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Unconvent
ionalReservoi
rs”.Pet erH.Lufholm &Deni seCox ,Eds.
West Texas Geological Society Publ. #05-115
Fall Symposium, October 26-27, 2005

THE DIAGENESIS AND FLUID MIGRATION HISTORY OF THE IN-

DIAN BASIN FIELD,
EDDY COUNTY, NEW MEXICO

Erik J. Hiemstra1 and Robert H. Goldstein2

1) The University of Kansas, Dept. of Geology

120 Lindley Hall, 1475 Jayhawk Blvd., Lawrence, Kansas 66045-7613
(Current address: ConocoPhillips Company, Upstream Technology
600 N. Dairy Ashford, PR 3066, Houston, TX 77079)
Erik.J.Hiemstra@conocophillips.com
2) The University of Kansas, Dept. of Geology
120 Lindley Hall, 1475 Jayhawk Blvd., Lawrence, Kansas 66045-7613
gold@ku.edu

ABSTRACT

The diagenesis and fluid migration history of the Indian basin field was investigated using
transmitted-light, UV-epifluorescence, cathodoluminescence, and SEM-BSE microscopy as well as
d13C, d18O, 87Sr/86Sr, and fluid inclusion analyses. These data show that replacement dolomite and
later saddle dolomite cements precipitated after substantial burial during tectonically valved, episodic
injection of hydrothermal brines. Vugs and molds were associated with the system of hydrothermal
fluid flow, which was driven by convection, probably initiated during 40-30 Ma intrusive activity and
continuing after the onset of Basin and Range uplift and unroofing. High quality Indian basin
reservoir occurs where Cisco and Canyon Formation carbonates were extensively dolomitized by the
hydrothermal system. The distribution of the dolomite and associated secondary porosity was
controlled by depositional setting (sedimentary facies and early diagenesis) and proximity to fault or
fracture systems that were conduits for hydrothermal fluids. Relatively clean, carbonate sediment
deposited in downdip settings was spared early, meteoric diagenesis, and thus, was prone to the de-
velopment of dolomite and secondary porosity later in the paragenesis. Petroleum and natural gas
migration occurred after some Basin and Range uplift, but before regional heat flow decreased and
the reservoir cooled to present-day temperatures.

INTRODUCTION formations. Production from the Indian basin

The Indian basin field, located approximately 20 miles
west of the city of Carlsbad in Eddy County, New
Mexico (Figure 1) produces from the Upper Pennsyl-
vanian Cisco (Virgilian) and Canyon (Missourian)
field has been prolific, yielding over 44 mmbbl of
oil and gas condensate and 2.4 tcf of natural gas.
This study incorporates multiple petrographic and
geochemical techniques in order to develop a con-
ceptual model for how tectonic valving of hydro-
thermal fluid flow combines with shelf setting to
West Texas Geological Society
Fall Symposium, October 26-27, 2005
The Diagenesis and Fluid Migration History of the Indian Basin Field, Eddy County, New Mexico

Figure 1. A paleogeographic reconstruction of the Permian Basin region in the late Paleozoic. The Indian basin and Dagger
Draw fields (see arrows on inset map) in Eddy County, New Mexico produce from Cisco-Canyon carbonates deposited during
the Late Pennsylvanian near the approximate boundary between the Northwest shelf and the Delaware basin. (Modified from
Frenzel et al., 1988; Speer, 1993; Barnaby et al., 1995.
create excellent carbonate reservoir properties. The introduc t
iono f“
ba si
na lbr i
ne s
”( Co xe ta l.,19 98)or
study presented here is a highly abbreviated version of “hy drotherma lwat er
s”( Tinkere ta l
.,2 0 00)t hrough
a more extensive study. Out of the necessity of this fault and fracture systems. These hypotheses are
shortened format, most details have been removed. strongly supported by observations from this study.
The results focus on the relationship between shelf Reservoir rocks in the Indian basin yield a highly com-
setting, tectonic history, and hydrothermal fluid circu- plex paragenesis with multiple events of fracturing,
lation in evolution of the reservoir system. porosity formation, and dolomite precipitation.
(Figures 2, 3).
FORMATION OF DOLOMITE AND RELATED
POROSITY Microthermometric data from primary fluid inclusions
indicate that Indian basin dolomite precipitated at tem-
Earlier studies have suggested that the dolomite phases peratures as much as 70º C higher than the maximum
and vuggy porosity observed in the Indian basin and burial temperature expected (≤10 0º C) given a geo-
South Dagger Draw fields may have resulted from the thermal gradient of 25º C/km. This observation can be
Figure 2. Diagram showing the sequence of major, late diagenetic events that postdate the onset of stylolitization. Individual diagenetic events shown
here are numbered based upon their position within the paragenetic sequence. The grayscale shades of the replacement dolomite and dolomite cements
are representative of cathodoluminescence properties (white = brightly luminescent, dark gray = non-luminescent). Dark gray areas represent extant po-
rosity. Major events of late diagenesis include: (13+) progressive stylolitization (14) opening of stylolites, fracturing, and brecciation, (15) precipitation
of replacement dolomite and minor cementation (dull to moderately bright luminescence), (16) dissolution, (17) precipitation of dolomite cement
1 (moderately bright luminescence; cloudy because of abundant fluid inclusions), (18) fracturing, (19) precipitation of dolomite cement 2 (dull lumines-
cence), (20) precipitation of dolomite cement 3 (moderately bright luminescence), (21) precipitation of dolomite cement 4 (very dull or non-luminescent),
(22) minor fracturing, (23) precipitation of dolomite cement 5 (bright luminescence), (24) precipitation of dolomite cement 6 (dull luminescence), (13)
continued stylolitization, (25) precipitation of anhydrite, (26) fracturing, (27 or 28) dissolution, and (27 or 28) petroleum and natural gas migration
(represented by secondary assemblages of hydrocarbon inclusions with yellowish green, green, blue, and aqua UV-fluorescence colors).
Erik J. Hiemstra and Robert H. Goldstein
Fall Symposium, October 26-27, 2005
West Texas Geological Society Publ. #05-115
West Texas Geological Society
Fall Symposium, October 26-27, 2005
The Diagenesis and Fluid Migration History of the Indian Basin Field, Eddy County, New Mexico

Figure 3. Interpretation of the approximate timing of the major diagenetic events based on petrographic and fluid inclusion
data. The tectonic phases shown have been modified from Horak (1985).

used to argue for either hydrothermal injection or re-
gionally elevated geothermal gradients without fluid
flow (Figure 4). Fluid inclusion data suggest that tem-
perature and fluid salinity varied across the field dur-
ing the precipitation of potentially time-equivalent
growth zones, indicating that fluid flow must have
been involved, rather than high geothermal gradients
in a stagnant fluid system. Fluid inclusions measured
in transects record repeated rises and falls in Th and
salinity, indicating that the fluid flow was episodic.
Oxygen isotope data show spatial variability indicating
that dolomite located in areas closer to faults com-
monly precipitated at higher temperatures than dolo-
mite located farther from faults. These geochemical
data indicate that the system involved injection of hot,
hydrothermal fluids.
Several events of fracturing are closely associated with
dolomite precipitation within the paragenesis (Figures
2, 3). This petrographic observation suggests a rela-
tionship between tectonic deformation and hydrother-
mal fluid flow. Evidence for episodic fluid flow is
consistent with a tectonically valved system, in which
faults and fractures provided important conduits for
fluid flow.
TIMING OF DOLOMITE
Replacement dolomite and six dolomite cements
(DC1-6 from oldest to youngest) have been shown to
postdate some stylolitization, opening of stylolites,
tectonic brecciation, and intense fracturing (Figures 2,
3). These relationships indicate a timing well after the
Marathon-Ouachita orogeny and likely after Laramide
deformation in the Late Cretaceous-early Eocene
(Seager et al., 1997). Considering this timing, one
could consider a scenario in which gravity-driven (e.g.
Garven and Freeze, 1984a, b; Kopf, 1986; Leach and
Rowan, 1986; Bethke and Marshak, 1990; Garven et
al., 1993) or tectonically driven (e.g. Oliver, 1986)
 West Texas Geological Society Publ. #05-115
Fall Symposium, October 26-27, 2005
Erik J. Hiemstra and Robert H. Goldstein

fluids migrated eastward through a Laramide foreland
and into the Indian basin. This scenario seems
unlikely because the hydrothermal fluids would have
had to follow a complex flow path, possibly blocked
by the Pedernal basement high. Moreover, dolomite
becomes uncommon to the west in the Indian basin,
further evidence against flow eastward through a Lara-
mide foreland.
The hydrothermal system likely was driven by convec-
tion and initiated in the Eocene-Oligocene "volcanic
phase" (40-30 Ma) of southeast New Mexico, during
which widely distributed igneous intrusions and extru-
sions are known (Horak, 1985). The intrusives closest
to the Indian basin are approximately 35-30 Ma
(Calzia and Hiss, 1978; Brookins, 1980; Brookins et
al., 1980). This time of extensive igneous activity was
likely one of elevated heat flow (Horak, 1985; Barker
and Halley, 1986; Barker and Pawlewicz, 1987).
Hydrothermal ore deposits are known in the region and
are dominated by a variety of sulfides, fluorite and
barite. Hill (1996) noted that some ores are spatially
associated with 39-32 Ma intrusives (Barker et al.,
1977; Sharp, 1979; Henry and McDowell, 1986).

Figure 4. Diagrammatic representation of fluid inclusion microthermometric data. Fluid inclusion salinities have been ap-
proximated using the H20-NaCl model fluid system. Black boxes represent Th and salinity data from consistent FIAs. Dark
Gray boxes represent Th and salinity data from inconsistent FIAs and single fluid inclusions. Dashed boxes represent salinities
that were not calculated directly from Tm ice measurements, but rather inferred from the final melting temperature of hydrohal-
ite. Dashed lines connect data from consistent FIAs. Th data from fluid inclusions showing evidence for necking down after a
phase change or heterogeneous entrapment have been omitted from this diagram. Data on modern formation water salinity are
from Barnaby et al. (1995). Modern reservoir temperatures were obtained from Marathon internal reports.
West Texas Geological Society
Fall Symposium, October 26-27, 2005
The Diagenesis and Fluid Migration History of the Indian Basin Field, Eddy County, New Mexico
Most of the ore deposits are assigned an Oligocene
age, but some may be Miocene, forming along Basin
and Range normal faults (Hill, 1993). The replace-
ment dolomite and some dolomite cement (DC1-3)
probably formed during the hydrothermal activity as-
sociated with the volcanic phase (40-30 Ma). Later
dolomite cements (DC4-6) record evidence for contin-
ued high heat flow and the influx of lower salinity
fluids, perhaps associated with an early phase of Basin
and Range uplift (Figure 4).
DIAGENETIC MODEL FOR LOCATION OF
RESERVOIR
The comprehensive diagenetic model developed herein
should be useful for further development of the Indian
basin and for the prediction of reservoir properties and
quality in similar hydrothermal dolomite reservoirs
(Figure 5). Carbonate reservoirs are often approached
with an assumption that shallow-water deposits consti-
tute the most viable reservoir rocks because of low
clay content, high primary porosity, and potential for
porosity enhancement resulting from subaerial expo-
sure. However, the Indian basin field serves as an
example in which carbonates deposited in shallow-
water, updip depositional settings have been largely
unproductive, whereas wells completed in clean car-
bonate deposited in deeper water, downdip deposi-
tional settings (Cox et al., 1998) have been productive.
In these downdip settings, the best reservoir properties
(i.e. extant intercrystalline, vuggy, moldic, breccia,
fracture, and solution-enlarged primary porosity) are
developed in pervasively dolomitized portions of the
Indian basin field (Cox et al., 1998). Limestone inter-
vals that have not been altered significantly by dolo-
mitization are either argillaceous or show evidence of
early aragonite dissolution followed by porosity occlu-
sion with low-temperature, possibly meteoric, calcite
cement. This interpretation is consistent with the find-
ings of previous studies that investigated the diagene-
sis of Cisco and Canyon Formation carbonates. These
studies suggested that dissolution of aragonite grains
and calcite cementation occurred in near-surface,
freshwater systems beneath surfaces of subaerial expo-
sure (Wingate et al., 1991; Saller et al., 1994). In
Cisco-equivalent limestones, cropping out in the
nearby Sacramento Mountains, meteoric cements are
more abundant updip and porosity is preserved
downdip (Goldstein, 1988).
Indian basin dolomite shows little or no evidence for
significant freshwater diagenesis (e.g. surfaces of
subaerial exposure, freshwater cementation). Further,
the textures observed suggest that much of the sedi-
ment may have remained uncemented or poorly ce-
mented during early stages of compaction. These ob-
servations, and the interpretation of a deeper water,
sub-wave base depositional setting (Cox et al., 1998;
this study) strongly suggest dolomitized Indian basin
strata did not experience many intraformational events
of subaerial exposure. Thus, much of the dolomitized
sediment was deposited in a downdip setting and was
not stabilized mineralogically nor cemented early in
the paragenesis. In contrast, time-equivalent strata
deposited in updip settings likely experienced repeated
events of subaerial exposure, leading to mineralogical
stabilization and significant amounts of porosity occlu-
sion with meteoric calcite.
The dolomite reservoir in the Indian basin was formed
where the downdip carbonate strata were subjected to
injection of hydrothermal fluids. Fractures and faults
that were active during dolomite formation were effec-
tive conduits for maintaining hydrothermal flow. In
contrast to sediment deposited in updip positions,
downdip strata were more prone to alteration in the
hydrothermal system because they had been spared
meteoric diagenesis, remaining mineralogically unsta-
ble and permeable.
Areas of the Indian basin that are dominated by argil-
laceous limestone and shale have been interpreted to
record an even deeper water depositional setting (Cox
et al., 1998). The carbonate facies of these strata are
poor reservoirs because they were not dolomitized by
the hydrothermal fluids. This is not surprising given
the low permeability of the shale and its response to
stress.
This study shows that the distribution of dolomite and
associated secondary porosity in the Indian basin was
controlled by depositional setting and proximity to
fault and fracture systems. The setting was one with
deposition of relatively clean carbonate sediment pro-
tected from early meteoric diagenesis because of its
downdip position. The formation of dolomite and the
 West Texas Geological Society Publ. #05-115
Fall Symposium, October 26-27, 2005
Erik J. Hiemstra and Robert H. Goldstein

Figure 5. Model for evolution and localization of the Indian basin reservoir. (A) Collision phase is dominated by deposition of
clean carbonates in updip and downdip positions, along with fracturing, internal sedimentation, early compaction, zebra fabrics
and chalcedony. (B) Periods of low sea level result in meteoric diagenesis in updip positions, stabilizing updip carbonates and
cementing them with meteoric calcite. Clean carbonates downdip, that eventually will be the reservoir rocks for the Indian
basin, are spared the early meteoric diagenesis because of their downdip positions. (C) During the Permian Basin and stable
platform phase, rocks are buried by the Wolfcamp shale and overlying sedimentary pile, inducing stylolitization. (D) During
the Laramide phase, rocks are fractured. (E) Extensive hydrothermal circulation is induced during the volcanic phase, resulting
in replacement dolomite, dissolution, and dolomite cementation. Fracturing continues during this phase. (F) During Basin and
Range uplift and unroofing, hydrothermal alteration continues with further fracturing, dolomite cementation and dissolution, as
well as cementation with anhydrite and hydrocarbon migration.
West Texas Geological Society
Fall Symposium, October 26-27, 2005
The Diagenesis and Fluid Migration History of the Indian Basin Field, Eddy County, New Mexico
development of associated secondary porosity also
required proximity to faults and fractures that were
active during a time in which a hydrothermal drive
existed.
This model can be used to recommend targets for fur-
ther development outside of the current area of produc-
tion in the Indian basin. The shale-rich areas are
unlikely to be productive, but where faults extend into
updip limestones, hydrothermal fluid flow was likely.
As much of this limestone may have been mineralogi-
cally stabilized and of low permeability, hydrothermal
fluid flow would have been less extensive than in
strata downdip. Thus, any reservoir porosity created
by hydrothermal fluid flow in the updip limestone
would likely be highly localized to the fault zones.
From an exploration perspective, this model can be
used to locate other carbonate reservoirs created by
hydrothermal fluid circulation through clean, fractured
carbonates. Strategies for exploration for structurally
controlled hydrothermal dolomite reservoirs (e.g. De-
vonian of Western Canada and Trenton-Black River;
Qing and Mountjoy, 1992, 1994; Shirley, 2002; Allan
and Wiggins, 1993) should incorporate the controls on
the distribution of dolomite and secondary porosity
identified in this study. In addition, other hydrother-
mal dolomite reservoirs that are similar to the Indian
basin may exist elsewhere in the Permian Basin.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the following corpo-
rate sponsors: Marathon, ChevronTexaco, and Kerr-
McGee. It benefited by extensive interaction with
Mark Bitter, Hedi Ben Tahar, and Todd Creamer.
Partial support was provided by the University of Kan-
sas Geology Associates Fund and the W. M. Keck
Foundation.
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