint of
modern techniques.
Examples: Shifting cultivation, Subsistence farming and Nomadic herding.
Comparative study of various forms of Traditional Farming systems
Nomadic herding/nomadic pastoralism

Subsistence Farming system Shifting Cultivation Farming System Farming system
Subsistence farming, form of farming in

which nearly all of the crops or livestock In this type of agriculture, first of all a
raised are used to maintain the farmer piece of forest land is cleared by felling It is a form of pastoralism when
and the farmer’s family, leaving little, if trees and burning of trunks and livestock are herded in order to find
any, surplus for sale or trade. branches. fresh pastures on which to graze.
After the land is cleared, crops are True nomads follow an irregular pattern
Preindustrial agricultural people grown for two to three years and then of movement, in contrast with
throughout the world have traditionally the land is abandoned as the fertility of transhumance where seasonal pastures
practiced subsistence farming. the soil decreases. are fixed.
The whole family works on the farm The farmers then move to new areas and
manually and follow all traditional the process is repeated. Dry paddy,
methods. Yield is not high and Most of maize, millets and vegetables are the Nomads herd cattle, goats, sheep, and
the yield is consumed by the family with crops commonly grown in this type of camels and other animals as per the
very little surplus for the family farming. availability and demand of the local areas
The practice is known by various names
as Jhum in Assam, Nomadic herders wander in small groups
Ponam in Kerala, Podu in Andhra and have no permanent home. They are
Pradesh and Odisha and found in the region of Africa, Asia, and
Followd by small farmers all over India Bewar masha penda and Bera in various Europe, along with the tundra regions of
and the world parts of Madhya Pradesh. Asia and Europe.
1.6.2 Semi Commercial System

This is midway between Traditional and commercial. It is a mix of both. It can be classified into 2 types.
1.6.2.1 Cropping System

Cropping system* is an important component of a farming system. It represents cropping pattern used
on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology
which determine their make up.
*Cropping system would be dealt in detail in the coming chapters.

1.6.2.2 Mixed System
Mixed farming* is an agricultural system in which a farmer conducts different agricultural practice
together, such as cash crops and livestock. The aim is to increase income through different sources and
to complement land and labour demands across the year.
*This is not to be confused with mixed cultivation, implying merely a series of different crops.
The main characteristics of the mixed farming are
✓ Farms produce both crops and livestock and the two enterprises are interwoven and integrated.
✓ The grass is an important crop of mixed farming system, occupying at least 20 per cent of the
cultivated land.
✓ Mixed farming has a three-fold advantage
• It protects the farmer against the risk of poor prices and disease.
• It spreads labor requirements more evenly throughout the year.
• It helps in the maintenance of soil fertility if crops are grown in rotation.
1.6.3 Commercial system

This is done with the help of technology and on a very large scale. It can be again classified into 2 types.
1.6.3.1 Perennial Crops

✓ It is the cultivation of crop species that live longer than two years without the need for replanting
each year.
✓ It differs from mainstream agriculture in that it involves relatively less tilling and, in some cases,
requires less labor and fewer pesticides, helping to maintain or even improve soil health.
✓ Perennial crops used in perennial agriculture are grown worldwide in various climates and are
adapted to local environmental stressors.
Examples of Perennial Farming system are Plantations and Agroforestry.
A. Plantations
✓ Plantation is a type of commercial farming. In this type of farming, a single crop is grown on a large
area. The plantation also includes the processing of that crop in the nearby industries.
✓ Plantations cover large tracts of land using capital intensive inputs, with the help of migrant
labourers and Plantation management provides housing, food, and medical facilities and at times
elementary education to their employees within the plantation.
✓ Crops on plantations are normally intended or grown for export.
Examples: In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana, etc. are important plantation crops.
B. Agroforestry
✓ Agroforestry is a collective name for land-use systems and technologies where woody perennials
(trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliberately used on the same land-management units as
agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence.
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Pictorial representation of Agroforestry Farming system structure
1.6.3.2 Livestock Ranching

✓ Livestock is commonly defined as domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce
labor and commodities such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool.
✓ Most of the meat we eat comes from livestock farms including beef, pork, and poultry.
✓ Ranching is common in temperate, dry areas, such as the Pampas region of South America, the
western United States, the Prairie Provinces of Canada, and the Australian Outback. Some Australian
ranches, known as stations, extend more than 10,000 square kilometers (3,861 square miles). The
largest, Anna Creek station, covers almost 24,000 square kilometers (9,266 square miles).
2 Types of Farming Systems in India

The following are the various types of Farming systems followed in India.
2.1 Subsistence Farming System
We have already done this in detail in one of the above sections (classification of Farming systems).
2.2 Conventional Farming System

✓ Conventional farming, also known as industrial agriculture, refers to farming systems which include
the use of synthetic chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and other
continual inputs, genetically modified organisms, Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations,
heavy irrigation, intensive tillage, or concentrated monoculture production.
✓ Conventional agriculture is typically highly resource and energy intensive, but also highly productive.
✓ A meta-study lead by researchers at Newcastle University based on 343 earlier studies found that
conventionally-produced crops contained 18-69% less antioxidants, were four times as likely to
contain pesticide residues, and had, on average 48% higher concentrations of heavy metals (including
cadmium) than organically-produced crops.
✓ Conventional food production often utilizes GMO’s which are different from plants and animals that
have been selectively bred.
2.3 Alternative Farming Systems

The term 'Alternative agriculture ' as it applies to the area of agriculture can be defined as 'A systematic
approach to farming intended to reduce agricultural pollution, enhance sustainability, and improve
efficiency and profitability.
2.3.1 Organic Farming

Organic Farming is a method of farming system which primarily aimed at cultivating the land and raising
crops in such a way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes (crop, animal
and farm wastes, aquatic wastes) and other biological materials along with beneficial microbes
(biofertilizers) to release nutrients to crops for increased sustainable production in an eco friendly
pollution free environment.
2.3.2 Agro-ecological Farming system

✓ Agroecology is the “ecology of the food system” and a farming approach that is inspired by natural
ecosystems. It combines local and scientific knowledge and applies ecological and social approaches
to agricultural systems.
✓ The concept of Agroecological Farming Systems includes the idea that the agricultural practices are
both site-specific and specific to the socio-economic position of the (type of) farmer or farm family
applying them.
2.3.3 Bio-intensive Farming System
✓ Biointensive agriculture is a sustainable organic farming system based on working with the basic
elements needed for life – soil, water, air, and sun – to achieve maximum yields, while increasing
biodiversity and soil fertility.
✓ This system comprises of intensive mixed farming, which supports the principles of nutrient recycling
and integrated pest management.
✓ One of the main differences between conventional agriculture and any sustainable practice is the
emphasis on maintaining healthy soils.
✓ Biointensive agriculture achieves optimal soil conditions by performing so-called double digging
(which involves loosening two layers of soil instead of just one) to allow easier exchange of nutrients,
air and water with plant roots, and by adding compost to return carbon and nutrients back to the soil.
Pictorial representation of Bio-intensive Farming with the example of setting it up in a 4000 Sq ft. area
2.3.3.1 The 8 basic principles of this type of farming system are:
Deep soil Penetration: Deep soil preparation builds soil and soil structure by loosening the soil to a depth
of 24 inches (60 cm). Ideal soil structure has both pore space for air and water to move freely and soil
particles that hold together nicely.
Composting: Healthy compost is broken down plant material that returns nutrients and carbon to the soil,
so the soil regains fertility and waste is minimized. Quality compost in the soil provides sustained release
of nutrients for plant roots and microorganisms.
Intensive Planting: It creates enhanced and uninterrupted plant and root growth by transplanting
seedlings in a close, off-set spacing pattern so their leaves are barely touching at maturity, creating a
living mulch over the soil.
Companion Planting: Companion planting includes choosing crops that are good neighbors and
encourage each other’s growth. Good companion plants can follow one another in the same area, grow
next to one another at the same time, or be interplanted to cooperatively share the same space. Example:
Plant a deep- and thick-rooting grain like rye after a root crop to loosen the soil. Interplant beans with
corn to help support soil nitrogen and efficiently use the above-soil area while covering the soil
thoroughly.
Carbon Farming: “Carbon” refers to plant material, also called “biomass,” that has a lot of complex cell
structures and meets the criteria for mature material for compost building. Carbon farming promotes
sustainable soil fertility by focusing on growing crops that produce a large amount of carbonaceous
material (mature material) for composting.
Calorie Farming: Calorie farming produces a complete diet in the smallest space possible by focusing on
special root crops that are calorie-dense and yield well in a small area. These specific crops are, potatoes,
sweet potatoes, parsnips, leeks, garlic, Jerusalem artichoke, and salsify.
Open pollinated seeds: Using open-pollinated (OP) seeds allows the farmer to save seeds on the farm,
providing for future crops through growing healthy, locally acclimatized, fresh seeds. This helps create
a self-sufficient closed system by reducing dependence on large or small seed vendors, and by saving
money.
Whole system method: This is a unified farming method, with all eight principles playing an important
role in creating a thriving mini ecosystem that sustains itself and its farmers.
2.3.4 Bio-dynamic Agriculture

✓ Biodynamic agriculture is a form of alternative agriculture very similar to organic farming,
Biodynamics is a holistic, ecological, and ethical approach to farming, gardening, food, and
nutrition. Biodynamics is rooted in the work of philosopher and scientist Dr. Rudolf Steiner (1861–
1925).
✓ Biodynamics derived from two Greek words, bios- life and dynamos-energy.
✓ Rudolf Steiner, founder of "anthroposophic agriculture", later known as "biodynamic".
✓ Steiner defined Anthroposophy as “A path of knowledge whose objective is to guide the spiritual in
man to the spiritual in the universe”. The word "Anthroposophy" comes from the Greek language
and means "wisdom of the human being".
✓ Initially developed in 1924, it was the first of the organic agriculture movements. It treats soil fertility,
plant growth, and livestock care as ecologically interrelated tasks, emphasizing spiritual and mystical
perspectives.
✓ Each biodynamic farm or garden is an integrated, whole, living organism. This organism is made up
of many interdependent elements: fields, forests, plants, animals, soils, compost, people, and the
spirit of the place. Biodynamic farmers and gardeners work to nurture and harmonize these
elements, managing them in a holistic and dynamic way to support the health and vitality of the
whole.
✓ There are Biodynamic associations of farmers and gardeners and certifying bodies that guarantee
the produce being sold by issuing a Demeter certificate. “DEMETER=Greek goddess of the Earth”
2.3.4.1 Principles of Biodynamic Farming/Agriculture

In order to establish a system that brings into balance all factors which maintain life, the following areas
are considered:
Substance and energy: Life is more than just chemicals; it depends on the interaction of matter and
energies. For example, plants need light and warmth as well as earth and water to grow. The interaction
of substance and energy forms a balanced system. Only plants which have grown in a balanced soil can
give us energy (through trace minerals, enzymes, growth hormones) as well as substance.
Soil: To produce healthy, vital plants, one must concentrate mainly on the structure and the life of the
soil: the nutrients, the trace elements, the microorganisms, the worms and other animals present in the
soil. But primarily, the soil is a living system of connections and relationships. In terms of structure, the
soil should be crumbly, friable, well aerated and deep in order to be fertile.
Organic matter: In order to create this balanced, living soil, what is required is skillful use of organic
matter. This is done by building compost heaps and using the Biodynamic compost preparations.
Humus: It holds the fertility of the soil in a stable way and retains water. Humus is completely digested
crude organic matter: rich, dark, and moist with a fresh odour. This is the base for building up the soil and
fostering its formation should be the first priority when converting to Biodynamic farming.
Cow manure: This is a very special substance given to us by the holy animal Cow which is essential for
healthy soil life. Cow dung is special because of the lengthy digestion process of the cow which adds much
beneficial bacteria to the substance. It is used in building the compost heaps as a starter and for its
nitrogen content and in preparing the Biodynamic preparations.
Cosmic forces: Recognizing and working with the influences of heavenly bodies on plant growth by using
the preparations and following the sowing calendar.
Crop rotation: Crop rotation, proper soil cultivation and other organic farming methods: intelligent
planning to let the soil rest after heavy-feeding crops (such as potatoes, tomatoes, cabbage), by sowing
green manures (legumes, clover) and covering the soil (grass, clover) so that it may build up its humus
content and nitrogen levels
Peppering: To deal with an unbalanced insect problem, animal pests or weed problem, one may collect
the insects, weed seeds, or dead animal skins, burn them at the appropriate time according to planetary
positions, potentize the ash in water as a homeopathic medicine, and spray it on the land.
The farm organism: The more self-sufficient a farm can be, the healthier it will be. The aim is to have a
wide variety of plants and animals, and to bring something from outside (such as manure, bio-
pesticides) only if there is an imbalance that must be rectified, as medicine.
Weeds, Pests and Diseases: Weeds growing in specific places show a deficiency in the soil, as pests and
diseases show a shortcoming in agricultural practices. They are signs for us to understand where the
problem is, and actually help us to rectify imbalances.
Biodynamic preparations
✓ These simple, natural, homeopathic preparations are used to enhance the effects of the planets and
of silica and lime on the soil and the plants, and also to enhance the breaking-down process and
potential life forces in the compost heaps.
✓ Dr Steiner gave two preparations to be sprayed directly on the soil or the plants (numbered 500 and
501), and six preparations to be used when making compost (numbered 502 to 507).
✓ The measures include two groups of specifically fermented substances, which are called preparations.
✓ The first group includes 6 different herbal substances; they are numbered 502-507 and are added
in small amounts to manures and composts. So, they are collectively called as compost preparations
(Biocatalysts/Compost Biodynamics). These numbers are arbitrary, having been chosen by those who
first produced the preparations.
✓ The second group includes the sprays (Polarity/Field Biodynamics); they are numbered as 500 and
501. Although not considered one of the eight main preparations, a ninth preparation, sometimes
referred to as 508 is made by boiling the horse tail plant and is applied only in excessively wet years
to prevent fungal diseases.
2.3.4.2 Advantages of Biodynamic Farming/Agriculture

✓ Production of top-quality fruits and vegetables
✓ Yields always above the average level, higher on average than those produced by organic farming.
✓ Little trouble with livestock and plant diseases
✓ No spreading of insect pests, and no great economic damage due to their presence
2.3.5 Permaculture
✓ The term permaculture combines the words permanent and culture, or permanent and agriculture.
✓ The philosophy behind permaculture was developed about thirty years ago in Australia by Bill
Mollison and David Holmgren.
✓ Permaculture is a term used to describe an intentional system of agriculture and settlement that
aims to reflect the interrelationships and sustainability of natural ecosystems.
✓ It draws from several disciplines including organic farming, agroforestry, integrated farming,
sustainable development, and applied ecology.
2.3.5.1 Permaculture lies on three ethics

They form the foundation for permaculture design and are also found in most traditional societies. At the
same time, permaculture moves beyond simply being a mechanical set of principles for management of
all cultures that can be used in designing sustainable systems.
✓ Care for people

✓ Care for the Earth
✓ Fair share
2.3.5.2 Principles of permaculture

As part of that, there are 3 kinds of Principles, which have been given by both David Holmgren and Bill
Mollison
1. Core Principles:
These were given by Bill Mollison and include the following
✓ Multiple functions
✓ Relative location
✓ Functional Interconnection
✓ Redundancy
2. Attitudinal Principles:
These were also given by Bill Mollison and include the following
✓ Less change for greatest effect (Leverage)
✓ Work with nature, not against
✓ Infinite yield
✓ The problem is the solution
✓ Everything gardens
3. Holmgren Principles:
These are the most important and most followed principles. These were given by Holmgren and include
the following
✓ Observe and interact by taking the time to engage with nature we can design solutions that suit our
particular situation.
✓ Catch and store energy by developing systems that collect resources when they are abundant, we can
use them in times of need.
✓ Obtain a yield ensure that you are getting truly useful rewards as part of the working you are doing.
✓ Apply self regulation and accept feedback we need to discourage inappropriate activity to ensure
that systems can continue to function well.
✓ Use and value renewable resources and services make the best use of nature’s abundance to reduce
our consumptive behavior and dependence on non-renewable resources.
✓ Produce no waste by valuing and making use of all the resources that are available to us, nothing goes
to waste.
✓ Integrate rather than segregate by putting the right things in the right place, relationships develop
between those things and they work together to support each other.
✓ Use and value diversity that reduces vulnerability to a variety of threats and takes advantage of the
unique nature of the environment in which it resides.
2.3.6 Natural Farming
✓ Natural farming is a system where the laws of nature are applied to agricultural practices. This
method works along with the natural biodiversity of each farmed area, encouraging the complexity
of living organisms, both plants, and animals that shape each particular ecosystem to thrive along
with food plants.
✓ Natural farming is an ecological farming approach established by Masanobu Fukuoka (1913–2008),
a Japanese farmer and philosopher, introduced in his 1975 book The One-Straw Revolution.
Key differences between natural farming and organic farming:
Organic Farming Natural Farming

organic fertilizers and manures like Neither chemical nor organic fertilizers are added to the
compost, vermicompost, cow dung manure, etc. are soil. In fact, no external fertilizers are added to soil or give
used and added to farmlands from external sources. to plants whatsoever.
Along with the decomposition of organic matter by Decomposition of organic matter by microbes and
microbes and vermiculture, external organic fertilizers earthworms is encouraged right on the soil surface itself,
and manures are added which gradually adds nutrition in the soil, over the period.
There no plowing, no tilting of soil and no fertilizers, and
Requires basic agro practices like plowing, tilting, no weeding is done just the way it would be in natural
mixing of manures, weeding, etc. to be performed. ecosystems.
Expensive due to the requirement of bulk manures, and
it has an ecological impact on surrounding It is an extremely low-cost farming method, completely
environments molding with local biodiversity.
There are many working models of natural farming all over the world, the Zero Budget Natural Farming
(ZBNF) is the most popular model in India. This comprehensive, natural, and spiritual farming system is
developed by Padma Shri Subhash Palekar.
2.3.6.1 Features of Zero budget natural farming (ZBNF)

✓ Commercial level farming can be done in almost zero budget only by using locally available and farm-
based resources.
✓ According to ZBNF principles, plants get 98% of their supply of nutrients from the air, water, and
sunlight. And the remaining 2% can be fulfilled by good quality soil with plenty of friendly
microorganisms. (Just like in forests and natural systems)
✓ Soil microclimate: The soil is always supposed to be covered with an organic mulch, which creates
humus and encourages the growth of friendly microorganisms.
✓ Desi cow: The system requires cow dung and cow urine (Gomutra) obtained from Indian breed cow
only. Desi cow is apparently the purest as far as the microbial content of cow dung, and urine goes.
✓ Cultures: A farm made bio-culture named ‘Jeevamrutha’ is added to the soil instead of any fertilizers
to improve microflora of soil. Jeevamrutha is derived from very little cow dung and cow urine of desi
cow breed.
✓ Natural, farm-made pesticides like Dashparni ark and Neem Astra are used to control pests and
diseases.
✓ Weeds are considered essential and used as living or dead mulch layer.
✓ In ZBNF, multi-cropping is encouraged over single crop method.
2.4 Specialised Farming System

In a general sense, when only few enterprises are run by the farmer, in which he has acquired special
knowledge, it is known as Specialised farming. Specifically, Specialised farming refers to only one kind
of farm business such as raising food crops or rearing sheep or raising dairy cattle. Raising two to three
crops makes it specialized. The motive behind specialised farming is profit.
2.4.1 Advantages of Specialised Farming System

✓ Better use of land
✓ Better marketing
✓ Less equipment and labor.
✓ Costly and efficient machinery can be kept
✓ The efficiency and skill of the labor increased
✓ Farm records can be maintained easily.
✓ Intensity of production leads to relatively large amount of output.
✓ Better management
2.4.2 Disadvantages of Specialised Farming System
These disadvantages of specialization are evident when the farmer realizes that “all his eggs are in one
basket”.
✓ There is greater risk

✓ It is not possible to maintain soil fertility-lack of crop rotation.
✓ The productive resources i.e. land; labor and capital are not fully utilized.
✓ Irregular income of the farm
✓ Proper Utilization of resources is not possible.
✓ By product of crop are not property utilized
✓ Due to specialization of a single enterprise, the knowledge about other enterprises vainness.
✓ Does not help in supplying all the food needs of the family members of the farmer.
2.5 Integrated Farming System

Integrated Farming System (IFS) is an interdependent, interrelated often interlocking production
systems based on few crops, animals and related subsidiary enterprises in such a way that maximize
the utilization of nutrients of each system and minimize the negative effect of these enterprises on
environment.
✓ Integration of various agricultural enterprises viz., cropping, animal husbandry, fishery, forestry etc.
have great potentialities in the agricultural economy. These enterprises not only supplement the
income of the farmers but also help in increasing the family labour employment.
✓ The integrated farming system approach introduces a change in the farming techniques for
maximum production in the cropping pattern and takes care of optimal utilization of resources.
✓ The farm wastes are better recycled for productive purposes in the integrated system.
✓ A judicious mix of agricultural enterprises like dairy, poultry, piggery, fishery, sericulture etc. suited
to the given agro-climatic conditions and socio-economic status of the farmers would bring
prosperity in the farming.
2.5.1 Advantages of Integrated Farming System

✓ Higher food production
✓ Increased farm income
✓ Sustainable soil fertility and productivity.
✓ Integration of allied activities
✓ Integrated farming will help in environmental protection
✓ Reduced production cost of components
✓ Regular stable income
✓ Inclusion of biogas & agro forestry
✓ Cultivation of fodder crops as intercropping and as border cropping.
✓ Firewood and construction wood requirements could be met
✓ Avoidance of soil loss through erosion by agro-forestry
✓ Generation of regular employment.
2.5.2 Components of Integrated Farming System

Crops, livestock, birds, and trees are the major components of any IFS.
2.5.3 Factors to be considered while selecting IFS

The combinations provided below is most suitable for Rainfed areas/with no proper irrigation facilities
(IFS is the most needed and useful for farmers in the rainfed areas and where they cannot take much
major crops owing to the lack of irrigation facilities but with IFS, they can have income source throughout
the year on the same farm).
Soil types, rainfall and its distribution and length of growing season are the major factors that decide
the selection of suitable annual crops, trees, and livestock components.
2.5.3.1 Suitable grain crops

According to soil type we can select suitable crops.
Black soil Red soil

Cereals: Maize Millets: Sorghum
Millets: Sorghum, bajra Minor Millets: Ragi, tenai, samai, pani
Pulses: Greengram, blackgram, redgram, varagu, varagu
chickpea, soybean, horse gram Pulses: Lab- lab, Green gram, red gram,
Oilseeds: Sunflower, safflower soybean, horse gram, cowpea
FIbre: Cotton Oilseeds: Groundnut, castor, sesame
Other crops: Coriander, Chillies etc.,
2.5.3.2 Suitable forage crops
Red soil
Black soil Fodder cholam, fodder bajra,
Fodder sorghum, fodder bajra, fodder Neelakolukattai (Blue Buffel Grass), fodder
cowpea, desmanthus, Rhodes grass, Mayil ragi, Sanku pushpam (Conch flower creeper),
kondai pul, Elusine sp., Thomson grass fodder cowpea, Muyal Masal (Stylo), siratro,
marvel grasses, spear grass, vettiver
2.5.3.3 Suitable tree species
Black soil Red gravelly/Sandy red loam soils Tamarind,

Karu vel, A.tortilis, A.albida, Neem, Vagai, Simarouba, Vagai (Ladies tongue), Arappu,
Holoptelia integrifolia, Manja neythi, Kodai vel, A. tortilis, Maan Kathu vel, A.
Hibiscus tilifolia, Gmelina arborea, Casuarina, mellifera, Neem, Hardwickia binata, Ber,
Subabuland, Adina cordifolia Indian Gooseberry, Casuarina, Silk cotton
etc.
2.5.3.4 Suitable livestock and birds

Goat, sheep, white cattle, black cattle, pigeon, rabbit, quail and poultry.
2.5.4 Agronomic approaches for increasing overall productivity and sustainability of IFS
✓ Adoption of improved cropping system according to the rainfall and soil moisture availability
✓ Selection of suitable grain crop species, tree species that supply pods/leaves for a longer period or
throughout the year
✓ The surplus fodder leaves, crop residues etc. during the rainy season should be preserved as
silage/hay for lean season (summer).
2.5.5 Enterprises that can taken up as per different Agro ecosystems

As mentioned earlier also, there can be a combination of various enterprises that can be taken up under
the Integrated Farming systems. The below mentioned table represents the enterprises that can be
taken up on the basis of type of agriculture followed viz., irrigated/Rainfed/Dryland and also available of
the type of crops/gardens in the area.
2.5.6 Integrated Farming System models
There are various types of Integrated Farming system models based on the type of enterprise the farmer
choses.
✓ Agricultural + livestock
✓ Agricultural + livestock + poultry
✓ Horticulture + fish culture + poultry
✓ Pig cum fish culture
✓ Sericulture + fish culture
✓ Agricultural(rice) + fish cultivation
✓ Poultry + fish culture
3 Organic Farming – Meaning or Definition

✓ Organic Farming is a method of farming system which primarily aimed at cultivating the land and
raising crops in such a way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes
(crop, animal and farm wastes, aquatic wastes) and other biological materials along with beneficial
microbes (biofertilizers) to release nutrients to crops for increased sustainable production in an eco
friendly pollution free environment.
3.1 Need of organic farming

✓ With the increase in population our compulsion would be not only to stabilize agricultural production
but to increase it further in sustainable manner.
✓ The scientists have realized that the ‘Green Revolution’ with high input use has reached a plateau and
is now sustained with diminishing return of falling dividends.
✓ Thus, a natural balance needs to be maintained at all cost for existence of life and property. Objectives
of Organic Farming
The following are the main objectives of Organic Farming
3.2 Components of organic farming
There are various components of Organic Farming. They are
3.2.1 Crop Rotation
In crop rotation, crops are changed from year to year

according to a planned sequence. For example: Pearl
millet and Groundnut; Gingelly and groundnut;
Groundnut and pulses (for rainfed areas where
irrigation facilities are not there in summers). Rice,
Cotton, Cowpea (for areas where irrigation facilities are
available)
3.2.2 Crop residue utilization
Crop residues are the non-economic plant parts that are left in the field after harvest. The harvest refuses
include straws, stubble, and haulms of different crops. Composting process recycles various organic
materials otherwise regarded as waste products and produces a soil conditioner called compost which is
rich in nutrients.
✓ The greatest potential as a biomass resource appears to be from the field residues of sorghum,
maize, soybean, cotton, sugarcane etc.
✓ Carbon and nitrogen ratio decides the initiation of composting process. If C:N ratio is wide (100:1)
composting will not take place. Narrow C:N ratio of 30:1 is ideal for composting.
✓ Green coloured waste materials like glyricidia leaves, parthenium, freshly harvested weeds; sesbania
leaves are rich in nitrogen, whereas brown coloured waste material like straw, coir dust, dried leaves
and dried grasses are rich in carbon.
✓ Minimum 4 feet height should be maintained for composting.
✓ Alternate layers of carbon and nitrogen rich material with intermittent layers of animal dung are
essential. After heap formation the material should be thoroughly moistened.
✓ For one ton crop residues, 40 kg fresh cow dung is required. This 40 kg fresh cow dung is mixed with
100litres of water and it should be thoroughly poured over the waste material. Cow dung slurry acts
as nitrogen source as well as source of microbial inoculum.
✓ To allow the fresh air to get inside, the compost heap should be turned upside down, once in fifteen
days.
✓ Throughout the composting period 60% moisture should be maintained.
✓ Volume reduction, black colour, earthy odor, reduction in particle size are all the physical factors to
be observed for compost maturity.
✓ After curing for one day, the composted material is sieved through 4 mm sieve to get uniform
composted material. The residues collected after composting has to be again composted to finish the
composting process.
✓ The beneficial microorganisms like Azotobacter or Azospirillum, Pseudomonas, Phosphobacteria
(0.2%) and rock phosphate (2%) have to be inoculated for one ton of compost. 40 per cent moisture
should be maintained for the maximum growth of inoculated microorganism. This incubation
should be allowed for 20 days for the organism to reach the maximum population. Now the compost
is called as enriched compost.
✓ For one hectare of land 5 tons of enriched biocompost is recommended. It can be used as basal
application in the field before taking up planting work (during manuring stage of preparation of field
for sowing).
3.2.3 Organic Manure

Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used as sources of plant nutrients. They release nutrients
after their decomposition.
✓ Manures are the organic materials derived from animal, human and plant residues which contain
plant nutrients in complex organic forms.
✓ Naturally occurring or synthetic chemicals containing plant nutrients are called fertilizers.
3.2.4 Waste Management

Biogas production technology is the promising potential to deal with Waste Management in Organic
Farming.
✓ Farm waste such as dung is mixed with straw, grass, leaves and kitchen waste and kept in anaerobic
environment produce gas which is called as bio-gas.
✓ The carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane and hydrogen sulfide gases combinations, methane is
inflammable. This is 55 per cent.
Bio-gas Plant
Uses and features of Bio-gas Waste management:
✓ Accumulation of moist dung in heap will produce various pathogens and this will be avoided by
biogas production.
✓ Because of smoke free it can be used for cooking. Speedy in cooking time. In the cooking protect the
utensils from carbon sedimentation. it can be used to generate electricity and to run the engine. Saves
70-80% diesel requirement.
✓ Well digested and odourless dung liquid is called as sludge. It can be used for land reclamation and
enrichment.
✓ If weeds and seeds by fermentation reduced capacity and in field production of weeds reduced.
✓ Used wastes as food to fish and pig and to make compost/Azolla fertilizer.
3.2.5 Bio-Fertilizers
A biofertilizer is a substance which contains living micro-organisms which, when applied to seeds, plant
surfaces, or soil, colonize the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing
the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant. Examples: Rhizobium, Azotobacter etc.,
3.2.6 Bio-Pesticides
The most commonly used biopesticides are living organisms, which are pathogenic (disease causing) for
the pest of interest. These include biofungicides (Trichoderma), bioherbicides (Phytopthora) and
bioinsecticides (Bacillus thuringiensis). There are few plant products also which can now be used as a
major biopesticide source.
3.2.7 Vermicompost
It has been estimated that organic resources available in the country alone can produce not less than 20
million tonnes of plant nutrients (NPK). Vermicomposting has tremendous prospects in converting agro-
wastes and city garbage into valuable agricultural input. Vermicompost is the product of the
decomposition process (Vermicomposting) using various species of worms, usually earthworms, to create
a mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste, bedding materials, and vermicast. Vermicast is the
end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by earthworms.
✓ From vermiculture, we get well decomposed worm casts, which can be used as manure for crops,
vegetables, flowers, gardens, etc.
✓ In this process, earthworms also get multiplied and the excess worms can be converted into
vermiprotein which can be utilised as feed for poultry, fish, etc.
✓ Vermi-wash can also be used as spray on crops.
3.3 The key characteristics of organic farming include
✓ Protecting the long-term fertility of soils by maintaining organic matter levels, encouraging soil
biological activity, and careful mechanical intervention.
✓ Providing crop nutrients indirectly using relatively insoluble nutrient sources which are made
available to the plant by the action of soil micro-organisms.
✓ Nitrogen self-sufficiency using legumes and biological nitrogen fixation, as well as effective recycling
of organic materials including crop residues and livestock manures.
✓ Weed, disease and pest control relying primarily on crop rotations, natural predators, diversity,
organic manuring, resistant varieties and limited (preferably minimal) thermal, biological, and
chemical intervention.
✓ The extensive management of livestock, paying full regard to their evolutionary adaptations,
behavioral needs and animal welfare issues with respect to nutrition, housing, health, breeding and
rearing.
✓ Careful attention to the impact of the farming system on the wider environment and the
conservation of wildlife and natural habitats.
3.4 Principles of Organic Farming
3.4.1 Principle of health

✓ This principle points out that the health of individuals and communities cannot be separated from
the health of ecosystems - healthy soils produce healthy crops that foster the health of animals and
people.
✓ Health is the wholeness and integrity of living systems. It is not simply the absence of illness, but the
maintenance of physical, mental, social and ecological well-being. Immunity, resilience and
regeneration are key characteristics of health.
✓ The role of organic agriculture, whether in farming, processing, distribution, or consumption, is to
sustain and enhance the health of ecosystems and organisms from the smallest in the soil to human
beings.
3.4.2 Principle of ecology

✓ This principle roots organic agriculture within living ecological systems. It states that production is
to be based on ecological processes, and recycling. Nourishment and well-being are achieved
through the ecology of the specific production environment.
✓ Organic farming, pastoral and wild harvest systems should fit the cycles and ecological balances in
nature. These cycles are universal, but their operation is site-specific. Organic management must be
adapted to local conditions, ecology, culture and scale. Inputs should be reduced by reuse, recycling
and efficient management of materials and energy to maintain and improve environmental quality
and conserve resources.
3.4.3 Principle of fairness
✓ Organic Agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common
environment and life opportunities.
✓ Fairness is characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the shared world, both
among people and in their relations to other living beings.
3.4.4 Principle of care

✓ Organic Agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the
health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment.
✓ Organic agriculture is a living and dynamic system that responds to internal and external demands
and conditions.
3.5 Basic Steps of Organic Farming
✓ Conversion of land from conventional management to organic management

✓ Management of the entire surrounding system to ensure biodiversity and sustainability of the
system.
✓ Crop production with the use of alternative sources of nutrients such as crop rotation, residue
management, organic manures, and biological inputs.
✓ Management of weeds and pests by better management practices, physical and cultural means and
by biological control system
✓ Maintenance of livestock in tandem with organic concept and make them an integral part of the
entire system
3.5.1 Habitat Management

✓ Habitat management is an important part of organic management system and forms the first step
towards organic conversion.
✓ To ensure proper living conditions for all living beings, steady supply of green material for manuring
and to create diversified plant stand it is essential that diversified plants/ trees etc are planted on
bunds and other non-cultivated area of the farm.
✓ Adequate space may be provided for plantation of nitrogen fixing trees. Nitrogen fixing tree hedge
not only act as biological fence but also ensure steady supply of biologically fixed nitrogen and other
nutrients drawn from deeper layers of soil.
✓ These plants also provide home and shelter to friendly insects and birds.
✓ If required rainwater harvesting pits and farm ponds can also be created.
3.5.2 Crop Diversity

✓ Diversity in crop production is second most important step of organic management which not only
helps in management and control of pests and diseases but also ensure balance nutrition of the soil.
✓ Diversity can be achieved by a combination of mixed cropping, intercropping, relay cropping and
rotation with legumes. Use of trap crops and barrier crops also add to the diversity.
3.5.3 Conversion period
✓ The time taken for a farm to comply with the PGS (Participatory Guarantee system) organic
standards is defined as the conversion period.
✓ In other words, it is the time required by the conventional farm to attain full PGS organic status.
✓ The whole farm including the crop production and animal husbandry shall be converted to organic
management.
✓ Parallel or part conversion is not allowed under PGS organic management.
✓ For newly acquired fields or fields managed conventionally, the conversion period shall be not less
then 24 months in case of seasonal and annual crops while it shall be not less than 36 months in
case of perennial and permanent crops from the last date of use of prohibited inputs or from the
date of taking the pledge, whichever is later.
✓ Duration of conversion period can be reduced to 12 months if no prohibited substances have been
used since last three years and all the members in the group are fully satisfied with past history of no
synthetic input use and collectively declare so.
✓ Conversion period for animal products shall be not less than 12 months provided they are fed with
fully organic feed and fodder and all the members of group are satisfied that the standard
requirements have been met since last 12 months.
✓ In case of existing ICS groups (under NPOP) or members of such groups joining PGS, their certification
status, as granted by accreditation certification body* and valid at the time of joining PGS shall
continue, provided the group/ members meets all other requirements of PGS and have necessary
documents to prove their claim to the full satisfaction of other group members (if they join an existing
group) or RC (if they join as independent group).
* Accredited certification agency is an agency accredited by National Accreditation Body under
National Program on Organic Production (NPOP) for certification of organic production system.
3.5.4 Contamination control

✓ All organic production units shall have effective measures to check accidental contamination with
prohibited substance through drift or water flow.
✓ All organic farms shall be either protected with biological fence (hedge/hedge rows etc) or maintain
a buffer zone.
✓ Organic farms also need to be protected from contaminated water flow from adjoining non-organic
fields. This can be achieved by putting appropriate bunds and escape channels.
3.5.5 Soil and Water conservation

✓ Relevant measures should be taken to prevent erosion, salination of soil, excessive and improper
use of water and the pollution of ground and surface water.
✓ Clearing of land through the means of burning organic matter, e.g. slash-and burn, straw burning shall
be restricted to the minimum. The clearing of primary forest is prohibited.
3.5.6 Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) - National Standards for Organic Production -
General Requirements
To promote organic farming and domestic organic market a free / no cost domestic organic
certification system called Participatory Guarantee system-India (PGS-India) in India is being
implemented by Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture & Cooperation,
Government of India through National Centre of Organic Farming (NCOF), Ghaziabad and
its seven Regional Centres (Ghaziabad -Head Quarter, Bangalore, Nagpur, Jabalpur,
Panchkula, Bhubaneswar & Imphal).
An Internal Control System (ICS) is the part of a documented quality assurance system that allows
an external certification body to delegate the periodic inspection of individual group members to
an identified body or unit within the certified operator.
✓ To provide for the focused and well-directed development of organic

agriculture and quality products, the Ministry of Commerce and Industry
under the Government of India launched the National Program for Organic
Production (NPOP) in 2000.
✓ This program was formally notified in October 2001 under the Foreign Trade &
Development Act.
✓ According to DGFT notifications, agricultural products exported as organic
need to have an organic certificate issued by an accredited certifying agency.
✓ Certification allows you to use the India Organic logo.
✓ The India Organic certification mark certifies that an organic food product
conforms to NPOP standards.
Logos used in Participatory Guarantee System-INDIA organic certification Program
Logo Used while marketing on the Logo Used while marketing on the
products produced from the field products produced from fields of
under conversion completely converted into organic
3.5.7 Marketing of agricultural products with organic tag

✓ Any organic food manufactured, packed, sold, offered for sale, marketed, or otherwise distributed
in the country is regulated as per the provisions of Food Safety and Standards (Organic Food)
Regulations, 2017.
✓ These regulations require Organic Food to comply with the provisions of National Program for
Organic Production (NPOP) or Participatory Guarantee System (PGS).
✓ However, to support small original organic producer or producer organisation, those with annual
turnover not exceeding 12 lakhs per annum have been exempted from certification through NPOP
or PGS.
✓ The Organic food covered through these regulations should bear FSSAI organic logo i.e. Jaivik Bharat
logo along with PGS- Organic (or) India Organic logo.
✓ Jaivik Kheti portal (https://www.jaivikkheti.in/) has also been created for promotion and sale of
organic produce to connect farmers involved in organic farming with consumers directly for better
prices.
3.6 Organic Farming Vs Conventional Farming
4 Modern Farming Meaning or Definition

Modern farming means farming using modern techniques and technology. That means farming with the
facilities of modern science and technologies. Using modern science and technologies in farming increase
the farming productions. There are various methods in Modern Farming.
4.1 Hydroponics system of Modern Farming
4.2 Aeroponics system of Modern Farming methods
4.3 Aquaponics system of Modern Farming methods
4.4 Tissue culture system of Modern farming methods
* Some plants, which do not multiply by seeds, can be propagated through plant tissue culture
technique. By the help of tissue through protoplast fusion, cell fusion, genetic engineering and
hybridization technique, new improved varieties of crops can be produced within a short time period
4.5 Vertical Farming
4.6 Precision Agriculture

Precision Agriculture (PA), Satellite Farming or Site Specific Crop Management (SSCM) can be described
as ‘a technology-enabled approach to farming management that observes, measures, and analyzes the
needs of individual fields and crops’. It is otherwise also called as “Digital Agriculture”.
Pierre Robert is often regarded as the father of precision farming because of his active promotion of the
idea and organization of the first workshop, “Soil Specific Crop Management,” during the early 1990s.
Precision agriculture can be broadly looked upon in 3 stages in a cyclical manner viz., Data Collection,
Interpretation and application which can be clearly observed from the picture below
Precision Agriculture cycle
4.6.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Precision Agriculture
Disadvantages of Precision Farming

Advantages of Precision Farming
✓ It cannot be utilized completely in every
✓ Refined set of cultivation practices and
crop.
choice of crops based on suitability of land
✓ It needs the farmers to embark on various
✓ Elimination of volatility and risk
technological, technical, and economical
✓ Waste management
conditions before the adoption of this
✓ Reduced production costs
technology.
✓ Minimum environmental impact
✓ High capital costs may discourage farmers to
✓ Optimized use of fertilizers
not adopt this method of farming.
✓ Water management
✓ Precision agriculture techniques are still
under development and requires expert
advice before actual implementation.
4.6.2 Technology involved/Tools required in Precision Agriculture

Computers, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), Remote sensing,
automatic tractor navigation and robotics are the latest technology that is involved/required in Precision
agriculture.
4.6.2.1 Geoinformatics for Precision Farming
✓ Geoinformatics deals with integrating computer science & geosciences to solve complex scientific
questions. It is the science of gathering, analysing, interpreting, distributing & using geographic
information. Geoinformatics encompasses surveying and mapping, RS, GIS, and GPS.
A. Global Positioning System (GPS)

✓ GPS provides continuous, real-time, 3D positioning and navigation worldwide in any weather
condition.
✓ GPS-based applications in precision farming are being used in farm planning, field mapping, tractor
guidance, variable rate applications (automated precise application of Seeds, pesticides, fertilizers,
etc. based on data that is collected by sensors, maps, and GPS) and yield mapping.
Application of seeds with the use of GPS technology
B. Remote Sensing (RS) Technique

✓ RS is the science of making inferences about material objects from measurements, made at
distance, without coming into physical contact with the objects under study.
✓ Remote sensing in precision farming is used for crop yield modelling, identification of pests and
disease infestation, soil moisture estimation, irrigation monitoring, assessment of crop damage, etc.
Crop Yield mapping through application of Remote sensing
C. Geographic Information System (GIS)

✓ The GIS is a computerised data storage and retrieval system, which can be used to manage and
analyse spatial data relating crop productivity and agronomic (study of crops and the soils) factors.
✓ It can integrate all types of information and interface with other decision support tools.
✓ GIS can display analysed information in maps that allow better understanding of interactions among
yield, fertility, pests, weeds and other factors, and decision-making based on such spatial
relationships.
D. Internet of things
✓ The computers and low latency internet (5G) are the most important components in precision farming
as they are main source of information processing and gathering.
Coordination between technologies involved in Precision Farming in Palm crop
4.7 Intensive Farming
Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is a kind of agriculture where a lot of money and labour are
used to increase the yield that can be obtained per area of land. The use of large amounts of pesticides
for crops, and of medication for animal stocks is common. Industrialization is a key determining fact of
intensive farming.
✓ Higher levels of input (seeds, fertilizer, water, pesticides etc.)

and output per unit area
✓ Minimum fallow land
✓ Capital and labor intensive
✓ Higher farm profitability in contrast to traditional agriculture
✓ May apply to crops and as well animals,
✓ in latter case, it is also called factory farming
4.7.1 Advantages of Intensive Farming

✓ One of the major advantages of this farming technique is that the crop yield is high.
✓ It helps the farmer to easily supervise and monitor the land and protect his livestock from being hurt
or hounded by dangerous wild animals.
✓ It also aids in solving the worldwide hunger problems to a great extent.
✓ With the introduction of intensive farming, the space, equipment, and other requirements for
farming are less and more economical.
✓ Another advantage is that large productivity of food is possible with less amount of land. This leads to
economies of scale, directly contributes towards meeting the ever-growing demand for food supplies.
4.7.2 Disadvantages of Intensive Farming

✓ Intensive farming involves the use of various kinds of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and
insecticides. Apart from this, it is also associated with farms that keep livestock above their holding
capacity, which in turn leads to pollution, various diseases, and infections brought about by
overcrowding and poor hygiene.
✓ Reports and studies reveal that intensive farming affects and alters the environment in multiple
ways. Forests are destroyed to create large open fields, and this could lead to soil erosion. It affects
the natural habitat of wild animals. Use of chemical fertilizers contaminates soil and water bodies,
such as lakes and rivers.
✓ Pesticides sprayed on crops not only destroy pests and contaminate the crops, but also kill beneficial
insects. Eventually, these chemicals are passed on to human beings, who consume the agricultural
produce.
✓ Fruits and vegetables purchased from farms that promote intensive farming are covered with
invisible pesticides. These cannot be washed off easily. Exceeding the use of pesticides affects the
health of human beings severely, leading to skin allergy, physical deformity, and congenital disease.
✓ There are many hybrid varieties of livestock, plants, and poultry available today. The livestock and
poultry are injected with hormones and other chemicals to increase the yield.
4.8 Extensive Farming
Extensive farming or extensive agriculture (as opposed to intensive farming) is an agricultural production
system that uses small inputs of labor, fertilizers, and capital, relative to the land area being farmed.
Extensive system of farming involves:
✓ Larger farm size ✓ Commercial approach

✓ High intensity of capital ✓ Low production per unit of land
✓ Low intensity of labor ✓ Dominance of single cereals
✓ High per capita Production ✓ Huge surplus
✓ Emphasis on mono-cropping ✓ Dominance of machine
4.8.1 Differences between Intensive and Extensive Farming system

Parameters of
Intensive Farming Extensive Farming
Comparison
Meaning More use of Labor and capital Less Input of labor and Capital
Location Close to markets Remote location. Far from market
Farming land Small & extensive agriculture system Large and inexpensive farming technique
within a densely populated area practiced in a moderately populated area
Output Large scale Small Scale
Environment Negative Positive
5 System of Crop Intensification

✓ Crop intensification can be defined as growing more number of mono crops in the same piece of
land per year.
✓ Crop intensification is measured by cropping intensity (CI). Higher the CI, higher is the cropping
intensity.
5.1 Cropping Intensity
Cropping intensity (CI) refers to raising of a number of crops from the same field during one
agricultural year. It can be expressed through a formula.
Cropping Intensity = Gross Cropped Area / Net Sown Area x 100.
✓ CI differs as per the amount of rainfall received by the areas.

o In rain fed areas with a short rainy season, you can grow only one crop per year, and the CI
is “1” here. In rain fed areas with a longer rainy season, one main crop is followed by a short
duration legume or oil seed crop. Here the CI is 2.0.
o In irrigated areas, up to 3 crops can be grown with a CI of 3, or 5 crops in two years with a
CI of 2.5.
✓ While intensifying production, proper crop rotation is critical to optimize crop yields, minimize weeds
as well as pests and diseases, maintain soil quality, and maximize water and nutrient use efficiency.
✓ SCI has emerged in several Asian and African countries, raising the productivity of the land, water,
seed, labor, and capital resources that farmers invest can for growing a wide range of crops.
✓ The ideas and practices that have given rise to SCI have derived from farmers’ and others’ experience
with the system of rice intensification (SRI).
✓ The principles constituting both SCI and SRI, based on demonstrated agronomic theory and practice,
are shared with other agroecological domains of innovation such as agroforestry, conservation
agriculture, integrated pest management, and integrated range and livestock management.
✓ The common elements involved in SCI crop management, extrapolated by farmers and others from
what has been learned from their SRI experience, can be summarized as:
o Establishment of healthy plants both early and attentively, taking care to conserve and
nurture their potential for root system growth and for associated shoot growth.
o Significant reductions in crop density, transplanting or sowing individual plants with wider
spacing between them, giving each plant more room to grow both above and below ground.
o Enrichment of the soil with organic matter and keeping the soil well-aerated to support the
better growth of roots and of beneficial soil biota.
o Application of water in ways that favor plant-root and soil-microbial growth, avoiding
hypoxic soil conditions that adversely affect both roots and aerobic soil organisms.
5.2 System of Rice Intensification (SRI)
The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is a farming methodology, aimed at increasing the
yield of rice produced in farming. It is a low water, labor-intensive, method that uses younger
seedlings singly spaced and typically hand weeded with special tools. It was developed in
1983 by the French Jesuit Father Henri de Laulanié in Madagascar.
5.2.1 Benefits of SRI

✓ The benefits of SRI have been demonstrated in over 50 countries, which include, 20%-100% or more
increased yields, up to a 90% reduction in required seed, and up to 50% water savings.
✓ SRI principles and practices have been adapted for rainfed rice as well as for other crops (such as
wheat, sugarcane and tef, among others), with yield increases and associated economic benefits.
✓ The below picture clearly enumerates the benefits of SRI cultivation in Rice.
LAI (Leaf Area Index): Leaf area index (LAI) is a dimensionless quantity that characterizes plant canopies.
It is defined as the one-sided green leaf area per unit ground surface area (LAI = leaf area / ground area,
m2 / m2).
Senescence: Plant senescence is the process of aging in plants. Plants have both stress-induced and age-
related developmental aging. Chlorophyll degradation during leaf senescence reveals the carotenoids,
and is the cause of autumn leaf color in deciduous trees.
Cytokinins (CK): They are a class of plant growth substances (phytohormones) that promote cell division,
or cytokinesis, in plant roots and shoots. They are involved primarily in cell growth and differentiation,
but also affect apical dominance, axillary bud growth, and leaf senescence.
5.2.2 Process flow of SRI cultivation in Rice
6 Crop Diversification
✓ In agricultural context, diversification of Crops can be regarded as the re-allocation of some of a
farm’s productive resources, such as land, capital, farm equipment and paid labor, into new
activities. These can be new crops or livestock products, value adding activities, provision of services
to other farmers.
✓ Crop diversification is not only the shift from traditional and less remunerative to more
remunerative crops, but it is demand driven, and involves spatial, temporal, value- addition and
resource-complementary approaches.
✓ It implies a shifting of resources from low-value crops to high-value crops, usually intended for human
consumption such as fruits and vegetables.
6.1 Strategies for Crop Diversification

✓ Replacement of low yielding value crops with high yielding high value crops with longer shelf life.
✓ Intercropping in rainfed areas.
✓ Diversion of high-water requiring crops with less water requiring crops.
✓ Legumes intervention.
✓ Inclusion of crops having both domestic and international demands.
✓ Inclusion of energy efficient crops.
✓ Systems with high productivity, profitability and sustainability.
✓ Shift high risk crops with short duration pulses and drought resistant oilseed crops.
6.2 Drivers of Diversification

It is a response to both Opportunities and Threats.
Opportunities
✓ Changing consumer demand- As consumers become Threats
richer, food consumption pattern changes. People ✓ Urbanization- With expansion of cities there is
move away from a diet based on staples to one with pressure on the land resources.
greater content of animal products and fruits and ✓ Risk- Farmers face the risk from bad weather and
vegetables. from fluctuating prices. A diversified portfolio of
✓ Changing demographics- With rapid urbanization, no. products should ensure that farmers do not
of farmers are reducing while the consumers are suffer complete ruin when the weather is bad.
increasing. This calls for the change in agronomic ✓ External and Domestic Threats- Agricultural
practices. production is sometimes undertaken because of
✓ Export potential- Developing countries had government subsidies, rather than because it is
considerable success by diversifying into crops that can profitable. The reduction or removable of those
meet export market demand. subsidies can have a major impact on farmers.
✓ Adding Value-People are shifting to Ready-T0-Go meals Similarly, trade can have impact on farmers.
and labor-saving packaging. This provides the ✓ Climate Change-The type of crop being grown is
opportunity for farmers to diversify into value-addition. affected by changes in temperatures and the
✓ Improving Nutrition- Diversifying from the monoculture length of the growing season. It can modify the
of traditional staples can have important nutritional availability of water for production.
benefits for farmers.
6.3 Challenges/Constraints in Crop Diversification

✓ Majority of the cropped area in the country is completely dependent on rainfall.
✓ Sub-optimal and over-use of resources like fertilizers, land, and water, causing negative impact on
the sustainability of agriculture.
✓ Fragmentation of land holding, less favoring modernization, and mechanization of agriculture.
✓ Very weak agro-based industry.
✓ Inadequately trained human resources together with persistent and large-scale illiteracy among
farmers.
✓ Decreased investment in agriculture sector over the years.
6.4 Approaches to Crop Diversification
Horizontal diversification
✓ It includes the farm diversification through crop intensification

Vertical diversification
and crop substitution. It is the primary approach to crop
In this approach, farmers and
diversification in production agriculture.
others, add value to products
✓ Here, diversification takes place through crop intensification by
through processing, regional
adding new high-value crops to the existing cropping systems or
branding, packaging,
to suit the defined objective like use of gap between 2 crops,
merchandizing, or other
utilize the space available in the fields or bunds, as a way to
efforts to enhance the
improve the overall productivity of a farm.
marketable access of the
✓ A tendency towards cereal specialization was observed during
product.
1967-76 replacing coarse cereals. Similarly, replacing tendency
continued by giving space to oilseeds and other high value crops
when income from food grain plateaued.
6.5 Impact of Crop diversification

For export: Crops like basmati rice and spices have demand for export and there is need for diversification
with high quality basmati rice and spices to meet the demand. Similarly, there is demand for cut flowers,
onion and other vegetable crops. So there is need to rationalize area under these crops to avoid scarcity
and excess in the domestic market to ensure price stability.
For Nutritional Security: Intervention of legumes and genetically fortified genotypes of cereals such as
golden rice, etc. can help to tackle the problem of malnourishment.
For Nutrient management: The crop with deep root system must be followed by crop with fibrous root
system. This helps in proper and uniform use of nutrients from the soil. The leguminous crops must be
sown after non-leguminous crops as they help in the fixation of atmospheric N into the soil.
For Pest management: Intercropping can be practiced in widely spaced crops to reduce weed infestation
apart from increasing overall productivity. Crops with different botanical relationship should be altered
for control of weed, pest and diseases.
7 Dryland Agriculture
Dryland Agriculture refers to cultivation of crops entirely under natural rainfall without irrigation.
✓ It is a form of subsistence farming in the regions where deficit of the soil moisture retards the growth
of water consuming crops like rice (Oryza sativa), sugarcane etc.
✓ Dryland areas are characterized by low and erratic rainfall and no assured irrigation facilities.
✓ Dryland agriculture is important for the economy as most of the coarse grain crops, pulses, oilseeds,
and raw cotton are grown on these lands.
✓ Dryland areas receive rainfall between 500 and 1150 mm.
7.1 Categories
Based on amount of rainfall received, Dryland agriculture can be grouped into three categories:
Dry Farming Dryland farming Rainfed farming

Cultivation of crops in areas where Cultivation of crops in areas receiving Cultivation of crops in regions
average annual rainfall is less than 750 rainfall from 750 to 1150 mm per receiving rainfall more than 1150
mm per annum. annum. mm per annum.
7.2 Crops mainly grown in dryland regions

Pulses and oilseeds, important commercial crops like cotton, castor, groundnut and all coarse grains like
jowar, bajra etc.
7.3 Given below is the comparison study of dry farming, dryland farming and
rainfed farming:
Particular Dry farming Dryland farming Rainfed Farming
Rainfall/annum(mm) <750 750-1150 >1150
Moisture availability Acute shortage Shortage Enough
Crop growing season <75 days 75 - 120days >120 days
Growing region Arid Semi-arid Humid
Single crop/Inter Single crop/Inter
Cropping systems Inter/ multicropping
cropping cropping
Dry spells Most common Less frequent No occurrence
Crop failure More frequent Less frequent Rare
Wind erosion/water
Constraints Wind Erosion Water erosion
erosion
Moisture Moisture conservation
Proper drainage
Measures required Conservation practices & drainage for
required
practices vertisols
Kindly note point No.4. This is a very general classification of the regions.
7.4 Given below is the crop regions in India that are classified based on
average rainfall:
7.5 The following is the list of aberrant weather conditions prevailing in

Dryland areas/Problems of Dryland Agriculture:
Dry farming crops are characterized by very low and highly variable and uncertain yields. Crop failures are
quite common. These are mainly due to the following causes.
7.5.1 Inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall

In general, the rainfall is low and highly variable which results in uncertain crop yields. Besides its
uncertainty, the distribution of rainfall during the crop period is uneven, receiving high amount of
rain, when it is not needed and lack of it when crop needs it.
7.5.2 Late onset and early cessation of rains

Due to late onset of monsoon, the sowing of crop are delayed resulting in poor yields. Sometimes
the rain may cease very early in the season exposing the crop to drought during flowering and
maturity stages which reduces the crop yields considerably
7.5.3 Prolonged Dry spells during the crop period

Long breaks in the rainy season is an important feature of Indian monsoon. These intervening dry
spells when prolonged during crop period reduces crop growth and yield and when unduly
prolonged crops fail.
7.5.4 Low moisture retention capacity

The crops raised on red soils, and coarse textured soil suffer due to lack of moisture whenever
prolonged dry spells occur due to their low moisture holding capacity. Loss of rain occurs as runoff
due to undulating and sloppy soils.
7.5.5 Low Fertility of Soils

Drylands are not only thirsty, but also hungry too. Soil fertility has to be increased, but there is limited
scope for extensive use of chemical fertilizers due to lack of adequate soil moisture.
7.5.6 Small size of land holdings
Land holding (less than 2 hectares) usually fragmented and scattered, lack of market facilities,
frequent crop failure, poor economic condition and other socio-economic problem related to
drylands. Extremely poor condition of farmers, lack of infrastructure to boost production.
7.6 All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) for Dryland Agriculture
In order to deal with the above mentioned aberrant weather conditions which are a problem for farming
in such areas, Indian council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) started All India Coordinated Research
Project for Dryland Agriculture (AICRPDA) in 1970 with the assistance from the Government of Canada.
The project presently has 25 co-operative centres.
The establishment of Central Research Institute for dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) at Hyderabad in 1985
gave an impetus by providing basic and strategic research support.
7.6.1 The following is the mandate of the mission:

✓ Optimize the use of natural resources, i.e., rainfall, land and water, and minimize soil and water loss
and degradation of environment.
✓ Evolve simple technologies to substantially increase crop productivity and profitability.
✓ Increase stability of crop production over years by providing improvements in natural resources
management, crop management systems and alternate crop production technologies matching
weather aberrations.
✓ Develop alternate and sustainable land use systems.
✓ Evaluate and study transferability of improved dryland technologies to farmers’ fields.
7.7 Improved dryland technologies

Following are the various improved techniques and practices recommended for achieving the objective
of increased and stable crop production in dryland areas.
7.7.1 Crop planning

Crop varieties for dryland areas should be of short duration, drought resistant and high yielding which
can be harvested within rainfall periods and have sufficient residual moisture in soil profile for post-
monsoon cropping.
7.7.2 Planning for weather

Variation in yields and output of the dryland agriculture is due to the observation in weather conditions
especially rainfall.
7.7.3 Crop substitution

Traditional crops/varieties which are inefficient utilizer of soil moisture, less responsive to production
input and potentially low producers should be substituted by more efficient ones. For the non-farm
operation dryland areas have to be supplemented with non-form occupation like animal husbandry,
fisheries, poultry, social forestry and cottage for the development of these areas.
7.7.4 Cropping systems
Increasing the cropping intensities by using the practice of inter cropping and multiple cropping is the way
of more efficient utilization of resources.
7.7.5 Integrated nutrient management (INM)

INM need to be practiced with special emphasis on use of bio-fertilizers to maintain the soil fertility.
7.7.6 Integrated weed management and integrated pest management (IWM and IPM)
(IWM and IPM) need to be adopted to control weeds and pests, respectively.
7.7.7 Other technologies include

Watershed management, Rain-water management, Alternate Land use etc.

2) Farming System

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Summary Sheet – Helpful for Retention

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2. For Building Concepts along with examples/concept checks you should

3. It would be useful to go through this Summary sheet just before the

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1.2 Definition or Meaning of Farming System

1.3 Structure/Concept of Farm/Farming system

This can be pictorially depicted as

1.4 Factors influencing Farming systems

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1.5 Sustainability in a Farming system based on various factors involved

1.6 Classification of Farming System

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Comparative study of various forms of Traditional Farming systems

Nomadic herding/nomadic pastoralism

Subsistence farming, form of farming in

1.6.2 Semi Commercial System

1.6.2.1 Cropping System

*Cropping system would be dealt in detail in the coming chapters.

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The main characteristics of the mixed farming are

1.6.3 Commercial system

1.6.3.1 Perennial Crops

Examples of Perennial Farming system are Plantations and Agroforestry.

1.6.3.2 Livestock Ranching

2 Types of Farming Systems in India

2.2 Conventional Farming System

2.3 Alternative Farming Systems

2.3.1 Organic Farming

2.3.2 Agro-ecological Farming system

2.3.3.1 The 8 basic principles of this type of farming system are:

2.3.4 Bio-dynamic Agriculture

2.3.4.1 Principles of Biodynamic Farming/Agriculture

2.3.4.2 Advantages of Biodynamic Farming/Agriculture

2.3.5.1 Permaculture lies on three ethics

✓ Care for people

2.3.5.2 Principles of permaculture

Key differences between natural farming and organic farming:

Organic Farming Natural Farming

2.3.6.1 Features of Zero budget natural farming (ZBNF)

2.4 Specialised Farming System

2.4.1 Advantages of Specialised Farming System

✓ There is greater risk

2.5 Integrated Farming System

2.5.1 Advantages of Integrated Farming System

2.5.2 Components of Integrated Farming System

2.5.3 Factors to be considered while selecting IFS

2.5.3.1 Suitable grain crops

Black soil Red soil

2.5.3.3 Suitable tree species

Black soil Red gravelly/Sandy red loam soils Tamarind,

2.5.3.4 Suitable livestock and birds

2.5.5 Enterprises that can taken up as per different Agro ecosystems

3 Organic Farming – Meaning or Definition

3.1 Need of organic farming

The following are the main objectives of Organic Farming

3.2.1 Crop Rotation

In crop rotation, crops are changed from year to year

3.2.3 Organic Manure

3.2.4 Waste Management