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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 112–119

www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

7th International Conference on Advances on Clean Energy Research, ICACER 2022 April
20–22, 2022, Barcelona, Spain

Notable improvement of fuel properties of waste tire pyrolysis oil by

blending a novel pumpkin seed oil–biodiesel
Md. Nurun Nabia ,∗, Wisam K. Hussamb , Adib Bin Rashidc , Jahidul Islamd ,
Shamiul Islamd , Hasan Mohammad Mostofa Afroze
a School of Engineering and Technology, Central Queensland University (CQU), Australia
b School of Engineering, Australian University, Safat, Kuwait
c Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Dhaka, Bangladesh
d Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology (RUET), Rajshahi, Bangladesh
e Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET), Gazipur, Bangladesh

Received 4 October 2022; accepted 9 October 2022

Available online 25 October 2022

Abstract
A comprehensive fuel property using neat diesel, neat tire (100% tire oil after distillation of crude tire oil from pyrolysis
process) oil, diesel–tire oil blend and diesel–tire oil–biodiesel blends were investigated in this study. The tire oil was derived
from waste tire by pyrolysis process at a temperature of 450 ◦ C. The tire oil was upgraded by the fractional distillation
process. Different proportions (10 vol% and 20 vol%) of waste tire oil were mixed with a reference diesel fuel. Various ratios,
including 10 vol% and 20 vol% biodiesel was blended with waste tire oil and waste tire oil–diesel blends to examine the fuel
properties with a target to use the different fuel blends as compression ignition (CI) engine’s fuel. A novel pumpkin seed oil
(Cucurbita pepo) biodiesel was chosen due to its abundant availability and renewable nature. The reason for blending pumpkin
seed oil–biodiesel is to improve the waste tire oil fuel properties and investigate the influence of fuel oxygen on different fuel
properties. Binary blends, including tire oil–diesel, tire oil–biodiesel, and ternary blends, including diesel–tire oil–biodiesel,
were prepared for the tests. The properties tested in this investigation were density, viscosity, higher and lower heating value,
smoke limit, flash point, fire point, aniline point, pour point, cloud point, cetane number, sulphur and carbon residue, proton
nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR), Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy and elemental analysis (CHONS). The
comprehensive fuel property results showed that all binary and ternary blends show similar properties compared to reference
diesel. Although the binary blends of tire oil and biodiesel indicate a little inferior property than reference diesel fuel, they
can be used as fuels for compression ignition engines.
© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 7th International Conference on Advances on Clean Energy Research, ICACER,
2022.

Keywords: Diesel; Waste tire oil; Pumpkin seed oil–biodiesel; Binary and ternary blends; Fuel properties

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: m.nabi@cqu.edu.au (M.N. Nabi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.10.246
2352-4847/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http:
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 7th International Conference on Advances on Clean Energy Research,
ICACER, 2022.
M.N. Nabi, W.K. Hussam, A.B. Rashid et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 112–119

1. Introduction

Demand for energy is ever-rising as transportation worldwide is getting better and better every year [1]. A total
amount of 31,310 TWh of final energy was used for transportation in only 2015 globally and it was responsible
for 14% of green-house gas emission of that year [2]. Renewable energies are getting more focus than ever for
the last few decades [3]. Various types of biofuels have been researched and tried on vehicles to check their worth
replacing conventional fossil fuels. Those renewable energies can be produced by a well-known pyrolysis process.
The pyrolysis process refers to a thermal-degradation process that can yield valuable products like gas, char, and
oil from municipal solid wastes or even from waste tires [4]. Solid wastes, including waste tires were carbonised
in a pilot-scale batch flame pyrolyser to produce activated carbon [5]. Pyrolysis oil is one of the products form
waste tire pyrolysis process of yielding 40% oil, along with 42% char and 18% gas [6]. The tire pyrolysis oil
has a high calorific value giving it the edge to be used as fuel [7,8]. Also, waste tire pyrolysis oil (WTPO) can
have identical fuel properties like conventional petroleum fuels [6]. But, high viscosity and density, low flash point,
presence of sulphur and nitrogen compounds make it unsuitable for being used as an alternative fuel directly in the
automotive sector [9]. That is why further purification processes such as fractional distillation needs to be carried out
before using it as an alternative fuel for combustion purposes. Numerous attempts have been made to utilise WTPO,
refine it, and make it more usable. Dual-blend of WTPO and fossil fuels have also been tried out. Pumpkin seed
oil–biodiesel which is not only a solution in the renewable energy sector but also it will provide a solution for waste
tires disposal and environmental degradation issue. This study attempted to improve waste tire oil fuel properties by
blending a novel pumpkin seed oil–biodiesel. A significant number of fuel properties were determined for diesel,
binary and ternary blends of diesel, pumpkin seed biodiesel and waste tire oil. As far as authors are concerned, no
literature was found that dealt with the notable improvement of tire oil fuel properties by blending pumpkin seed
oil–biodiesel.

2. Materials and methods

A hot plate magnetic stirrer was used to heat 600 ml of Pumpkin seed oil to 100 ◦ C to eliminate the water
content. The heated oil is then allowed to cool to 60 degrees Celsius. The methoxide (a methanol/catalyst mixture)
is then poured into the hot oil. Sodium hydroxide is used as a catalyst (NaOH). The molar ratio of methanol to
oil is kept at 6:1, and the amount of catalyst used is evaluated by titration. The oil and methoxide combination is
stirred at 600 rpm in a magnetic stirrer, maintaining 60 degrees Celsius. After an hour of stirring, the mixture was
stored in a separating funnel for gravity separation. As a result, after 24 h in the container, two phases of glycerol
and biodiesel were developed. Because of the low density of biodiesel, it floats over glycerol in the lower phase.
The separating funnel was used to separate the biodiesel and glycerol.
Pyrolysis oil from the waste tire was obtained at 450 ◦ C. The upgradation of the crude tire oil is required to
improve its fuel properties. The pyrolysis crude tire oil was distilled in a distillation apparatus shown in Fig. 1. The
distilled tire oil was blended with conventional diesel fuel and biodiesel in different percentages. The details of test
fuels are shown in Table 1.

Fig. 1. Distillation of crude pyrolysis oil.

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Table 1. Test fuels, their blending percentages, and notations.

Diesel Tire oil Biodiesel Notation Blend type
[vol%] [vol%] [vol%]
100 0 0 ND Single
0 100 0 NT Single
90 10 0 10T90D Binary
80 20 0 20T80D Binary
80 10 10 10T10B80D Ternary
70 20 10 20T10B70D Ternary
70 10 20 10T20B70D Ternary
0 90 10 10B90T Binary
0 80 20 20B80T Binary

3. Results and discussions

Fig. 2(a) shows the density of the nine tested fuels, including neat diesel and neat tire oil. It is well known
that density is the ratio between mass and volume of matter. The density was measured at 15 ◦ C according to
the ASTM D1298 protocol. As can be seen from the Figure that the density is within 0.86 gm/cc, which is the
standard requirement for biodiesel fuel. As per Fig. 2(a), the density of diesel fuel shows the minimum (0.8343
g/cc), while the 20BD80TO blend shows the maximum. This is due to the higher density of neat tire oil and
neat biodiesel. All other binaries and ternary mixtures show densities in 0.84 – 0.85 g/cc. The density results
indicated that all fuels, including the neat tire oil (100%), is also suitable to use as fuel for CI engines. However,
recommendations on sustainable fuels for CI engines should be made based on the other fuel properties. Fig. 2(b)
shows the kinematic viscosity of nine tested fuels. Viscosity is an important fuel property. The resistance to flow is
the reverse of fluidity [4]. Viscosity influences fuel penetration, atomisation of fuel droplet size, spray behaviours,
engine output power and lubricity. Very low viscosity leads to smoke emissions [4].

Fig. 2. (a) Density (b) Kinematic viscosity, and (c) Dynamic viscosity of nine tested fuels.

Kinematic viscosity was determined at 40 ◦ C as per ASTM D445 standard protocol. According to biodiesel
fuel properties, the kinematic viscosity can be varied from 1.9–6.0 cSt. It is interesting to note that neat tire oil
and its blends (10BD90TO and 20BD80TO) show lower kinematic viscosity than other tested fuels. However, all
other binary and ternary blends indicate similar kinematic viscosities relative to reference diesel. Lower or similar
kinematic viscosities with novel biodiesel and waste tire oil blends anticipate similar exhaust emissions. Dynamic
viscosities for the same fuels are illustrated in Fig. 2(b). Dynamic viscosity is the multiplication of kinematic
viscosity and density. As indicated in Fig. 2(c), the dynamic viscosity of all 9 tested fuels shows similar trends to
kinematic viscosity. The dynamic viscosities vary from 1.66 to 2.39 mPa s. Interesting to note that adding pumpkin
seed oil–biodiesel to diesel does not significantly increase or decrease the viscosities compared to reference diesel.
The insignificant changes in viscosities with tire oil–biodiesel–diesel blends relative to the reference diesel fuel
expect lower carbon-related emissions due to the presence of molecular oxygen in the blends.
Fig. 3(a) exhibits flash and fire points, 3(b) cloud and pour points, and 3(c) aniline points of the same nine fuels
illustrated in Fig. 1. The flash point is important for any flammable fuel. It is the temperature at which flash occurs
using a source of ignition but disappears when ignition source is removed. Therefore, the higher the flash point of
fuel, the safer the transportation is. The flash point was determined according to the ASTM D93 method. As shown
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Fig. 3. (a) Flash and fire point; (b) Cloud and pour point; and (c) Aniline point of nine tested fuels.

in Fig. 3(a), the flash points are lower for neat tire oil and its blends with pumpkin seed oil–biodiesel (10B90T,
20B80T). This is associated with the lower flash points of neat tire oil. A close look at the Figure reveals that a
higher percentage of biodiesel to tire oil increases the flash points. In this case, 20B80T shows higher flash points
than that of 10B90T. However, the flash points improved when biodiesel was added to the diesel–tire oil blend. It is
also noticeable that flash points of tire oil were improved than neat tire oil when 10% and 20% tire oil were blended
with 90% diesel and 80% diesel, respectively. Kumaravel et al. [10] reported higher flash points when added tire oil
to diesel. The fire point in Fig. 3(a) is defined as the minimum temperature when the fuel keeps burning even after
the ignition source is removed. In the current investigation, the fire points were measured according to the ASTM
D93 method. It is reported [10] that the fire points are usually 5–10 ◦ C higher than flash points, which is reflected
in the current investigation. In this study, neat tire oil indicates the lowest, and 10T20B70 shows the highest fire
points among all the fuels. Interesting to note that the trends of fire points for all fuels are the same as the trends
of flash points.
It is widely accepted that cloud point is the lowest temperature at which first crystal/cloud/haziness forms,
whereas pour point, is the minimum temperature at which a fluid (liquid) causes to cease its flow. This signifies that
the cloud point occurs first, and then for further cooling pour point appears upon cooling. In Fig. 3(b), diesel shows
the highest cloud and pour points, but neat tire oil shows the lowest cloud and pours points. The tire oil–biodiesel
blends (10B90T, and 20B80T) show comparatively lower cloud and pour points than other fuels except for neat
diesel. This was associated with neat tire oil’s lowest cloud and pour points.
The variations of aniline points for nine different fuels are displayed in Fig. 3(c). The aniline points of nine
different fuels were determined as per ASTM D611. It is reported that the lower the aniline point, the better its
solubility [11]. All binary and ternary blends show almost similar aniline points to reference diesel. Based on the
aniline point observation for the nine fuels of this study, all binary and ternary blends have good miscibility among
themselves.
In Fig. 4(a), the smoke point was determined according to the ASTM D1322 method. The height of the highest
flame in mm without soot breakthrough is known as the smoke point [12]. The smoke point generally indicates
the smoke formation tendency of the tested fuels when burned. All three ternary biodiesel blends indicate similar
smoke points to neat diesel (ND) although those three ternary biodiesel blends contain tire oil and diesel. This is
due to the additional molecular oxygen in the biodiesel blends compared to neat diesel and neat tire oil.

Fig. 4. (a) Smoke point; (b) Sulphur and carbon residue; and (c) Cetane number of nine tested fuels.

The plots of sulphur contents and carbon residues are exhibited in Fig. 4(b). As seen in the Figure, the neat
tire oil and its two biodiesel blends (10B90T, 20B80T) show higher sulphur and carbon residues relative to neat
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diesel (ND) and other blends. The sulphur contents were determined according to the IP 61 method, while carbon
residues were measured per the ASTM D189 method. In this IP 61 method, the fuels’ sulphur can be measured in
the range of 0.09–5.5% (m/m). Neat biodiesel usually contains a minimum or nil sulphur; thus, its blends could
show lower sulphur content. As per Fig. 4(b), two ternary biodiesel blends (10T10B80D, 10T20B70D) show almost
similar sulphur contents and carbon residues to neat diesel (ND) although the two ternary biodiesel blends include
10 vol% tire oil. This significant improvement in sulphur content and carbon residues by adding biodiesel in the tire
oil anticipates lower particulate matter and other carbon-related emissions in diesel exhaust emissions. The changes
in the cetane number of nine tested fuels are depicted in Fig. 4(c). Cetane number signifies a fuel’s ignition quality
during combustion. The higher the cetane number of a compression ignition engine’s fuel, the faster the combustion
is. Except for neat tire oil and its two binary biodiesel blends (10B90T, 20B80T) show similar cetane numbers to
neat diesel fuel. The similar cetane number tire oil–diesel and tire oil–biodiesel–diesel blends anticipate the similar
ignition delay and combustion duration.
Fig. 5(a) presents the higher and lower heating values (HHV and LHV) of nine fuels, including neat diesel, neat
tire oil and different binary and ternary blends of diesel–tire oil, biodiesel–tire oil, and diesel–biodiesel–tire oil.
The measurement of heating values followed ASTM D2015 method. As evident from Fig. 5(a), neat diesel (ND)
shows the highest heating values (both higher and lower) than the other eight fuels/fuel blends, while the neat tire
oil (NT) shows the lowest. Although the addition of biodiesel to tire oil augments the heating values of two binary
blends of biodiesel–tire oil (10B90T and 20B80T), they are still lower than neat diesel. This is due to the lower
heating values of biodiesel and tire oil. It is interesting to note that mixing of tire oil to diesel and tire oil, biodiesel
to diesel improved both higher and lower heating values of neat tire oil. It is established that the greater amount
of heating values lead to higher engine torque and power compared to the lower amount of heating value fuels.
Fig. 5(a) shows no significant changes in heating values observed among the nine different fuels except neat tire
oil. Based on the heating value results, it can be speculated that all binary and ternary blends will produce similar
torque and power to neat diesel fuel. The changes in boiling temperatures for percent recoveries of the same nine
different fuels in Figs. 1–3, are plotted in Fig. 5(b). In Fig. 5(b), neat tire oil (NT) exhibits the lowest distillation
temperatures at all recovery percentages. The two tire oil–biodiesel blends (10B90T, 20B80T) slightly augment the
distillation temperatures compared to neat tire oil. This could be the higher distillation temperature of biodiesel.
The other binary and ternary blends indicate higher distillation temperatures but are still slightly lower than neat
diesel. The lower temperatures sometimes help to evaporate the fuel earlier in the combustion chamber and offer
lower ignition delays. Thus, all binary and ternary blends could experience better engine performance and lower
exhaust emissions.

Fig. 5. (a) Heating values; and (b) Boiling points of nine tested fuels.

The neat fuels and various blended fuels in this investigation are made up of various distinct components. As a
result, identifying and quantifying them using a single approach is difficult. The common methods for identifying
and quantifying potential chemicals in the tested blends include elemental analysis, 1 HNMR, and FTIR. Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) reveals the chemical characteristics of the tested fuels by indicating the
functional groups. Table 2 lists several functional groups, including bond types and compound classes derived from
wavenumbers for all fuels [4]. Low-intensity transmittance peaks were found in all fuels between frequencies 3749–
3600 cm−1 , indicating polymeric O-H stretching and water impurities. Between the higher intensity transmittance
peaks of 3113.2 cm−1 and 2854.65 cm−1 , the Alkanes compound class with C-H stretch vibration was identified in
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Table 2. FTIR results of different functional groups and compound classes for nine tested fuels.
Frequency Functional group Compound class Frequency Functional group Compound class Frequency Functional group Compound class
(1/cm) (1/cm) (1/cm)
Fuel: Diesel (ND) Fuel: Tire oil (NT) Fuel: 10T90D
3650.2 O-H stretching Polymeric O-H 3691.75 O-H stretching Polymeric O-H 3691.75 O-H stretching Polymeric O-H
2954.95 C-H stretching Alkanes 2924.09 C-H stretching Alkanes 2922.16 C-H stretching Alkanes
2922.16 C-H stretching Alkanes 2854.65 C-H stretching Alkanes 2852.72 C-H stretching Alkanes
2852.72 C-H stretching Alkanes 1745.58 C=O Aldehyde/ketone 1745.58 C=O Aldehyde/ketone
1458.18 C-H bending Alkanes 1670.35 C=C stretching Alkenes 1460.11 C-H bending Alkanes
1377.17 C-H bending Alkanes 1452.4 C-H bending Alkanes 1377.17 C-H bending Alkanes
1051.2 C-H ipba Aromatics 1375.25 C-H bending Alkanes 1060.85 C-H ipba Aromatics
721.38 C-H bend Alkanes 1053.13 C-H ipba Aromatics 810.10 C-H opbb Aromatics
657.73 C-H opbb Aromatics 887.2–742.5 C-H opbb Aromatics 723.31 C-H opbb Alkanes
Fuel: 20T80D Fuel: 10T10B80D Fuel: 20T10B70D
3691.75 O-H stretching Polymeric O-H 3650.2 O-H stretching Polymeric O-H 3691.75 O-H stretching Polymeric O-H
2922.16 C-H stretching Alkanes 2954.95 C-H stretching Alkanes 2954.95 C-H stretching Alkanes
2854.65 C-H stretching Alkanes 2922.16 C-H stretching Alkanes 2922.16 C-H stretching Alkanes
1745.58 C=O Aldehyde/ketone 2852.72 C-H stretching Alkanes 2852.72 C-H stretching Alkanes
1458.11 C-H bending Alkanes 2360.87 C=O Aldehyde/ketone 1747.51 C=O Aldehyde/ketone
1377.17 C-H bending Alkanes 1747.51 C-H bending Alkanes 1458.18 C-H bending Alkanes
1053.13 C-H ipba Aromatics 1460.11 C-H bending Alkanes 1377.17 C-H bending Alkanes
810.10 C-H opbb Aromatics 1377.17 C-H bending Alkanes 1163.08 C-H bending Alkanes
723.31 C-H opbb Aromatics 1165 C-H opbb Aromatics 887.2–742.5 C-H opbb Aromatics
810.10 C-H opbb Aromatics 723.31 C-H opbb Aromatics
Fuel: 10T20B70D Fuel: 10B90T Fuel: 20B80T
3650.2 O-H stretching Polymeric O-H 3691.75 O-H stretching Polymeric O-H 3691.75 O-H stretching Polymeric O-H
2954.95 C-H stretching Alkanes 2956.87 C-H stretching Alkanes 2954.95 C-H stretching Alkanes
2922.16 C-H stretching Alkanes 2924.09 C-H stretching Alkanes 2924.09 C-H stretching Alkanes
2852.72 C-H stretching Alkanes 2856.58 C-H stretching Alkanes 2854.65 C-H stretching Alkanes
1747.51 C=O Aldehyde/ketone 1745.58 C=O Aldehyde/ketone 1745.58 C=O Aldehyde/ketone
1460.11 C-H bending Alkanes 1668.4–1647.2 C=C stretching Alkenes 1668.4–1647.2 C=C stretching Alkenes
1377.17 C-H bending Alkanes 1452.4 C-H bending Alkanes 1454.33 C-H bending Alkanes
1236.37 C-H bending Alkanes 1375.25 C-H bending Alkanes 1375.25 C-H bending Alkanes
1163.08 C-H bending Alkanes 1159.22 C-H bending Alkanes 1159.22 C-H bending Alkanes
1116.7–1097.5 C-H ipba Aromatic 1116.7–1097.5 C-H opbb Aromatics 887.2–742.5 C-H opbb Aromatics
765.7–721.3 C-H opbb Aromatics 887.26–742.59 C-H opbb Aromatics 723.31 C-H opbb Aromatics

a ipb: in plane bending.

b opb: out-of-plane bending.

all nine fuels. Aldehydes or ketones (C=O, 2854.65 cm−1 ) were observed in all fuels except diesel. Transmittance
peaks between 1460.11–1377.11 cm−1 suggest the alkanes compound. The aromatic compounds at frequencies
between 887.2–723.31 cm−1 are available in all nine fuels, but high-intensity transmittance peaks were dominant
in biodiesel binary and ternary blends.
With respect to the 1 H nucleus in the molecules of the investigated substances, all 1 H NMR recordings for nine
tested fuels were made using a Bruker 400TM ASCEND spectrometer. The test was performed with deuterated
chloroform as a solvent at a frequency of 400 MHz. The test temperature was set at 296 K. All the studied fuels had
aromatic, aliphatic, and phenolic components, as shown in Fig. 6. However, the aromatic components are strong in
the tire oil and its blends. As seen in Fig. 6, aliphatic compounds have a shift range of 0.45–1.8 ppm, aliphatic groups
adjacent to aromatic/alkene groups have a chemical shift range of 1.85–3.5 ppm, aliphatic compounds adjacent to
oxygen/hydroxyl groups have a chemical shift range of 3.5–4.55 ppm, either phenolic (OH) or olefinic group has
a chemical 4.55–6.85 ppm. The aromatic compounds can be seen between 6.85 - >7.00 ppm [4]. The 1 H NMR
results support the FTIR results.
The carbon to hydrogen ratio from the elemental analysis reveals that they are within the range of 6.09–7.41. The
higher value of C/H suggests higher soot/smoke emissions. In the current investigation and based on the elemental
analysis, the C/H ratios for nine fuels (ND, NT, 10T90D, 20T80D, 10T10B80D, 20T10B70D, 10T20B70D, 10B90T,
and 20B80T) are 6.38, 7.41, 6.23, 6.37, 6.43, 6.41, 6.09, 6.89, and 6.79, respectively. The neat tire oil (NT) possess
the highest C/H ratio, while the 10T20B70D shows the lowest. All binary and ternary biodiesel blends show close
to similar C/H ratios to diesel due to oxygen availability in their molecular structure. Interesting to note that neat
tire oil (NT) has the highest C/H ratio of 7.41, but a notable improvement in the C/H ratio is observed when tire
oil is blended with diesel fuel and biodiesel is added tire oil and diesel.

4. Conclusions
In this study, a novel pumpkin seed oil–biodiesel was produced and added to pyrolysis oil derived from waste
tire oil to improve tire oil fuel properties. To achieve this target, tire oil was mixed with diesel fuel and biodiesel to
form binary blends. Furthermore, tire oil was mixed with diesel and biodiesels blend to form ternary blends. The
results of this investigation can be summarised as follows:
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Fig. 6. 1 H NMR of nine tested fuels.

• Neat tire oil (NT) and two blends with biodiesel (10B90T, 20B80T) show inferior flash and fire points.
However, other blends indicate almost similar flash and fire points to diesel. Similarly, the neat tire and its
two biodiesel blends show different cloud and pour points than diesel and other blends. However, all fuels
show almost insignificant variations in aniline points.
• The neat tire oil and 10B90T, 20B80T show higher smoke points, sulphur content and carbon residues than
diesel and other blends. On the other hand, a similar cetane number was observed with different fuels or
fuel blends except for neat tire oil. Regarding heating values, the neat tire oil indicates lower heating values.
Similarly, the boiling temperature of the neat tire and 10B90T, 20B80T were observed to be lower.
• The FTIR and 1 H NMR results suggest that all fuels contain aliphatic, aromatic, and phenolic components.
However, aromatic components dominate neat tire oil, 10B90T, 20B80T blends. A similar observation was
noticed for C/H ratios meaning the neat tire oil, 10B90T, 20B80T blends indicate higher C/H ratios than neat
diesel and other blends.
Based on the current investigation, binary blends of tire oil–diesel, tire oil–biodiesel, and ternary mixtures of tire
oil–biodiesel–diesel are suitable for compression ignition engine fuels.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could
have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability
Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgements
The current study was funded partially by the Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences, Kuwait
(CR19-45EM-01) and Central Queensland University, Australia (RSH/5221). In addition, the authors acknowledge
and thank the Military Institute of Science and Technology, Bangladesh, and Dhaka University of Engineering and
Technology (DUET), Bangladesh, for providing facilities to undertake part of the current investigation.

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