Hungerbuhler These, 1997

Diss. ETHZ No.
12371
Neogene basins in the Andes of southern Ecuador: evolution,

deformation and regional tectonic implications
A dissertation submitted to the
SWISS FEDERAL LNSTTTUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ZURICH
for the degree of
Doctor of Natural Sciences
presented by
Dominik Hungerbiihler
dipl. phil. II (Geology), University of Zurich
born August 24,1968

citizen of Riiti (ZH), Sommeri and Hefenhofen (TG), Switzerland
accepted on the recommendation of
PD Dr. Wilfried Winkler ETH Zurich examiner

Prof. Dr. Daniel Bernoulli ETH Zurich co-examiner
Dr. Diane Seward ETH Zurich co-examiner
Prof. Dr. Martin Burkhard University of Neuchatel co-examiner
1997
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present study started in spring 1994 and forms with a more regional approach a continu¬
ation of my Diploma on the basin of Nabon. The Nabon project initiated in 1991 the work on
Ecuadorian geology at the ETH in Zurich. In Summer 1990,1 established first contacts in Ecuador
with the idea in mind of starting a diploma project in this country. During this time my wife Carmen
and my parents in law helped me much to deepen these contacts and I would like to thank them for
their support.
My Doctoral project benefited from the support of my supervisors and I would like to thank
all of them. Wilfried Winkler made this project possible and he received the grants from the Swiss
National Science Foundation. Especially during the last period, my thesis benefited a lot from his
comprehensive reviews. Diane Seward introduced me in the fission-track method and her warm
support was extremely helpful during the entire study. Martin Burkhard helped me much with his
enthusiasm for geology and many new ideas. I appreciate very much the experience and expertise
of Daniel Bernoulli and Adrian Pfiffner (University of Berne) who reminded me at the bigger scale
of the interpretations. Regarding further scientific support, I would like to acknowledge the contri¬
bution of Dawn E. Peterson (California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco). Her enthusiastic and
incredible fast work on the Ecuadorian ostracods represent an important result for the regional
paleogeographic interpretation. In particular, I would like to thank my colleague Michael Stein-
mann for the good co-operation during the entire project and his support in the field and also in
Zurich. Finally, thanks are also due to all my colleagues at the Institute of Geology in Zurich.to Eva
Sauter for the careful review of the thesis, to Urs Helg and Cliff Hammer for discussion of the
"Santa Isabel geology", to Peter Hochuli for palynological studies and to Elisabeth Fourtanier
(California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco) for diatom identifications.
During the long stays in Ecuador (a total of more than one year) Arturo Egiiez helped me a lot
with his detailed knowledge of the regional geology and also his warm support is highly appreci¬
ated. Some regions of the present study area overlapped with die field area of Warren Pratt from
the British Geological Survey. I would like to thank Warren for the very profitable exchange of
ideas and results in the field and also by numerous e-mails.
The family of my wife Carmen made me feel at home in Quito and Loja and all of them
received me always "con muchisimo carino y les agradezco por todo el apoyo que recibi en sus
tierras tan hermosas". In my other home country I would like to thank a lot my parents for their
support of my "long" education period, although I tried to finish as fast as possible.

This Doctoral project was funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation grants No. 21-
39134.93 and 20-45256.95.

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Contents
Abstract VB
JX
1. Litroduction...........................................................,.......„............-.............»«..«............»"."-»»-........l
1
1.1. Geological setting
4
1.2. Study area, access and cartographic information used
1.3. Description of the project 5
2. Zircon fission-track chronostratigraphy..................„.....«...................-........«...............«.....................7

2.1. Introduction 7
2.2.Fission-track dating 8
2.2.1. Age determinations on zircon -

depositional ages 10
2.2.2. Methods 10
calibration 11
2.2.3. Age calculation with the zeta
2.2.4. Statistical treatment of mixed fission-track ages 15
multiple samples 15
2.3.5. Comments on ages and detrital
2.3. Results 17
2.3.1. Volcanic and metamorphic rock underlying the Tertiary basins 17
2.3.2. Basin fill series 24
2.3.3. Timing of deformation 24
3. Stratigraphy and fades of Tertiary basin fill series and volcanic rocks. ......
....25
3.1. Previous stratigraphic correlations 25
3.2. Metamorphic basement 28
3.2.1. Chigunda and Agoyan units 28
3.3. Cretaceous series 30
3.3.1. Celica Formation 30
3.3.2. Naranjo and Casanga Formation 33
3.4. Paleogene volcanic series 33
3.4.1. Sacapalca Formation 33
3.4.2. Loma Blanca Formation 35

3.4.3. Saraguro Formation 39
3.4.4. Jacapa Formation (sediments) 41
3.4.5. Santa Isabel Formation 41
3.5. Playas basin 44
3.5.1. Rio Playas Formation 44
3.6. Miocene basin series 45
3.6.1. Gir6n-Santa Isabel basin 45
A Burrohuaycu Formation 47
B Giron Formation 49
C Uchucay Formation 50
D Turi Formation 51
ETarqui Formation 52
3.6.2. Loja basin 53

A Trigal Formation 54
B La Banda Formation 57
C Beleh Formation 60
D San Cayetano Formation 60
E Quillollaco Formation 62
FSalapa Formation 63
3.6.3. Malacatos-Vllcabamba basin 64
A Quinara Formation 66
B San Jose1 Formation 66
C Santo Domingo Formation 71
D Ceno Mandango Formation 75

Contents
3.6.4. Catamayo-Gonzanamd basin 79

A Gonzanamd Formation 80
B Catamayo Formation 81
3.7. Overview of me Tertiary stratigraphy in southern Ecuador. 83
4. Evolution of the Miocene depositional environments..............................................................................89

4.1. Introduction 89
4.2. Ecological significance of tile ostracods and foraminifera 90
4.3. Synthesis of depositional environments 94
4.3.1. The Loja Embayment in the Middle Miocene 95
4.3.2. The Santa Rosa-Saraguro High and die Cuenca Embayment in the Middle Miocene 97
4.3.3. The Vilcabamba Inlet in Middle/Late Miocene 98
4.3.4. Progradation of fluvial systems in the early Late Miocene 98
4.3.5. Intermontane stage in the Late Miocene 99
5. Miocene extensional basin formation and basin inversion..................................,..............................100

5.1. Introduction 100
5.2. Tectonic setting of southern Ecuador. 101
5.3. Middle Miocene extension and basin formation 104
5.3.1. Giron-Santa Isabel basin 104
5.3.2. Loja and Malacatos-Vilcabamba basins 107
5.4. Late Miocene compression a regional event
-
109
5.4.1. Gir6n-Santa Isabel basin 109
5.4.2. Loja basin 114
5.4.3. Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin 115
Catamayo-Gonazanaimt basin
5.4.4. 117
5.5. Discussion of strike-slip deformation 120
5.6. Summary of basin formation and deformation during the Late Tertiary 122
6. Late Tertiary paleogeographic and tectonic evolution in southern Ecuador............ ......123

6.1. Correlations with the Costa and the Oriente of Ecuador. 123
6.1.1. Ecuadorian Costa 123
6.1.2. Ecuadorian Oriente 128
6.1.3. Northern and central Sierra of Ecuador. 131
6.2. Regional correlation of faunal and ecologic data in northern South America 132
6.2.1. Evidence for seaways 132
6.2.2. Discussion of marine seaways versus avian transport of faunas 135
6.3. Palinspastic reconstruction for the Middle Miocene in southern Ecuador. 136
6.4. Late Tertiary uplift history of the southern Ecuadorian Andes and correlation with Peru and Colombia.... 138
6.4.1. Late Tertiary uplift of the southern Ecuadorian Andes 138
6.4.2. Correlation with the Andean uplift history in Colombia and Peru 140
7. A Late Tertiary tectonic model of southern Ecuador............................ .

142
7.1. Discussion of extensional periods versus compressional events 142
7.1.1. Plate tectonic models and controlling parameters 142
7.1.2. Application to the Tertiary tectonic evolution of southern Ecuador. 144
7.2. Conclusions 150
References.........................................................................................«........................................................152
Appendlx...............„..............................................._....................................................................„.......„....164
1. Previous age determinations of Tertiary plutonic and volcanic rocks in Sierra of Ecuador. 164
2. Radial plots of fission-track samples 173
3. Geological map of southern Ecuador
4. Location of ostracod samples 181
Curriculum Vitae. 182

VII Abstract
This study presents investigations on the origin and subsequent history of a series of
Tertiary sedimentary basins in the Andes of southern Ecuador. The basins, which are now
at altittfdes of 1000 to 3000, m developed in two stages. (1) During a period of extension
from 15 Ma to 11 Ma, lagoonal and deltaic sedimentation prevailed; this is termed the
Pacific coastal stage. During this stage, two large marine embayments can be distinguished
(Loja and Cuenca) which were separated by the Santa Rosa-Saraguro High. This period
clearly shows that the Andes as we know them today did not exist at this time. (2) After a
period of deformation involving surface uplift, an alluvial intermontane stage existed dur¬
ing which smaller individual basins developed within the former depositional area.
The Miocene series of the Giron-Santa Isabel, Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba and
Catamayo-Gonzanama basins rest unconformably on volcanic rocks (Paleocene to Early

Miocene) and on metamorphic units (Paleozoic to Mesozoic). Continuous volcanic activ¬
ity in the Miocene, both within and outside the basins, suggests an interarc scenario. The
chronostratigraphy and the timing of deformatio, has been established by 75 zircon fis¬
sion-track age determinations on the underlying volcanics and the tephra in the sediments.
The sedimentary sequences have variable ages from basin to basin but generally cover the
period from 15 to 8 Ma.
The Middle Miocene series of Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba and Catamayo-Gon¬

zanama were deposited in the Loja Embayment (stage 1); today only small remnants are
preserved. Marine incursions occurred from 15 to 11 Ma from the northwest. The domi-
nandy metamorphic detrital material suggests a source area in the developing Cordillera
Real, with minor input from a western volcanic system. During the Middle Miocene, the
Cordillera Real in southernmost Ecuador had not yet developed as a prominent continu¬
ous mountain barrier and a marine seaway (Guayaquil Seaway) connected the Pacific
Ocean via the Vilcabamba Inlet with the Oriente of Ecuador and Peru. These coastal de¬
posits are unconformably overlain by continental coarse clastic sediments of Late Miocene
age (stage 2). The onset of this coarse clastic sedimentation coincides with a regional
compressive deformation event at around 9 to 8 Ma, which initiated surface uplift of the
region. Smaller depositional centres were filled with the syntectonic continental clastic
deposits.
The Giron-Santa Isabel basin had a somewhat different history during stage 1. It
was filled during the Middle Miocene with alluvial fan and fluvial deposits. This system
drained towards the north into the coastal plain and estuarine deltaic system in the Cuenca
area (Steinmann, 1997) which is part of the Cuenca Embayment, where marine trans¬
gressions occurred from the west. The Middle Miocene sediments in die Giron area are
unconformably overlain by Late Miocene coarse alluvial fan deposits (with minor lacus¬
trine intercalations), which were derived from the west. The change of the sediment prov¬
enance at around 9 Ma to a dominant western source area indicates coeval uplift of the
Cordillera Occidental.
Abstract VIII
The unconformities, resulting from the compressive deformation event at around 9
to 8 Ma, can be identified in all the Neogene basins sequences of southern Ecuador imply¬
ing a strong regional event. The Middle Miocene coastal sediments are today situated at
1000 to 3000 m above sea level. Widiout taking into account burial of the basin fill series,
surface uplift has clearly taken place since Late Miocene, with a mean rate of about 0.2
mm/y . However, the short-lived style of deformation and the lack of evidence of any
synsedimentary deformation points rather to periodic uplift pulses at higher rates.

The coastal basins in the Loja and Cuenca Embayments were genetically linked with
coeval coastal forearc pull-apart basins, which were controlled by dextral movement along
the Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear (DGM): the Manabi basin in the north formed the con¬
tinuation of die Cuenca Embayment while the Progreso basin in the south represented the
continuation of die Loja Embayment. The Manabi and Progreso basins were separated by
the Chongon-Colonche High. The present palinspastic reconstruction shows that the Santa
Rosa-Saraguro High can be correlated with the Chongon-Colonche High in the coastal
area of Ecuador. Continuing large scale dextral strike-slip movement along the DGM since
the Late Miocene has displaced die coastal correlatives towards the north. During this
time, the Jambelf-Tumbez forearc pull-apart basin was formed and predominantly filled
with the erosional product of the Cordillera Occidental which began to rise at 9-8 Ma. The
formation of the Jambelf-Tumbez basin most likely occurred coevally with the regional
compressive deformation event in the Andean domain and me surface uplift of the Cordillera
Occidental. The stratigraphic relationships reveal a Middle and a predominantly Late
Miocene to Present activity of the DGM with a minimum right lateral displacement of 100
km since 9 Ma.
The Miocene basin formation in southern Ecuador occurred in the particular area of
the triple point where the DGM and the Peruvian and Ecuadorian trench intersect. The
important driving force for basin subsidence and extension was the NNE-directed dextral
displacement of the coastal block along the DGM in respect to the Andean domain. The
continental margin parallel extension in the Costa area decreased crustal thickness, and
extension propagated into the Andean domain by margin-parallel halfgraben formation

(extensional collapse) where marine embayments evolved. Locally, stronger extension
may have opened the Guayaquil Seaway.

In plate tectonic terms, the change from an extensional period from 15-10 Ma to a
short-lived compressional event at 9-8 Ma with associated coeval uplift may be explained
by a blocking of the retreat of the subducting Nazca plate hinge zone at around 9 Ma. This
could have been caused by a slab break-off in the deeper part of the subduction zone.
Related buoyant uplift (decrease of subduction pull) of the remaining slab and concomi¬
tant plate coupling may have driven regional uplift and compressional deformation in the
Andean domain.
IX Zusammenfassung
Die Grundlage dieser Arbeit bildet die Untersuchung der Bildung und Entwicklung
mehrerer tertiarer Sedimentbecken in den Anden von Siidecuador. Die Becken liegen heute
1000 bis 3000 m iiber dem Meerespiegel, und Hire sedimentare Entwicklung erfolgte in
zwei Stadien. (1) Einem pazifischen Kustenstadium mit Sedimentation in lagunaren und
deltaischen Systemen wahrend einer extensiven Phase von 15 bis 11 Ma. Wahrend diesem
Stadium bildeten sich zwei grosse Buchten (Cuenca und Loja), die durch das Santa Rosa-
Saraguro Hoch getrennt wurden. Diese Konfiguration zeigt, dass die Anden, wie wir sie
heute kennen, zu dieser Zeit noch nicht vorhanden waren. (2) Einem alluvialen
intermontanen Stadium, das nach einer Periode von Deformation und assozierter regiona-
ler Hebung einsetzte. Wahrend diesem Stadium bildeten sich kleinere, individuelle Bec¬
ken innerhalb der alteren Ablagerungsraume.

Die miozanen Serien der Becken von Giron-Santa Isabel, Loja, Malacatos-Vilca¬
bamba und Catamayo-Gonzanama liegen diskordant auf vulkanischen Gesteinen (Palaozan

bis friihes Miozan) und auf metamorphen Einheiten (Palaozoikum bis Meszoikum). Die
anhaltende vulkanischen Aktivitat wahrend des Miozans innerhalb und ausserhalb der
Becken zeigt eine Position im kontinentalen Vulkanbogen an. Die Chronostratigraphie

und die zeitliche Einordnung der Deformation wurde durch 75 Spaltspur-Datierungen an
Zirkonen der vulkanischen Unterlage und vulkanischen Einschaltungen in den Sedimenten

erstellt. Die Alter der Sedimente variieren von Becken zu Becken, erstrecken sich aber
iiber einen Zeitraum von 15 bis 8 Ma.
Die mittelmiozanen Serien von Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba und Catamayo-Gonza¬

nama wurden in einem Gross-Becken gebildet. Das Sedimentationsgebiet wird als Loja-
Bucht bezeichnet, die von 15 bis 11 Ma durch marine Transgressionen von Nordwesten
her gebildet wurde (1. Stadium). Die Delta- und marin/brackischen Sedimente wurden
von metamorphen Quellen im Osten geliefert, und es ist nur wenig Eintrag von vulkani¬
schen Liefergebieten im Westen zu verzeichnen. Die Cordillera Real bildete im siidlichen
Ecuador bis ins spate Miozan noch keine durchgehende Bergkette, und im mittleren Mio¬
zan verband die Vilcabamba-Meerenge (Guayaquil Meeresarm) den Pazifik mit dem Ori¬
ente von Ecuador und Peru. Die Sedimente des 1. Stadiums wurden deformiert und
diskordant von kontinentalen grobklastischen Ablagerungen des spaten Miozans iiberla-
gert (2. Stadium). Der Beginn dieser grobklastischen Sedimentation fallt mit einem regio-
nalen kompressiven Deformationsereignis um 9-8 Ma zusammen, das die Ausbildung der
kleineren Becken in der Region verursachte (2. Stadium). Die sedimentare Entwicklung
und das Fehlen weiterer marinen Transgression weisen auf eine regionale Hebung (sur¬
face uplift) der Anden in Siidecuador seit 9-8 Ma (spates Miozan) hin.
Das Giron-Santa Isabel Becken wurde wahrend des mittleren Miozans mit Ablage¬
rungen von Alluvialfachem und Fliissen gefullt. Das Flusssystem entwasserte gegen Norden
in das Kiisten- und Delta-System in der Region von Cuenca (Steinmann, 1997). Wahrend
Zusammenfassung X
des mittleren Miozans war das Gebiet von der Cuenca-Bucht eingenommen, wo marine
Transgressionen von Westen her eindrangen. Eine Hochzone (Santa Rosa-Saraguro Hoch)
trennte wahrend des Miozans die Loja-Bucht im Siiden von der Cuenca-Bucht im Norden.
Diese Mittelmiozanen Sedimente im Gebiet von Giron wurden diskordant von
grobklastischen Alluvialfachem und geringmachtigen lakustrinen Sedimenten iiberlagert

(2. Stadium). Die Alluvialfacher wurden von Westen her geschuttet. Der Wechsel der
Schuttungsrichtung um 9-8 Ma zu einer dominanten westlichen Quelle zeigt eine

spatmiozane Hebung der Cordillera Occidental an. Gleichzeitig mit der Hebung ereignete
sich in alien Becken eine regionale kompressive Deformation um 9-8 Ma, die sich durch
die Diskordanzen manifestiert.
Die Kiistensedimente mit einem mittleren miozanen Alter liegen heute auf etwa 1000-
3000 m iiber Meeresspiegel und zeigen direkt eine regionale Hebung der Anden seit dem
spaten Miozan an. Die mittlere Hebungsrate seit dem spaten Miozan betragt etwa 0.2 mm/
yr, ohne Beriicksichtigung der friiheren Versenkung der Beckenserien. Aufgrund der
Kurzlebigkeit des Deformationsereignisses kann jedoch eher eine zeitweilige Hebung mit
markant hoherer Rate angenommen werden.
Die Loja- und Cuenca-Buchten waren genetisch mit gleichaltrigen Becken in der
Costa, wesdich des Vulkanbogens, verbunden. Diese forearc pull-apart Becken wurden
durch die dextrale Bewegung entiang des Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear (DGM) gebildet:
Das Manabi Becken im Norden bildete die Fortsetzung der Cuenca-Bucht und das Pro¬
greso Becken im Siiden bildet die Fortsetzung der Loja-Bucht. Das Manabi Becken und
das Progreso Becken wurden durch die Chongon-Colonche Schwelle getrennt. Die palin-
spastische Rekonstruktion zeigt, dass die Santa Rosa-Saraguro Schwelle zwischen der
Cuenca- und Loja-Bucht mit der Chongdn-Colonche Schwelle in der sudlichen Kiisten-
ebene von Ecuador korreliert werden kann. Das Jambelf-Tumbez Becken wurde durch
anhaltende dextrale Blattverschiebung am DGM im spaten Miozan gebildet und vor allem
mit den Erosionsprodukten der Cordillera Occidental gefiillt, deren Hebung um 9-8 Ma
einsetzte. Die Bildung des Jambelf-Tumbez Beckens fand sehr wahrscheinlich gleichzeitig
mit dem kompressiven Deformations-Ereignis in der andinen Domane und der regionalen
Hebung der Cordillera Occidental statt. Die regionale Korrelation der Becken weist auf
eine minimale Nord-Verschiebung des Costa-Blockes von 100 km seit 9 Ma hin.
Die miozane Beckenbildung in Siidecuador ereignete sich im Bereich des Tripel-

punktes, wo sich der DGM und der Peruanische und Ecuadorianische Graben kreuzen.
Die NNE-gerichtete dextrale Versetzung des Kiistenblockes entiang des DGM relativ zur
andinen Domane verursachte Extension und Beckensubsidenz im Kiistenbereich. Die
Krustenausdiinnung in den pull-apart Becken im forearc fiihrte zu regionaler westgerichteter

Extension (extensional collapse) mit Ausbildung der Loja- und Cuenca-Buchten und dem
Guayaquil Meeresarm.
XI Zusammenfassung
Die miozane tektonische Entwicklung ist durch eine extensive Periode von 15-10
Ma und einem kompressiven Ereignis um 9-8 Ma gekennzeichnet. Das kurzlebige kom-
pressive Ereignis fallt mit der regionalen Hebung der Anden zusammen. Im plattentekto-
nischen Massstab kann dieser Wechsel hypothetisch folgendermassen erklart werden: Das
ozeangerichtete Zuriickweichen der Schamieizone der subduzierenden Nazca-Platte kam
zum Erliegen. Dieser Vorgang konnte durch das Abbrechen der Nazca-Platte in der
tiefliegenden Subduktionszone verursacht worden sein (Wegfall der Zugwirkung der
subduzierenden Platte). Die Aufschwirnmwirkung der verbleibenden Nazca-Platte unter
dem kontinentalen Vulkanbogen bewirkte eine Koppelung in der Subduktionszone mit
Kompression und Hebung im Andenbogen.

Chapter 1 1 Introduction
1. Introduction
1.1. GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Miocene to Recent tectonics of northwestern South America are controlled by

the subduction of the oceanic Nazca plate (Fig 11) which drives both extensional and
the Andes and it determines the morphology of the conti

compressional deformation in
nental margin The mainland of Ecuador is divided into six geomorphological units (Fig
12) (1) the Costa (fore arc area), (2) the Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera), (3)
the Inter-Andean Valley, (4) the Cordillera Real (Eastern Cordillera), (5) the Sub-Andean
zone (fold and-thrust belt) and (6) the Oriente (retro-arc foreland basin) The two Andean
chains and the Inter-Andean Valley are also called Sierra The present volcanic activity is
restncted to the northern Sierra (N of 2° S) The Cordillera Occidental in the west is
composed of Cretaceous to Tertiary volcanics and the Cordillera Real in the east is a
polyphase deformed belt with Paleozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary, metamorphic and plu
tonic rocks From Riobamba (2° S) to the south, the three-fold morphologic structure of
the Sierra is less pronounced There, the Inter Andean valley fades out and the Sierra
reveals a highly dissected morphology Only the Cordillera Real to the east forms a con¬
N-S trending belt The southwestern part of Ecuador dominated by the

tinuous roughly is
Fig 11 Actual plate tectonic framework of northwestern South Amenca (after Baldock 1982,
Litherland et al, 1994) with current convergence and spreading rates (after Kellogg and Vega,
1995)
Fig. 1.2. Geomorphological division of Ecuador (after Baldock, 1982).
Hunancabamba Andes which show an E-W structural trend (Fig. 1.2).

In southern Ecuador, during a period of E-W directed extension in the Middle
Miocene, normal to the trend of the active margin, a series of sedimentary basins devel¬
oped (Fig. 1.3, Hungerbuhler and Steinmann, 1996, Hungerbiihler et al., 1996). The basin
fill series are Middle to Late Miocene in age. They are individualised as basins of Giron-
Santa Isabel, Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Catamayo-Gonzanama (all described in this
work) and the Cuenca basin (Steinmann, 1997). The basins accumulated coastal, estua-
rine, lacustrine, alluvial and volcaniclastic sediments. These sediments lie today in the
Sierra at an altitude of 1000 to 3000 m above sealevel. Two other basin series with older
age ranges are found: the Quingeo basin (Eocene -
Oligocene, Steinmann, 1997), the Playas

basin (Eocene, this work). The Nabon basin of Late Miocene age is the youngest
intermontane basin (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995). The Miocene fill series are today exposed
in extensive morphologic depressions or as small remnants. The sediments rest
unconformably on intermediate-acidic volcanic units (Late Oligocene-Early Miocene) and

older turbidite series (Late Cretaceous) in the northern region, and on metamorphic units
(Jurassic) and basic to acidic volcanic series (Paleocene-Oligocene) in the south.
Judging from the facies of the preserved sediments, the basin areas must have cov¬
ered much greater areas than documented by the present outcrops. The paleontological
data and sedimentary environment show that the region of Loja and Cuenca were occu¬
pied by embayments during the Middle Miocene where marine incursions from the west
occurred. A major change in sedimentation patterns and basin setting occurred in the Late
Miocene. From 9 Ma onward predominantly alluvial fan and volcaniclastic sediments
were deposited in smaller intermontane basin, which occupied only a part of the former
basin areas in the embayments. The coarse clastic sediments of the younger basins overlie
the older beds with a marked unconformity and the underlying units are strongly deformed.
map of southern Ecuador with the location of the studied

Fig. 1.3. Simplified basins.
This deformation event occurred at around 9-8 Ma and is observed on a regional scale in
southern Ecuador from Cuenca in the north to Vilcabamba in the south (this work; Stein¬
mann, 1997). The compressive deformation is characterised by large scale thrust faulting,
reverse faults and folding. The Middle Miocene sediments as well as the basement rocks
were strongly deformed during this short compressive event. The deformation is not gen¬
erally synsedimentary as suggested by Noblet et al. (1988) and Marocco et al. (1995).
Short-lived synsedimentary compressive deformation events are only observed in the Nabon
basin (8.5-7.9 Ma, Hungerbuhler et al., 1995) and the uppermost fill of the Malacatos-
Vilcabamba basin (8 Ma, this work).
1.2. STUDY AREA, ACCESS AND CARTOGRAPHIC INFORMATION USED
The study area lies in the southern Ecuadorian Sierra (see above) and extends from
3° 00' S to 4° 20" S and 79° 45 W to 79° 05' W. Within this area five sedimentary basins
(Giron-Santa Isabel, Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Catamayo-Gonzanama, Playas) were
studied in detail and die region outside of the basins was partly investigated during recon¬
naissance commissions. Field work was also undertaken in the Miocene sediments of the
Progreso basin, situated in the southern Costa, southwest of Guayaquil.
Location Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Auf? Sep Oct Nov Dec Total
Cuenca 40 70 96 99 56 45 35 30 50 72 68 63 724
Loja 77 104 120 83 31 54 44 38 32 57 46 56 742
Vilcabamba 77 97 151 99 44 20 12 18 21 48 44 70 708
Zaruma 212 237 307 222 109 25 7 7 26 41 35 143 1371
Table 1.1. Average monthly rainfall in rnilimeters of selected stations in die Sierra of southern
Ecuador (Litherland et al., 1994).
The basins lie at varying elevations, from 900 (S) to 2500 m (N) above sealevel. The
study area is highly dissected (see above) and therefore the drainage varies. The Giron-
Santa Isabel basin drains towards the Pacific Ocean in the west, via the Jubones river
which deeply incised the Cordillera Occidental. The Loja region is drained to the east, to
the Amazonian part of Ecuador (Oriente) via the Zamora River which cuts through the
Cordillera Real. The region of Malacatos-Vilcabamba-Gonzanama-Catamayo-Playas is
drained to the Pacific Ocean in the west. The climate in the study area is largely controlled
by the effect of altitude, and the interaction of the cold Humboldt current and the warm
Equatorial current combined with the El Nino current. Above an altitude of about 1000 m,
during the winter (November to March, Table 2.1) rainfall is high causing torrential
floodings and landslides. Field work during this period is difficult. In the summer (April
to October, Table 2.1) rainfall is reduced and the dry climate prevails. Below 1000 m the
conditions are predominantly dry and desert-like, especially in the Jubones area
(southernmost part of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin) and in the Catamayo depression. The
annual temperatures do not vary considerably, whereas with higher altitudes, the daily
fluctuation increase. At an altitude of 2000 m the highest temperature in the early after¬
noon reaches often 25 to 30°C and a strong cooling during night to 5°C can be felt. In the
higher elevated regions (above 2000 m) dense grassland prevails.

In the study area lie the city of Loja (about 100.000 habitants), several smaller towns
(Santa Isabel, Giron, Vilcabamba, Malacatos, Catamayo, Gonzanama, Cariamanga, Cata-

cocha) and numerous villages. Therefore, there is a relatively dense network of roads and
tracks which provide access by car.
The following topographical maps were used, which can be purchased from the
Instituto Geografico Militar (IGM) in Quito: (1)1:250.000 sheets of Guayaquil, Machala,

Macara, (2) 1:50.000 sheets of Giron, Santa Isabel, Yaritzagua, Manu, Nabon, Loja, Rfo
Sabanilla, Vilcabamba, Catamayo, Nambacola, Gonzanama, Yangana. Almost complete

aerial photograph coverage (1:60.000 scale) of the study area is available and can also be
purchased in the IGM in Quito. Landsat images of entire southern Ecuador were provided
for the current project for prime costs by the British Geological Survey Remote Sensing
Group. The available geological maps in 1:100.000 scale cover the entire study area and
represent the results of the systematic geological mapping and mineral investigation pro¬
gramme of the British Geological Survey in co-operation with the Ecuadorian Geological
Survey from 1969 to 1980. The following 1:100.000 geological sheets were used which
can be purchased by the Ecuadorian Geological Survey (Corporation de Desarrollo e
Investigation Geologico, Minera y Metalurgica, CODIGEM) in Quito: Giron, Saraguro,
Loja, Gonzanama, Las Aradas, Zaruma, Cariamanga. These maps are largely based on
photogeological interpretations and were considerably modified in the present study. The
grid references used in the present work are based on the used topographic maps and are
given in the UTM system (Universal Transverse Mercator Projection).
1.3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
The project aimed to carry out detailed analysis of the stratigraphy, sedimentology
and deformational history of the different basins in southern Ecuador (Fig. 1.3, the Cuenca
basin was investigated by Steinmann, 1997). The Zumba basin was not investigated be¬
cause of difficult access and it mainly lies on Peruvian territory. The basin fill series record
also uplift and deformation events and are therefore a good proxies for the Late Tertiary
evolution of the Ecuadorian Andes. The chronostratigraphic framework and the timing of
basin fill deformation was established by 72 zircon fission-track age determinations in
intercalated pyroclastics and in underlying volcanic rocks, respectively. A total of 2500
km^ was mapped (at 1:50.000 scale) in the region of San Fernando-Giron-Santa Isabel-
Ona and Loja-Vilcabamba-Catamayo-Gonzanama-Catacocha. The study of microfossils
and facies patterns leads to a reconstruction of the prevailing depositional environments.
These findings result in a paleogeographic reconstruction of southern Ecuador during the
Late Tertiary and a correlation of the studied basins in the Andean domain with coeval
forearc basins in the coastal region is considered. Finally a model is presented which
integrates the data into a regional tectonic frame.
From 1995 to 1996, the two Master students Chff Hammer and Urs Helg from the ETHZ
performed detailed fieldwork in the southern part of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin and
some of their data are included in die present text. The present work could also benefit
from the ongoing investigations of the British Geological Survey (BGS) on the entire
Cordillera Occidental. The BGS study of Warren Pratt and his team between 3° and 4° S
focused on the latest Cretaceous to Miocene volcanic rocks which mainly underlie the
studied basin fill series.

Chapter 2 7 Zircon fission-track dating
2. Zircon fission-track chronostratigraphy
2.1. INTRODUCTION
The depositional age of the sediments and associated volcanic rocks in the southern
Sierra between 2° S and 4° 20' S was based almost entirely on lithological correlations
(Kenneriey, 1980, Baldock, 1982, Noblet et al., 1988, Litheriand et al., 1993, Marocco et
al., 1995). The very scarce fossil fauna and flora found in the sediments (Berry, 1929,
1934, 1945, Kenneriey, 1973, Bristow and Parodiz, 1982, Nuttall, 1990), combined with
correlation and comparison to the better known Cuenca basin resulted in a Miocene to
Pliocene age estimate for the basin series of Giron-Santa Isabel, Loja, Malacatos-
Vilcabamba and Playas. The sediments of the Catamayo-Gonzanama basin which I intro¬
duce in the present study, were formerly assumed to be of Paleocene age (Kenneriey, 1980).
Radiometric dating in the Sierra of Ecuador focused mainly on plutonic rocks and
only very few volcanic units were dated. Regional studies of the British Geological Sur¬
vey yielded K-Ar and Rb-Sr ages of Tertiary intrusions in the Cordillera Real and Cordillera
Occidental (Appendix 1, Henderson, 1979, Kenneriey, 1980, Aspden et al., 1992). In ad¬
dition, German geologists supplied K-Ar ages of plutonic rocks exposed in both Cordilleras
(Appendix 1, Miiller-Kahle & Damen, 1970, Putzer 1976, Herbert & Pichler, 1983, Pichler
& Aly, 1983). Egiiez (1986), Van Thournout et al. (1990) and the Mision Japonesa re¬
ported some K-Ar ages of intrusions in the northern part of the Cordillera Occidental
(Appendix 1). Volcanic rocks have been dated in the Central Sierra, between Alausi and
Saraguro (Appendix 1, Kenneriey, 1980, Barberi et al., 1988, Lavenu et al., 1992, Rivera
et al., 1992) and further north in the still active volcanic zone of the northern Sierra. Al¬
most all ages in the Central Sierra are from the Saraguro Formation and younger pyroclastic
units with a confusing stratigraphic nomenclature. Six previously published ages of vol¬
canic intercalations in the Miocene sediments of the Cuenca basin are available (Appedix
1, Kenneriey, 1980, Barberi et al., 1988, Madden, 1990, Lavenu et al., 1992); they were
critically reviewed by Steinmann (1997). As the exact stratigraphic position of these
pyroclastic intercalations is not well known, and as there are often no grid references
available for the dated Tertiary volcanic samples, they are of little value (see Chapter 3). In
the region of Nabon, a detailed stratigraphic analysis based on 12 zircon fission-track ages
and magnetostratigraphy (Winkler et al., 1993, Hungerbuhler et al., 1995) documented the
short time interval of sedimentation in the Nabon basin (8.5-7.9 Ma). The Saraguro For¬
mation which underlies the Nabon basin fill is dated at 26.4 to 19 Ma (Hungerbuhler et al.,
1995). The radiometric age determinations available in literature of Tertiary volcanic and
plutonic rocks in the Sierra of Ecuador are compiled and commented in Appendix 1.
Based on the results of 61 zircon fission-track age determinations on interbedded
tephra and volcanic basement suites in the Cuenca region, Steinmann (1997) presented for
the first time a detailed chronostratigraphy of the Cuenca basin fill series with ages rang¬
ing from Middle to latest Miocene (14.7 to 5.2 Ma), and of the underlying Saraguro For¬
mation (29.5 to 20.5 Ma). However, south of the town Saraguro, no age determinations of
volcanic rocks are available and only six Tertiary plutons were dated (Appendix 1,
Kenneriey, 1980, Herbert & Pichler, 1983, Aspden et al., 1992, Jaillard et al., 1996). Our
zircon fission-track age determinations of Tertiary volcanic rocks and pyroclastic interca¬
lations in the sedimentary series in southern Ecuador allow a first regional
chronostratigraphic correlation. 75 ages have been determined in the present study, in the
area between 3° S and 4° 20' S, some of which are from volcanic rocks, which underlie the
Miocene basin fill series (Fig. 2.1A), others from tephra within die basin fill series (Fig.
2. IB). These ages lead to a better understanding of the spatial and temporal evolution of
the Tertiary magmatic activity and of the stratigraphic relations in southern Ecuador. The
absolute time table used in this study is diat of Berggren et al. (1995).
2.2. FISSION-TRACK DATING
Fission-track dating is based on the natural decay by spontaneous fission of the 238U
isotope. The relative high abundance of 238U and the longer half-life of other naturally
fissioning isotopes such as 235U and 232Th infer that all natural tracks in terrestrial mate¬
rial are the fission product of 238U atoms located within die material itself. Fission tracks
in a crystal represent trails of damage which are formed during each fission event, when
die fission fragments move with high velocity 180° apart from each other (Fleischer et al.,
1975). The fission tracks are made visible by chemical etching of an internal polished
surface of a crystal, which enlarges the trails (Price and Walker, 1962). The enlarged tracks
can be viewed and counted under an optical microscope with high power objectives.
Fission-track dating can be applied to minerals and glasses which contain at least a
few ppm uranium; most commonly apatite, zircon, sphene and volcanic glass are used.
The number and density of tracks on the polished surface are dependant on (1) the ura¬
nium content of the crystal, (2) the time during which tracks have been formed and (3) the
decay rate of 238U. The uranium content is determined by irradiation of the sample with
thermal (low energy) neutrons, which induce fission of 235U. The artificial fission results
in a second set of fission-tracks (induced tracks), which can be etched and counted as die
spontaneous tracks of 238U. Taking into account the known 235tj/238u isotope ratio of
natural uranium, the total integrated thermal neutron flux and the density of the induced
tracks, an estimate of the uranium contents in the sample can be made.

with thickness of up to 200 in the top of the Saraguro Formation, exposed in the
Fig. 2.1 A) Ignimbrite a m
Jubones valley at the southwestern margin of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin. Thisignimbrite is dated at 19.1+1.4
Thin ash layer, which is intercalated in the San Jose Formation (Malacatos-Vilcabamba
Ma (MS 237). B)
basin), was (DH 232). C) Prominent angular unconformity in the southern part of the
dated at 13.5+1.2 Ma
Giron-Santa Isabel basin between the horizontal lying Uchucay Formation (9.4 Ma) and the tilted and de¬
formed Burrohuaycu Formation (14.7-10.5 Ma). The unconformity marks the 9-8 Ma regional compres¬
sional deformation event.
2.2.1. Age determinations on zircon -

depositional ages
Fission-track analysis is widely used in thermal history studies of sedimentary ba¬
sins and mountain belts. Such studies are most commonly carried out on apatite, which
has a relatively low blocking temperature (105°C, Parrish, 1983) and a well known partial
annealing zone, where tracks gradually fade away (60 -
120°C, Wagner and van den Haute,
1992).
However, the fission-track method can also be used for absolute dating. Zircon is a
very common accessory mineral in intermediate to acidic plutonic and volcanic rocks and
has a blocking temperature of 260±25°C (Foster et al., 1996). It is therefore the favoured
mineral for fission-track chronology. Resetting of the zircon fission-track age requires a
burial of 10 km, assuming a geothermal gradient of 25°C/km. Since the thickness of the
preserved fill in the studied sedimentary basins varies between 1 to 2 km and, although
considerable erosion might have occurred, it is doubtful whether any horizon was buried
to 10 km. One may then assume that the zircon fission-track ages on the tephra reflect the
depositional age of die tephra and of the enclosing sediments. Several K-Ar ages of the
Saraguro Formation yielded results similar to those of zircon fission-track dating. This
further confirms that burial of the samples was less than 10 km and implies that the zircon
fission-track ages are depositional ages.
The fission-track method is a single crystal technique and has several advantages in
comparison to other dating methods, such as K-Ar dating and Ar-Ar bulk mineral dating:
(1) detrital contamination and/or reworking of the primary volcanic material can be
recognised by the discrimination of different age populations.

(2) fission-tracks in zircon crystals are stable to 260°C which is ideal for sedimen¬
tary succession of less than 10 km thickness.
(3) there are no problems such as found in Rb-Sr, Ar-Ar and K-Ar techniques which
might yield invalid results because of loss or gain of the daughter products.
(4) Single crystal U-Pb dating is a useful method but one always must be aware of
the possibility of inherited cores.
Zircon fission-track dating is the ideal method for chronological studies of Upper
Tertiary intermediate to acidic volcanics of Ecuador.
2.2.2. Methods
Standard mineral separation techniques were used to extract the zircons. 148 sam¬
ples were processed of which 67 were not suitable for dating because of lack of zircons
(intermediate volcanics) or because of detrital contamination in reworked volcaniclastic
sediments. Samples of 3 kg (acidic volcanics) to 10 kg (intermediate volcanics) were

crushed and sieved. The fraction between 63 and 250 urn, containing the datable zircons,
was further treated using magnetic separation and heavy liquids (sodiumpolytungstate,
diiodomethane). The single zircon crystals were mounted in PFA-Teflon sheets at a tem¬
perature of 260°C. The mounts were cut with 1000 carbide paper and polished in several
steps with diamond paste and finally with 0.05 pm aluminium oxide powder (Seward,
1989). The zircons were etched either in a eutectic melt of KOH-NaOH at 220°C (Gleadow
et al., 1976) for 72 to 144 hours or in a eutectic melt of KOH-NaOH-LiOH at 210 °C for
5 to 14 hours (Zaun and Wagner, 1985). The external detector method (EDM) was used for
all samples, with a mica containing no uranium as a solid state track recorder. The musco-
vite records the fissioning 235U products from the upper surface of the grains. The samples
were irradiated at the ANSTO reactor, Lucas Heights in Australia, with a nominal total
integrated flux of lxlO15 n.cnr2. The muscovite detectors were etched for 45 minutes in
40% HP at 20°C.
The Miocene samples yielded mostly zircons with very good track quality and in
general 20 grains were counted in each sample. The counting was performed on a Zeiss
optical microscope with a computer-controlled motorised scanning stage, run by the pro¬
gram "Langstage" (Dumitru, 1993). The zircons were counted at a magnification of 1600x
(10x100x1.6, oil and dry) and the dosimeter muscovites at a 1250x magnification
(10x100x1.25, dry). In the EDM the spontaneous tracks were counted in the etched min¬
eral and the induced tracks were counted over the same area in the muscovite detector.
For calculation of the neutron fluence the glass dosimeter CN1 (J. Schreuers, Coming)
with 40 ppm uranium was used. For calibration of the zeta values, two age standards were
used: (1) Fish Canyon Tuff, Colorado, USA (zircon), 27.8±0.4 Ma (2a), (Hurford and
Harnmerschmidt, 1985) and (2) Tardree Rhyolite, northern Ireland (zircon), 58.7±1.1 Ma
(2a), (Hurford and Green, 1983).
2.2.3. Age calculation with the zeta calibration
As in any other radiometric dating metiiod, fission-track dating is based on the age
equation:
ND =
NpO**-1) (1)
where Nd= number of daughter atoms,

Np= number of parent atoms,
Xi= decay constant,
_ / 238w(e"-1)
n
substituted for
_
In this equation the density of spontaneous tracks Ps ~~T~ is

Nd and the density of induced tracks pi=238NIa<|) for Np are entered and result in die
fission-track age equation (Price and Walker, 1963, Naeser, 1967):
-In Ia<t> + 1
(2)
where:
Afx is the decay constant of 238U a emission (1.55125 xl010a ', Jaffey et
al.,1971)
Xf is the decay constant for the spontaneous fission of 238U
I is the 235U/238U isotope ratio (7.2527 x 103, Cowan and Adler, 1976)
a is the cross-section for the neutron fission reaction of 235U (580.2 xlO24
cm*, Hanna et al., 1969)
4> is the thermal neutron fluence
Ps is the density of spontaneous tracks
pi is the density of induced tracks
The fission decay constant Xf is not sufficiendy well calibrated and it is difficult to
determine accurately the thermal neutron fluence <(). The zeta calibration method (Fleischer
and Hart, 1972, Hurford and Green, 1982,1983) was proposed in order to overcome these
problems. The method is based on the personal calibration factor zeta, which must be
determined by individual scientists averaging zeta parameters from successive counting

of age standards and glass monitors. The zeta factor is represented by
(Hurford and Green, 1983),

Gp
p.
where:
tstd is the age of the standard
is the track density ratio in that standard

\P.J
is the geometry factor (0.5 for external detector method)
The resulting number is entered into the age equation:
(pA
-> kP,)u
P,GZ + 1 (3)
where:
Pd is the dosimeter track density
For the calibration of the zeta-factor one age standard and two glass dosimeters were
used in each irradiation. In total, nine age standards (Fish Canyon Tuff and Tardree Rhyolite)
together with CNl glass dosimeters were analysed (Fig. 2.2, Table 2.1). A mean zeta value
of 103±5 was used for the age calculations which are based on equation (3). All ages are
reported as central ages (Galbraith and Laslett, 1985) and errors are expressed as 2a.
Age Irradiation No of pdXlO4 PsXlO4 P.X104 Ns/N, glass P(Z2) ?±1<j

Standard number grains ±1rj dosi¬ %
(counted) (counted] (counted)
counted meter
FCT eth-43-19 24 46 70 6083 4533 1 342 CN1 76 1 89±3
(5787) (2979) (2220) ±0 038

FCT eth-48-18 19 45 41 573 0 4648 1 233 CN1 87 6 100±4
(5668) (2064) (1674) ±0 041

FCT eth-47-20 8 45 04 535 3 4869 1 099 CN1 960 113±8
(5675) (465) (423) ±0 074
FCT eth-49-12 18 39 32 619 4 530 6 1 167 CN1 641 121±5
(3172) (1381) (1183) ±0 046

FCT eth-42 19 15 50 85 6431 511 8 1 257 CN1 99 6 87±4
(6408) (1508) (1200) ±0 049
FCT eth-59-17 16 46 53 430 6 372 6 1 156 CN1 805 104±5
(3020) (965) (835) ±0 055

FCT eth-85-15 20 43 35 386 3 360 8 1 071 CN1 100 120±6
(2745) (1121) (1047) ±0 025
Tardree eth-43-20 22 46 78 786 4 340 2 313 CN1 968 109±5
(5787) (1723) (745) ±0 101
Tardree eth-42-20 14 50 60 1165 436 7 2 668 CN1 97 2 87±5
(6408) (1102) (413) ±0 154
mean 103±5
Table 2.1. Personal zeta value calibration of Fish Canyon Tuff and Tardree Rhyohte zircons using
CNl dosimeters.
130-
120- CD
'
I—C
1
110- 1
I-
mean zeta value103±5
100-
—I
a—I
I—CD—I
zeta FCT
1
90-
+ zeta Tardree
80-
3 4 5 6 8 9
number
Fig. 2.2. Personal zeta value determinations for Fish Canyon Tuff and Tardree Rhyohte zircons
using CNl dosimeters. The calculated mean, which was used in the present study, is indicated with
a ±2a error.
Sample Stratlgraphlc unit Apparent central Radlalplot visual Populations by Populations by Recalculated Central Interpretation with deposltional age
age±2o with estimate MacMlx 2CM Age ±2o\ using crystal (all ages In Ma and errors ±2<J)
(±lo) (±lo) selection of 2CM with
P(X2)%
TO2W
n) Girdn-Santa Isabel basm
DH486 Saraguro Fm 25 2±2 8 2 populations 23 23 0±1 1 23 1±2 5 23 0±2 2(81) Spht is reasonable, age 23.0±2.2
34 and 40 Ma 37 8±14 7 38 8±12 2 41 7±9 6 (87)
MS 137 Saraguro Fm 16 3±i d 2 populations 20 19 5±09 i94±2d 19i±14(95) Split is reasonable, age 19.1±1.4
13 1 and 30 Ma 22 4±4 72 24 0±50 24 9±3 0 (32)
bH333 Santa Isabel Fm 17d±16 2 populations 14 15 5±68 i<>0±69 ii9±i6"(73) Split is reasonable, age 15.9±1.6
08 and 24 Ma 242±2 78 23 9±2 3 24 9±4 0 (96)
bH483 Santa Isabel Fm lii±34 2 population 18 5±161 i8 4±3i iS4±2 8(92) Split is reasonable, age 18.4±2.8
69 18 and 27 Ma 26 8±3 84 26 7±6 2 27 8±5 6 (57)
bM3« Gir6nFm 13i±5 6 2 populations 10 lb Ml 8d±34 8i±31(78,2zr) Split is reasonable, but only 2 zircons in young
0 and 24 Ma 25 0±16 26 6±3 3 264±3 6(15) population Age 8.1±3.2
MS 13d Uchucay Fm i8 9±i7 2 populations Hl±6d5 ii 4±i 5 l'2 4±i'8(2) Younger pop of 12 4 contains still two age pops
0 12 and 27 Ma 27 1±1 64 or 29 1±3 0 29 5±5 2 (1) as seen on the radial plot The second result of the
96±099 MacMix programme yields an age of 9 6 for the
14 1±1 47 youngest pop A very similar age was obtained by
-
27 8±1 75 a second run see below
MS 13dA Uchucay Fm U4±i8 2 populations 94±10 100±27 9 4±1S(49'5 Split is reasonable, age 9.4±1.6
(young pop) 9 and 13 Ma 13 4±1 3 14 1±2 6 14 3±1 8 (67)
b) Loja bos HI
DH375 San Cayetano Fm 11 4±1 0 2 populations 10 11 1±3 25 10 8±1 1 10 6±0 8 (94) Spht is reasonable, age 10.6±0.8
(Siltstone Mb) 124 and 16 Ma 11 1±049 15 0±24 16 1±3 0 (88)
bk225 Salapa Fm id4±74 2 populations i5±fll7 13±6? 13±68(5) Split is reasonable, age 2.3±0.8
0 2 and 40 Ma 36 4±178 38 4±3 6 38 1±4 4(13)
c) Malacatos-Vikabamba basin
MS 247 Loma Blanca Fm 50 5±6 4 2 populations 32 3±4 16 42 0±7 4 40 6±5 4 (49) Spht is reasonable, age 40.6±5.4
01 30 and 60 Ma 528±45 69 2±15 0 71 1±10 8 (95)
MS5J0 San Jose Fm 14d±ll 2 populations 13 12 7±4 02 13 3±2 3 i3 1±i8(92) Split is reasonable, age 13.1±1.8
17 1 and 24 Ma 12 9±1 25 22 4±10 6 24 9±7 4 (83)
MS Ml Santo Domingo Fm 146±ld 2 populations 13 8 3±138 13 i±i 3 131±14(i5) Split is reasonable, but only 2 zircons in old
02 and 21 Ma 13 9±0 62 20 3±5 4 216±4 4(96,2zr) populai laaon Age 13.2±1.4
Mills Santo Domingo Fm 14 5±ld possibly 2 pop 14 U3±144 146±14 141±id(57) -M
2CMd detects just 1 zircon in old population Age
30 8 and 21 Ma 14 1±1 84 19 4±14 5 23 7±104(lzr) 14.1±1,6
MS 145 Santo Domingo Fm 14 8±5 4 2 pop 11 and 130 11 7±07 114±l4 114±i4(7) Spht is reasonable, but in young pop still mixed
0 Ma (lzr) 130 5±42 59 130 5±53 1 1305±79 8(lzr) agi
MS145A Santo Domingo Fm 12T1TT 2 populations —nzm U8±l5 Spht is reasonable, but only 2 zircons in old
(young 11 and 20 Ma 20 2±6 8 201±8 0 204±6 6(89,2zr) population Age 11.7±1.4
pop)
MS 153" Cerro Mandango Fm 2 populations 12 10 7±0 68 11 3±1 4 rfomw Split iss ireasonable Age 11.0±1.6
and 30 Ma 304±8 71 33 4±12 2 33 5±11 8 (53)
MS 117 Cerro Mandango Fm il0±l8 2 populations 12 i65±0?9 ii 4±i 7 ii4±id(41) Split is reasonable 2CM detects just 1 zircon in old
29 3 and 20 Ma 17 7±6 39 19 0±8 6 204±7 4(lzrJ Age 11.4±1.6
e
DH191 Cerro Mandango Fm" ll8±il possibly 2 pop 10 16 1±016 16 3±11 iOO±il(9ft Iplit
is reasonable, age 10.0±1.2
12 7 and 14 Ma 12 7±1 4 13 4±1 5 14 4±1 8 (89)
d) Catamavo-Gonzanamd basin
DH 443 Gonzanama Fm 16 4±3 8 I 2 populations 15 14 4±1 64 I 14 1±4 01 14 0±3 0 (86) I Split is reasonable, age 14.013.0
15 1 and 30 Ma 25 4±22 22 25 9±16 2 29 8±13 0 (87) |
2.2.4. Statistical treatment of mixed fission-track ages
Our samples yielded idiomorphic zircons suited for fission-track dating. The grains
were mostly unzoned and the uranium content varied between 80 and 671 ppm. According
to field criteria, it is not always possible to discriminate between primary volcanic interca¬
lations and reworked volcaniclastic horizons. In several samples different populations of
zircon ages were obtained, which could also be distinguished visually by morphological
criteria. In others only the single crystal ages showed that there was some detrital contami¬
nation, which can also occur in primary volcanic deposits, for instance from contamina¬
tion from the vent wall during the eruption and from xenoliths.
Several methods are available to test whether more than one age population is present
and to allow a discrimination of different age groups (Table 2.2). As a first control, the x2-
test was applied (Galbraith, 1981). When the probability of passing this test was less than
10% it was assumed that the single crystal ages did not belong to one population. A second
check was carried out by inspection of the single crystal ages on radial plots for each
samples, which are shown in the Appendix 2. Radial plots allow a visual judgement of me
homogeneity of a set of age measurements in one sample (Galbraith, 1990). This inspec¬
tion method showed that 17 samples (Table 2.2) yielded a large age spread; further the
mean ages of these samples did not correlate well with other dated samples, containing
only one population. These multi-component samples were treated by statistical methods
which split the different populations. Two programs were used, MacMix which is based
on a study of Sambridge and Compston (1994) and 2CM which runs on Mathematica
(pers. comm., David Coyle, 1995) which is based on work done by Galbraith and Laslett
(1993). Both methods yielded very consistent results and all 17 samples could be statisti¬
cally split into two different populations. Finally the ages of the different populations were
recalculated based on the crystal selection of the program 2CM (pers. comm., David Coyle,
1995), in order to obtain a Central Ages. The age of the younger population is assumed to
represent the depositional age (Table 2.2).
2.2.5. Comments on multiple ages and detrital samples

The statistical split of several multi-component samples yielded consistent results.
The age of the younger population is assumed to represent the depositional age; the age of
the older populations sometimes reveals some information about the origin of the con¬
tamination (Table 2.2). The ages of the older populations in five samples from the Giron-
Santa Isabel basin are 29 to 25 Ma and fall within the stratigraphic range of the Saraguro
Formation. Therefore it is very likely that the feeder dykes of the Miocene volcanics cut
Table 2.2. Compilation of the with

statistically splittable sub-populations. The different
samples
methods of treatment are indicated and the
resulting age of the younger population indicates the
depositional age. The computer program MacMix is based on a study of Sambridge and Compston
(1994) and 2CM is based on work done by Galbraith and Laslett (1993).
across the Saraguro Formation and contamination from the vent walls occurred. Several
mixed age samples from the Miocene fill of the southern basins of Loja, Malacatos-
Vilcabamba and Catamayo-Gonzanama contain an older population of 40 to 20 Ma. These

ages correlate well with the stratigraphic range of the Loma Blanca Formation, which
partly underlies the Miocene sediments. It is again suggested that contamination from
vent walls occurred.
The ages of three samples did not fall into the age range of the associated stratigraphic
sequence; based on field relationships they are too old and must represent reworked
volcaniclastic deposits:
(1) sample MS 240 from the Giron Formation in the Giron-Santa Isabel basin yielded
an age of 21.6±2.4 and passed the x2-test (37.1 %). However, a sample from below yielded
an age of 10.1+1.2 Ma (DH 330) and one from above DH 325, 8.1±3.2 Ma. There is no
tectonic contact between these three samples and the Giron Formation clearly forms a
continuous stratigraphic succession without internal unconformities. It is assumed that
MS 240 represents an entirely reworked tephra.

(2) sample DH 335 from the top of the Burrohuaycu Formation in the Giron-Santa
Isabel basin yielded an age of 15.8±2.4 Ma and passed the x2-test (73%). However, two
samples from the same exposure yielded ages of 11.6±1.4 (UH 82) and 10.8±1.4 (UH
141). In addition, other zircon fission-track age determination from neighbouring tephra
layers infer a latest Middle Miocene age for the top of the Burrohuaycu Formation. Again
this age must be derived from a reworked tephra or ignimbrite.
(3) sample DH 415 from the Uchucay Formation in the Giron-Santa Isabel basin
yielded an age of 18.8+2.6 Ma and passed the x2-test (90.4%). This age is much older than
the stratigraphic age of the underlying Burrohuaycu Formation which has a range of 15 to
10 Ma. The contact between the Uchucay Formation and underlying Burrohuaycu Forma¬
tion is a prominent angular unconformity (stratigraphic contact, Plate 2.1C). Therefore,
the Uchucay Formation must be younger than 10 Ma. Another sample (MS 236) from the
Uchucay Formation with an age of 9.4±1.6 Ma confirms this.
Finally, one sample (MS 254) from a granite, exposed about 5 km north of Malacatos,
at the margin of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin yielded a zircon fission-track age of
61.6+5.0 Ma. The granite was mapped as Tres Lagunas Granite (Litheriand et al., 1993)
and U-Pb dating of zircons yielded an age of 227.6±3.2 Ma (Aspden et al., 1992). K-Ar
dating of the Tres Lagunas Granite gave ages which range between 173 and 60 Ma
(Kenneriey, 1980, Herbert & Pichler, 1983, Aspden et al., 1992). The young K-Ar ages are
regarded as cooling ages of a metamorphic event (Aspden et al., 1992) and are similar to
those obtained in pre-Cretaceous metamorphic rocks (Kenneriey, 1980, Aspden et al.,
1992). The zircon fission-track age also represents a cooling age of the granite.
2 J. RESULTS
Results are briefly discussed here, but more detail is included in the pertinent sec¬
tions in following chapters. The results of 75 age determinations and the grid references of
each sample are given in Table 2.3. These ages represent the depositional ages and all
errors are expressed as 2a. The fission-track results provide an important correlation tool
and have, combined with detailed structural mapping, an important impact on the existing
correlations and previously assumed formation age ranges (Fig. 2.3). The ages of the base¬
ment and basin fill series allow a first valuable correlation of Tertiary units in southern
Ecuador and result in a revised stratigraphy of the area. Several major shifts in age calibra¬
tion of formations and groups arises, which are presented in more detail in Chapter 3.
2.3.1. Volcanic and metamorphic rocks underlying the Tertiary basins
The Miocene series of Giron-Santa Isabel in the north rests unconformably on (1)
the intermediate to acidic volcanic Saraguro Formation of Late Oligocene to Early Miocene
(28-20 Ma) age, and (2) on the lower part of the Lower to Upper Miocene intermediate
volcanics of the Santa Isabel Formation (18-8 Ma, Fig. 2.3). The upper part of the latter
volcanic unit is contemporaneous to the Middle-Late Miocene Giron-Santa Isabel basin
fill.
In the southern region the Miocene sediments unconformably overlie volcanic rocks
and metamorphic units (Fig. 2.3). The volcanics consist of (1) the acidic Loma Blanca
Formation of Late Eocene to Late Oligocene age (42-26 Ma), and (2) the basic to interme¬
diate Sacapalca Formation of latest Cretaceous (66 Ma) to Paleocene? age. The metamor¬
phic units include metagranites and metasedimentary rocks of a Triassic and Jurassic age
(Litheriand et al., 1994).
The Paleocene/Eocene Playas basin in the southwest rests unconformably on the
Sacapalca Formation.
Age determinations on zircon, pd, ps and pj represent the density of the dosimeter,
Table. 2.3.
spontaneous and induced tracks of the samples, while the number of tracks (N) is given in paren¬
thesis. The external detector method was used. P%2 is
probability of obtaining x2 values for \)
the
degrees of freedom, where \>=number of Samples with P%2 < 10% did not pass
crystals minus 1.
the x2-test and age populations were discriminated using different statistical treatments. The
depositional ages represent the age of samples with only one population or the age of the youngest
population in multi component samples (marked with an asterix).
Sample Grid ref., UTM Grid ref., Irrad. No. of Ns/Ni U Var. Age Depositional
pdxl04 psxl04 pjxlO4 p(x2)
and _2 -2 -2
longitude number grains * ±lc ^ ^ (ppm) % % ±2a(Ma) age, *see text
cm cm cm
latitude counted ± la (Ma)
(counted) (counted) (counted)
Girdn Sub-Basin (8 ages)
Santa Isabel Fm.
DH333 699931/9642136 79°12'02.1"W eth-60-24 19 36.92 0.959 428.1 446.2 483.5 16.45 0.8 17.6±2.0 15.9±1.6*
3°14'09.8" S (2541) ±0.037 (1295) (1350)
DH328 698813/9656909 79°12'40.3"W eth-60-34 12 30.60 0.516 36.77 71.20 93.1 10.37 41.5 8.0±2.2 8.0±2.2
3°06'08.3" S (2541) ±0.066 (94) (182)
Gir6n Fm.
MS 240 703859/9647217 79°10'13.9"W eth-42-22 14 50.11 0.854 562.9 659.1 513.0 5.92 37.1 21.6±2.4 age too old,
3°11'31.4"S (6408) ±0.051 (515) (603) detrital*
DH330 702040/9644479 79°10'54.6" W eth-60-28 16 34.39 0.585 107.7 184.3 214.4 0.40 73.6 10.1±1.2 10.1±1.2
3°12'53.3" S (2541) ±0.035 (439) (751)
DH325 703293/9647227 79°10'13.7"W eth-60-16 17 41.98 1.119 338.6 302.6 288.3 35.88 0 23.1±5.0 8.1+3.2*
3°11'24.6"S (2541) ±0.060 (742) (663)
TuriFm.
DH334 703779/9649895 79°09'58.7"W eth-60-19 20 40.08 0.446 69.61 156.1 155.8 0.20 89.8 9.0±1.0 9.0±1.0
3°09'56.6" S (2541) ±0.026 (441) (989)
MS 241 707940/9654581 79°07'44.2"W eth-42-4 4 54.53 0.380 135.3 355.9 261.1 0.02 62.7 10.5±2.2 10.5±2.2
3°07'24.8" S (6408) ±0.039 (130) (342)
DH318 709399/9655972 79°06'57.6"W eth-85-30 6 35.15 0.419 109.4 261.1 297.1 0.01 32.0 7.6±1.2 7.6±1.2
3°06'39.0" S (2745) ±0.033 (227) (542)
Santa Isabel Sub-Basin (24 ages)
Saraguro Fm.
CH66 680200/9630300 79°22'41.2"W eth-59-15 15 49.96 1.049 474.4 452.4 362.2 0.02 92.1 26.4±2.6 26.4±2.6
3°20'36.1" S (3020) ±0.048 (972) (927)
DH487 697311/9624303 79°13'26.9"W eth-85-13 20 45.88 0.994 378.9 381.3 332.4 0.07 88.3 23.4±2.0 23.4±2.0
3°23'50.1" S (2745) ±0.036 (1554) (1564)
DH486 697035/9625187 79°13'35.5"W eth-85-08 28 49.03 0.985 349.5 354.9 282.3 16.03 3.4 25.2±2.8 23.0±2.2*
3° 23'21.9" S (2745) ±0.040 (1228) (1247)
DH464 671534/9632381 79°27'21.4"W eth-85-04 7 51.56 0.798 575.2 721.2 559.5 0 81.3 21.1±3.0 21.1±3.0
3°19'28.6" S (2745) ±0.054 (398) (499)
CH 61 688400/9629400 eth-85-22 3 40.20 1.022 241.9 236.7 235.6 0 78.4 21.1±6.2 21.1±6.2
(2745) ±0.151 (93) (91)
MS 237 681315/9630791 79°22'04.7" W eth-43-9 18 45.86 0.887 618.8 697.7 608.5 7.66 13.1 20.3±1.6 19.1±1.4
3°20'21.0"S (5787) ±0.027 (2086) (2352)
Santa Isabel Fm.
DH339 698428/9640804 79°12'51.5"W eth-60-20/21 15 39.14 0.952 377.9 396.8 405.6 0.02 92.0 18.8±2.2 18.8±2.2
3°14'53.8" S (2541) ±0.054 (600) (630)
Grid ref., UTM Grid ref., Irrad. No. of Ns/Ni pi-i"4
x io4
U Var. P(y2) Age Depositional
Sample PdxlO4 Psxl04
„„,-2 %
i longitude and number grains •2 ±lo (PPm> % ±2a(Ma) age, *see text
cm-i
cm cm-2
latitude counted
to (counted) (counted) (counted)
u> 55.73 0.659 276.4 419.6 301.2 5.67 58.0 18.4±2.0 18.4±2.0
CH 62 688300/9629400 79°18'18.8"W eth-59-4 16
o
o 3°21'05.0" S (3020) ±0.030 (780) (1184)
a 24 48.64 0.751 142.6 189.8 152.2 1.21 58.7 18.4±1.6 18.4±1.6
MS 239 683296/9633982 79°21'01.1"W eth-42-28
3°18'37.0" S (6408) ±0.033 (912) (1214)
DH483 689714/9631727 79°17'33.1"W eth-85-16 8 43.98 0.941 527.6 560.6 509.9 14.26 6.9 21.1±3.4 18.4±2.8*
3°19'49.1"S (2745) ±0.055 (576) (612)

Burrohuaycu Fm.
DH335 685570/9636150 79°19'47.6" W eth-60-26/27 14 35.34 0.884 153.0 173.1 191.0 0.87 73.0 15.8±2.4 age too old,
3°17'25.6" S (2541) ±0.067 (327) (370) detrital*
MS 238 683296/9633982 79°21'01.1" W eth-42-11 19 52.81 0.551 206.4 374.3 283.5 8.20 13.4 14.7±1.2 14.711.2
3°18'37.0"S (6408) ±0.021 (1087) (1971)
DH 337 681205/9630156 79°22'08.8" W eth-85-06 9 50.30 0.547 62.87 114.9 91.4 0 92.4 14.2±2.6 14.2±2.6
3°20'40.7" S (2745) ±0.048 (203) (371)
CH118 684300/9626900 eth-85-24 11 38.93 0.637 133.5 209.6 215.4 0 99.7 12.8±1.8 12.8±1.8
(2745) ±0.043 (354) (556)

CH 63 688100/962900 79°18'25.3" W eth-59-13/14 8 50.75 0.493 62.10 126.1 99.4 0.17 57.5 12.6±2.8 12.6±2.8
3°20'48.7" S (3020) ±0.052 (132) (268)

CH 68 680300/963000 79°22'38.0" W eth-59-12 15 51.53 0.477 66.11 138.5 107.5 1.08 81.9 12.4±2.0 12.4±2.0
3°20'45.9" S (3020) ±0.038 (231) (484)
UH 82 685100/9635600 79°20'02.8" W eth-59-8 15 53.63 0.431 54.40 126.2 94.1 0 97.4 11.7±2.0 11.712.0
3°17'43.3" S (3020) ±0.038 (188) (436)
DH 398 687750/9630765 79°18'42.5" W eth-60-23 19 37.55 0.611 86.94 142.2 151.5 7.61 52.9 11.6+1.4 11.611.4
3°20'16.2" S (2541) ±0.032 (513) (839)

DH480 684834/9635468 79°20'11.4"W eth-85-12 20 46.51 0.457 55.57 121.5 104.5 0.02 93.0 10.9±1.4 10.9±1.4
3°17'47.6" S (2745) ±0.029 (370) (809)

UH 141 685100/9635600 eth-85-27 17 37.04 0.566 70.44 124.5 134.4 0 99.2 10.811.4 10.811.4
(2745) ±0.038 (352) (622)

UH 61 687200/963470 eth-85-23 17 39.56 0.515 55.85 108.5 109.7 0 99.6 10.5±1.6 10.511.6
(2745) ±0.037 (292) (567)

Uchucay Fm.
MS 236 682810/9629759 79°21'16.7"W eth-43-12 28 46.07 0.859 190.4 221.6 192.4 43.67 0 18.9±1.7 9.411.6*
3°20'53.6" S (5787) ±0.027 (1866) (2172)

DH 415 681406/9628402 79°22'01.6"W eth-60-31 10 32.49 1.148 195.7 170.5 204.7 0.01 84.5 18.812.6 age too old,
3°21'38.0" S (2541) ±0.077 (474) (413) detrital*
Tarqui Fm. ?
UH 142 683800/9633200 eth-85-28 19 36.41 0.397 31.51 79.34 87.2 0.08 90.4 7.411.2 7.411.2
(2745) ±0.034 (195) (491)

Sample Grid ref., UTM Grid ref., Irrad. No. of Nj/Nj U Var. Age Depositional
I pdxl04 psxl04 pjxlO4 p(x2)
longitude and number grams llo (ppm) % 12a (M a)
cm_2 cm"' cm"' age, *see text
to latitude counted 12a (Ma)
(counted) (counted) (counted)
a Loia Basin (7ages)
o
a Loma Blanca Fm.
MS 225 699139/9546868 79°12'22.3"W eth-49-6 42.41 1.711 518.3 302.8 285.6 16.62 6.7 36.2±6.8 36.216.8
c 4°05'51.0"S (3172) ±0.123 (522) (305)
San Cayetano Fm. (Lower Sandstone Mb.)
DH246 701249/9559170 79°11'14.8"W eth-43-16 23 46.45 0.587 226.1 285.2 323.4 0.04 88.3 13.811.2 13.811.2
3°59'10.2" S (5787) ±0.024 (962) (1639)
San Cayetano Fm. (Siltstone Mb.)
MS 226 699052/9547885 79°12'25.1"W eth-49-14 13 38.29 0.515 130.5 253.2 264.5 0.02 86.0 10.011.4 10.011.4
4°05'19.2" S (3172) ±0.035 (321) (623)
DH247 699147/9548622 79°12'21.7"W eth-49-16 12 37.26 0.569 98.82 173.6 186.4 0.02 90.5 10.711.6 10.711.6
4°04'55.1" S (3172) ±0.040 (321) (564)
DH375 698987/9563773 79°12'29.3"W eth-59-26 20 44.02 0.505 321.0 635.2 574.9 7.33 12.4 11.411.0 10.6±0.8*
3°56'41.2" S (3020) ±0.018 (1240) (2454)
La Banda Fm.
DH223 696922/9561374 79°13'34.9"W eth-49-10 16 40.35 0.544 242.7 446.2 442.3 8.93 21.8 11.111.2 11.111.2
3°58'00.4" S (3172) ±0.025 (737) (1355)
Salapa Fm.
DH225 693545/9569306 79°15'25.1"W eth-43-15 23 46.36 0.998 431.0 431.6 363.1 105.2 0 16.417.4 2.3±0.8*
3°53'42.2" S (5787) ±0.039 (1327) (1329)
Malacatos-Vikabamba Basin (26 ages)
Tres Lagunas Metagranite
MS 254 692092/9538900 79°16'10.5" W eth-48-2/3 26 51.33 2.389 665.3 278.5 217.0 6.77 35.3 61.615.0 61.615.0*
4°10'12.5" S (5668) ±0.086 (2606) (1091)
Loma Blanca Fm.
MS 247 700498/9519437 79°11'36.1"W eth-43-7/8 24 45.73 2.274 555.8 244.4 208.4 24.29 0.1 50.516.4 40.615.4*
4°20'45.2" S (5787) ±0.110 (1410) (620)
DH233 687184/9537098 79°18'49.2"W eth-43-5 13 45.52 1.455 111.1 763.5 670.9 0 83.4 33.413.6 33.4±3.6
4°11'11.5"S (5787) ±0.078 (854) (587)
DH314 685900/9538200 eth-85-02 13 52.80 1.217 876.0 720.1 531.7 2.06 58.4 33.0±3.2 33.0±3.2
(2745) ±0.052 (1219) (1002)
DH344 685992/9538147 79°19'29.4" W eth-60-10 12 45.77 1.152 237.0 205.7 175.3 0 97.3 26.6±4.0 26.6±4.0
4°10'35.5" S (2541) ±0.081 (431) (374)
Solanda Mb.
DH 343 686261/9537034 79°19'19.0" W eth-60-8 20 47.04 1.535 294.5 191.9 163.2 6.09 73.7 36.5±4.4 36.5±4.4
4°U'12.1"S (2541) ±0.084 (841) (548)
$ Grid ref., UTM Grid ref., Irrad. No. of Nj/Nj U Var. Age Depositional
Sample PdxlO4 psxl04 pjxlO4 p(z2)
a; and number ±lo (PPm) % % 12a (Ma) age, *seetext
longitude grains cm-2 cm-2 cm-2
(T
latitude counted '
Purunuma Quartzporphyry Mb.
o
DH235 683017/9535111 79°21'03.7"W eth-48-9 17 48.84 1.230 460.8 374.6 306.8 0.30 64.2 30.3±2.4 30.312.4
O
9 ±0.055
4°12'16.0" S (5668) (1107) (900)
a.
3 Fm.
Quinara
5 MS 228 694649/9523782 79°14'46.2"W eth-42-26 17 49.13 0.612 156.6 255.9 203.2 6.63 71.1 15.1±1.6 15.111.6
G.
4°18'24.3" S (6408) ±0.030 (669) (1093)
MS 230 694649/9523782 79°14'46.2"W eth-42-7 25 53.79 0.550 130.6 237.6 172.3 3.26 53.9 14.9±1.6 14.911.6
4°18'24.3" S (6408) ±0.027 (637) (1159)

DH291 697477/9526770 79°13'14.7"W eth-60-2 8 50.83 0.553 85.42 154.5 118.6 0 97.9 14.2±3.4 14.213.4
4°16'45.2" S (2541) ±0.066 (110) (199)

San Jos£ Fm.
DH232 688664/9536727 79°18'01.4" W eth-48-11 16 48.08 0.553 194.5 351.7 285.3 5.25 43.2 13.5±1.2 13.511.2
4°11'22.6"S (5668) ±0.023 (924) (1671)
MS 250 696247/9534744 79°13'55.5"W eth-48-25 20 42.74 0.679 184.9 272.3 248.5 15.20 17.1 14.612.2 13.111.8*
4°12'27.3" S (5668) ±0.043 (425) (626)

Santo Domingo Fm.
DH229 689804/9536110 79°17'24.0" W eth-48-5 10 50.37 0.574 204.4 356.3 283.0 0.33 62.9 14.611.8 14.611.8
4011'44.7"S (5668) ±0.036 (389) (678)
DH228 689836/9536663 79017'23.4"W eth-48-22 24 43.88 0.655 149.4 227.9 202.6 9.68 30.8 14.511.6 14.111.6*
4°11'24.6"S (5668) ±0.034 (626) (955)
MS 252 694924/9536436 79°14'38.8"W eth-42-6 25 54.04 0.517 256.3 495.6 357.7 17.76 0.2 14.011.6 13.211.4*
4°11'32.1"S (6408) ±0.019 (1121) (2168)
DH317 696345/9532381 79°13'51.1"W eth-60-15 7 42.61 0.571 240.0 420.1 394.4 0 93.2 12.311.6 12.311.6
4°13'42.5" S (2541) ±0.037 (369) (646)
MS 245 689883/9541970 79°17'22.0"W eth-48-13/14 12 47.13 0.582 320.7 551.3 467.9 60.50 0 14.8±5.4 12.411.4*
4°08'31.1"S (5668) ±0.029 (620) (1066)
MS 255 695648/9536185 79°14'14.7"W eth-48-16 20 46.17 0.517 110.8 214.4 181.1 4.07 45.8 12.0±1.2 12.011.2
4°11'39.0"S (5668) ±0.025 (666) (1288)
Cerro Mandango Fm.
MS 227 697217/9527770 79°13'23.2" W eth-48-43 21 39.30 0.620 728.8 117.6 116.7 15.98 29.3 12.011.8 11.411.6*
4°16'12.8" S (5668) ±0.039 (411) (663)

MS 248 695240/9531885 79°14'27.6"W eth-49-19 19 35.71 0.622 449.1 721.5 80.8 0.37 76.8 11.212.2 11.212.2
4°13'59.0" S (3172) ±0.059 (183) (294)
DH373 690708/9540396 79°16'55.0"W eth-60-13 20 43.88 0.506 107.3 212.0 193.3 0 99.0 11.211.2 11.211.2
4°09'22.2" S (2541) ±0.026 (564) (1115)
MS 253 693453/9537784 79°15'26.0" W eth-48-27 19 41.97 0.895 220.0 369.9 343.8 35.46 0 12.612.6 11.011.6*
4°10'47.1" S (5668) ±0.032 (553) (930)
2 Sample Grid ref., UTM Grid ref., Irrad. No. of 104 Ns/Ni U Var. Age Depositional
Pdx Psxl04 pjxlO4 P(X2)
s longitude and number grains .2 11a _2 .2 %
cm cm cm
(ppm) % ±2a (Ma) age, *see text
latitude counted 1 2a (Ma)
U) DH292 697250/9526717 79°13'21.9" W eth-59-32 20 41.05 0.569 120.6 212.1 206.7 11.49 12.7 11.811.2 10.011.2*
o 4°16'47.3" S (3020) ±0.024 (909) (1598)
DH300 695180/9524530 79°14'29.0" W eth-60-12 7 44.51 0.467 978.6 209.6 188.3 0 99.3 10.512.4 10.5±2.4
ntini 4°17'58.4" S (2541) ±0.052 (120) (257)
DH294 697791/9525385 79°13'03.0" W eth-60-6 20 48.30 0.316 700.8 221.5 178.8 0.60 65.5 7.7±0.8 7.7+0.8
a.
4°17'30.4" S (2541) ±0.015 (586) (1852)
DH293 697791/9525385 79°13'03.0" W eth-60-4 15 49.57 0.319 827.5 259.7 209.6 0.02 91.1 8.0±1.0 8.0±1.0
4°17'30.4" S (2541) ±0.019 (369) (1158)
Catamavo-Gonzannmn Rasin (7 ages)
Rodanejo pluton
DH450 672930/9550569 79°26'32.3" W eth-85-09 16 48.40 1.548 360.5 232.9 192.5 12.06 22.0 38.715.6 38.7±5.6
4°03'52.3" S (2745) ±0.096 (661) (427)
El Tingo pluton
DH451 687422/9558650 79°23'34.6" W eth-85-21 10 40.83 1.009± 272.0 269.5 264.0 0 94.1 21.212.6 21.2±2.6
3°59'29.5" S (2745) 0.061 (551) (546)
Loma Blanca Fm.
DH 391 680590/9544440 79°22'18.6" W eth-59-28 20 43.15 1.344 293.2 218.1 202.2 8.87 20.4 29.012.8 29.0±2.8
4°07'12.0" S (3020) ±0.054 (1465) (1090)
MS 259 678920/9562364 79°23'18.8"W eth-47-36 12 383.9 1.305 417.9 320.3 325.4 0 97.8 25.213.2 25.2±3.2
3°57'27.9" S (5675) ±0.081 (604) (463)
Gonzanama Fm.
DH439 674378/9539250 79°25'44.4" W eth-85-17 17 43.35 0.703 155.4 221.1 204.0 0.93 77.9 15.712.0 15.7±2.0
4°10'00.6" S (2745) ±0.041 (506) (720)
DH394 674378/9539250 79°25'44.4" W eth-59-30 20 42.10 0.677 766.9 113.2 107.6 0.84 80.2 14.411.8 14.4±1.8
4°10,00.6" S (3020) ±0.038 (523) (772)
DH443 675103/9540573 79°25'21.4" W eth-85-19 10 42.09 0.754 175.3 232.5 215.4 19.28 15.1 16.413.8 14.013.0*
4°09'18.0" S (2745) ±0.072 ±190) (252)
Plavas Basin (3 ages)
Sacapalca Fm.
DH385 646051/9555116 79°41'04.2" W eth-59-18 25 48.39 2.760 643.3 233.1 192.7 6.44 39.5 66.915.8 66.915.8
4°01'26.0" S (3020) ±0.099 (2903) (1052)
Loma Blanca Fm.
DH 388 647582/9559391 79°40'14.3" W eth-59-23 20 45.77 1.832 619.1 337.9 295.3 3.98 58.0 42.213.4 42.213.4
3° 59'06.3" S (3020) ±0.063 (2380) (1299)
DH 387 646676/9558934 79°40'43.7" W eth-59-21 20 46.82 1.319 454.6 344.8 294.5 0.06 88.4 31.112.8 31.112.8
3°59'21.6" S (3020) ±0.056 (1295) (982)
Fig 2 3 Chronostratigraphic correlation chart of me Tertiary in southern Ecuador The correlaUon

is based on 72 fission-track age determinations of volcamc honzons
zircon in the Tertiary basm
fill senes and of underlying volcamc rocks.
23.2. Basin fill series
a) Paleocene/Eocene
The oldest basin is the Playas basin, its age is constrained by the overlying Loma
Blanca Formation (42-26 Ma, Fig. 2.3) and the underlying Sacapalca Formation. The
Playas basin fill series (Rio Playas Formation) is therefore Upper Paleocene/Lower or
Middle Eocene and not coeval with the other Miocene basin fills (see b) as was assumed
by Kenneriey (1980).
b) Miocene
The age of the sedimentary fill varies from basin to basin and ranges from 15 to 8
Ma (Fig. 2.3). Sedimentological and paleontological data (see Chapter 3) show that
depositional during the Neogene in southern Ecuador occurred in two stages, which are
chronostratigraphically well defined: (1) a Pacific coastal stage during the Middle Miocene
(15 to 11 Ma) and (2) an intermontane stage in the Late Miocene (9 to 6 Ma, including also
younger volcanic series).

In the south, the series of Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Loja and Catamayo-Gonzanama
formed during 15 to 11 Ma in a coastal environment with bigger depositional systems,

which were linked to each other (stage 1, Fig. 2.3). After 10 Ma, smaller individual
intermontane basins were formed and the fill ranges up to 8 Ma (stage 2, Fig. 2.3). In the
Loja region the Middle to Late Miocene deposits are unconformably overlain by Upper
Pliocene pyroclastics (2.4 Ma, Salapa Formation, Fig. 2.3). In the north, the fill of the
Giron-Santa Isabel basin (15-10 Ma, stage 1, Fig. 2.3) is unconformably overlain by two
units of latest Miocene age (stage 2, Fig.2.3): (1) Uchucay Formation (9 Ma, lacustrine
deposits) and (2) Turi Formation (8 Ma, alluvial fan).

The absence of sediments of specific age may be due either to non-deposition or
intermittent erosion.
23.3. Timing of deformation
The timing of deformation is also provided by fission-track dating of (1) undeformed

rocks which unconformably overlie deformed units (Fig. 2.1C), and (2) of rocks which
suffered synsedimentary deformation. These relationships define a prominent short-lived
compressional event at around 9-8 Ma, which is observed in the southern Ecuadorian
Sierra between Cuenca and Vilcabamba and which coincided with pronounced surface
uplift (see Chapter 5).

Chapter 3 25 Stratigraphy and facies
3. Stratigraphy and facies of Tertiary basin fill series and vol¬

canic rocks of the southern Sierra in Ecuador
3.1. PREVIOUS STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATIONS
The first detailed stratigraphic scheme of Ecuador was presented by Hoffstetter
(1956); it was later revised by Bristow and Hoffstetter (1977) who included the results
obtained by several regional geological surveys and oil companies. Sauer (1965) com¬
piled a summary of the Ecuadorian geology which he also published later in German
language (Sauer, 1971). Since this study only three summaries of the geology of Ecuador
(Kenneriey, 1980, Baldock, 1982,1985) have been published. Kenneriey (1980) made the
first attempt to write a complete geological history of Ecuador and his summary is still a
very valuable working base. Baldock's (1982, 1985) work is mainly based on the compi¬
lation of Kenneriey (1980), but contains new data and integrates the geological advance in
plate tectonic concepts. Baldock (1982) introduced some new names for various
stratigraphic units and the main result of his work is a relatively coherent scheme of the
stratigraphy of Ecuador.
The present chapter presents an overview of the existing and our newly introduced
stratigraphic nomenclature of the area studied, taking into account the previously men¬
tioned publications and also some additional very useful regional studies (UNDP, 1969,
Kenneriey, 1973, Bristow & Parodiz, 1982). In the frame of the co-operation project of
ORSTOM and Ecuadorian Institutions (CLIRSEN, IPGH, EPN) from 1986 to 1991, sev¬
eral Neogene sedimentary basins in the Inter-Andean zone were studied. This project re¬
sulted in various unpublished Masters theses (Barragan, 1992, Fierro, 1991, Izquierdo,
1991,Mediavilla, 1991,Robalino, 1988) and publications (e.g. Noblet etal., 1988, Lavenu
et al., 1992, Baudino et al., 1994, Marocco et al., 1995). However, the investigations mainly
focussed on the Cuenca basin and the stratigraphy in the other basins was interpreted from
lithological correlation. These authors suggested for the development of all basins a strike-
slip model, which is, however, poorly constrained.
The stratigraphic nomenclature of Ecuador is not very coherent and sometimes con¬
fusing, due to the fact that during regional studies new names were often introduced,
which were not clearly defined. In addition, there is also no national initiative to control
the stratigraphic nomenclature. Therefore, the present work seeks to use as far as possible
earlier formation and group names. However, in several cases existing stratigraphic terms
are no longer appropriate and new names have been introduced. These formations are
defined in this Chapter in which the stratigraphy of each basins is presented. Table 3.1
gives an overview of the previous and new stratigraphic names. In addition, some prelimi¬
nary results of the "Geological Information Mapping Programme" of the British Geologi-
cal Survey (Mision Britanica, Quito) and CODIGEM, which is still in progress, are in¬
cluded (Pratt et al., 1997, BGS and CODIGEM, in press).
Giron- Malacatos- Catamayo-

Santa Isabel W Loja Playas
Vilcabamba Gonzanama
Pliocene Salapa Fm.
Tarqui Fm.
Turi Fm.
Uchucay Fm. Quiitotlaco Fm

Cerro
Giron Fm. Mandango Fm.
Belen Fm.
LaBandaFm
San Caye¬
Burrohuaycu Fm tano Fm.
Santo Domingo Fm.
Trigal Fm.
San Jose Fm.j
Catamayo Fm.
Quinara Fm. Gonzanama Fm.
Santa Isabel Fm.
Jacapa Fm.
Saraguro Fm.
Loma
Blanca Fm.
Loma
Blanca Fm.
toma Blanca Fm.
Loma
Blanca Fm.
o
LU
Macuchi Fm. Rio Playas Fm.
Sacapalca Fm. Sacapalca Fm.
Yunguilla Fm. Casanga Fm.
Naranjo Fm.
Alamor Fm. Alamor Fm.
Ceiica Fm. Ceiica Fm.
Table 3.1. Overview of the applied stratigraphic nomenclature in the Miocene basins series of
Giron-Santa Isabel, Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Catamayo-Gonzanama and the Eocene basin of
Playas, including the underlying units.
In die following sections the lithology of metamorphic and volcanic series and Ter¬
tiary sediments are described. The description goes from oldest to the youngests units and
starts with the underlying metamorphic and volcanic series. The compilation continues
with the presentation of each basin, and the basin fill series are systematically described,
followed by interpretation of sedimentary facies. Figure 3.1 shows the composite
stratigraphic successions in the different basins. Several well exposed sections in the
Miocene sedimentary series are described in more detail (Fig. 3.2) and give a representa¬
tive overview of the deposits in the studied area. The evolution of the depositional environ¬
ments during the Middle to Late Miocene is described in a regional context in Chapter 4.
The study area was mapped at a 1:50.000 scale (a total of 2.500 km2, Appendix 3)
Fig 3.1 Composite sections of the Miocene basm fill series of Catamayo-Gonzanama, Mala¬
catos-Vilcabamba, Loja and Giron-Santa Isabel with time correlations and the general facies
successions
resulting in a considerable improvement of the existing maps. These data are shown in
more detailed geological maps; one from the northern area (Giron-Santa Isabel, Nabon
basins, Fig. 3.7); a second from the southernmost part (Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba,
Catamayo-Gonzanama basins, Fig. 3.9); a third from the southwestern region (Playas ba¬
sin, Fig. 3.4). The legend for the maps is shown in Fig. 3.4A.
(Quinara Fm )
interm -acidic volcanics
(Loma Blanca Fm , Oligocene)
basic-mterm volcanics (Saca¬
palca Fm , Upper Cret Paleoc
basic interm volcanics and
sediments (Ceiica, Alamor Fms
Cretaceous)
metamorphic rocks
(Paleozoic-Mesozoic)
granodiontic intrusions
(Paleogene)
location of studied sections
Fig. 3.2. Location map of the studied stratigraphic sections (Fig. 3.10, 3.13, 3.14, 3.17) in the
basins of Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba and Catamayo-Gonzanama, which are important for the
reconstruction of the depositional environments.
3.2. METAMORPHIC BASEMENT
3.2.1. Chinguinda and Agoyan units
The metamorphics of the southern part of the Cordillera Real are called the Zamora
Series (Kenneriey, 1973) for which a Paleozoic age is assumed. These rocks partly form
the basement of the basins of Loja and Malacatos-Vilcabamba. Litheriand et al. (1993,
1994) grouped the low-grade metamorphic series (Fig. 3.3C, phyllites, graphitic schists,
quartzites, metasiltstones) in the Chiguinda unit of Devonian to Permian age and the higher
Fig. 3.3A) Cooling columns in an ignimbritic unit (Saraguro Formation), exposed south of the Rio
Leon, along the Cuenca-Loja road. The ignimbrite is dated at 22.5+1.8 Ma (DH 466=WP 481,
Pratt et al., 1997). B) Acidic lava flow with banding. The flow is dated at 15.9±1.6 Ma and is
intercalated in the Santa Isabel Formation (Giron-Santa Isabel basin). C) Metamorphic rocks of
the Chiguinda unit with thick quartzveins (Devonian to Permian) exposed at the western margin of
the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin. D) Intermediate dike in the pyroclastic Loma Blanca Formation
(Upper Eocene to Upper Oligocene), exposed at the western margin of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba
basin. E) Ignimbrite with fiamme, Loma Blanca Formation, Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin. F) Acidic
volcanic plug with columnar cooling features, exposed 4 km northwest of Catamayo and dated at
25.2+3.2 Ma. The plug is thought to document one of the eruption centers of the Loma Blanca
Formation. The waran in the center of the photograph is about 2 m long, including his tail.
grade metamorphic rocks (biotite-muscovite schists, garnet-muscovite schists, gneisses)

in the Agoyan unit of Paleozoic age. S-Type metagranites (Aspden et al., 1992) are termed
Tres Lagunas granite (Upper Triassic) and Sabanilla unit (Paleozoic-Triassic). The low-
grade metamorphics, mostly graphitic schists crop out between Loja and Malacatos. To¬
wards the east, in the higher summits of the Cordillera Real, the higher grade metamor¬
phic rocks are exposed.
630 79° 45' 640 650 660 79°,30' 670
9570
9560
4° 00'
9550
9540
Kilometers
Fig. 3.4. Geological map of the Eocene Playas basin and adjacent region, including Late Cre¬
taceous volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The legend is shown in Fig. 3.4A.
3.3. CRETACEOUS SERIES
3.3.1. Ceiica Formation
The CelicaFm. crops out along the southern margin of the Playas basin (Fig. 3.4). In
the area of the village Puente Playas it is overlain unconformably by the Naranjo Fm.
(Jaillard et al., 1996). The Ceiica Fm. was not a major object of my work and was not
studied in detail. However, some information will be briefly presented. The Ceiica Fm. is
composed of andesitic lavas, tuffs, pillow breccias and a few intercalations of limestones
and sandstones (Baldock, 1982). The Ceiica Fm. underwent very low-grade metamor-
STRATIGRAPHIC LEGEND
Pliocene Salapa Formation (Pis), Quimsacocha Formation (PIq)

'
I <Pi:rl
I 'HTI Tarqui Formation
Turi Formation
Upper
Cerro Mandango (Mqm), Uchucay (My) Formations
Quillollaco (Mq),
and Nabon Group (M^)
Gonzanama (Mq), Catamayo (Mq), San Jose\ Santo Domingo (Ms),

'
Trigal, La Banda, Belen (Myg), San Cayetano (Msq), Burrohuaycu (Mg),
Middle
Giron (Mq) , Mangan (M^) Formations
Quinara Formation
Si Santa Isabel Formation
Lower Jacapa Formation INTRUSIVE ROCKS
Upper E& Saraguro Formation

EMI
latest Cretaceous
(granodiorites)
-
Tertiary plutons
'
Lower
QlsI Loma Blanca Formation
''PgVI Cretaceous plutons (granodiorites)
Eocene Rfo Playas Formation
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Paleocene
VM Sacapalca Formation Paz Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks
Casanga and Naranjo (Chiguinda, Ayoyan units)

o Formations
<i>
Formation
[jy;iy^| Triassic metagranites (Tres Lagunas,
o Yunguilla Sabanilla, Mormoro)
CO
CD Alamor Formation undifferentiated Paleozoic and

PMzl
o Mesozoic rocks
Ceiica Formation
AGE DETERMINATIONS PALEONTOLOGICAL LOCATIONS
Middle Miocene ostracods

zircon fission-track ages, this work q
species (Peterson et al., in prep.)
zircon fission-track
ages(Hunger-
Neogene mammals
buhleretal., 1995, Steinmann, 1997) s-—2
(R. Madden, pers. comm., 1996)
K-Ar ages
(Kenneriey, 1980, Aspden etal., 1992) STRUCTURES
A, thrust fault, inverse fault

zircon fission-track ages
(Pratt etal., 1997) M normal fault -)- horizontal bedding

K-Ar ages (Barberi et al., 1988, -*—
strike-slip fault A inclined bedding
Rivera et al., 1992, Jaillard et al., 1996)
linework from the project of the British

4- anticline
+4120 m altitude (m)
_.
BG.S -x- syncline

Geological Survey in the Cordillera
Occidental (Pratt et al., 1997) lineament
Fig, 3.4A. Legend for the geological maps of the different basin regions (Fig. 3.4, 3.7, 3.9).
Playas basin Catamayo-

Gonzanama basin
31.1+2.8
Loma Blanca Fm.
(U. Eoc.-Oligoc.) Loma Blanca Fm.
1000 m
42.2±3.4
(U. Eoc.-Oligoc.)
29.0+2.8
thrusting at 9-8 Ma
800 m
Rfo Playas Fm.

(Eocene)
600 m
14.0+.3.0
Gonzanama
Fm. 400 m
66.9+5.8
Sacapalca Fm.
(Upper Cret.-Paleoc.)
< 2000 m
200m
Casanga Fm.
(Upper Campanian-
Maastrichtian ?)
El Naranjo Fm.
(Mid. Campanian- Loma Blanca Fm.
Santonian) {U. Eoc.-Oligocene)

= 1500 m
Ceiica & Alamor Fms. Sacapalca Fm.

173+31
(Albian -
Santonian (Upper Cret.-Paleocene)
> 2000 m < 2000 m
^"~^
unconformity fluvial and coastal facies
38.7+5.6 Ma zircon fission-track ages fluvial and alluvial fan facies

(error ±2a), this work
deltaic to turbiditic facies
70+2 Ma K-Ar ages, Kenneriey (1980)
intermediate to acidic volcanics
Q freshwater-estuarine ostracods
DID basic to intermediate volcanics
ww secondary gypsum veins
basic to intermediate volcanics
[ ,
,\ granodioritic intrusions (partly volcanic island arc setting)
Fig. 3.5. Composite stratigraphic sections of the Middle Miocene Catamayo-Gonzanama basin
and the Eocene Playas basin.
phism which is interpreted as non-deformational, but occurred during burial of the forma¬
tion in an extensional setting (Aguirre, 1992). It is crosscut by the Tangula batholith which
yielded'K-Ar ages (Kenneriey, 1980, Fig. 3.5.) of 114±30 (hornblende), 113±3 (horn¬
blende) and 110+3 (plagioclase) suggesting an age older than late Early Cretaceous for the
Ceiica Fm. Other Late Cretaceous rocks exposed in this region (Alamor Fm., Fig. 3.5) are
also locally intruded and metamorphosed by the same Tangula batholith (Jaillard et al.,
1996). Therefore, a part of the batholith must be younger and Jaillard et al. (1996) sug¬
gested an Albian age for the Ceiica Fm. The Ceiica Fm. rests unconformably on Paleozoic
metamorphic rocks and is overlain unconformably by the Alamor Fm. and the Sacapalca
Fm. In a few areas, a transitional contact between the uppermost part of the Ceiica Fm.
and the Alamor Fm. is observed (Baldock, 1982, Appendix 3).
33.2. Naranjo and Casanga Formations

The Naranjo and Casanga Formations were introduced by Jaillard et al. (1996) and
overlie unconformably the Ceiica Fm. (Fig. 3.5). The two formations are exposed along
the southern margin of the Playas basin. According to Jaillard et al. (1996), the Naranjo
Fm. contains calcareous marls, limestones and greywackes, and based on paleontological
evidence, a Santonian and/or Campanian age is inferred. The Naranjo Fm. is conformably
overlain by the Casanga Fm. (Jaillard et al., 1996), which consists of shales, limestones,
greywackes and conglomerates. Jaillard et al. (1996) assumed a Late Campanian to possi¬
ble Masstrichtian age. The Casanga Fm. is unconformably overlain by "Red Beds and
volcanics" (Jaillard et al., 1996). This unit is grouped in the present work with the Sacapalca
Fm. (see Chapter 3.4.1).
3.4. PALEOGENE VOLCANIC SERIES
My zircon fission-track age determinations of Paleogene volcanic series in southern
Ecuador combined with regional mapping results in a temporal and spatial grouping of
these rocks (Appendix 3). However, lateral and vertical relationships of the several thou¬
sand meter thick volcanic series are very complex. Lithological criteria alone allow often
no definite assignation of the various volcanic rocks to a formation and only absolute age
determinations allow such grouping.
3.4.1. Sacapalca Formation
History: The Sacapalca Fm. was introduced by Kenneriey (1973) and is retained here.
Type region and extension: The type locality lies near the village of Sacapalca (645007/
9540800). The Sacapalca Fm. is exposed in a N-S trending belt between the towns of
Santiago and Cariamanga. The N-S extension is 100 km and the width is about 30 km.
Towards the west, the Sacapalca Fm. is exposed as far as the town of Catacocha, west of
the Playas basin. Along the southwestern margin of the Playas basin, east of the village
Puente Playas, about 2 km NNW of the town Catacocha, andesitic to dacitic volcanic
rocks and some minor red siltstones are exposed. These deposits have been described by
Jaillard et al. (1996) as "Red Beds and volcanics" which unconformably overlie the Casanga
Fm. Jaillard et al. (1996) tentatively correlated them with the upper part of the Sacapalca
Fm., which is supported by my field observations and by one fission-track age (see be¬
low). Pratt et al. (1997) described intermediate volcanics exposed west of the town of
Saraguro (Fig. 3.7) and observed an interfingering of these volcanics with the Saraguro
Fm. They suggested to include the intermediate volcanics in the Sacapalca Fm. However,
such a correlation is not compatible with die stratigraphic relations in the south, where the
Sacapalca Fm. is unconformably overlain by the Loma Blanca Fm. with a Late Eocene to
Late Oligocene age. Therefore, I suggest that the intermediate volcanics observed in the
region of Saraguro may rather belong to the Saraguro Fm. (see Chapter 3.4.3).
Lithology: The Sacapalca Fm. contains andesitic to dacitic tuffs, lava flows and volcanic
breccias. The breccias are composed of andesitic clasts with diameters up to 1 m, and their
lateral extent is limited. There is no metamorphism observed as in the Ceiica Fm. (Baldock,
1982).
Thickness: Up to 2000 m (Baldock, 1982).
limits: The Sacapalca Fm. rests unconformably on the Paleozoic metamorphics of the
Cordillera Real and El Oro Province, the Ceiica, the Alamor and the Casanga Fms. (Fig.
3.5). The Sacapalca Fm. is overlain with an angular unconformity by the Rio Playas, the
Loma Blanca and the Gonzanama Fms. In the area between the towns of Nambacola and
Gonzanama, the Sacapalca Fm. is thrust onto the Gonzanama Fm. This contact was earlier
assumed to be a normal stratigraphic superposition (Kenneriey & Alemida, 1975a).
Age: Latest Maastrichtian to Early /Middle Eocene. One zircon fission-track age of a
dacite, exposed west of the town Catacocha, 1 km east of Puente Playas (Fig. 3.12,646051/
9555116) yielded a zircon fission-track age of 66.9±5.8 Ma, inferring a Maastrichtian to
Early Paleocene age for the Sacapalca Fm. at this place (Fig. 3.5). My mapping confirms
that the volcanic rocks exposed at the southeastern margin of the Playas basin belong to
the Sacapalca Fm., but the age is slightly older than the one proposed by Kenneriey (1980).
The fission-track age is compatible with the paleontological data from the underlying
Casanga Fm. (late Campanian to Maastrichtian?). The younger age limit of the Sacapalca
Fm. is given by the Late Eocene to Late Oligocene age of the unconformably overlying
Loma Blanca Fm. Several plutons intruded the Sacapalca Fm. and their K-Ar ages (Fig.
3.5, Appendix 1 and 3) are only in part compatible with the a Late Cretaceous to Early
Paleocene age of the Sacapalca Fm. The San Lucas pluton yields an age range of 51±2
(biotite) to 70±2 (hornblende) Ma (Herbert and Pichler, 1983, Kenneriey, 1980, Aspden et
al., 1992, 20 km north of Loja), and the El Tingo pluton an age of 47±2 (hornblende) and
50+3 (biotite) (Kenneriey, 1980, 5 km west of Catamayo). Both plutons have also been
dated by zircon fission-track, 39.1±3.0 Ma (San Lucas, Steinmann, 1997) and 21.2±2.6
Ma (El Tingo, this work). The newly recognized Rodanejo pluton, which cuts the Sacapalca
Fm. 7 km south of the El Tingo, yielded a zircon fission-track age of 38.7±5.6 Ma. Jaillard
et al. (1996) reported a K-Ar age of the Palo Blanco pluton which intrudes the Sacapalca
Fm. about 6 km west of Nambacola, of 26.6+1.6 (plagioclase) and 21.2±0.6 Ma (whole
rock). The considerable age differences obtained in the same plutons can be partly ex¬
plained by the different closure temperatures of the dated minerals. Considerable varia¬
tions of some ages of the same plutons obtained on the same mineral suggest that the ages
may be invalid because of problems with the loss of argon and potassium. All data are
assumed to be cooling ages and do not represent the magmatic age.
3.4.2. Loma Blanca Formation
History: Kenneriey (1973) defined the Loma Blanca Fm. which he later correlated with
the Saraguro Fm. in the north, and assumed a Late Oligocene to Early Miocene age
(Kenneriey, 1980). Baldock (1982) included the Loma Blanca Fm. in the Saraguro Group
with the same age range as suggested by Kenneriey (1980). The term Loma Blanca Fm. is
used here. However, several modifications with respect to the areal extent of the forma¬
tion and the age range are added, as discussed below. In addition, I assigne two new mem¬
bers, which have a different lithology and which have well defined stratigraphic bounda¬
ries. These are the Purunuma Quartz Porphyry Member and the sedimentary Solanda
Member.
Type region and extension: The type locality lies in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin,
near the Cerro Loma Blanca (689500/9533800), southwest of the town of Malacatos. The
regional extension is described in the following: A.The Loma Blanca Fm. is exposed in a
belt along the western margin of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin from the Cerro Loma
Blanca in the south to the Loma Batanes in the north. Another large exposure extends
north of the basin and reaches the area of the town Catamayo and the village Santa Rita. In
contrast to Kenneriey and Almeida's (1975b) map, die Loma Blanca Fm. is not present
south of the Rio Vilcabamba, along the western basin margin. Along the southwestern
margin, the pyroclastics between the villages of Tumianuma and Quinara are distinguished
under the name Quinara Fm. (see Chapter 3.6.3A), because of a younger, Middle Miocene
age (Fig. 3.13). B. Northwest of the Loja basin in the area of the village Salapa, there are
several small outcrops of pyroclastic rocks as well as in the south of the saddle Nudo de
Cajanuma. These volcanics were termed Salapa Fm. (Kenneriey, 1973) but were later
included in the Loma Blanca Fm. (Kenneriey and Almeida, 1975b). The pyroclastics in
the northern area of Salapa are latest Pliocene in age and therefore do not belong to the
Loma Blanca Fm. (see Salapa Fm., Chapter 3.6.2F). Only one very small outcrop south of
the saddle Nudo de Cajanuma near the village Pueblo Nuevo was found in the vicinity of
the Loja basin (699139/9546868, Fig. 3.9). This outcrop is much smaller than mapped by
Kenneriey and Almeida (1975b). No contact with the Loja basin fill series was observed.
C. Kenneriey et al. (1973) mapped, in the eastern part of the Playas basin, pyroclastics
which they interpreted as lava flows alternating with the sedimentary basin fill series.
These white acidic tuffs are also well exposed along the road between the villages of
Yamana and San Antonio at the eastern basin margin (Fig. 3.4) and I include them into the
Loma Blanca Formation. D. In the area of the town of Catacocha, subhorizontal volcanic
flows and tuffs of rhyolitic composition are exposed. They were attributed to the Sacapalca
Fm. (Kenneriey et al., 1973), but Jaillard et al. (1996) suggested that they may be younger.
My mapping shows, that these pyroclastics can be correlated with the white tuffs in the
eastern part of the basin and therefore are grouped with the Loma Blanca Fm. (Fig. 3.5).
E. Kenneriey (1973) mentioned an acidic plug-shaped rock body along the road from
Catamayo to Machala, about 4 km northwest of Catamayo. This sub-volcanic rock shows
prominent columnar cooling features (Fig. 3.3F) and intruded into the Sacapalca Fm. The
body is interpreted as a volcanic plug and documents perhaps one eruption centre for the
uppermost part of the Loma Blanca Fm. F. East of Nambacola in the area of the Loma
Achupallas an ignimbrite with columnar cooling features and fiamme is exposed for which
Kenneriey (1973) assumed a Pleistocene age. Fission-track dating (see below) allows to
include this ignimbrite in the Loma Blanca Fm.
lithology: The Loma Blanca Fm. generally consists of intermediate to acidic pyroclastics.
In the area of Catamayito, south of Catamayo, a distinct interval of well stratified and
sorted tuffs with layers of 1 to 10 cm is exposed. The tuffs are cut by thin intermediate
dikes (Fig. 3.3D). This 20 m thick interval is unconformably overlain by a 100 m thick
coarse breccia of volcaniclastics forming a spectacular escarpment. More to the south, the
Loma Blanca Fm. includes well stratified white to gray tuff horizons (mainly ignimbrites,
Fig. 3.3E) with individual thicknesses up to 5 m, and intermediate lava flows. The tuffs
consist of intermediate to basic dikes and sills. Towards the top, the formation consists of
reddish, altered lithic tuffs. Along the road Malacatos-Purunuma, west of the bridge cross¬
ing the Rio Solanda, there is an approximately 100 m thick sedimentary unit exposed
which appears to be intercalated in the lowermost part of the Loma Blanca Fm. Because of
the marked lithological difference, these sediments are distinguished as member, the Solanda
Member, within the Loma Blanca Fm. (Fig. 3.13). Furthermore, there are outcrops of a
quartz porphyry to the west of the Rio Solanda, which is distinguished as the Purunuma
Quartz Porphyry Member. The breccias in the area of Catamayito are interpreted as vol¬
canic breccias, which indicate, together with the associated basic dikes, the proximity to a
possible eruption center. The small outcrop south of the Loja basin, in the area of the
village Pueblo Viejo, consists of dark grey tuffs with a porphyritic structure and a thick¬
ness of about 10 m. Along the western basin margin of the Playas basin, the Loma Blanca
Fm. consists of white tuffs which are glass-rich and contain euhedral biotites and pumice
clasts. In some outcrops they show columnar cooling features.
Thickness: Maximum 2000 m
Limits: Generally, the Loma Blanca Fm. covers the Paleozoic metamorphic basement
(Chiguinda unit) unconformably. In the area of Catamayito it rests unconformably on the

Sacapalca Fm. In the area of Santa Rita and Nambacola, the Loma Blanca Fm. rests with
a tectonic contact on the younger Gonzanama Fm. (Figs. 3.5, 3.9). The ignimbrites ex¬
posed in this area are thus not the normal stratigraphic cover of the Gonzanama Fm. as
assumed by Kenneriey & Almeida (1975b) and Marocco et al. (1995) but were thrust into
this position by a west vergent thrust. There is no contact with the basin fill of Loja ob¬
served and therefore there is no evidence whether the basin fill series rests on the Loma
Blanca Fm. as assumed by Kenneriey and Almeida (1975a,b) or wether the Loma Blanca
Fm. was eroded prior to the deposition of the basin fill series. In the region of the Playas
basin, the Loma Blanca Fm. rests conformably on the Rio Playas Fm. and unconformably
on andesitic rocks of the Sacapalca Fm. The Loma Blanca Fm. is both conformably and
unconformably overlain by the San Jose and Santo Domingo Fms.
Age: Late Eocene to Oligocene. Four zircon fission-track ages in the area of the Malacatos-
Vilcabamba basin yielded a wide range from 40.6±5.4 to 26.6+.4.0 Ma. One sample south
of the Loja basin yielded a zircon fission-track age of 36.2±6.8 Ma. Two zircon fission-
track data from the western margin of the Playas basin and Catacocha yielded ages of
42.2±3.4 and 31.1±2.8 Ma, respectively (Figs. 3.5, 3.13).The volcanic plug exposed NW
of Catamayo has a zircon fission-track age of 25.2±3.2 Ma. A sample of the ignimbrite
exposed west of Santa Rita (Fig. 3.9., 680590/9558650) yielded a zircon fission-track age
of 29.0+2.8 Ma. These Early/Late Oligocene ages and the lithological similarities allow to
include the desribed rocks with the Loma Blanca Fm. The formation is older than sug¬
gested by Kenneriey (1980) and is not coeval with the Saraguro Fm. to the north.
Purunuma Quartz Porphyry Member

History: Kenneriey (1973) mentioned the occurrence of a quartz porphyry in the area of
Purunuma, and on the opposite margin of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin, in the area
south of El Tambo. He included this quartz porphyry in the Chinchillo Group of Miocene
to Pliocene age. Later, Kenneriey & Almeida (1975a) suggested an Eocene age and intro¬
duced the name Purunuma porphyry. Finally, Baldock (1982) included the porphyry in the
Saraguro Group. Based on my field observations and fission-track age determinations, the
Purunuma Porphyry is best regarded as a member of the Loma Blanca Fm.
Type region and extension: Good outcrops of a fresh porphyry lie in the area of the Loma
Riodopamba (683020/9535100) along the road between the towns of Malacatos and
Purunuma. The outcrops of the porphyry are restricted to the west of the Rio Solanda,
along the western margin of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin (Fig. 3.9). The outcrops east
of the basin in the area south of the village El Tambo consist of strongly weathered red
crystal-rich tuffs of intermediate composition, correlating with the Loma Blanca Fm. and
not with the porphyry as assumed by Kenneriey & Almeida (1975a).

lithology: In the type area a grey crystal-rich (predominantiy quartz, less feldspar) tuff
with porphyritic structure is exposed. There are some dark xenoliths, up to 10 cm, of basic
to intermediate pyroclastics which could be derived from the Sacapalca Fm.
Thickness: Due to the sometimes strong alteration it is difficult to distinguish the por¬
phyry from the juxtaposed Loma Blanca Fm. The thickness may attain several hundreds
of meters.
limits: The Purunuma porphyry rests unconformably on the lower parts of the Loma
Blanca Fm. and also on Paleozoic metamorphics (Fig. 3.13). However, some contacts are
faulted. It is possibly overlain by younger pyroclastics of the Loma Blanca Fm.
Age: Late Oligocene. One zircon fission-track datum in the area of the Loma Riodopamba
yielded an age of 30.3±2.4 Ma.
Solanda Member
History: West of Malacatos, there are sediments exposed, which are intercalated in the
volcanic Loma Blanca Fm. and for which the new name Solanda Member is introduced.
Type region and extension: The type locality lies northwest of the bridge crossing the Rio
Solanda (686260/9537030), at the road from Malacatos to Purunuma. The sediments are
exposed in a north-south trending belt parallel to the Rio Solanda valley. Other outcrops
exist on the western side of the Rio Solanda.
lithology: The Solanda Mb. includes conglomerates, red and green sandstones, black
silty shales and minor tuff intercalations. The sandstone beds have a thickness up to 2 m
and are horizontally stratified. The conglomerates consist of well rounded, poorly sorted
metamorphic clasts with diameters up to 20 cm. These sediments are better consolidated
than the Middle Miocene deposits.

Thickness: 100 m at maximum.
Limits: The Solanda Mb. is probably intercalated in the lowermost part of the Loma Blanca
Fm. (Fig. 3.13). However, the contacts are faulted and therefore, it is not possible to define
the exact stratigraphic position (see age). On the western side of the Rio Solanda the
sediments rest unconformably on the Paleozoic metamorphics.

Age: Earliest Oligocene. One zircon fission-track sample of an intercalated tuff yielded an
age of 36.5±4.4 Ma. Because of the age it is suggested that the Solanda Mb. is intercalated
in the lowermost part of the Loma Blanca Fm.

Sedimentary facies: Due to the relatively small outcrop it is difficult to establish in more
detail the depositional facies. A mixed-load fluvial system with a source area located in
metamorphic rocks can be inferred.
3.4.3. Saraguro Formation

History: The Saraguro Fm. was introduced by Kenneriey (1973) and the Saraguro Group
by Baldock (1982) in which the latter author included the following formations: Loma
Blanca, Saraguro, Chinchillo and Alausi (Table 3.2). On the newest geological map of
Ecuador, Litheriand et al. (1993) use the informal name Saraguro volcanics for a part of
the Saraguro Group and introduced the name Pisayambo volcanics for a part of the
Chinchillo Fm. In this work I apply the term Saraguro Fm. according to the definition of
Kenneriey (1973). I also include the Chinchillo Fm. in the Saraguro Fm., because there
are no lithological criteria which would allow one to distinguish two different formations.
Pratt et al. (1997) also suggested that the Chinchillo Fm. is not an individual unit and the
volcanics belong to the Saraguro Fm. In fact, the supposed boundary between the forma¬
tions (Kenneriey, 1973) is a thrust fault. However, I exclude the intermediate volcanic
series, exposed along the western margin of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin, from the Saraguro
Fm. I propose to call it Santa Isabel Fm. (see Chapter 3.4.5).
Type region & extension: The type region is situated in the area around the towns of Ona
and Saraguro, along the main road between the cities of Cuenca and Loja. Between the
eastern flank of the Cordillera Occidental and the western flank of the Cordillera Real, the
Saraguro Fm. covers an area of about 14.000 km2 (Appendix 3). The northernmost out¬
crop lies south of Riobamba and the southernmost at the latitude of Portovelo. A few
outcrops of ignimbrites in the coastal area, between the towns of Pasaje and El Guabo
(Appendix 3, Zufiiga and Cilio, 1980) yielded latest Oligocene zircon fission-track ages
(Pratt et al., 1997). These outcrops are included in the Saraguro Fm., they lie today at
sealevel, in contrast to other units of the same formation which are situated at the top of
the Cordillera Occidental (about 4000 m above sealevel).

lithology: The formation consists of intermediate to acidic pyroclastics. In the lower part
there are predominantly andesitic to dacitic tuffs and lava flows. In the upper part the unit
consists mosdy of rhyolitic ignimbrites which cover large areas and can be used as corre¬
lation horizons. The ignimbrites show the typical columnar cooling features (Fig. 3.3A)
and in some areas pumice fiamme indicate welding. Coarse breccias with rhyolitic and
andesitic clasts and sub-volcanic rocks characterize the location of possible eruption centers.
In the area of the town of Saraguro there are some sedimentary intercalations (sandstones
and shales) exposed with a total thickness of about 100 m. Also in other localities thin
sedimentary intercalations with reworked volcaniclastic material are present.

Thickness: It varies considerably between 500 to 2000 m, because the pyroclastic flows
followed the topography and filled in pre-existing valleys.

limits: The Saraguro Fm. lies unconformably on Cretaceous to Paleogene volcanics of
the Cordillera Occidental (possibly Macuchi Fm., Pifion de la Sierra Fm., Sacapalca Fm.,
Ceiica Fm., Appendix 3). In die east the Saraguro Fm. rests with angular unconformity on
the Paleozoic and Mesozoic metamorphics of the Cordillera Real, the Yunguilla Fm.
(Maastrichtian) and the Quingeo Fm. (Eocene/Oligocene, Steinmann, 1997). Along the
southern margin of the Santa Isabel sub-basin, the Saraguro Fm. lies with a tectonic con¬
tact on the Middle Miocene Burrohuyacu Fm. This contact is a NW-directed thrust fault
along which the Oligocene to Lower Miocene pyroclastics were thrust over the younger
basin fill series. This contact was previously interpreted as normal stratigraphic
superposition (Baudino et al., 1994), what is clearly not the case. The Santa Isabel Fm.,
the basin fill series of the Giron-Santa Isabel, the Turi Fm. and the Tarqui Fm. overlie the
Saraguro Fm. with angular unconformities.

Age: Late Oligocene-Early Miocene. Five zircon fission-track determinations give an age
range of 26.4±2.6 to 20.3±1.6 Ma in the area between the towns of Santa Isabel and Ona.
These ages are in good agreement with results in the region of the Nabon basin, where the
Saraguro Fm. was dated by zircon fission-track as 26.4±4.5 to 19.0+3.5 Ma (Hungerbuhler

et al., 1995). In the Cuenca region, Steinmann (1997) reported a similar age range from
29.5±4.6 to 20.5±2.0 Ma. K-Ar ages of the Saraguro Fm. (Kenneriey, 1980, Appendix 1)
fall within the same age range: a rhyolite west of the Santa Isabel sub-basin in the Jubones
valley yielded an age of 26.8±0.7 Ma (whole rock) and a rhyolitic lava flow at the conflu¬
ence of the Rio Rircay and Rio Giron was dated at 21.4±0.8 Ma (whole rock). The 26 Ma
age is derived from a rhyolitic intrusion within the Saraguro Fm. For the rhyolitic lava
flow of 21 Ma, I found a younger age of 15.9±1.6 Ma. Based on this fission-track age the
lava flow belongs to the Santa Isabel Fm. (see Chapter 3.4.5.). Barberi et al. (1988) pub¬
lished a K-Ar age of 28.9±1.4 Ma (whole rock?, Appendix 1) of an andesite from the
Saraguro Fm., but unfortunately without any grid references nor a description of the sam¬
ple locality. Lavenu et al. (1992, Appendix 1) assumed an age range of 35.310.9 to 26.810.7
Ma, based on three K-Ar ages and on the interpretation of previously published ages
(Kenneriey, 1980). However, Arturo Egiiez (pers. comm., 1995) mentioned that the age of
35.310.9 (K-Ar on plagioclase, Lavenu et al., 1992) is not derived from rocks of the Saraguro
Fm., but from the El Descanso andesite. The grid references of the sample point to a site
which is located in the area of occurrence of this rock (about 20 NE of Cuenca, see also
Steinmann, 1997). This is in sharp contrast with the text of Lavenu et al. (1992), according
to which the sample site comes from the vicinity of the town Saraguro. These two locali¬
ties are about 100 km apart from each other. Two K-Ar ages on biotite of ignimbrites in the
area of Soldados gave 26.010.8 and 27.010.7 Ma (Rivera et al., 1992, Appendix 1) and
are assigned to the lower part of the Saraguro Fm. (Warren Pratt, pers. comm., 1997). In
conclusion, the age range of the Saraguro Fm. is Late Oligocene to Early Miocene, as also
assumed by Kenneriey (1980) and not only Oligocene as suggested by Lavenu et al. (1992).
3.4.4. Jacapa Formation (sediments)

Detailed mapping by Cliff Hammer (pers. comm., 1997) along the southeastern
margin of the Santa Isabel sub-basin revealed the presence of a sedimentary unit with a
thickness of up to 110 m. The sediments are exposed in a N-S striking belt (between
683000/9620700 and 688700/9630300), which is parallel to the present margin of the
Santa Isabel sub-basin (Fig. 3.7). The sedimentary unit overlies non-conformably the
Saraguro Fm. and is unconformably overlain by the Santa Isabel Fm. (Fig. 3.6). Because
of the different lithology and the well defined field relations, the sediments are defined as
Jacapa Formation (pers. comm. Cliff Hammer, 1997). The Jacapa Fm. is also exposed
along the western basin margin of the Santa Isabel sub-basin, south of Santa Isabel, in the
Quebrada Burrohuaycu (Helg, 1997). The type locality lies about 8.5 km south of the
village Uchucay in the Quebrada Cajamarca (683350/9621350). The Jacapa Fm. consists
of fine to coarse grained sandstones, massive siltstones, some conglomerate horizons (with
intermediate volcanic clasts) and limestones. The limestones yielded a rich ostracod fauna,
molluscs and fish teeth (sample CH 113, Fig. 3.6, Appendix 4, Peterson et al., in prep.).
The ostracods include the following new freshwater species: Herpetocypris isabelensis,
Candona (Pseudocandona) hungerbiihleri, Cytheridella brevivestibulata and Cyprididsp.
No. 6 (Peterson et al., in prep.). One species, Candona (Pseudocandona) hungerbiihleri is
also found in the Middle Miocene San Jose Formation in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba ba¬
sin. The sedimentological features and the faunal association suggest a freshwater envi¬
ronment, most likely a fluvial system with abundant overbank deposits and lacustrine
deposition.
Zircon fission-track ages of the underlying Saraguro Fm. of 20.311.6 and the over¬
lying Santa Isabel Fm. of 18.412.0 Ma suggest an Early Miocene age for the Jacapa Fm.
(Fig. 3.6). The Santa Isabel Formation and the Middle Miocene basin fill of the Giron-
Santa Isabel basins rests unconformably on the Jacapa Fm. Exposures of the Jacapa Fm.
several kilometres outside of the Middle Miocene Giron-Santa Isabel basin (Fig. 3.7,
689000/9624000) suggest the presence of an Early Miocene, so-called Proto-Santa Isabel
basin, which covered a larger basinal area.
3.4.5. Santa Isabel Formation
History: Along the western margin of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin, a belt of thick inter¬
mediate volcanic rocks is exposed which was earlier in part assigned to the Saraguro Fm.
(see Saraguro Fm., Chapter 3.4.3.), in part to the Tarqui Fm. (Randel & Lozada, 1974,
Kenneriey et al., 1973) and the Pisayambo volcanics (Litheriand et al., 1993). However,
this volcanic unit is lithologically clearly distinct from these formations and its limits can
be mapped. In order to clarify the confusing nomenclature I introduce the Santa Isabel
Formation. This formation is identical with the preliminary Santa Isabel Andesite Fm.,
which is used in the stratigraphic nomenclature of the BGS project (Pratt et al., 1997).
1300 m n
Uchucay Fm.
(uppermost Miocene)
1200 m
"35
1100 m
400 m
<5S
BurrohuaN/cu Fm. (3
300 m
(Middle to Upper Miocene^
,14.212.6,
Santa Isabel Fm.
4+2 q
(Lower Miocene)
100 m
Proto-Santa-
Jacapa Fm. Isabel basin
(Lower Miocene) i
19.111.4
Saraguro Fm.
(Upper Oligocene-
Lower Miocene)
20.3±1.6 Ma zircon fissiorvtrack I I lacustrine facies

ages (error ±2a), , ,
andfluvial
andfluvial
II I alluviialluvial fan facies
Hungerbuhler (1997) I
CH 113 ostracod sample E3 intermediate to acidic volcanics

I I II limestones
Fig. 3.6. Composite section of the Lower Miocene volcanic and sedimentary rocks and the overly¬
ing Middle Miocene units in the region of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin.
Type region & extension: The type region lies in the area of the town of Santa Isabel and
along the Giron-Pasaje road in the area of the Rio Rircay. The formation covers an area of
about 400 km2 along a north-south trending belt where the western limit has a contact with
the Giron-Santa Isabel basin fill (Fig. 3.7). The southernmost part lies just north of the Rio
Jubones in the area of the village Chiquero, and the northernmost in the area of the village
San Fernando (Fig. 3.7). Additional outcrops of the Santa Isabel Fm. lie between the
Saraguro Fm. and the Burrohuaycu Fm. along the eastern basin margin of the Santa Isabel
sub-basin. They consist of a N-S trending belt which is about 100 m wide. An isolated
outcrop lies south of the village La Cria (689000/9624000). The lateral extension of the
Santa Isabel Fm. is very complex, especially in the western region of the Giron sub-basin
where the upper part of the S anta Isabel Fm. (1) rests unconformably on the Giron Fm. and
(2) interfingers with the Turi Fm. (Fig. 3.8).
lithology: The formation is composed of intermediate lava flows, volcanic breccias and
some minor tuffs. In the area of the confluence of the Rio Rircay and the Rio Giron an
acidic lava flow with well defined banding is exposed (Fig. 3.3B). This flow is overlain by
volcanics of the Santa Isabel Fm. and the basal contact is not exposed. The contact to the
Saraguro Fm. in the east is formed by a younger fault.
Thickness: Varies considerably between 500 to 1500 m, because the lava flows infill pre¬
existing valleys.
limits: The Santa Isabel Fm. overlies both conformably and unconformably the Saraguro
and Jacapa Fms. (Fig. 3.6). South of the town Santa Isabel, the formation is unconformably
overlain by the Burrohuaycu Fm. However, the Santa Isabel Fm. is partly coeval with the
basin fill series of Giron-Santa Isabel. There are thick intercalation of these volcanic de¬
posits within the basin fill series, and the contacts are sometimes difficult to map. This is
the case in the area of the village Gigantones, just at the boundary between the Santa
Isabel and the Giron sub-basins. In this region sediments of the Giron Fm. are
unconformably overlain by intermediate volcanics of the Santa Isabel Fm. (Fig. 3.6). Also
in the area of Santa Isabel the Burrohuaycu Fm. is overlain by intermediate volcanics of
the Santa Isabel Fm. (Fig. 3.6). South of the village of San Fernando, in the region of the
village of Cauquil, there is a thick volcanic intercalation of the Santa Isabel Fm. exposed
which lies within the Turi Fm. This complex lateral and vertical field relations were wrongly
interpreted by Baudino et al. (1994) in their stratigraphic column.
Age: Early to Late Miocene. Six zircon fission-track ages yielded ages ranging from
18.812.2 to 8.012.2 Ma. Therefore the Santa Isabel Fm. is partly contemporaneous with
the Pisayambo volcanics (Miocene to Pliocene, Litheriand et al., 1993). Several K-Ar
ages of andesitic rocks from literature indicate similar ages, but were allocated to the
Chinchillo Fm., Tarqui Fm., Alausi Fm. or Pisayambo volcanics: an andesitic dike west of
the Santa Isabel sub-basin yielded an age of 19.710.5 Ma (whole rock) and an andesitic
porphyrite southwest of the village of Gigantones, at the bridge crossing the Rio Rircay,
14.210.5 Ma (whole rock, Kenneriey, 1980, Appendix 1). An andesitic dike west of the
town of Saraguro, cutting across the Saraguro Fm., was dated at 18.910.4 Ma (whole rock,
Hall & Calle, 1982). The two older ages of about 19 Ma are in good agreement with the
fission-track ages of the lowermost part of the Santa Isabel Fm. and the dikes are regarded
as feeders of the volcanics. The 14 Ma age comes from the middle part of the Santa Isabel
Fm., just below the partly overlying Giron Fm. (Fig. 3.6). Several K-Ar ages of andesitic
pyroclastics in the area between Alausi and Saraguro yielded a range from 12.210.4 to
7.1+0.3 Ma (whole rock ?, Barberi et al., 1988, Appendix 1). However, tiieir location is
partly unknown. These ages might be from rocks of the Santa Isabel Fm., the Pisayambo
volcanics or the overlying Tarqui Fm.
3.5. PLAYAS BASIN
The sediments exposed in the Rio Playas depression, just northwest of Catacocha,
were for the first time mentioned by Kenneriey (1973). He called them the Rio Playas
Group and described clastic sediments with interstratified volcanic rocks. He compared
them with the Gonzanama Fm. Later, Kenneriey and Almeida (1973) called the coarse
clastic deposits Rio Playas Fm. In 1980, Kenneriey (1980) correlated the Rio Playas Fm.
with the Miocene basin fill series of Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Cuenca and Nabon.
My fission-track age determinations and field observation in the Rio Playas depression
reveal a different chronostratigraphy and lithostratigraphy in this region (Fig. 3.6). There¬
fore, the individual name Playas basin shall be applied.
3.5.1. Rio Playas Formation

History: Kenneriey et al. (1973) introduced the name Rio Playas Fm. for all sediments
which are exposed in the depression, except for some black shales (Casanga Fm.) along
the southwestern edge (in the area of the village El Limon). Jaillard et al. (1996) proposed
that the name should be restricted to the yellow coloured conglomerates, sandstones and
shales, and correctiy excluded the Naranjo and Casanga Fms. from the young basin fill
series. The definition of Jaillard et al. (1996) for the Rio Playas Fm. is adapted here.
Type region and extension: The type area lies along the road between the villages of
Puente Playas and Yamana in the north. The Rio Playas Fm. is exposed in a rhomboidal
shaped basin approximately 15 by 6 km (Fig. 3.4).

lithology: In the Rio Playas Fm. coarse conglomerates, yellow sandstones and siltstones
are present. The sandstones are coarse grained and cross-bedded. The conglomerates are
poorly sorted, contain well rounded clasts of black shales, andesites and quartzarenites up
to 20 cm across, are channelized and show horizontal stratification. The clasts are derived
mainly from the Casanga, Naranjo and Sacapalca Fms.
Thickness: The sediments pinch out towards the southern basin margin, where the thick¬
ness is only in the range of tens of meters. The formation wedges out towards the north
and reaches a thickness of up to 500 m.
limits: The Rio Playas Fm. overlies the Ceiica, the Casanga and the Sacapalca Fms. with
angular unconformity. It is partly conformably, partly unconformably overlain by the Loma

Blanca Fm. (Fig. 3.5). Along the southern margin, an onlap of the Rio Playas Fm. onto the
Sacapalca Fm. is present. At the northern basin margin the contact with the Alamor Fm. is
an E-W trending syn-sedimentary normal fault bordering a half graben. The fill series has
not been deformed by post-sedimentary processes.
Age: There are no new age data available. However, the Rio Playas Fm. is younger than
the underlying Sacapalca Fm. (Late Cretaceous to Early Paleocene?). On the other hand, it
must be older than the overlying Loma Blanca Fm., which has a Late Eocene to Early
Oligocene age (see Chapter 3.4.2.). An Early and/or Middle Eocene age may be therefore
assumed for the Rio Playas Fm.
Sedimentary facies: The lithology and sedimentary structures indicate deposition in a
bed-load dominated fluvial system with braided channels. The sediments are relatively
proximal.
3.6. MIOCENE BASIN SERIES
3.6.1. Giron-Santa Isabel basin
The sedimentary series exposed in the area of Giron and Santa Isabel had not been
studied until the nineteen sixties, because of the difficult access to this region. Sauer (1965)
published a first description of the area and assumed a Miocene or Pliocene age for the
sediments in the area of Giron. He included these deposits in the large basin of Canar-
Cuenca, which is now named the Cuenca basin (Steinmann, 1997). The sediments in the
area to the south of Santa Isabel were also assumed to be Miocene in age (Sauer, 1965).
The road between the cities of Machala at the Pacific coast and Cuenca in the Sierra was
built in the seventies and after this several reconnaissance studies were carried out. Bristow
(1973) and Randel & Lozada (1974) grouped the sediments of Giron and Santa Isabel as
Ayancay Group and attributed them to the Cuenca basin series. The present regional study
allows a clearer definition of the stratigraphic units (Fig. 3.8). From this it becomes evi¬
dent that the Giron-Santa Isabel basin (Appendix 3, Fig. 3.7) is an independant basin and
is therefore treated separately from the Cuenca basin. The present mapping and new
lithological data provided by Cliff Hammer (pers. comm., 1997) resulted in the definition
of a new formation which was deposited in the Proto-Santa Isabel basin.
Fig. 3.7. Geological map of the Middle to Late Miocene Giron-Santa Isabel basin and adjacent
region, where underlying volcanic rocks (Paleocene to Early Miocene) and the Late Miocene to
Pliocene pyroclastic cover predominate. The Nabdn basin in die East is Late Miocene in age
(Hungerbuhler et al., 1995). The legend is shown in Fig. 3.4A.
Kilometers
Fig. 3.7 (captions p. 45)

A Burrohuaycu Formation
History: The fill series of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin was described as Ayancay Group
(Randel & Lozada, 1974, Kenneriey et al., 1973). Unfortunately, me type locality of the
Ayancay Group lies in the Cuenca basin. Mediavilla (1991) defined in her Master's thesis
a few new stratigraphic units in the Giron-Santa Isabel basin, which where published by
Baudino et al. (1994), together with three new K-Ar ages (Appendix 1). However, this
division is hardly applicable (Winkler et al., 1996) because some of the stratigraphic con¬
tacts described by Baudino et al. (1994) are thrust faults. In addition, several previously
published ages (Kenneriey, 1980) were extrapolated incorrectly from sites outside the
basin into the sediment fill series. The Miocene series of Giron-Santa Isabel and Cuenca
are isolated today, however, they were also deposited in individual basins. Therefore, we
cannot apply the stratigraphy of the Cuenca basin and I introduce two new names which
take into account that the Giron-Santa Isabel basin represents two sub-basins with an
incompletely preserved succession. The name Burrohuaycu Formation is used for sediments
exposed south of the village of Gigantones and Giron Formation for sediments north of
Gigantones. These sediments are contemporaneous witii the middle and upper part of the
Santa Isabel Fm.
Type region and extension: The type region is formed by outcrops along the southern
bank of the Jubones river between the Huscachaca region and village of Uchucay (681000/
9630000), and in the Quebrada Burrohuaycu, south of Santa Isabel (684000/9632000).
The Burrohuaycu Fm. represents the entire fill series of the Santa Isabel sub-basin.
lithology: The formation shows strong lateral and vertical lithologic variations (Fig. 3.8)
and consists of conglomerates, sandstones and some volcaniclastic rocks. Along the
northwestern basin margin, there are a few outcrops of well bedded volcaniclastic sandstones
and some minor tuffs which represent the lowermost unit (Volcaniclastic Member) of the
Burrohuaycu Fm. This unit is overlain with an erosive contact by coarse conglomerates
containing reworked intermediate volcaniclastics of the Santa Isabel Fm. The clasts are
well rounded, poorly sorted; the fabric is clast-supported and a few beds are channellized.
These volcaniclastics and conglomerates grade towards the southeast and northeast into
an association of sandstones and siltstones (Sandstone Member). The medium to coarse
grained sandstones show cross-bedding, ripples and also horizontal stratification. The
siltstones are red and horizontally bedded. The coarse sandstones have in E-W sections a
lens-shaped form with a scoured base. They are 1 to 3 m thick, up to 10 m wide and show
lateral and vertical stacking throughout the entire member. Sandstone channels
volumetrically exceed the siltstones and also contain conglomerate sheets. In the south¬
east and southwest, the Burrohuaycu Fm. is dominated by coarse, clast supported, poorly
sorted conglomerates (Conglomerate Member), which grade towards the north into the
Sandstone Mb. The clasts are well rounded and consist of intermediate to acidic pyroclastics
of the Saraguro Fm. In the transition zone between the two members the conglomerates
occur in sheetlike beds with a lateral extension of several hundred meters. A prominent
green sandstone bed with a basal horizon rich in calcium carbonate occurs in the lower
part (Helg, 1997) of the Burrohuaycu Fm. and is useful for regional correlation. Many
volcanic intercalations (airfalls and pyroclastic flows), sometimes strongly silicified, oc¬
cur within the formation.
Thickness: Because of the half-graben structure of the basin and its syn-sedimentary tec¬
tonic activity, the thickness of the formation varies considerably. Along the western mar¬
gin the thickness is in the range of tens of meters and the sediments pinch out against the
underlying Saraguro Fm., forming an onlap. The thickness increases towards the south
and Southeast and the formation thickens up to 800 m.
limits: The Burrohuaycu Fm. overlies unconformably the Saraguro Fm. and the lower
part of the Santa Isabel Fm. The contact with the Saraguro Fm. is an angular unconformity
and in several sections onlap geometries are observed. The contact with the Santa Isabel
Fm. is also formed by an angular unconformity because of normal faulting which resulted
in horst-graben structures and onlap geometries (see Chapter 5). In the northwestern area
of the Santa Isabel sub-basin, the Burrohuaycu Fm. is overlain by the upper part of the
Santa Isabel Fm. In the south, the Uchucay Fm. lies with a marked angular unconformity
on the Burrohuaycu Fm. Along the southern basin margin, the Saraguro Fm. was thrust
over the Burrohuaycu Fm. (Fig. 3.7, see Chapter 5).

Fauna: Madden (pers. comm., 1996) identified mammal remains in the Quebrada Nunurcu
(Fig. 3.7): Fieldsomys aequatorialis, Interatheriidae and Proterotheriidae. Fieldsomys
aequatorialis has been found originally in the La Venta fauna, in the upper Magdalena
Valley in Colombia (Fields, 1957). The La Venta fauna has an age range of 13.8-11.8 Ma
(Flynn and Swisher ITJ, 1995) which is in very good agreement with my zircon fission-
track ages for the Burrohuaycu Fm. (see below).

Age: Middle Miocene. Twelve zircon fission-track determinations yielded ages ranging
from 14.711.2 to 10.511.6 Ma.
Sedimentary facies: The basal Volcaniclastic Mb. is predominantly composed of primary

pyroclastic deposits, which were partly reworked in a low-energy fluvial environment. The
lateral and vertical stacking of the channels in the Sandstone Mb. and the minor presence of
siltstones indicate deposition in a predominandy bed-load dominated fluvial system with
braided channels. The occurrence of the coarse Conglomerate Mb. along the southern mar¬
gin and the predominantly sheet-like geometry of the individual beds point to deposition in
an alluvial fan system. The fans formed the main source for the fluvial system further in the
north (Sandstone Mb.). Sheetfloods are typical for ephemeral flow conditions and suggest a
climate with marked rainy seasons. The conglomerates along the northwestern margin indi¬
cate a second source area with sediment input from the west, which is perpendicular to the
dominant south to north sediment transport along the basin axis.

Giron sub-basin
Tarqui Fm.
6.3±1.0 (Hungerbuhleretal., 1995
Nabon basin)
Fm. Santa Isabel Fm.

Tarqui ^„
acidic pyroclastics Ill intermediate pyroclastics
Tun Fm.
alluvial fan facies
|||| reworked volcaniclastics
fr^y] acidic lavaflow

Uchucay Fm.
lacustrine facies
Jacapa Fm., fluvial facies
basin fill
fluvial facies
V/A Saraguro Fm.
X/A acidic-intermed. pyroclastics
alluvial fan facies
wvw volcaniclastics
green marker sandstone unconformity

20.3±1.6 Ma zircon fission-track ages
O freshwater ostracods
(error ±2o), this work
Fig. 3.8.Composite stratigraphic sections of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin.
B Giron Formation
History: See Burrohuaycu Fm.
Type region and extension: Outcrops along the road Cuenca-Pasaje, between the villages
of Giron and Gigantones (Fig. 3.7), and especially in the lowermost part of the Quebrada
Granadillas (703900/9646500). The Giron Fm. represents the entire fill of the Giron sub-
basin.
Limits: The Giron Fm. lies with angular unconformity on the lower part of the Santa
Isabel Fm. The contact with the Saraguro Fm. is a reverse fault (Fig. 3.7) and therefore no
original stratigraphic boundaries between the basin fill of the Giron sub-basin with the
Saraguro Fm. is preserved. In the area of the village of Gigantones, the Giron Fm. is
conformably overlain by the middle or upper part of the Santa Isabel Fm. (Fig. 3.8). Along
the western limit of the Giron valley, the Giron Fm. is overlain with an angular unconformity
by the Turi Fm. In the south of the Giron sub-basin, the field relation suggests that the
Giron Fm. overlies the Burrohuaycu Fm. and thus represents the youngest fill series (see
lithology and age). However, no physical contact between the Burrohuaycu and Giron
Fms. is exposed.
Thickness: At least 800 m.
lithology: The Giron Fm. is dominated by red and gray medium to coarse grained sand¬
stones. Part of the coarser sandstones are channelized, contain channel-lag deposits and
have a thickness of several meters. They are associated with fine grained sandstones, grey
siltstones and laminated shales. The sandstones show cross-bedding, ripples and horizon¬
tal stratification and volumetrically exceed the siltstones and shales. There are also some
volcanic intercalations exposed, mainly white tuffs. In the south, in the area of the village
of Gigantones, the Giron Fm. is relatively coarse with thick sandstone horizons and con¬
glomerates; towards the north, in the area of Giron town, the grain-size decreases.
Age: Late Miocene. Two zircon fission-track measurements yielded ages of 10.111.2 and
8.113.2 Ma. These ages support the assumption that the Giron Fm. is younger than the
Burrohuaycu Fm.
Sedimentaryfacies: The lateral relationship of sandstone channel-fills with the surround¬
ing finer deposits suggests deposition in a mixed-load fluvial system. The flow directions
and grain-size trends point to a transport from south to north, along the basin axis.
C Uchucay Formation
History: Kenneriey et al. (1973) introduced the Uchucay Fm. and his map is in good
agreement with my observations.
Type region and extension: The village of Uchucay (682400/9629000, Fig. 3.7) in the
southernmost part of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin, especially in the valleys of the Rio
Leon and Rio Rircay (downstream Rio Jubones).

lithology: The Uchucay Fm. consists of poorly sorted conglomerates, sandstones and
dominantly white siltstones. The conglomerates contain well rounded clasts which are
mostly derived from the Saraguro Fm. The predominant siltstones are poorly consolidated
and often laminated (pers. comm. C. Hammer, 1997). The sandstones show cross- and
horizontal stratification.
Thickness: The preserved thickness varies between 10 to 100 m.
limits: The horizontally bedded Uchucay Fm. rests with a prominent angular unconformity
on the Burrohuaycu Fm. and is overlain by colluvial Quaternary deposits.

Age: Three samples from this formation did not show a consistent zircon fission-track age
pattern. The tephra are obviously reworked and contain zircons of different ages ranging
from Oligocene to Miocene. However, the youngest population found in one sample yielded
an age of 9.411.6 Ma which is assumed to be the depositional age (Fig. 3.8). Lithologically
the Uchucay Fm. is different from the Giron Fm., because of the predominant white
siltstones. Based on the fission-track data I suggest a Late Miocene age for the Uchucay
Fm. and not a Quaternary one as assumed by Kenneriey et al. (1973).
Sedimentaryfacies: The abundance of fine laminated siltstones is suggestive of a lacustrine
system. Sandstone channels may document fluvial input into the lake.
D Turi Formation
History: The Turi Fm. was defined by Erazo (1957) as the uppermost formation of the
Cuenca basin. The coarse clastic deposits in the northwest of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin
were also mapped as Turi Fm. (Randel and Lozada, 1974). Based on lithology an addi¬
tional area of about 200 km2 which was mapped earlier as Tarqui Fm (Randel & Lozada,
1974) is now considered to be Turi Fm. This area extends over the region between the
villages of Asuncion and San Fernando and the region of the hilly range of Filo de Som¬
brero up to the saddle of Nudo de Portete at the northernmost edge of the Giron sub-basin
(Fig. 3.7)
Type region and extension: The type locality lies in the Cuenca basin, near the village of
Turi (721400/9677100). The Turi Fm. extends along the eastern flank of the Cordillera
Occidental from the village of Suscal in the north to Giron in the south. However, the Turi
Fm. does not extend into the central part of the Inter-Andean Valley. Because the Inter-
Andean Valley is not filled with the Turi Fm., it seems reasonable to conclude that this
graben-like structure was formed later. The Turi Fm. was deposited in a thrust-top basin
setting (Steinmann, 1997), located along the eastern flank of the Cordillera Occidental.
lithology: The lower part of the Turi Fm. is composed of coarse conglomerates, tuffaceous
coarse sandstones and some minor sandy siltstone intervals. The conglomerates are poorly
sorted, clast-supported, channellized, and the clasts are well rounded andesites. The
sandstones are often planar or trough cross-bedded. There are some minor matrix-sup¬
ported breccias with volcaniclastic pebbles and a few pyroclastic intercalations. In the
area of the Quebrada Pucalpa (W of the town Giron), the Turi Fm. includes alternating
coarse sandstone beds up to 5 m thick and horizontally stratified finer and thinner sand¬
stone beds. The coarse beds contain horizontally stratified gravel sheets and are channellized.
These coarse beds are up to several hundred meters wide. In the middle and upper part of
the Turi Fm., coarse conglomerates and breccias predominate. The conglomerates are grain-
supported and very poorly sorted with boulders up to 3 m in diameter. The clasts are
exclusively andesitic. The breccias are matrix-supported and also contain andesitic clasts.
Sandstones and pyroclastic intercalations decrease towards the top. The formation shows
coarser deposits towards the west and to the top.
Thickness: The preserved maximum thickness is 1000 m.
limits: The Turi Fm. overlies the Giron Fm. and the lower to middle part of the Santa
Isabel Fm. with angular unconformity. The Tarqui Fm. has both unconformable and con¬
formable contacts with the overlying Turi Fm.
Age: Randel and Lozada (1974) assumed a Pliocene-Pleistocene age. However, three zir¬
con fission-track samples in the lower and middle part revealed ages of the formation
from 10.512.2 to 7.611.2, that is a Late Miocene age. A thick volcanic intercalation of the
Santa Isabel Fm. within the Turi Fm. yielded a zircon fission-track age of 8.012.2 Ma
(Fig. 3.8) confirming interfingering between these two formations. These relations show
that the Giron Fm. and the Turi Fm. were both deposited in the Late Miocene within a
short period, although they are separated by a marked angular unconformity.

Sedimentary facies: The predominantly coarse clastic lithology of the formation suggests
deposition in an alluvial fan environment and very proximal bed-load dominated fluvial
systems. The overall coarsening upward trend and E-W grain-size trends indicate
progradation of the alluvial fan towards the west and southwest. Based on the vertical
succession of the lithologies a change from a channeled fan in the lower part to a fan with
predominant gravitational mass movement transport in the upper part can be interpreted.
This change points to an increasing topographic gradient with time.
E Tarqui Formation
History: The Tarqui Fm. was defined by Bristow (1973), but the stratigraphic range, bound¬
aries and extension were poorly established. During later mapping by UNDP and the Brit¬
ish Technical Aid Programme in the sixties and seventies, almost all of the widespread
poorly consolidated and altered pyroclastics representing the youngest units were included
in the Tarqui Fm. In some areas, the distinction between older (Saraguro Fm.) and younger
pyroclastics (mapped as Tarqui Fm., Randel & Lozada, 1974, Kenneriey et al., 1973,
Baldock, 1982) is not very convincing. First radiometric age determinations (Barberi et
al., 1988, Rivera et al., 1992, Lavenu et al., 1992) of pyroclastics outside of the Tertiary
basins and mapped as Tarqui Fm., yielded older ages than previously assumed, and a part
of these occurrences were included in the Saraguro Fm. My mapping outside of the Giron-
Santa Isabel basin combined with fission-track dating suggests that the Tarqui Fm. has a
smaller regional extent than assumed. North and south of the town of Ona fission-track
age determinations (this work, Pratt et al., 1997) in pyroclastics (assumed to belong to the
Tarqui Fm.) yielded Late Oligocene ages and therefore, these volcanic rocks belong to the
Saraguro Fm. In addition, a part of such volcanics to the west of the town of Giron belongs
to the Santa Isabel Fm. (see Santa Isabel Fm., Chapter 3.4.5.). The Tambo Viejo Fm. in the
area of Nabon (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995) should be redefined as Tambo Viejo Member,
which is part of the Tarqui Fm.
Type region and extension: The type locality is the village of Tarqui (718800/9667000)
which lies in the southernmost part of the Cuenca basin. The formation crops out along the
eastern margin of the Cuenca basin (Steinmann, 1997) and at the eastern margin of the
Nabon basin (Hungerbiihler et al., 1995). Another isolated outcrop lies in the area of
Carboncillo in the Paramo, between the towns of Saraguro and Ona (Fig. 3.7). The
pyroclastics covering the high plateau north of San Fernando with altitudes up to 4000 m
are defined by Pratt et al. (1997) as Quimsacocha Andesite Fm. instead of the previous
attribution to the Tarqui Fm.
Lithology: The Tarqui Fm. is dominated by intermediate to acidic pyroclastics consisting
of rhyolitic to andesitic volcanic breccias, tuffs, pyroclastic flows and ignimbrites (Baldock,
1982). The pyroclastics are often kaolinized and/or silicified. In the Cordillera Occidental,
between the village of San Fernando and the Jubones valley, a few mineralisations occur
within the formation (Goossens, 1972, 1976). Between the town of Azogues and the vil¬
lage of Nabon, the formation is strongly altered and devitrified to red clay.
Thickness: Varies between 20 to 200 m.
limits: The Tarqui Fm. overlies unconformably a wide range of Tertiary sediments and
volcanics: The Saraguro Fm., the Turi Fm., the Nabon Fm. (Hungerbuhler et al., 1996)
and the basin fill sediments of Cuenca (Steinmann, 1997). The Tarqui Fm. is overlain only
by unconsolidated Quaternary deposits.
Age: The Tarqui Fm. is latest Miocene in age and not Pleistocene as assumed by Bristow
(1973). The Tambo Viejo Fm. (better Mb.), which forms part of the Tarqui Fm., yielded a
zircon fission-track age of 6.3 Ma (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995). Fission-track ages in the
area of Cuenca are also latest Miocene (Steinmann, 1997). K-Ar ages published by Lavenu
et al. (1992, their Pisayambo Fm., Appendidx 1) in the area of Saraguro (8.210.4 Ma,
plagioclase) and Alausi (8.810.4 Ma, plagioclase) are from rocks, which may also belong
to the Tarqui Fm. The Tarqui Fm. includes the youngest pyroclastic deposits of great re¬
gional extension in southern Ecuador.
3.6.2. Loja basin
The sediments exposed in the area of Loja were first described by Wolf (1876), who
suggested a Tertiary age and noted their deformation by "vertical movement" of the An¬
des. During the regional surveys of the UNDP (1969) and the British Technical Aid Pro¬
gramme, the Loja basin was studied in more detail. Kenneriey (1973) published a
stratigraphic scheme which was based on an earlier work by Alvarado (1967). Kenneriey
(1973) used different names for the stratigraphic units of the basins of Loja and Malacatos-
Vilcabamba. Later, the stratigraphic nomenclature of the Loja basin series was also ap¬
plied to the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin, based on interbasin correlations (Kenneriey &
Almeida, 1975a,b, Bristow & Parodiz, 1982). However, my age determinations show that
similar facies in the different basins are of different age. In addition, the facies evolution in
the lower and middle parts of the basin fill series is not similar. Because of this, I apply the
stratigraphic nomenclature of Alvarado (1967) for the Loja basin, and partly Kennerley's
(1973) scheme for the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin. A new nomenclature for the lower
and middle part of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba and the middle part of the Loja basin
successions is introduced.
The Loja basin is divided by a prominent west-directed thrust fault into a western
and eastern part (Fig.3.9). This post-depositional structure resulted in the juxtaposition of
two sub-basins with a different stratigraphy which in their lower and middle parts cannot
be correlated. Because of this tectonic separation, different formation names for the sedi¬
mentary units in the western and eastern sub-basins are used (Fig. 3.10).
A Trigal Formation
History: The name Trigal Fm. was introduced by Alvarado (1967) in the Loja basin and
first published by Kenneriey (1973). This name was also used for the basal part of the
Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin fill (Kenneriey & Almeida, 1975b). In this study, the term
Trigal Fm. is only applied to sediments of the Loja basin. The contacts shown on the
existing map (Kenneriey & Almeida, 1975a) are in good agreement witii my observations.
Type region and extension: The type locality lies in the Loja basin, in the Rio Trigal
(694900/9559850), along the main road from Loja to Catamayo. The Trigal Fm. is only
present in a relatively small area along the northwestern margin of the Loja basin (Fig.
3.9).
lithology: The Trigal Fm. consists of coarse grained sandstones with fine conglomeratic
sheet layers and minor siltstones. The conglomerates are composed of small volcanic clasts
(> 1 cm) which occur as parallel stratified layers within the sandstones. The sandstones
show horizontal stratification, planar cross-bedding and also contain small wood frag¬
ments.
Thickness: The thickness varies from about 50 m in the west to 150 m in the east, towards
the contact with the La Banda Fm.
limits: The Trigal Fm. rests unconformably on Paleozoic metamorphic rocks (Chiguinda
and Agoyan units, Fig. 3.10). The formation is overlain by the La Banda Fm. both con¬
formably and unconformably. The contact between the Trigal Fm. in the western part and
Fig. 3.9. Geological map of the Middle to Late Miocene basins of Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba
and Catamayo-Gonzanama. The basins are surrounded by Mesozoic metamorphic basement rocks
and Tertiary volcanic units predominate. The legend is shown in Fig. 3.4A.
670
9580
-9520
Kilometers
the San Cayetano Fm. in the eastern part of this basin is formed by the mentioned thrust
fault and therefore, no lateral correlation can be made.
Age: The formation could not be dated directly. However, the partly conformably overly¬
ing La Banda Fm has an age of 11 111.2 Ma. This implies an older, possibly Middle
Miocene age for the Tngal Fm.
East
1200 m
West
900 m
600 m
111+12
300 m
acidic pyroclastics \S\S unconformity
basin fill
n=H limestones (intertidal facies)
[.•'"•1 debris flow
alluvial fan facies (Upper Miocene)
—
cccccc coal
fluvial, lacustrine facies
dddddd diatomite
-'/'/ Loma Blanca Fm
y/. intermediate-acidic
M metamorphic clasts
pyroclastics
V volcanic clasts
Chiguinda and Agoyan units
(metamorphic rocks, Paleozoic) ^ estuarme ostracods
and foraminiferas
13 8±1 2 Ma zircon fission-track ages c~\ estuanne-freshwater
ostracods
(error ±2c), this work
Fig 3 10. Composite stratigrapic sections of the Loja basin.

Sedimentary facies: The formation was deposited in a bedload dominated fluvial system.
The flat geometry of the conglomerates indicate partly unchannelized flow transport in
sheetflo6ds. The source area was situated in volcanic rocks as documented by the abun¬
dant reworked volcaniclastic clasts. This is in contrast with other fluvial deposits in the
Loja basin series.
B La Banda Formation
History: In the northwestern part of the Loja depression, there is a very distinct and promi¬
nent limestone interval exposed. Based on this distinct lithology the new La Banda For¬
mation is introduced. This interval was formerly attributed to the Trigal Fm. (Kenneriey &
Almeida, 1975a).
Type region and extension: The type locality lies in the northwestern part of the Loja
basin, along the main road from Loja to Cuenca near the Quebrada La Banda (696900/
9561250). The formation is only in the northwest of the Loja basin present, where it forms
a very thin but persistent interval (Fig. 3.12A).

lithology: The La Banda Fm. is a distinct white limestone interval (Fig. 3.11.). It is com¬
posed of (1) massive limestones containing molluscs and ostracods, (2) rhythmic repeti¬
tions of thin, finely laminated carbonate shales and limestones, (3) chert layers (Fig. 3.12B)
and (4) fine grained yellow sandstones. The limestones yield a rich ostracod fauna (see
Chapter 4). Several horizons within the interval are bioturbated. At the top of the forma¬
tion a tuff horizon is intercalated which has been dated (see below). Intraformational breccias
(Fig. 3.12E) are present and contain clasts of thinly laminated limestones indicating that
the reworked limestones were partly lithified. Gypsum veins are abundant within the in¬
terval (Fig. 3.11.). Several layers with desiccation cracks (Fig. 3.12D) and wrinkle marks
(Runzelmarks) were observed. Primary gypsum horizons were also present, in which gyp¬
sum was replaced by calcite. Some limestones show characteristic structures of algal mat
lamination (Fig. 3.12C).

Thickness: The interval has a tiiickness of 10 to 20 m and forms a continuous, very per¬
sistent horizon.
Limits: The La Banda Fm. overlies the Trigal Fm. locally with a slightiy erosive contact or
conformably and is overlain conformably by the Belen Fm. The upper boundary is transi¬
tional with a gradual increase of sandstone beds. The formation cannot be traced across
the thrust fault dividing the basin (Fig. 3.9).

Fauna: An abundant ostracod fauna and several foraminifera are present. Three samples
(DH 258,416, 417, Fig. 3.11, Appendix 4) yielded the following new species: Cyprideis
ecuadoriana, Cyprideisforesteri and Cyprididsp. No. 3 (Peterson et al., in prep.). In addi¬
tion, the sample DH 258 yielded two benthic foraminiferal species: Ammonia parkinsonians
van tepida and ?Disccorbis sp. (Peterson et al., in prep.). The fauna indicates a shallow
marine, estuarine environment. Based on the ostracod fauna an open estuarine (in the
sense of salinity) and lagoonal environment can be inferred.
Age: Middle/Late Miocene. The tuff horizon at the top of the formation yielded a zircon
fission-track age of 11.111.2 Ma.
Sedimentary facies: The limestone facies indicates a lithological change todominating flu¬
vial deposits of the Loja basin (Fig. 3.11). The fauna documents deposition in a lagoonal
environment with repeated marine incursions. The desiccation cracks suggest occasional
subaerial exposure and the primary gypsum evaporation. The intraformational breccias were
possibly formed during storm events. The rhythmic laminated shales and limestones show
the existence of some periodicity which could be interpreted as tidal beds. The waterdepth
was only in the range of meters, as evidenced by the evaporites, wrinkle marks and the
growth of algal mats. The algal mats are sheetlike and laterally continuous which is charac¬
teristic for growth in the supratidal zone (Prothero and Schwab, 1996, p. 260). This interval
is interpreted to have been situated in a lagoonal environment with supra- to intertidal
deposits.
flow direction
|$| coarse
and
grained sandstone channel with conglomerate lags
planar cross-bedding, metamorphic and volcanic clasts
fluvial and
limestone nodules
deltaic
mediumgrained sandstone with horizontal stratification
system
slumps, convolute bedding
vv](v^r{l1.2±1.2Ma glass-rich tuff (DH 223)
medium grained sandstone with planar cross-stratification
rhythmic alternation of dark shales and laminated limestone

—ostracodes (marine, estuarine) and foraminifera (DH 416,417)
primary gypsum layer lagoon
desiccation cracks
algal mats
biogenic breccias
chert layers
bioturbation
algal mats
flat pebbly limestones (intraformational breccias)
ostracodes (marine, estuarine, DH 258)
coarse limestone with molluscs and ostracods
coarse grained sandstone with planar cross-bedding and

gravel sheetscontaining volcanic clasts fluvial sheetflow
dominated system
Fig. 3.11. Detailed stratigraphic section of the La Banda Formation with a carbonate tidal flat
facies, in the Loja basin; compiled from outcrops near the village of Carigan (696922/9561374)
and the Quebrada La Banda (696267/9559567).
Fig. Sedimentary and lithological features in the Loja basin. Photographs A to E are from the
3.12.
exposure the Quebrada La Banda. A) Exposure of the 20 m thick La Banda Formation, which
near
is intercalated in fluvial deposits. B) Folded limestone beds and chert intercalation (La Banda
Formation). Folding is mostly caused by shrinking or is due to the formation of algal mats. C)
Algal dome in the La Banda Formation. D) Desiccation cracks in the La Banda Formation. E)
Intraformational breccia in the La Banda Formation. F) Alternation of diatomite layers and shales
indicating possibly a periodicity (Siltstone Member, San Cayetano Formation, region of the
Quebrada Virgen Pamba).
C Belen Formation
History: The Belen Fm. was introduced by Alvarado (1967) and mapped by the UNDP
(1969) in the northwestern part of the basin. Kenneriey (1973) included the Belen Fm. in
the San Cayetano Fm. (Kenneriey & Almeida, 1975a). Because of the specific lithology
and new age determinations the name Belen Fm. is retained.
Type region and extension: The type locality lies near the village of Belen (697400/
9560400) in the Loja basin. The formation occurs immediately west of the Rio Zamora in
the northwestern part of the basin.
Limits: The Belen Fm. rests conformably on the La Banda Fm. The boundary is a gradual
change from the predominant limestones to sandstones. The contact between the Belen
and San Cayetano Fms. is formed by a west vergent thrust fault (Fig. 3.9). The Quillollaco
Fm. rests with angular unconformity on the Belen Fm. (Fig. 3.10).
Thickness: The maximum thickness is 300 m with no evidence of regional variations.
Lithology: The formation is characterized by thick bedded, coarse grained brown sand¬
stone beds which contain horizontally stratified conglomerate lenses and lag deposits. The
beds are up to 3 m thick. The sandstones are channelized, show metric scale cross-bed¬
ding; the conglomerate clasts are mostly metamorphics with minor volcanics. These beds
are associated with well-bedded medium-grained, thin sandstone beds and minor shales.
Slump folds and convolute bedding of different scales (from cm to several meters) are
present in the finer, well bedded deposits.
Age: No fission-track data are available. However, a Late Miocene age can be assumed,
because the Belen Fm. overlies the Middle/Late Miocene La Banda Fm. conformably.
Sedimentary facies: The basal part of the formation reveals slumping at a metric scale
which indicates slope instability. The presence of large scale, sinusoidal cross-bedding
points to a deltaic environment. The main part of the formation was deposited in a mixed-
load fluvial system.
D San Cayetano Formation

History: The name San Cayetano Fm. was introduced by Alvarado (1967, in Kenneriey,
1973). Because of similar lithologies this name was also used for the middle part of the
Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin series (Kenneriey & Almeida, 1975a). In spite of that, it is

used there only for sediments in the Loja basin, in order to avoid confusion. However,
only sediments exposed east of the thrust fault along the Rio Zamora can be attributed to
the San Cayetano Fm., in contrast to the existing map (Fig. 3.9, Kenneriey & Almeida,
1975a).
Type region and extension: The type locality lies near the village of San Cayetano (700300/
9596000) in the Loja basin. The San Cayetano Fm. is only present east of the Rio Zamora.
Lithology: The formation can be divided into three members with transitional boundaries
(Fig. 3.10). The Lower Sandstone Member contains brown sandstones, some minor con¬
glomerate beds and shales. Within the shales there are several coal seams, which were
studied by Putzer (1968) and the UNDP (1969). The conglomerates are channelized and
contain exclusively metamorphic clasts, which are poorly sorted, well rounded and imbri¬
cated. The shales contain gastropods and a rich macroflora (see below, fauna and flora).
Towards the top, the sandstones grade into the finer Siltstone Member. It includes re¬
peated brown, grey and white shales, abundant diatomite layers (Fig. 3.12F) and some
pyroclastic horizons. This fine material occurs in horizontally stratified and laminated
beds of 1 to 2 cm thickness. The contacts between the individual beds are sharp. There are
also some leaf and abundant gastropods imprints on bedding surfaces and entire fish skel¬
etons preserved (see below, fauna and flora). Part of the shales is strongly silicified. The
shales are disturbed by slump folds and convolute bedding at metric scale. There are two
prominent intercalations (3-5 m thick) of breccias within the Siltstone Member. These
breccias are clast-supported and no fine matrix has been observed. The clasts are meta¬
morphic rocks. The breccias are intercalated in the fine grained sediments and the basal
contact is erosive. The shales in the vicinity of the breccias are slumped on a metric scale
and their deformation is possibly related to rapid deposition of the breccia beds. The shales
grade upwards into the Upper Sandstone Member which is dominated by brown sand¬
stones and shales.
Thickness: Because of the strong folding it is difficult to estimate the thickness of this
formation. In addition, the different members show strong vertical and lateral changes.
The Siltstone Member shows a strong wedging out towards the eastern basin margin. The
total thickness may attain 800 m.
Limits: The San Cayetano Fm. rests unconformably on the metamorphic Chiguinda unit.
The Quillollaco Fm. overlies with an angular unconformity the San Cayetano Fm. Possi¬
bly there is a slight unconformity between the Lower Sandstone Mb. and the overlying
Siltstone Mb. The contact with the western series is the thrust fault along the Rio Zamora
(Fig. 3.9).
Fauna and flora: Wolf (1876) was the first to describe a macroflora (leave imprints) in
the Loja sediments; his material was restudied by Engelhardt (1895) and by Berry (1918,
1929, 1934, 1945). The latter also studied material collected by Prof. C. Carrion. Berry
concluded that deposition was in a tropical climate at low elevation, comparable to the
recent conditions in the eastern areas of the Amazonian basins. The abundant fish skel¬
etons have not been studied previously and only one species was identified by White
(1927) as Carrionellus dumorterei which is not indicative of a specific environment. The
gastropod species was determined by Bristow and Parodiz (1982) as Dyris cf. gracilis
Conrad "form" tricarinata (Boettger). Nuttall (1990) revised the determination and iden¬
tified the species as Dyris tricarinata (Boettger). This species is found in the Miocene
faunas of Pepas (NE-Peru) and La Tagua (SE-Colombia) in the upper Amazon region
(Nuttall, 1990). Dyris is indicative of either fresh or brackish water. Madden (pers. comm.,
1996) found mammal remains in the area of Virgen Pamba and assigned the host beds to
the San Cayetano Fm. However, according to his grid references and my map, the fossils
come from the base of the Quillollaco Fm. (see Chapter 3.6.2E). Preliminary results of a
diatom study (pers. comm. Elisabeth Fourtanier, 1997) and an anlysis of palynomorphs
(pers. comm. Peter Hochuli, 1996) indicate a freshwater lacustrine environment. One sample
(DH 244, Appendix 4) from the Siltstone Member yielded an unidentified ostracod spe¬
cies (cypridids, Peterson et al., in prep.).
Age: Middle to Late Miocene. Four samples from the bottom and the middle part of the
formation revealed zircon fission-track ages ranging from 13.811.2 to 10.011.4 Ma. The
gastropod Dyris tricarinata indicates a Neogene age (Nuttall, 1990). Berry (1918, 1929,
1934, 1945) assumed for the flora of the Loja basin first an Early Miocene and later a
Pliocene age.
Sedimentary facies: The San Cayetano Fm. shows first a fining upward trend from the
base to the middle part and then a coarsening upward trend. The Lower and Upper Sand¬
stone Member were deposited in mixed-load fluvial system with abundant overbank de¬
posits, possibly from meandering channels. The floodplain areas were densely vegetated
as documented by the presence of the abundant macroflora and local lake development.
The preservation of the fragile leaves in shales which are associated with the coal seams,
argues for an in-situ accumulation of the organic material. The coal indicates humide
conditions what is supported by the tropical macroflora, identified by Berry (see above).
The middle Siltstone Member shows the typical features of lacustrine sediments with
alternations of detrital, carbonate and diatom-rich laminae, possibly produced by an an¬
nual periodicity. The assumed habitat of the diatoms found in this member is in good
agreement with this interpretation. The two intercalated breccia horizons occur near the
eastern margin of the basin. They are associated with large scale slumps. The breccias may
have been deposited by debris flow deposits derived from (normal?) fault scarps along the
basin margin. The coarsening upward into the Upper Sandstone Member documents the
subsequent fill of the lake by fluvial deposits.
E Quillollaco Formation
History: The name Quillollaco Fm. was introduced by Alvarado (1967, in Kenneriey,
1973). Because of similar lithologies this name was also used for the upper part of the
Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin fill series (Kenneriey & Almeida, 1975a,b). The name
Quillollaco Fm. is used here only for sediments in the Loja basin, in order to avoid confu¬
sion. The geographical name of the type locality is spelled Quilluyacu, but the spelling
Quillollaco is registered in by Kenneriey (1973).
63 Stratigraphy and facies
Chapter 3
Type region and extension: The type locality lies in the Quebrada Quillullacu (699700/
9550200) in the Loja basin. The formation is exposed in the entire basin, except at the
northwestern border (Fig. 3.9).

Lithology: The formation is dominated by very coarse conglomerates with few sandstone
intercalations. The conglomerates are clast-supported and show well developed imbrica¬
tion. They are composed of rounded metamorphic clasts: phyllites, quartzites, vein quartz
and schists up to 50 cm in diameter. The conglomerate beds are up to 4 m thick and
sometimes channelized. There are some intercalations of matrix-supported breccias with
metamorphic clasts. These breccias occur mainly along the eastern basin margin. In the
central part of the basin, west of the city of Loja, conglomeratic beds are predominant.
Some minor sandstones intervals are interbedded. The conglomerates are tightly stacked,
have scoured soles and show dominant cross-bedding which is parallel to the channel
axis.
Thickness: In the southern part of the basin the thickness attains a maximum of 600 m,
whereas in the central part only 100 m are present. Along the eastern basin margin the
thickness is 500 m.
Limits: The Quillollaco Fm. rests with angular unconformity on the older basin fill (Trigal,
Belen and San Cayetano Fms.) and is overlain by Quaternary deposits (Fig. 3.10).
Fauna: The mammal remains found by Madden (pers.comm., 1996) occur in the Quillollaco
Fm. and not in the San Cayetano Fm. (see Chapter 3.6.2.D). They are not yet identified.
Age: No fission-track data is available for this formation because of lack of volcanic
intercalations. Kenneriey & Almeida (1975a,b) assumed a Miocene to Pliocene age for
the Quillollaco Fm. and not a Quaternary age as suggested by Alvarado (1967). Because
of the strong deformation of the Quillollaco Fm. and fission-track age determinations of
the lithological similar Cerro Mandango Fm. in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin which
had a similar deformation history, I suggest a Late Miocene age.
Sedimentary facies: The sediments show the typical facies associations of an alluvial fan
environment with deposition of debris flows and bedload dominated fluvial channels. The
overall trend of the formation is coarsening upward, with vertical stacking of increasingly
more proximal packages and a migration of the depocenter towards the basin. The
prograding alluvial fan systems suggest a continuous tectonic steepening of the basin
margins. The channelized conglomerates in the centre of the basin show that lateral accre¬
tion is the dominant depositional process. Hence, they are interpreted as braided river
systems at the toe of the alluvial fans. The general grain size trend and the imbrication of
pebbles indicate progradation of alluvial fans from the basin margin towards the centre.
F Salapa Formation
History: Pyroclastic deposits which are exposed in the northwestern and southern part of
the Loja basin were defined by Kenneriey (1973) as Salapa Fm. As earlier mentioned, a
very small and questionable outcrop of pyroclastic rocks in the south belongs to the Loma
Blanca Fm. (see Chapter 3.4.2.), and the lithology and the age relations suggest that only
the pyroclastics in the northwest of the Loja basin belong to the Salapa Fm. The fission-
track age (see below age) shows that this formation cannot be correlated with the Loma
Blanca Fm. (Kenneriey & Almeida, 1975a), because its much younger age. There is also
no field evidence available that the Salapa Fm. forms the base of the basin fill series as
suggested by Kenneriey and Almeida (1975b).

Type region and extension: Area of the village Salapa (695500/9567300) in the northwest
of the Loja basin. Other outcrops in the area of the villages Salapa Alto and Salapa Bajo
are very fragmentary.
Limits: The Salapa Fm. unconformably overlies Paleozoic metamorphic rocks, which border
the Loja basin. There is no direct contact visible with the basin fill series. From the el¬
evated position of the outcrops above the main basin fill series and the explosive volcanic
origin it may be inferred that the formation covered the Quillollaco Fm. and was later
eroded (Figs. 3.9, 3.10).

Thickness: 10 m preserved.
Lithology: The Salapa Fm. contains lithic and glass rich tuffs. The tuffs are strongly al¬
tered, in some instances completely transformed to kaolinite and no primary structures
were observed.
Age: Latest Pliocene. One sample yielded a zircon fission-track age of 2.410.8 Ma. The
Salapa Fm. represents the youngest pyroclastic deposits known in the southern Sierra. The
few remaining outcrops suggest that the Salapa Fm. has been largely eroded.
3.6.3. Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin
Wolf (1876) investigated for the first time the area of Malacatos and Vilcabamba
and proposed a Tertiary age for its sediments. He noted the lithological similarities with
the deposits in the Loja basin and thought that the two basins formed at the same time.
Since then these sediment series have not received much attention because of their iso¬
lated geographic position and the lack of road access. Sauer (1965) published a few obser¬
vations in this area, he assumed a Miocene age for the basin fill series and introduced the
name Yangana-Malacatos basin. The regional mapping programme of the UNDP (1969)
provided a first overview of the stratigraphy in the area of Malacatos and Vilcabamba, and
Kenneriey (1973) published a stratigraphic scheme of the basin. Later, on his geological
maps he used the formation names of the Loja basin series (Kenneriey & Almeida, 1975a).
For several reasons (see Loja basin, Chapter 3.6.2.) I apply the earlier formation names
which Kenneriey (1973) used, with the addition of a few new units (Fig. 3.13).
The Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin fill is tectonically divided into two parts, which
Northwest & Center
11.2±2.2
Mb. 1600 m
Conglomerate
South
1400 m
Conglomerate Mb.
E
LL 1200 m
O
O)
C
CO
T3
C
MO.011.2 (0
2 1000m
Sandstone Mb.
O
800 m
14.2±3.4
14.9±1.6 Quinara Fm.
15.111.6
1-40.615.4Loma Blanca Fm. 600m
Chiguinda unit
fluvial and alluvial fan facies

basin fill series
[ coastal facies 400m
Quinara Fm.
(acidic pyroclastics)
Loma Blanca Fm.
(interm.- acidic pyroclastics)
Solanda Mb.
(fluvial sediments)
Chiguinda unit
(metamorphic rocks)
unconformity
CCCC coal
Purunuma 30.312.4- AAAA evaporite
Porphyry Mb. ^ estuarine ostracods
and foraminifera
Loma Blanca Fm. 36.514.4 Solanda Mb.
O estuarine-freshwater ostrac.
33.413.6 Ma zircon fission-track
ages (error 12o),
this work
Fig. 3.13. Composite stratigraphic sections of die Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin.

are separated by a NW-SE striking reverse fault. This west directed reverse faults trends
from the village Barrio San Pedro de Vilcabamba to the village of Picota and caused a
repetition of several basin fill formations. In the following chapters the block situated to
the northeast of the fault is called La Granja.
A Quinara Formation
History: Because of the lithological similarity, prominent white pyroclastics along the
southwestern basin margin were also grouped with the Loma Blanca Fm. (Kenneriey &
Almeida, 1975b). However, my fission-track age determinations show that these
pyroclastics are Middle Miocene in age and therefore much younger than the similar
pyroclastics more to the north (Fig. 3.9). In spite of the similar lithology, the new forma¬
tion was defined.
Type region and extension: The type locality lies just soutiiwest of the Loma Pefia Cerrada
(694650/9523780), north of the marked bend in the Rio Piscopamba (called downstream
Rio Solanda). The unit occurs in a belt along the southwestern margin of the Malacatos-
Vilcabamba basin, between the villages of Tumianuma and Quinara. There is another ex¬
posure within the main basin area, just 2 km south of the town Vilcabamba along the road
to the village Masanamaca. The pyroclastics re-appear further to the south, between the
Cerro Collona and Loma Yamalacapo in a small creek which runs parallel to the basin
margin .
Lithology: The Quinara Fm. is characterised by acidic pyroclastics which occur in beds
10 cm to 2 m thick. They are predominantly white or gray glass rich tuffs, mostly ignimbrites.
There are also some tuffs rich in lithic clasts (metamorphics) and volcanic breccias with
reworked pyroclastics.
Thickness: Maximal 300 m.
Limits: The Quinara Fm. lies unconformably on the Paleozoic metamorphics and is partly
conformably overlain by the basin fill series (Cerro Mandango Fm.). To the east the con¬
tacts of the Quinara Fm. with the metamorphics and basin sediments are faulted along
reverse faults.
Age: Earliest Middle Miocene. Three zircon fission-track samples from the western belt
and the eastern relict outcrops yielded ages ranging from 15.111.6 to 14.213.4 Ma. Based
on these age data the Quinara Fm. is considered as remnant volcanic unit underlying the
Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin series (Fig. 3.13).
B San Jose Formation
History: Kenneriey (1973) introduced for the lowermost unit of the basin series the name
Algarrobillo Fm. which was mapped along the northwestern basin margin (Trigal Fm. in
Kenneriey & Almeida, 1975a). However, according to the lithological description and the
mapping it is not clear where and based on which critera Kenneriey has defined the lithologic
contacts. Therefore, the unit is re-defined and the San Jose Formation is introduced for the
lower sedimentary series of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin.
Type region and extension: The type locality lies in the area of the village San Jose (688650/
9537000), along the road from Malacatos to La Merced, 1 km southwest of the village
Santo Domingo. The San Jose Fm. is also exposed in a stripe along the northwestern basin
margin between the villages of Jaboncillo and La Merced. Another isolated exposure is
present 2 km northwest of the village El Tambo and lies about 15 north of the village La
Merced, outside of the main basin area (Fig. 3.9.). The formation is also exposed along the
western margin of the La Granja block (Fig. 3.9.).

Lithology: The San Jose Fm. consists of sandstones which are mostly calcareous, and
minor siltstones. Several good outcrops are further described in detail. In the area of San
Jose relatively continuous N-S striking sandstone beds (688652/9537002) are exposed
(Fig. 3.14B). There, the lower part consists of a 7 m thick interval of structureless dark
grey coarse sandstones which is highly bioturbated. With a possibly erosive contact, it is
overlain by a white volcaniclastic sandstone with low-angle cross-stratification (2 to 5°).

The upper part of the section is characterised by a well stratified alternation of medium to
coarse laminated calcareous sandstones, bioclastic breccias and thin limestone beds (Fig.
3.15B). Abundant gypsum veins and sulphur impregnations occur within the deposits and
there are also limestone nodules with thin radial gypsum layers. In the area to the west of
the village El Tambo (685750/9551384), a 50 m thick sediment sequence is exposed (Fig.

3.14C). It is composed of a well bedded alternation of calcareous sandstones, coarse lime¬
stone beds and some minor conglomerate sheets (Fig. 3.15C). The sandstones are partly
structureless or show horizontal stratification. The gravel sheets include poorly sorted and
well rounded volcanic clasts. In the area of the confluence of the Quebradas Naranjo
Dulce and Santo Domingo (685900/9538200) a 10 m thick interval of the base of the San
Jose Formation is exposed. It consists of medium grained to pebbly sandstones with domi-
nantly tabular, planar cross-bedding and minor horizontal stratification (Fig. 3.14A). The
individual cross-bedding sets are between 10 cm and 3 m thick and the inclination of the
foresets is between 10° and 30°. The upper and lower bedding surfaces of the sets are
sharp boundaries. The individual cross laminae show marked fluctuation in grain size,
ranging from fine sand to pebbly sandstones. Abundant gypsum veins occur and several
non-fossiliferous micritic limestone nodules are intercalated, parallel to the bedding. They
have a disc-like form without lateral contact to each other and reach diameters up to 2
metres (Fig. 3.15A). In the area of the La Granja block, northwest of the town Malacatos,
near the village of La Granja, there is a prominent cliff of a 30 m thick sequence exposed
(696247/9534744). The sequence is characterised by a rhythmic repetition of thin to thick
bedded sandstones (Fig. 3.14D). The coarse grained sandstones form thicker graded beds,
flow direction
reactivation surface
medium to coarse grained sandstone with horizontal stratification
limestone nodule
tabular cross-stratification in a 3 m thick bed
medium grained to pebbly sandstones with sets of tabular planar

cross-stratification, bounded by sharp reactivation surfaces
limestone nodule
13 511 2 Ma glass-nch tuff (DH 232)

brown medium coarsegrained calcareous sandstone layers with honzontal
stratification containing manne to nonmanne ostracodes and foraminifera
(DH 304-307,400,401) secondary gypsum veins and sulfur impregnation
limestone layers, bioclastic breccias, limestone nodules
gray to white coarse grained sandstone with predominant volcanic

grains and low angle cross-stratification
limestone nodules
dark gray coarse grained sandstone, structurless and with strong bioturbation
C 15 m-r
structurless medium grained calcareous sandstone with strong bioturbation
'Ml IH^. massive limestone
estuarine and nonmanne ostracodes (DH 366, 367)

10 m
massive coarse limestone containing ostracods and molluscs

estuarine and nonmanne ostracodes (DH 365)
5 m massive coarse limestone
~~~j) gravel sheet with well rounded, poorly sorted volcanic clasts
medium grained calcareous sandstones with honzontal and very low

angle cross-stratification
D 15m
scour marks on basal bedding surfaces with hummocky
cross stratification
10 m-
amalgamation
medium grained laminated sandstone beds with flame structures and

reactivation surfaces
5 m-
coarse grained sandstone with conglomeratic lags of metamorphics clasts
wwwwww) 13.111 8 Ma green Irthic tuff with pumic clasts (MS 250)
Fig. 3.14. Detailed stratigraphic sections of die San Jose Formation with a coastal facies, in the
Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin: A) tidal inlet deposits; compiled from outcrops in the confluence of
the Quebradas Naranjo Dulce and Santo Domingo (688494/9538479); B) coastal deposits; com¬
piled from outcrops in the region of San Jose (688652/9537002); C) coastal deposits; compiled
from outcrops 2 km west of the village El Tambo (685750/9551384); D) delta deposits; compiled
from outcrops around die village La Granja (696247/9534744).
Fig. 3.15. Sedimentary lithological features in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin. A) Lime¬

and
stone nodule with a shape intercalated in the San Jose Formation, in the area of the
disc-like
confluence of the Quebrada Naranjo Dulce and Santo Domingo. B) Coarse grained sandstone and
limestone beds with ostracods and molluscs. The sediments are cut by gypsum veins (San Jose
Formation). In the area of San Jose. C) Sandstones with intercalated limestone beds, containing
ostracods (San Jose Formation, west of El Tambo). D) Rhythmic repetition of sandstone beds with
amalgamations, near La Granja. E) Sedimentary dikes and limestone nodules in the sandstones
and shales (Coal Member, Santo Domingo Formation, Quebrada Santo Domingo). F) Gypsum
veins in sandstones (Gypsum Member, Santo Domingo Formation, confluence of Quebradas Santo
Domingo and Picota).

up to 1 m, and contain partly conglomeratic lag deposits with metamorphic and volcanic
clasts. The beds are partly amalgamated and the base is scoured (Fig. 3.15D). The thinner
finer sandstones are horizontally laminated with small scale cross-bedding and wave rip¬
ples. These beds show also flame structures and internal reactivation surfaces. On some
basal bedding surfaces sole-marks are observed. There are several volcanic intercalations
present, mainly green crystal-rich and lithic tuffs with volcanic and metamorphic clasts (<
2 cm).
Thickness: In the west a maximum of 100 m is observed. In the La Granja block the
formation is thicker and attains 200 m.
Limits: The San Jose Fm. rests unconformably on the Loma Blanca Fm. The upper, possi¬
bly conformable contact to the Santo Domingo Fm. is formed by a gradual change from
sandstones to shales. However, the contact is not well exposed. Apart of the Santo Domingo
Fm. possibly underlies the San Jose Fm. (Fig. 3.13).
Fauna: The calcareous sandstones and limestones yield a abundant ostracod fauna, bivalves,
gastropods, scaphopods, foraminifera, charophyte nucules, fish teeth and bones. Kenneriey
(1973) found already the ostracod Cyprideis stephensoni (Sandberg 1964) in his Algarrobillo
Fm., northwest of El Tambo, (the present San Jose Fm.). Nine samples (DH 304,305,306,
307,365,366, 367,400,401, Fig. 3.14B,C, Appendix 4) yielded the following ostracods:

two new estuarine species Cyprideis ecuadoriana and Cyprideis foresteri.; the estuarine
Cyprideis sp. off. ovata and Cyprideis stephensoni; seven new freshwater species
Cypricercus serena, Cypridopsis sp. aff. viuda, Pactolocypris swaini, Candona
(Pseudocandona) hungerbiihleri, Cypridid sp. No. 1, Cypridid sp. No. 2 and Cypridid sp.
No. 4 (Peterson et al., in prep.). In addition, sample DH 304 and 307 (Appendix 4) yielded
two benthic foraminiferal species: Ammonia parkinsoniana tepida and Quinqueloculina
sp. off. seminulum (Peterson et al., in prep.). The faunal association consists of mixed
marine, estuarine (in the sense of salinity) and freshwater species. The fossil assemblages
argue for an open estuarine environment with varying freshwater input.
Age: Late Middle Miocene. Two zircon fission-track data yielded ages of 13.511.2 and
13.111.9 Ma. The ostracod species Cyprideis stephensoni (Sandberg, 1964) and Cyprideis
sp. aff.ovata (Mincher) (Peterson et al., in prep.) place the San Jose Fm. in the Potamides
matsoni zone which is defined in Louisiana (USA) as Late Middle Miocene (van den
Bold, 1976). The different age determinations are in good agreement.
Sedimentary facies: In spite of the fragmentary outcrops it is possible to reconstruct the
sedimentary environment. The predominant coarse sandstones, the locally large scale cross-
bedding and frequent reactivation surfaces suggest deposition in a dynamic system. The
cross-bedded sets of coarse sandstones exposed in the confluence of the Quebrada Naranjo
Dulce and Santo Domingo are separated by reactivation surfaces. The foresets indicate a
flow direction towards the W and NW. The cross-stratification in metric scale and the
large change of grain size in the individual cross laminae are typical for sand waves formed
by strong tidal currents (McCubbin, 1982). The reactivation surfaces could have been
formed by flood-related tidal currents and the unidirectional foresets by ebb-oriented sand
transport. Such sedimentary structures are characteristic for the deepest part of tidal inlets
which are dominated by ebb oriented transport (McCubbin, 1982). The rhythmicity and
the amalgamations in the La Granja area suggest episodic deposition, possibly in a chan¬
nel mouth bar environment at the delta front with rapid deposition. In addition, slump
folds in metric scale, exposed in other outcrops, support the general interpretation of a
deltaic system. The calcareous sandstones and coarse limestones exposed in the area of
San Jose and El Tambo which contain also foraminifera may have been deposited by
storm induced flushing over a flat coastal plain. The limestone nodules are formed by
diagenetic processes; groundwater flow along the bedding surfaces controlled their for¬
mation. In summary indicate the reactivation surfaces and hummocky cross stratification
some influence of marine processes. A coastal plain environment with small deltaic sys¬
tems and possibly tidal inlets is suggested for the San Jose Fm. with a general sediment
transport towards the NW.
C Santo Domingo Formation

History: Kenneriey (1973) defined the middle part of the basin fill series as Cabalera Fm.
This formation is exposed in two belts (Kenneriey & Almeida, 1975b). Here, I define a
new stratigraphic unit which replaces the old Cabalera Fm. name, since the boundaries
and the lithology of the Cabalera Fm. were poorly constrained. The new unit is called
Santo Domingo Formation and includes the upper part of the earlier Algarrobillo Fm. and
the entire Cabalera Fm. of Kenneriey (1973).

Type region and extension: The type region lies in the Quebrada Santo Domingo which
stretches from the village Santo Domingo towards the east to the village Picota. The upper
part the Quebrada Santo Domingo is called Quebrada Jaboncillo. The Santo Domingo
Fm. covers much of the northern part of the basin and is exposed between the village La
Merced and the Quebrada Seca, just west of Malacatos. In the La Granja block it occupies
a SE-NW trending belt (Fig. 3.9). There are two other fragmentary outcrops northwest of
the village Barrio San Pedro de Vilcabamba and south of the town of Vilcabamba.
Lithology: The Santo Domingo Fm. is divided into two members, which partly interfinger
(Fig .3.13) and consist of sandstone, siltstone, coal and primary gypsum. The Coal Mem¬
ber occurs between the Quebrada Naranjo Dulce and the Jaboncillo area and locally forms
the middle part of the formation. It consists of a repetition of well bedded black shales,
siltstones and minor sandstone intervals (Fig. 3.16A). The sandstones have partly a
channelised base, show horizontal and cross-stratification and wave ripples. Everywhere
there are many calcareous nodules and abundant clastic dikes (Fig. 3.15E).
Tuff layers are present and several coal seams up to 2 m thick form laterally continuous
beds. The coal reached the lignite stage and sometimes plant remains are still recognis¬
able. The coal was studied in detail by Putzer (1968) and UNDP (1969), but was not
A Coal Member
20m-f
A fine grained massive sandstone
shales, diatomrte layers, some horizons are strongly silicified
15m-' interval with slump folding and convolute bedding
lignite honzon with sulphur impregnation
10m-.
ifc^w'W**^ medium grained sandstone with cross- and honzontal stratification,
wave npples and sulphur impregnation
sedimentary dike
channelized medium grained sandstone with sulphur impregnation
lignite honzon with sulfur impregnation

limestone nodule
alternation of laminated silty sandstone and black to red shales,
secondary gypsum veins and strong sulphur impregnation
bituminous mudstones
B Gypsum Member
alternation of fine sandstone beds and gray sandy shales

10 m-
reworked gypsum needles in funnel shaped scours
green medium grained sandstone with wave and hummocky ripples

and herringbone cross stratification
secondary gypsum vein
5 m
green medium grained sandstone with wave ripples and several
layers of vertical gypsum crystals
secondary gypsum vein
laminated black shales
Fig. 3.16. Detailed stratigraphic sections of the Santo Domingo Formation with botii humid and
arid tidal flat facies, in die Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin:
A) humid tidal flat facies, Coal Member;
compiled from outcrops in the Quebrada Santo Domingo (689500/9537800); B) arid tidal flat
facies, Gypsum Member; compiled from outcrops in the Quebrada Santo Domingo (690012/
9537781).
considered of economic interest because of small reserves, poor quality and unfavorable
structural conditions. Gypsum veins occur in the entire Coal Mb. and sulfur impregnations
are abundant. Some shales are very bituminous with a smell of petroleum when ham-
mered. They contain hydrocarbons up to 6-8% (Litheriand et al., 1994). The contact to the
underlying and overlying Gypsum Member is gradual and is placed where sandstones and
primary gypsum occur. Primary gypsum is exposed in several layers at the base and the
top of the member and was investigated in a survey of nonmetallic resources by INTECSA
et al. (1985a,b,c). The gypsum is mined near the village La Merced, the Quebrada Santo
Domingo and at other smaller occurrences within the basin. The overall production covers
about 20 % of the national demand (Anonymous, 1994). Secondary gypsum is very abun¬
dant and occurs in veins up to 20 cm thick. The primary gypsum is associated with green
medium grained sandstones and alternating fine grained sandstone and shale laminae (Fig.
3.16B). The medium grained sandstones are well sorted and show wave ripples and vortex
ripples (Fig. 3.17A.B). The wave ripples have commonly an amplitude of 2 to 3 cm and a
wavelength of 5 to 15 cm. The primary gypsum is often prismatic (Fig. 3.17C). The nee¬
dles are partly present in primary vertical position within the sandstones and partly are
reworked in breccias with flat lying crystals (Fig. 3.17D), in small funnel shaped chan¬
nels. Secondary gypsum veins with thicknesses up to 20 cm are very abundant (Fig. 3.15F).
Thickness: The thickness varies and reaches about 700 m in the type region.
Limits: The Santo Domingo Fm. overlies the San Jose Fm. However, it is possible that the
lower part of the Gypsum Mb. interfingers with the San Jose Fm. (Fig.3.13.). The contacts
are marked by a clear change from sandstone beds to predominant shales, coal seams or
gypsum horizons. The Cerro Mandango Fm. overlies the Santo Domingo Fm. with angu¬
lar unconformity
Fauna andflora: Gastropods occur on bedding surfaces as impressions which are similar
to the Dyris species found in the Loja basin. In the upper part of the Quebrada Naranjo
Dulce, fissile shales yielded shrimps, and sandstones in the Quebrada Santo Domingo
contain fish teeth. Fossil shrimps were studied in the Loyola Fm. of the Cuenca basin and
indicate a marine environment (Feldman et al., 1993). The shrimps from the Santo Domingo
Fm. belong possibly to the same species, but their poor preservation allows no further
identification. INTECSA et al. (1985a,b,c) reported the occurrence of ostracods,
foraminifera and gastropods in the Santo Domingo Fm. in both, the Coal and Gypsum
Mbs. Berry (1935) studied the macroflora (leaves) in the sediments of the Malacatos basin
but the sample localities are not well defined. The leaves suggest a tropical climate like me
plants identified by Berry (1929,1945) in the Loja basin.
Age: Middle and early Late Miocene. Six zircon fission-track data give ages ranging from
14.611.8 to 12.011.2 Ma. The oldest age shows, that the lower part of the Santo Domingo
Fm. is partly coeval with the San Jose Fm. This relationship is tentatively also suggested
by field observations, which suggest a lateral contact between this two formations.
Sedimentaryfacies: The wave ripples and the hummocky cross-bedding possibly indicate
some influence of marine processes. The gradual contact and the possible interfingering
Fig. 3.17. Sedimentary lithological features in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin. Photographs

and
A to E are derived from the
region of the confluence of the Quebradas Santo Domingo and Picota.
A) Wave ripples and vortex ripples (Gypsum Member, Santo Domingo Formation). Note the pres¬
ence of primary gypsum at the base of the photograph. B) Wave ripples in the Gypsum Member.
C) Prismatic gypsum crystals occurring in the Gypsum Member. D) Breccia of reworked flat lying
gypsum crystals. E) Large scale cross-bedding in the Sandstone Member of the Cerro Mandango
Formation. F) Tabular wedge-shaped cross-bedding with associated slump structures (Sandstone
Member, Cerro Mandango Formation, region of El Carmen in La Granja block).
with the San Jose Fm. (with an estuarine ostracod fauna) yields further evidence for ongo¬
ing sedimentation in a coastal system. The relatively abundant coal seams and the hydro¬
carbon content indicate high vegetation growth and reducing conditions during diagenesis.
The predominant sulphur impregnation and high sulphur content in the coal (Putzer, 1968)
suggests coal formation in coastal zones (Galloway & Hobday, 1996, p. 358). In such a
setting the sulphur is derived from marine sulphate. The trend of the coal seams is parallel
to the reconstructed shoreline. Also the evaporite layers in the lower and upper part of the
formation occur in a long N-S trending stripe and not in a bull's-eye pattern which is
characteristic for continental playa environments. Gypsum is the most common evaporitic
mineral and may grow rapidly at the bottom of water bodies or at the air-water interface
(Schreiber, 1986). The crystals are loosely fixed and may be easily swept around in the
brine as was observed in the field by the presence of breccias of gypsum crystals, which
might indicate reworking by wave activity. The abundant gypsum argues for high evapo¬
ration rates under arid conditions, whereas the coal formed under humid climatic condi¬
tions as indicated by the presence of tropical plant leaves (Berry, 1935). Therefore, vary¬
ing climatic condition occurred.
D Cerro Mandango Formation

History: Kenneriey (1973) introduced the Cerro Mandango Fm. for the youngest unit of
the basin fill series. Based on regional correlations with the Loja basin, the Cerro Mandango
Fm. was later placed in the Quillollaco Fm. (Kenneriey & Almeida, 1975a, Bristow &
Parodiz, 1982), however, I retain the older nomenclature of Kenneriey (1973).
Type region and extension: The type locality lies in the area of the Cerro Mandango
(695000/9528000), southwest of Vilcabamba. The formation is mainly exposed in the
southern part of the basin, south of Vilcabamba towards Masanamaca and reaches in the
north the town of Malacatos (Fig. 3.9), and further north the Quebrada Naranjo Dulce. It is
also exposed in the La Granja block, between the villages of El Carmen and San Francisco
Bajo.
Lithology: The Cerro Mandango Fm. consists of sandstones and conglomerates. It shows
strong vertical and lateral facies changes and two members are defined. The lower Sand¬
stone Member contains coarse to medium grained sandstones, gravel sheets and minor
siltstones (Fig. 3.18A). The lowermost part of the member is dominated by large scale
cross-bedded sets up to 3 m thick (Fig. 3.17E), which occur in poorly sorted pebbly
sandstones: (1) the individual cross laminae have a concave bottom and a convex and
flatter upper part, (2) the other type consists of tabular and wedge-shaped sets with slump
structures generated by small avalanches (Fig. 3.17F) with associated flame structures
(Fig. 3.19A). These sets are bounded by reactivation surfaces and are associated with
sandstone beds with wave ripples (Fig. 3.19B).

The conglomerates in the lower part form either thin, discrete, laterally persistent beds or
the pebbles are scattered throughout the sand-matrix The pebbles consist of metamorphic
clasts (graphitic schists, metagranites) which are very well rounded and are up to 5 cm
across. Towards the upper part of the member, the conglomerates form channellised beds
and sdtstone beds become more common At the top, the Sandstone Member grades into
the Conglomerate Member (see below). The upper Conglomerate Member is more lm-
A
Sandstone Member
25 m channel-fill with brown sandstone and scattered volcanic and

metamorphic cobbles
coarse gramded sandstone with honzontal stratification

20 m
sandstones with wave and hummocky npples, partly scoured base
medium grained sandstone with tabular cross-bedding sets,

15m
reactivation surfaces and sand slumps
sand matnxsupported conglomerate with well rounded

10m
metamorphic clasts and laterally persistent gravel sheets
pepply sandstone with large scale cross-bedding and

5 m wedge shaped foresets
channel fill with brown sandstone and metamorphic pebbles, which
are aligned along accretional surfaces as pebble stringers
B Conglomerate Member
channel filled with clast-supported, poorly sorted conglomerate

with subrounded metamorphic blocks (diameters up to 1 m)
20 m
7 7±0 8 Ma crystal-nch tuffs with pumice and metamorphic clasts (DH 294)
clast supported, poorly sorted breccia with metamorphic cobbles
15 m
8 011 0 Ma crystal nch tuffs with metamorphic clasts (DH 293)
angular unconformity
J matnx supported, poorly sorted breccia with metamorphic clasts
coarse grained sand lense with horizontal stratification
10m-
large channel with clast-supported conglomerate, poorly sorted

metamorphic cobbles, channel width about 50 m
5 m
clast-supported conglomerate with horizontal stratification, channels

and imbncations (indicate transport from North to South)
Fig 3 18 Detailed stratigraphic sections of the Cerro Mandango Formation witii a fluvial and
facies, in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin A) tidally influenced fluvial system, Sand¬
alluvial fan
stone Member, compded from outcrops in the Quebrada Ceibopamba (690200/9537100) and the
El Carmen region (696466/9536249), B) alluvial fan facies, Conglomerate Member, compiled

from outcrops west of the Loma Yamalacapo, 4 km soutii of the town Vilcabamba (697791/9525385)
portant in the south of the basin. The congomerates contain rounded metamorphic clasts
(quartzite, vein quartz and phyllite) with diameters up to 1 m, show imbrications, are
poorly sorted and are clast-supported (Fig. 3.18B). The sandstones are coarse grained with
horizontal stratification. In some areas, the conglomerates fill channels up to 10 m deep
and 50 m wide (Fig. 3.19D). There are beds with rhythmic repetitions of fine conglomer¬
ates and sandstones, which are horizontally stratified; the individual sheet-like layers are
several centimetres thick (Fig. 3.19E). An angular unconformity occurs within the upper
part of the member (Fig. 3.13) which is a progressive unconformity formed by syn-sedi-
mentary fault activity (see Chapter 5). The youngest beds overlying this unconformity
occur only in the southernmost part of the basin. They represent generally very coarse
conglomerates and minor clast-supported breccias with metamorphic rocks pebbles (Fig.
3.19F). West of the Loma Yamalacapo thick volcaniclastic beds are intercalated. They
consist of crystal-rich white tuffs, lithic tuffs with metamorphic clasts, tuffaceous sandstones
and thick pyroclastic breccias with pumice clasts.
Thickness: The thickness of the formation varies considerably (Fig. 3.13). South of Vil¬
cabamba the Cerro Mandango Fm. forms spectacular escarpments and is about 800 m
thick. Towards the north, the thickness of the Conglomerate Mb. decreases. In the area of
the Quebradas Jaboncillo and Picota in the NW the thickness attains a maximum of 1000
m.
Limits: The Cerro Mandango Fm. overlies the Santo Domingo Fm. and the Paleozoic
metamorphics with angular unconformity and rests both conformably and unconformably
on the Quinara Fm (Fig. 3.13). Locally, the contacts with the metamorphic rocks are faulted.
The contact between the Sandstone Mb. and the Conglomerate Mb. is gradual and was
placed where the conglomerates predominate. There is a conspicuous internal angular

unconformity within the upper part of the Conglomerate Mb., formed during syn-sedi-
mentary deformation (see Chapter 5). Quaternary deposits rest unconformably on the Cerro
Mandango Fm.
Flora: Some of the leaf samples, which were studied by Berry (1935) may come from the
lowermost part of the Sandstone Mb.
Age: Late Miocene. Eight zircon fission-track ages give a range from 11.411.6 to 7.710.8
Ma. The lithological and genetic similarities of me Cerro Mandango Fm. with the Quillollaco
Fm. in the Loja basin suggest a similar Late Miocene age for the latter unit. A volcanic
intercalation in the transition zone between the Sandstone and Conglomerate Members
gave a zircon fission-track age of 10.011.2 Ma, whereas two samples above the internal
angular unconformity yield ages of 8.011.0 and 7.710.8 Ma.
Sedimentary facies: The Sandstone Mb. is interpreted as a bed-load fluvial system. Sev¬
eral sedimentary structures such as reactivation surfaces, wave ripples, indicate some ma¬
rine influence at the base of the member. Based on this evidence deposition in a marine
Fig. 3.19.Sedimentary and lithological features in the Catamayo-Gonzanama and Malacatos-

Vilcabamba basin. A) Hame structure in me Sandstone Member (Cerro Mandango Formation,
region of El Carmen). B) Wave ripples in the Sandstone Member (Cerro Mandango Formation,
region of El Carmen).C) Rhythmic repetition of sandstones and shales in the Gonzanama Forma¬
tion, widi some tuff intercalations. South of Nambacola. D) Large channel filled with coarse con¬
glomerates, Conglomerate Member (Cerro Mandango Formation), south of Vilcabamba. E) Hori¬
zontally stratified layers in the Conglomerate Member, deposited by sheet floods. Southwest of
Vilcabamba, Quinara region. F) Clast-supported breccia with prominent imbrication (Conglomer¬
ate Member, south of Vilcabamba).
influenced fluvial system is suggested, such as the seaward part of an estuary. The cross-
bedding sets with a thickness up to 3 m are interpreted as accretional structures in a chan¬
nel and they may represent sandwaves as defined by Dalrypmple (1984). The Sandstone
Member could have been deposited in an estuary, because the basal part shows some
influence of marine processes (outer to central part, Dalrymple et al., 1992). In the middle
and upper part the tidal influence is absent and only continental deposits occur; fining
upward sequences document the transition to a system dominated by fluvial processes.
The facies of the overlying Conglomerate Mb. suggests a change to a continental
depositional environment, such as an alluvial fan system. Grain size trends and flow direc¬
tions suggest a progradation of the alluvial fan from south to north. The coarsening up¬
ward trend suggests progradation of alluvial fans, increasing uplift and/or a migration of
the source area towards the basin. The uppermost part of the formation, present in the
south, is very proximal and the sediments are derived from a source area located near the
southeastern basin margin.
3.6.4. Catamayo-Gonzanama basin
Southwestern Ecuador has for a long time received little geological attention. Former
projects focussed mainly on the road sections between the cities of Loja in the Sierra and
Machala at the Pacific coast. Sauer (1965) first described the sediments in the vicinity of
the town Catamayo and assumed a Miocene to Pliocene age. He introduced the name
Catamayo basin, which I changed to Catamayo-Gonzanama. During regional surveys (Sigal,

1969, Kenneriey, 1973), sediments and volcanic rocks were investigated in more detail in
the area between the towns of Catamayo, Gonzanama and Cariamanga. The sediments
were grouped by Kenneriey (1973) into the Gonzanama Fm. and the for underlying andesitic
pyroclastics of the Sacapalca Fm. Kenneriey (1980) assumed a Paleocene or Early Eocene
age. He suggested that both formations were deposited in a north-south trending graben
structure. The results of the my work allow a first chronostratigraphic correlation and
facies interpretation of these deposits. The basin fill series includes the Middle Miocene
Gonzanama and Catamayo Formations. These ages differ considerably from earlier pub¬
lished estimates.
Detailed mapping in the area revealed the presence of large scale thrust faults (see
Chapter 5). Unravelling of the thrust deformation and the new fission-track ages helped to
define a clear stratigraphic subdivision (Fig. 3.5). Most of the contacts between the sediments
and the volcanic rocks are thrust faults and not normal stratigraphic contacts as earlier
suggested (Kenneriey & Almeida, 1975a).
A Gonzanama Formation
History: The Gonzanama Fm. forms part of the fill series of the Catamayo-Gonzanama
basin. The name was introduced by Kenneriey (1973) for a thick unit of sediments and
pyroclastics which are exposed between the towns of Catamayo and Gonzanama. The
Gonzan'ama Fm. and the Sacapalca Fm. were regarded as one volcano-sedimentary unit of
Paleocene age (Kenneriey, 1980). In later studies, the term Sacapalca Group (Baldock,
1982) and Sacapalca volcanics (Litheriand et al., 1993) were used, without distinguishing
the sedimentary and the volcanic rocks. My zircon fission-track ages, the newly found
ostracod fauna and detailed mapping allow to assign a Middle Miocene age to the
Gonzanama Fm.
Type region and extension: The type locality lies near the town of Gonzanama (674000/
9532600). In the area between the towns of Gonzanama and Nambacola, the sediments
are exposed in a north-south trending belt, 25 km long and 4 km wide (Fig. 3.9.). There is
another exposure in the region of Santa Rita which covers an area of about 100 km2. These
two occurrences are connected by a narrow east-west trending strip, east of Nambacola.
Lithology: In the area of Santa Rita the formation is characterized by medium grained
yellow sandstones, sandy siltstones and some minor conglomerates. The calcareous
sandstones yielded a rich fauna of ostracods, bivalves and gastropods (see below). Along
the main road, west of the village of Santa Rita (681232/9546485, Fig. 3.9), several beds
of calcareous sandstones with ooids are observed. The sandstones and the siltstones are
well bedded and occur in 10 to 50 cm thick beds. There are abundant gypsum veins within
the sediments and sulfur impregnation is widely present. In the area of Portete de
Nambacola, the sandstone beds are thicker, have cross-bedding, trough-bedding and are
channellized. The conglomerates contain well rounded and well sorted volcanic clasts.
Between Surunuma and Gonzanama, a rhythmic alternation of well bedded sandstones
and shales is exposed (Fig. 3.19C). The lateral extension of this unit is about 10 km and
the beds have thicknesses of 5 to 40 cm with sharp lower and upper boundaries. In the area
of the village Geronima, north of the town Nambacola (674800/9540400), conglomerates

with andesitic clasts and coarse sandstones with wave ripples are exposed (Kenneriey,
1973). There are a few occurrences of andesitic volcanics exposed in the area between
Santa Rita and Gonzanama, which were mapped also by Kenneriey & Almeida (1975a).
However, these volcanic rocks are not intercalated in the sediments as suggested by these
authors, but belong to the Sacapalca Fm. and were thrust over the Gonzanama Fm (Figs.
3.5,3.9). There are some stratigraphic intercalations of acidic pyroclastics in the sediments
and also at the base of the formation (see below), which consist mostly of pumice rich
tuffs.
Thickness: The thickness of the formation varies between 500 to 1000 m.
Limits: The Gonzanama Fm. overlies the Sacapalca and the Loma Blanca Fms. with an
angular unconformity. In the area of the villages of Surunuma, Santa Rita, Puente del Inca
and Loma Achupallas, the Gonzanama Fm. is overthrust by the Sacapalca Fm. and the Loma
81 Stratigraphy and facies
Chapter 3
Blanca Fm. (Fig. 3.5, 3.9).

Fauna: During a regional survey of the Institut Francais du Petrole, a cytherid ostracod was
found in the area of Gonzanama (Sigal, 1969). During my field studies I found a ostracod
fauna which is relatively restricted in diversity. Ten samples (DH 389, 390, 405, 406, 407,
412, 444, 445, 449, 473, Fig. 3.5, Appendix 4) yielded the following ostracods: one new
estuarine species Cyprideis ecuadoriana; two new freshwater species Herpetocypris serena
and Potamocypris santaritaensis and an unidentified cypridid species (Peterson et al., in
prep.). The fauna indicates an estuarine and fresh-water environment. For some of the
sediments, a continental high-salinity environment is suggested.
Age: The Gonzanama Fm. has a Middle Miocene age. Three zircon fission-track sample of
acidic pyroclastics at the base and middle part of the Gonzanama Fm. yielded ages of 15.712.0
to 14.013.0 Ma, respectively. The basal acidic volcanics can be correlated with the Quinara
Fm. in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin. The ostracod fauna compares well with the fauna in
die Middle Miocene Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin. Consequendy, the Gonzanama Fm. is much
younger than the Paleocene as assumed by Kenneriey (1980) and Jaillard et al. (1996).
Sedimentary facies: The conglomerates and coarse sandstones, exposed along the western
basin margin, indicate some fluvial input from a western source area situated in the Ceiica
and Sacapalca Fms. Wave ripples show some influence of marine processes in this generally
fluvial system. Moreover, the oolithes, the secondary gypsum, the sulphur impregnations
and in particular some ostracods could infer input of marine waters. The rhythmic alternation
of sandstones and shales, between Surunuma and Gonzanama, indicates a less dynamic
depositional environment, possibly a lacustrine system.
B Catamayo Formation
History: The sediments in the area of Catamayo were for the first time described by Sauer
(1965). He assumed a Miocene to Pliocene age and conelated them with the deposits in the
other Miocene basins. Later, the Catamayo sediments were included by Kenneriey (1973) in
the Gonzanama Fm. In the present work, the sediments in the Catamayo depression were not
studied in great detail. Jaillard et al. (1996) formerly introduced the Catamayo Fm. which
includes the sediments exposed in the Catamayo depression. The lithological data presented
here are mostly derived from Jaillard et al. (1996) with some additional field observations by
the author.
Type region and extension: Jaillard et al. (1996) studied a section about 2 km southwest of
the town Catamayo and a section 2 km south of Catamayo, along the road to Gonzanama,
near the village of Catamayito (E. Jaillard, pers. comm., 1997). The Catamyo Fm. covers the
area of the Catamayo depression (Fig. 3.9).

Lithology: According to Jaillard et al. (1996), the formation consists in the basal part of
predominant shales with some intercalations of coarse grained sandstones and limestones.
Abundant gypsum veins are present. In the associated conglomerates, acidic volcaniclastic
clasts predominate. In the middle part, coarse grained sandstone beds and conglomerates
prevail. The upper part is marked by a change to shales with few sandstone intervals and
minor gypsum veins and limestones. In the upper part metamorphic clasts are abundant.
Thickness: 400 m (Jaillard et al., 1996).

Limits: The Catamayo Fm. rests unconformably on the Sacapalca Fm. In the area of the
village Catamayito, a similar situation as at Santa Rita in the Gonzanama sub-basin is found.
My mapping (Fig. 3.9) shows that the breccias of the Loma Blanca Fm. are overthrust onto
the basin fill series. However, poor outcrops and the later thrusting prevent correlation with
the Gonazanama Fm. at Santa Rita (Fig. 3.9).

Fauna: Madden (pers. comm., 1996) found a fossil mammal about 3 km NNW of the town
of Catamayo (Fig. 3.9) which he identified preliminarly as a Cingulata. According to the grid
references and my map, the mammal was found in the Catamayo Fm. Jaillard et al. (1996)
reported the presence of foraminifera (Bolivina sp., Gavelinella sp., Lagena cf. laevigata), a
coccolith (Micula sp.) and several palynomorphs (Zonocostites cf. ramonae, Buttinia andreevi
and others).
Age: No dating was performed in the present project. Tentatively, a Middle Miocene age may
be suggested for the Catamayo Fm., based on the similarities of the sedimentary facies with
other well dated Middle Miocene sediments in the region (Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Loja and
Santa Rita-Nambacola region, Fig. 3.9). The reworked acidic volcanic clasts at the base sug¬
gest a Post-Loma Blanca age. The trend to a metamorphic source area in the top of the
Catamayo Formation correlates well with trends observed in the Miocene basin fill series of
Loja and Malacatos-Vilcabamba. The proposed age is younger than assumed in other studies
(Kenneriey, 1980, Jaillard et al., 1996). The find of Cingulata allows only a preliminary
correlation with the Oligocene to Miocene (Madden, pers. comm., 1996). The microfauna
found by Jaillard et al. (1996) suggests a Late Eocene, younger age for the lower part of the
formation and a Late Cretaceous older age for the middle and upper part. Hence, the re¬
worked nature of the fossils appears evident (Jaillard et al., 1996). However, Jaillard et al.
(1996, Appendix 1) reported K-Ar ages of 25.110.8 (plagioclase) and 21.010.5 Ma (whole
rock) of an acidic tuff clast from a volcaniclastic breccia in the middle part of the Catamayo
Fm. and suggested a latest Oligocene to Early Miocene depositional age. These K-Ar results
possibly give only a lower age estimate for the Catamayo Fm., because of the reworking of
the clast in a fluvial system. The K-Ar age would fit well with the zircon fission-track age
obtained for the uppermost part of the Loma Blanca Fm.(see Chapter 3.4.2.) The acidic tuff
dated by Jaillard et al. (1996) is most probably derived from the Loma Blanca Fm.
Sedimentary facies: The facies interpretation of Jaillard et al. (1996) is in good agreement
with the depositional environments assumed by me for the Middle Miocene basins of the
region. Jaillard et al. (1996) suggest a fluvial and coastal flood plain environment with a
marine sabkha interval for the lower part. The middle part was deposited in a dominantly
fluvial system. A coastal plain environment wim some fluvial and marine intervals was pro¬
posed for the upper part. This facies interpretation supports the age correlation of the Catamayo
Fm. with the other coastal sediments in the other southern Ecuadorian basins.
3.7. OVERVIEW OF THE TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY IN SOUTHERN ECUA¬
DOR (FIGS. 3.20,3.21)
The here presented chronostratigraphy of Tertiary volcanic rocks and the Tertiary ba¬
sin fill series in southern Ecuador is based on 72 zircon fission-track age determinations (see
Table 2.3). These fission-track results have important implications for the previous correla¬
tions and assumed age ranges. The ages, combined with detailed mapping, allow a good
correlation of the Tertiary units in southern Ecuador (Fig. 3.20, 3.21). Several new forma¬
tions are introduced, which replace older stratigraphic units, and some of the age ranges
previously postulated have to be revised (Kenneriey, 1973, Alvarado, 1967, Table 3.2).
The Playas basin was filled by the Lower and/or Middle Eocene Rio Playas Formation
(Fig. 3.20). This formation rests unconformably on the sedimentary Casanga Formation (Up¬
per Campanian-Maastrichtian, Jaillard et al., 1996) and the volcanic Sacapalca Formation
(Maastrichtian-Paleocene?). The Playas basin fill is unconformably overlain by the volcanic

Loma Blanca Formation (Upper Eocene-Upper Ohgocene, Fig. 3.20).
The basin fill series of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba and Loja range from Middle to Late
Miocene (Fig. 3.20). The Gonzanama basin fill is Middle Miocene in age (Fig. 3.20). Ac¬
cording to regional correlations of depositional environment and sediment provenance trends,
a Middle Miocene age is likewise suggested for the Catamayo Formation. The Late Miocene
upper basin fill of Loja and Malacatos-Vilcabamba consists of coarse elastics which overly
unconformably the marginal marine to nonmarine Middle Miocene sediments. The fill series
of the three basins are underlain either by the volcanic Loma Blanca Formation (Upper Eocene-
Upper Oligocene) or the Sacapalca Formation (Uppermost Cretaceous to Paleocene?), and
metamorphic rocks (Paleozoic-Mesozoic, Fig. 3.20). The Loma Blanca Formation also in¬
cludes the Lower Ohgocene sedimentary Solanda Member and the Upper Ohgocene Purnuma
Quartz Porphyry (Fig. 3.20).
In the region of the towns of Santa Isabel and Giron the sediments are exposed in two
separate basin remnants. The basin fill series in the south (Burrohuaycu Formation) has a
Middle to Late Miocene age, and in the north (Giron Formation) a Late Miocene age (Fig.
3.21). The stratigraphic relationship between these two units is not clear, because they are
separated by blocks which consist of the underlying volcanic series. However, the ages and
facies trends suggest that the Giron Formation is younger than the Burrohuaycu Formation.
In the southern Santa Isabel sub-basin, the Burrohuaycu Formation is overlain with a promi-
nent angular unconformity by the Uchucay Formation with a latest Miocene age (Fig. 3.21).
In the north, the Turi Formation rests unconformably on the Giron Fm. and includes very
coarse clastic sediments of a latest Miocene age. Finally, the Turi Fm. is unconformably
overlain by the pyroclastics of the Tarqui Fm. (uppermost Miocene, Fig. 3.21). The Tambo
Viejo Formation (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995) may be better regarded as a member of the
Tarqui Fm. The sediments of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin are underlain by the volcanic
stratigraphic nomenclature/ new stratigraphic sub¬

of earlier workers Lithology division and age ranges
with assumed ages
Loma Blanca Fm aadtc pyroclastic rocks Phoc

2 3±0 8 Salapa Fm.
coarse clastic sediments

Quillollaco Fm
8
(alluvial fan and fluvial) Cerro Mandango Fm,
CD
basin fills 15
(Miocene) Belen Fm
La Banda Fm.^
shore-zone, tidal flat,
Trigal Fm.
2 estuanne, deltaic, San Cayetano Fm
Gonzanama Fm 12 4±1 4 lacustnne, fluvial and Santo Domingo Fm.
(Paleocene) volcaniclastic sediments
San Jose Fm
Catamayo Fm. o
Gonzanama Fm o
73
Lavaflows 15 1±1 6 acidic pyroclastic rocks Quinara Fm

(Pleistocene)
Loma Blanca Fm. 26 6±4 0
30 3±2' Purunuma Quartz Porphyry
(Oligocene)
Purunuma Quarz-
33 4±3 6 acidicpyroclastic rocks
porphynte (Eoc) (mainly ignimbrites) and Loma Blanca Fm
36 5±4 4
Sacapalca Fm. sedimentary intercalations O
(Paleocene)
Rfo Playas Fm
fluvial and alluvial
(Miocene) Rio Playas Fm ui
fan sediments
o
c
<D
O
V38 7±5 6 intermediate volcanic O
Sacapalca Fm. o
breccias and lava flows Sacapalca Fm
(Paleocene) -66 9±5 83
CO
Q.
granodiontic plutons
shallow manne and Casanga Fm

shelf sediments Naranjo Fm
Jaillard etal (1996)
15 1±1 6 zircon fission-track
basic to intermediate volcanic
ages, error ±2a
this work
rocks and sediments Ceiica Fm
113±3 K-Ar ages,
Bristow & Feininger
granodiontic Tangula batholith (1980)
Kenneriey (1980)
53±2 Rb-Srage,
Aspden etal (1992)
metamorphic rocks (Paleozoic -
Mesozoic)
Litheriand et al (1994)
•~^^ unconformity
Fig. 3.20. Stratigraphy of the Tertiary in the area of Catacocha, Loja and Vilcabamba (southern
Sierra). A selection of the zircon-fission track ages obtained in die present study and some age
determinations from literature are indicated. The Middle Miocene formations are not shown in
stratigraphic order (see astenx), some of diem were synchronous but in different depositional
systems.
Saraguro and Santa Isabel Formations (Fig. 3.21). The Saraguro Formation has a well de¬
fined age range from Late OUgocene to Early Miocene, which is also proven in the Nabon
area (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995) and in the area of Cuenca (Steinmann, 1997). The Santa
Isabel Fm. has an Early to Late Miocene age and shows very complex lateral and vertical
relationship with the Burrohuaycu and Giron Formations. The Lower Miocene part underhes
stratigraphic nomenclature/ new stratigraphic sub¬

of earlier workers Lithology division and age ranges
with assumed ages
Pisayambo Fm.
(Miocene) acidic pyroclastic rocks Tarqui Fm.
Turi Fm.
alluvial fan, fluvial and Turi Fm.
(Pliocene)
Nabdn Fm.
lacustnne sediments, Nabdn Group
(Late Miocene)
volcaniclastics i Uchucay Fm.
8.o±2:
Ayancay
Group fluvial, alluvial fan Girdn Fm.
I and volcaniclastic
\ (Miocene) \ sediments
Burro-
Pisayam¬ i huaycu Fm.
bo Fm.
(Miocene)!
15.9±1.6
intermediate pyroclastics
Santa Isabel Fm.
.
(breccias, flows) and
18.411.6 'minor acidic volcanics
Chinchillo Fm.
18.812.2
(Ohgoc.-Miocene)
fluvial sediments Jacapa Fm.
19111.4
19.5+0.'
Saraguro Fm. acidicpyroclastic rocks
(Oligocene) 23.012.2
(mainly ignimbrites) and
23.412.0 sedimentary intercalations Saraguro Fm.
i2.e±o.i
granodiontic plutons,
20.2±2.(
rhyolitic/dacitic intrusions
and andesitic dikes
26 412.6
considered as part 34.914.0

of Biblian Fm. in fluvial sediments Quingeo Fm.
Cuenca basin Steinmann (1997)
39.812.8
(Early Miocene)
78.0±3.0, basic to intermediate
volcanic rocks (breccias,
18.8±2.2 zircon fission-track Macuchi Fm.
19.8±3.0 flow. pillows)
Henderson (1979)
ages, error ±2o
this work
granodiontic and tonalitic plutons
34.9±4.0 zircon f-t ages,
Hungerbuhler et al
turbiditic series Yunguilla Fm.
(1995),
Steinmann
Thalmann (1946)
(1997)
78.0±3.0 K-Ar age,
Pichler &Aly
V, metamorphic rocks (Paleozoic -
Mesozoic)
(1983)
Litheriand et al (1994)
19.5±0.4 K-Ar ages,
Kenneriey (1980)
"^-^. unconformity
Fig. 3.21.Stratigraphy of the Tertiary in the area of Nabon, Santa Isabel and Giron (central-soum-
em Sierra). A selection of die zircon fission-track ages obtained in the present study and some age
determinations from literature are indicated.
the Burrohuaycu Formation to the south of the town of Santa Isabel. In the north, the Santa
Isabel Fm. covers conformably the Upper Miocene Giron Formation. In its youngest part, the
Santa Isabel Formation is coeval with the Turi Formation (Fig. 3.21). The Saraguro Forma¬
tion in area of Santa Isabel and Jubones is possibly underlain by the volcanic Macuchi For¬
mation (Upper Cretaceous? -
Eocene?). The intermediate volcanics exposed in the area of
Saraguro are not regarded as the Sacapalca Formation as suggested by Pratt et al. (1997). The
relation of the Sacapalca and Saraguro Formations in the area south of Saraguro is not clear,
and possibly the Sacapalca Formation does not cover the entire age range from latest Creta¬
ceous to Late OUgocene (Fig. 3.20). The distinction between the volcanic pre-Saraguro rocks
is still very difficult and the stratigraphy is confusing. But according to the new fission-track
ages and other age interpretations, an Eocene and Early Oligocene hiatus between the older
volcanics (Macuchi, Sacapalca Formations) and the Saraguro Formation is strongly sug¬
gested.
The major changes compared with previous stratigraphic classifications of the Tertiary
of southern Ecuador are briefly indicated (Table 3.2) in the following (going from N to S):
1. The Saraguro Formation was dated in several places as Late Oligocene to Early
Miocene in age and does not cover the entire Oligocene Period as suggested by Lanvenu et
al. (1992) and as shown on the most recent chronostratigraphic chart by Litheriand et al.
(1993, Table 3.2). The newly defined volcanic Santa Isabel Fm. stratigraphically covers a
part of the Saraguro and Chinchillo time and has an Early to Late Miocene age. The name
Chinchillo Formation (Kenneriey, 1980, Baldock, 1982) is abandoned, because these rocks
are part of the Saraguro Formation. The Santa Isabel Formation may correlate partly with the
Pisayambo Formation (Litheriand et al., 1993). However, there is still no stratigraphic defi¬
nition of the Pisayambo volcanics and therefore such a correlation is very hypothetical.
2. The complex facies relationship between the Santa Isabel and the Burrohuaycu Fm.
were misinterpreted by Baudino et al. (1994) and resulted in a wrong stratigraphic scheme
for the Giron-Santa Isabel basin. The authors suggested a normal stratigraphic contact be¬
tween the Miocene sediments and overlying volcanics for die southernmost part of the Santa
Isabel basin, south of the village of Uchucay. However, the contact is a prominent NE-di-
rected thrust fault along which the volcanic Saraguro Formation (not the Chinchillo Forma¬
tion) is thrust over the Middle Miocene Burrohuaycu Formation.
3. The name Ayancay Group for the fill of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin is no longer
used and two new formations (Burrohuaycu and Giron) are introduced. They are Middle to
Late Miocene in age, but not Early to Late Miocene as proposed by Baudino et al. (1994).
4. Based on lithologic criteria and age determination in the area NW of the town Giron,
a part of the Tarqui Formation is now included in the Turi Formation. The latter formation
has a latest Miocene age, and is not Pliocene as suggested by Litheriand et al. (1993). The
Table 3.2. Comparison of previous correlation charts for southern Ecuador and the chronos¬
tratigraphic framework used in the present study.

Turi Formation is coeval with the Nabon Group (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995).
5. The Uchucay Fm. has a probable Late Miocene age and is not Quaternary as as¬
sumed by Kenneriey et al. (1973). This age calibration is used to date the regional Late
Miocene deformation event int the Giron-Santa Isabel basin (see Chapter 5).
6. The Tarqui Formation has a more restricted regional extend than previously as¬
sumed. The age is clearly latest Miocene and the rocks represent the youngest widespread
volcanic formation in the Central-Southern Sierra.
8. The volcanic Sacapalca Formation has a Maastrichtian to Paleocene (?) age. The
upper boundary is not well constrained, but there exists a long hiatus spanning the Early/
Middle Eocene. Only the Rio Playas Formation represents a relic which falls within this
period. In the region NW of Saraguro intermediate volcanics which show interfingering with
the lower part of the Saraguro Formation occur, which are not regarded as belonging to the
Sacapalca Fm.
9. Kenneriey (1980) suggested that the Rio Playas Formation is coeval to the other
Miocene basins fill series in the Sierra. However, this formation is clearly older, Early and/or
Middle Eocene in age.
10. The Loma Blanca Formation in southernmost Ecuador is Late Eocene to Late
Oligocene in age and therefore only partly contemporaneous with the Saraguro Formation to
the north. Some pyroclastics with an assumed Quaternary age (Kenneriey, 1980), exposed in
the area of Santa Rita and Nambacola, have a Late Oligocene age. Because of lithologic
similarities they must be grouped with the Loma Blanca Formation.
11. The Gonzanama Formation forms the fill of the Gonzanama-Catamayo basin. It is
Middle Miocene in age and not Paleocene as suggested by Kenneriey (1980). The volcanics
which apparently overhe the Gonzanama Formation belong to the Loma Blanca and Sacapalca
Formation and are clearly older. The contacts are thrust faults and not normal stratigraphic
boundaries as suggested earlier (Kenneriey and Almeida, 1975, Marocco et al., 1995).
12. Part of the volcanics to the SE of the town of Vilcabamba were interpreted as part of
the Loma Blanca Formation (Kenneriey, 1980), however, they yielded an earliest Middle
Miocene age. These pyroclastics are included in the Quinara Formation which represents the
lowermost part of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin fill succession.
13. The Middle to Late Miocene basin fill series of Loja and Malacatos-Vilcabamba
were redefined and some new formation names were introduced (La Banda, San Jose and
Santo Domingo Formations).
14. The youngest pyroclastics in the the southern Sierra of Ecuador were named
Salapa Formation and have a Pliocene age. These volcanics were previously mapped as
part of the Loma Blanca Formation (Kenneriey and Almeida, 1975b).

Chapter 4 89 Depositional environments
4. Evolution of the Miocene depositional environments
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The Upper Tertiary sedimentary series of the Ecuadorian Andes have been usually
interpreted as fills of intermontane basins, which formed during the uplift of the mountain
chain. Earlier workers (Bristow & Parodiz, 1982) suggested a continental fresh-water
environment of deposition for them. Accordingly, an intermontane setting for all Miocene
basin series in Ecuador was inferred by Noblet et al. (1988) and Marocco et al. (1995).
However, the occurrence of estuarine ostracods and marine foraminifera in several
Miocene series in southern Ecuador (Chapter 3) must lead to a different environmental
interpretation. Other authors have already suggested an estuarine environment based on
the occurrence of brackish water molluscs and tropical plants (Olsson in Liddle and Palmer
1941, O'Rourke, 1978), or a marine environment from fossil shrimps and crab claws
(Feldmann et al., 1993). However, these fossils which come mostly from the Cuenca basin
received little attention. Most of the previous studies have shown a flawed or incomplete
interpretation of the sedimentological and paleontological data. My data show that some
regional correlations based on lithological and sedimentological criteria alone were pre¬
mature, and I document that the earlier interpretation of a Middle Miocene coastal
depositional environment were correct (Olsson in Liddle and Palmer, 1941, O'Rourke,
1978).
Depositional environments transitional between marine and continental systems
document the location of the former shoreline. The recognition of coastal facies is crucial
for our interpretation of the paleogeography of the Neogene basins. The migration of
shorelines may be related to tectonic movements, eustasy, the magnitude of marine en¬
ergy, the rate of sediment influx and the location of the source area (Galloway & Hobday,
1996, p. 154), and consequendy coastal systems are very unstable and may shift rapidly in
time and space.
The dynamics of the shoreline of the Miocene sediment series in southern Ecuador
is difficult to unravel, because of the fragmentary preservation due to the strong Late
Miocene compressive deformation. However, the combination of sedimentological obser¬
vations and paleontological data with chronostratigraphic calibration by zircon fission-
track ages result in a model for the temporal and spatial facies evolution.
4.2. ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OSTRACODS AND
FORAMINIFERA
A total of 31 samples from die Middle Miocene part of the sedimentary basin fill
series of Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Catamayo-Gozanama and Cuenca were studied
and yielded paleoecological diverse ostracod faunas and foraminifera. The ostracod as¬
semblages are typical of estuarine and nonmarine environments and the foraminfera indi¬
cate a marine environment (Table 4.1, Peterson et al., in prep.). In this palaeontological
context, the term "estuarine" defines a salinity range of 0.1 to 35 %c (Pritchard, 1967),
which means from the nonmarine to marine conditions, but does not identify a sedimen¬
tary facies.
The assemblages from southern Ecuador are comparable to ostracod faunas from
marginal marine-estuarine-continental environments described by Forester and Browers
(1985, pers. comm. G. Forester, 1996). The estuarine forms found in southern Ecuador
suggest salinity conditions of up to 35%o. In any case, the presence of Cyprideis species
and the freshwater forms suggest deposition in marginal marine environments and not an
open ocean habitat (Fig. 4.1). The presence of three benthic foraminifera species and the
ostacod faunas in the Loja and Malacatos-Vilcabamba basins point to an open estuarine
environment with periodic variation in the salinity and freshwater input by rivers (Table
4.1).
low abundance, high diversity
Cypris^^ stenohaline Cytheracea
Fig. 4.1. Ecological distribution of ostracods and specific salinity ranges of different environments
(from Brasier, 1980). The ostracod associations found in the Middle Miocene of southern Ecuador
are interpreted to have occupied similar habitats in estuarine and lagoonal environments.
0 o J
X present, adults and juveniles
A present, adults only
J present, juveniles only
O presence suspected
00,0 §
I 9
o
oo
nS
? I
si
II
Pn 9
g 8
a. c
a
B
B |
p. §•
-•
o
o
~
The foraminifera Ammonia parkinsonianavar. tepida, Quinqueloculina sp. aff. seminulum
and Discorpbis sp. are cosmopolitan and longranging forms which still exist today and are
dating back to the Oligocene of Puerto Rico and possibly further (pers. comm. L. Collins,
1997). Two ostracod species from the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin also occur in the Mid¬
dle Miocene of the Caribbean domain (Table 4.1,4.2). These are (1) Cyprideis stephensoni
Sandberg (1964), described from the Potamides matsoni zone of Louisiana (USA, Late
Middle Miocene, Stenzel et al., 1944) and in the Middle Miocene of Panama and Guate¬
mala (Van den Bold, 1976), and (2) Cyprideis sp. aff. C.ovata (Mincher), which was also
found in Early to Middle Miocene series in Venezuela and in the Middle Miocene of
Guatemala and Panama (Van den Bold, 1976). The two species are euryhaline forms which
mainly occur in estuaries but can also occupy lagoonal and continental hypersaline envi¬
ronments (Fig. 4.1). The zircon fission-track data of the San Jose Formation, where the
two Cyprideis species are present, yielded a late Middle Miocene age (Table 4.2). This age
is in very good agreement with the biostratigrapically constrained age range reported by
van den Bold (1976).
Gulf Coast Central America Caribbean Ecuador
Upper
11 2
ID
Cyprideis stephensoni C aff ovata Cypn deis aff ovata
iCypndeis Stephenson
5 Middle
0}
u
I Cyprideis aff.ovata
o
-
164 C aff ovata C steph
Cyprideis aff.ovata
Lower
23 8
Table 4.2. Stratigraphic age ranges of some Cyprideis species in the Caribbean (Van den Bold,
1976) and interpreted age ranges of two Cyprideis species found in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba
senes in southern Ecuador.
In the Catamayo-Gonzanama basin the faunal diversity is restricted, compared with the
faunas in the other basins. The species document estuarine and lacustrine high sahnity
environments, whereas the Potamocypris species in the Gonzanama Formation are known
to occur also in hot springs (pers. comm. G. Forester, 1996). The high volcanic activity
during Middle Miocene supports this proposition. The samples from the Cuenca basin
yielded a very impoverished ostracod fauna which is dominated by Vetustocytheridea

bristowi. This is an estuarine form which was already detected in the Loyola Formation by
Van den Bold (1976), and in the Mangan Formation by Bristow & Parodiz (1982). Van
den Bold (1976) noted that other species of this genus occur in the Lower Miocene of the
Caribbean domain. The faunal evidence points to an environment where mingling of fresh-
water and estuarine species occurred (Fig. 4.1).

In the sediments of the four Middle Miocene basins, co-occurrence of nonmarine
and estuarine ostracods is the rule, rather than the exception. Mingling of marine, estua¬
rine and freshwater ostracods in marginal marine environments is not common, because
the occurrence of ostracods is dominantly controlled by the solute composition (Forester

& Browers, 1985). According to these authors, marine species live only in Na+ and CI"
dominated water, whereas nonmarine ostracods survive in Ca2+ and HC03"-rich water.
The solute composition in cold and wet climates excludes the co-occurrence of marine
and nonmarine ostracods (Forester & Browers, 1985). However, these authors reported
that mingling of marine and nonmarine species is known in regions where the continental
climate is warm and/or dry, which leads to a solute compatibility of marine and nonmarine
waters. The ostracod associations found in the Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba and Catamayo-
Gonazanama basins suggest a warm and/or dry climate. Lithological evidence such as the
occurrence of primary gypsum horizons and abundant secondary gypsum in the ostracod
bearing and associated units, argue also for a climate where evaporation exceeded precipi¬
tation at least during certain periods. Also, the presence of coal seams and a fossil tropical
flora in the basins (Berry, 1929, 1934, 1945) is indicative for a warm and/or humid cli¬
mate.
The palaeontological and lithological data point to both dry and tropical/humid con¬
ditions for the Middle to Late Miocene in southern Ecuador. The possible temporal and
spatial changes suggest the presence of different microclimates. Such variable conditions
are still observed today in the coastal and Andean regions of Ecuador and northern Peru.
Today the interaction of the cold Humboldt current and the warm South Equatorial current
controls the climate in this region. The interplay of these marine currents, if they were also
active in the past, could yield an explanation for this changing climatic pattern during the
Miocene. Wilkinson (1982) and Whittaker (1988) proposed the presence of the same oce¬
anic circulation patterns in the Miocene along the Ecuadorian coast as seen today. A mod¬
ern analogue for the dry climatic conditions during the Miocene in southern Ecuador may
be recognized in the marine evaporate system of the estuary Bocana de Virrila (Morris and
Dickey, 1957, Brantley et al., 1984). The Bocana de Virrila lies at the southern edge of the
Sechura desert, south of the town of Piura in northwestern Peru. It is classified as barred
lagoonal system (Brantley et al., 1984) and reveals similar lithological features (gypsum
formation, high sulphur content) and facies trends as observed in the basin of Malacatos-
Vilcabamba.
The Miocene climate in the northern Cuenca basin seems to have differed from the
conditions observed in the southern basins. The Middle Miocene deposits in Cuenca basin
represent a deltaic system with a thickness of up to 4000 m where periodic marine incur¬
sions occuned (Steinmann, 1997). The delta was fed by a large river system which infers
most likely wet climatic conditions in the Cuenca region and particularly in its hinterland.
The two regions were separated by a topographic high (Santa Rosa-Saraguro High).
A similar setting was proposed for the forearc basins of southern Ecuador, which
were situated to the west of the studied area. Based on a study of molluscs, Marks (1951)
infened that the Progreso and Manabi basin were separated by the Chongon-Colonche
High during the Miocene (see Chapter 6). The Miocene foraminiferal association in the
northern Manabi basin is highly diverse and suggests the presence of warm equatorial
currents (Whittaker, 1988). In contrast, the Miocene fauna in the southern Progreso basin
is very impoverished under the influence of the cold Humboldt current (Whittaker, 1988,
Robinson and Haslett, 1995). Chemical analysis of samples from Tertiary units in coastal
Ecuador revealed higher P2O5 values for Miocene material in the Progreso basin than in
the Manabi basin to the north (Wilkinson, 1982). This evidence suggests that upwelling of
cold water associated with the Humboldt current was active in the Miocene and phosphate
was preferentially formed in the Progreso basin (Wilkinson, 1982).
My results suggest that the Miocene climate in southern Ecuador was not regionally
uniform and spatial and temporal variations existed. The climate was controlled by the
presence of topographic barriers and oceanic currents. Topographic barriers in the Costa
and the Andean domain were most likely linked and had an important influence on the
locally prevailing continental climate. The cold Humboldt current may have caused an
arid climate in the south, whereas its absence may be reflected by more humid conditions
in the north.
4.3. SYNTHESIS OF DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
The facies and faunal data, the chronostratigraphic correlations and considerations
on the basin evolution allow an integration of the evolution of the individual basins into
the regional southern Ecuadorian tectono-sedimentary history (Fig. 4.2). This reconstruc¬
tion takes into account the following arguments:

(1) Deposition in the southern Ecuadorian basins occurred in two distinct stages: a)
a Pacific coastal stage during the Middle to early Late Miocene (15-10 Ma), and b) an
intermontane stage during the Late Miocene (9-6 Ma). The intermontane stage is coeval
with the regional compressive deformation event and surface uplift of the Andean domain
(see Chapter 6).
(2) The definition of the facies boundaries between coastal and continental
depositional systems in the basins provides the approximate position of the Pacific coast¬
line.
(3) Ostracod associations support the sedimentological interpretation of the facies
boundaries.
(4) The regional facies distribution of continental and coastal facies implies drain¬
age towards the Pacific Ocean during the Pacific coastal stage.
(5) The preserved basin fill series represent remnants of larger basinal domains.
However, the variable input directions and clast supply infer the presence of emergent
terranes between some of the basin areas. Therefore, the different basin fill series were
deposited in different larger embayments (gulfs) opening to the Pacific.
(6) The coastal environments of several basins during the Pacific coastal stage infer
a continuation westward, into shallow marine and shelfal domains. Coeval series in the
Manabi, Progreso and Jambelf-Tumbez basin of the coastal area to the west represent
appropriate equivalents (see Chapter 6).

(7) During the intermontane stage, disregarding the Late Miocene strong E-W short¬
ening, the basin margins coincide more or less with the boundaries of the presently ob¬
served depressions.
These arguments will be combined and discussed in more detail in the sections be¬
low.
43.1. The Loja Embayment in the Middle Miocene (Fig. 4.2A)

The sedimentary facies of the Gonzanama, San Jose and Santo Domingo Forma¬
tions together widi the ostracod fauna indicate a prevailing coastal environment with flu¬
vial input and influence of marine processes for the southern basin group (Fig. 4.2A). The
lagoonal/deltaic and fluvial environment was unstable and shifted back and forth. The
depositional system was dominated by lagoon and marsh facies associations and is here
termed the Loja Embayment. The palaeocurrent directions indicate clastic input from the
southeast (Vilcabamba) and the east (Loja) and from the southwest (Gonzanama).
Fig. Synthesis of the depositional environments in southern Ecuador during the Middle to
4.2.
Late Miocene in a non-palinspastic reconstruction: A) The Loja and Cuenca Embayments, Middle
Miocene (15-12 Ma); B) the Vilcabamba Inlet, Middle/Late Miocene (11 Ma); C) progradation of
fluvial systems, early Late Miocene (10 Ma); D) intermontane stage, latest Miocene (post 9 Ma).
Data are derived from the following studies: regions of Gircn-Santa Isabel, Loja, Catamayo-
Gonzanama, Malacatos-Vilcabamba (this work); region of Cuenca-Alausi (Steinmann, 1997); re¬
gion of Nabon (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995). The following abbreviations are used: CE (Cuenca
Embayment), DGM (Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear), LE (Loja Embayment), SS (Santa Rosa-
Saraguro High), Vi (Vilcabamba Inlet).
early Late MioceneV

(10 Ma)
environments:
j§!|] intermontane stage direction of marine

ingressions/regressions
| •; . j continental facies
sediment input from
Pacific 4—
coastal jjjjj lagoonal, coastal, deltaic facies alluvial flow indicators
stage lovv topographic high

| | open to marginal marine facies
tjijj" (mountain region)
| | no Miocene deposits preserved

The eastern and southeastern highlands provided abundant metamorphic clasts. The
fluvial systems carrying the metamorphic material occupied a distal position suggesting
that the metamorphic source area was situated further to the east beyond Loja and
Vilcabamba.
The area of Loja was dominated by two fluvial systems which were fed from differ¬
ent source areas, one from the east (metamorphic clasts) and one from the northwest (vol¬
canic clasts). Coal formation occurred in a meandering fluvial system (Loja basin) and in
a tidal flat environment (Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin). The fossil flora indicates a tropi¬
cal environment (Berry 1929, 1935, 1945). Gypsum and coal formation in the tidal flat
system suggest varying climatic conditions which were most likely linked to oceanic cur¬
rent patterns and topographic barriers (see above).

The Cordillera Real did not form a high mountain range as today and the relief
towards the east was much less pronounced and smoother as seen by the distal character of
the fluvial sediments which are present within the basins and which were derived from the
east. The fluvial systems carried a relatively small amount of material, by-pass transport
towards the west predominated and due to the shallow character of the basins no large
deltas were formed. However, deltas were formed further in the west, towards the present
coastal zone of Ecuador (see Chapter 6). Marine processes had a dominant influence on
this coastal depositional system, which can be described as peritidal environment with
some barrier complexes and small deltas (senso Prothero and Schwab, 1996). Despite the
discontinuous outcrops, the distribution of the source areas and the facies relations sug¬
gest that the coastline was rather irregular. The ostracod fauna indicates salinity values
near to the level of normal seawater. The observed facies relations and the ostracod fauna
suggests partly an estuarine environment for the lower part of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba
series. The Loja Embayment formed a relatively flat coastal area where marine transgres¬
sions from the Pacific ocean occurred. The incursions were most likely derived from the
area of the Gulf of Guayaquil, from the northwest and reached large regions of the present
Sierra of southern Ecuador and possibly also the Oriente.
4.3.2. The Santa Rosa-Saraguro High and the Cuenca Embayment in the Middle
Miocene (Fig. 4.2A)
The basin of Giron-Santa Isabel to the north was filled during the Middle Miocene
by alluvial fan and fluvial deposits (Fig. 4.2A). These deposits occupied a larger basinal
area than observed today. Flow directions and facies trends document a southern, pre¬
dominantly volcanic source area, in the Saraguro Formation. The alluvial fan and fluvial
systems drained towards the north with a flow direction parallel to the N-S trending basin
axis. The absence of marine/estuarine fauna argues for deposition above sealevel. The
fluvial system in the Giron-Santa Isabel area should have joined the Cuenca basin. In this
northernmost basin, a deltaic and coastal plain environment prevailed during the Middle
Miocene (Steinmann, 1997). Marine ingressions occurred from the west and continental
input was derived from several eastern source areas in the PTOto-Cordillera Real (Stein¬
mann, 1997).
The northward drainage in the Giron-Santa Isabel basin coeval with the southward
directed terrestrial input in the Loja basin during the Middle Miocene implies an E-W
trending basin divide between the towns of Santa Rosa and Saraguro. This topographic
high separated the southern Loja Embayment from the continental Giron-Santa Isabel
basin and the adjacent Cuenca Embayment in the north. The presence of such a barrier
explains the different depositional evolution of the basins in the north and the south.
4.3.3 The Vilcabamba Inlet in the Middle/Late Miocene (Fig. 4.2B)

The limestones of the La Banda Formation in the Loja basin were deposited in a
lagoonal setting at around 11 Ma (Fig. 4.2B). The presence of marine and estuarine ostracods
and foraminfera implies that marine transgression occurred from the Pacific in the west.
The lagoonal facies in the area of Loja suggests a relatively stable tectonic situation with
smooth relief during that time. The lack of terrestrial and freshwater input during deposi¬
tion of the La Banda Formation suggest that the relief towards the east in the area of Loja
must have been very flat until 11 Ma. The so called Proto-Cordillera Real formed only
mountains with a low elevation along the N-S segment between Loja and Vilcabamba.
The Proto-Cordillera Real did possibly not form a continuous topographic barrier in this
region and the marine ingressions via the Vilcabamba Inlet may have reached the Oriente
of Ecuador. Today, the coastal formations of Loja lie at around 1500 to 2500 m above
sealevel at the western flank of the Cordillera Real. Only about 10 km east of Loja, the
highest summits of the Cordillera Real reach altitudes of more than 4000 m.
In the Giron-Santa Isabel basin the north directed fluvial by-pass transport prevailed
until the early Late Miocene. In the Cuenca basin the deltaic system prograded towards
the west (Steinmann, 1997).
43.4. Progradation of fluvial systems in the early Late Miocene (Fig. 4.2C)
The coastal Santo Domingo Formation in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba series is
unconformably overlain by fluvial deposits (Cerro Mandango Formation) which are de¬
rived from the east and southeast (Fig. 4.2C). These sediments show only at the base some
marine influence and they document the transition to a purely continental environment in
the early Late Miocene (around 10 Ma). In the Loja area a similar trend is observed, where
the lagoonal La Banda Formation is overlain by fluvial deposits (Belen Formation). There
are no Late Miocene sediments exposed in the area of Catamayo and Gonzanama, most
likely due to later erosion. All fluvial sediments show a coarsening upward trend docu¬
menting steepening and a shift of the source areas towards the basin. This is also paral¬
leled by increasing input of metamorphic clasts due to exhumation of metamorphic rocks
in the source areas to the east.
In the northern region, the Giron-Santa Isabel basin system continued to drain to¬
wards the north into the Cuenca Embayment, where delta progradation continued (Stein¬
mann, 1997). The present time slice may be considered as transitional from the coastal
stage to the intermontane stage.
43.5. Intermontane stage in the Late Miocene (Fig. 4.2D)

In southern Ecuador the onset of very coarse clastic sedimentation started at around
9 Ma and documents the begin of the intermontane stage. Several relatively small
intermontane basins were formed (Fig. 4.2D, Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Giron, Santa
Isabel, Nabon). The borders of these basins coincide more or less with the current
outcropping basin margins. In the south such deposits are represented by the Conglomer¬
ate Member of the Cerro Mandango Formation and the Quillollaco Formation. Both units
overly the older deposits with an angular unconformity, which was formed between 9 to 8
Ma. They consist of alluvial fan systems which were predominantly supplied from the
rising Cordillera Real in the east. The coarsening and thickening upward trends indicate
migration of the source area towards the basins due to compressive tectonic shortening.
In the area of Giron alluvial fan deposits of a Late Miocene age (9-7 Ma, Turi For¬
mation) overlie unconformably the older sediments. These syntectonic proximal deposits
were derived from a western source area and indicate a major uplift of the Cordillera
Occidental, as also evidenced in the Cuenca basin (Steinmann, 1997). South of Santa
Isabel, lacustrine deposits with a Late Miocene age (9 Ma, Uchucay Formation) rest with
a prominent angular unconformity on strongly deformed older deposits. Heavy mineral
suites from the Uchucay Formation indicate a metamorphic source area, in contrast to the
older underlying sediments (Helg, 1997). These data infer exhumation of metamorphic
rocks in the Cordillera Real, east of the Santa Isabel area, at around 9 Ma. During the same
period, the compressive intermontane basin of Nabon was formed (Hungerbuhler et al.,
1995).
The intermontane stage was coeval with regional compressive deformation in southern
Ecuador and surface uplift of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Real.
Chapter 5 100 Basin formation and deformation
5. Miocene extensional basin formation and basin inversion
5.1. INTRODUCTION
Ecuador is a region where subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental lithosphere

has taken place since at least the Cretaceous (Baldock, 1982). The subduction and the
coeval westward movement of the South American plate has had a dominant influence on
the continental margin history and is still strongly affected by these processes. Convergent
plate margins are classically described as regions where subhorizontal compressive stress
predominates. In the overriding plate, shortening parallel to the convergence direction
occurs. However, extension is also recognised in subduction settings, in particular in the
back-arc and fore-arc regions. The degree of coupling between the converging plates and
the relative plate motions are the most important factors (Dewey, 1980, Jarrard, 1986).
Changes of these parameters can result either in compression or extension; moreover, the
two stress regimes may occur simultaneously in different regions.

Various models have been proposed for the Andes which try to explain wether
compression and/or extension occurred at the convergent plate margin since the Creta¬
ceous, and which was the dominant driving force for basin formation and deformation.
Two end members of opinion exist. Steinmann (1929) recognised different deformation
phases in Peru. In later studies (e.g. Megard et al., 1984, Sebrier et al., 1988, Noble et al.,
1990), the occurrence of short-lived compressive pulses was proposed in the Central An¬
des which were separated by periods of extension or relative tectonic quiescence. In con¬
trast, the hypothesis of a long lasting compressional regime was proposed by Noblet et al.
(1988) and Sempere et al. (1990). Noblet et al. (1996) favoured continuous tectonic com¬
pression for the northern Andes since the Late Cretaceous. However, such a continuum
model cannot explain the well documented periods of extension in the Andes (e.g. Aguirre,
1987, Petford and Atherton, 1994).
The present work does not attempt to propose a new model. However, both exten¬
sion and compression are recognised in the studied area in the Tertiary, which does sug¬
gest the presence of repeated deformation phases. The concept of a tectonic continuum
which was also proposed for the Ecuadorian Andes (Noblet et al., 1996) cannot be ap¬
plied, because compression was simply not continuous. Extension played a major role as
documented by the formation of basins in the Ecuadorian Costa and in the Andean do¬
main. As shown above, in the central and southern Sierra of Ecuador several basins were
formed in a predominantly extensional setting at sealevel at the beginning of the Middle

Miocene. The evolution of these Andean intra-arc basins was genetically linked with the
coeval formation of the fore-arc basins in the Costa area. At 9-8 Ma, a regional compressive
deformation event resulted in basin inversion and overprinting of the older structures by
thrusting and inverse faulting. This compressional event affected mostly the basins in the
Andean domain but is also recorded, although less pronounced, in the fore-arc region.
Large scale reflection seismic data and kinematic studies in the Central Andes (e.g. Baby
et al., 1992, Schmitz, 1994, Okaya et al., 1997) show that the major Neogene regional
shortening was accommodated for a great part in the Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt.
However, some shortening was also recognised in the Andean domain (Altiplano and
Eastern Cordillera).
5.2. TECTONIC SETTING OF SOUTHERN ECUADOR
The pronounced geomorphic E-W division of Ecuador into Costa, Cordillera
Occidental, Inter-Andean Valley, Cordillera Real, Sub-Andean zone and Oriente is the
product of a complex geologic and the tectonic evolution. Several events of terrane accre¬
tion and arc formation have been postulated (e.g. Goossen and Rose, 1973, Lebrat et al.,
1985, Feininger, 1987, Aspden and Litheriand, 1992, Jaillard et al., 1995) to have driven
the dominant E-W division. However, in southern Ecuador, south of 2°S the E-W segmen¬
tation is less pronounced, and no Inter-Andean Valley exists. Here, the Andes consist of a
highly dissected mountain chain with prominent E-W trending tectonic structures. Be¬
cause of this, this part of the Andes between 3° and 8° S has been distinguished as
Huancabamba Andes (Mourier et al., 1988) from the northern part. In this region, the
normally N-S trending coast of northern South America is dissected by the Gulf of
Guayaquil.
Also on a larger scale, the Andes show a pronounced N-S segmentation. The main
structural change between the central and the northern Andes occurs in southern Ecuador
and northern Peru (Fig. 5.1). This region where the change from NW striking Cordilleras
in Peru to a NNE trend in Ecuador takes place, has been known for a long time as the
Huancabamba deflection (Gansser, 1973). However, there is evidence for a N-S segmen¬
tation on a smaller scale which is caused by E-W trending fault structures. The E-W fault
zones are partly old pre-Andean structures which developed during the pre-Tertiary his¬
tory of northern South America for instance during the accretion of the Amotape-Tahuin
terrane (Mourier et al., 1988, Litheriand et al., 1993). These transverse structures and the
N-S trending structures were reactivated during the Tertiary (Litheriand et al., 1994), es¬
pecially by the Miocene Andean deformation.

81° 80° 79° 78° 77°
Fig. 5.1. Tectonic map of southern Ecuador with the most important
regional structures. The frame
shows the location of Fig. 5.2. Note that the two
sutures are not of the same
age: (1) Lebrat et al.'s
(1987) suture originated from the Eocene or Oligocene accretion of the Macuchi/Pinon
and (2) Mourier et al. 's
complex
(1988) suture is related to the Early Cretaceous accretion of the
Tahuin terrane. Sources: Sierra of Ecuador Amotape-
(this work, Steinmann, 1997), Costa of Ecuador (Benitez,
1986a, Daly, 1989), Cordillera Real (Litheriand et al.,
1994), Oriente of Ecuador (Litheriand et al.,
1993), northern Peru (Megard 1984, 1989), northwestern Peru
(Shepherd and Moberly, 1981).
Key to abbreviations: DGM (Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear), GB
(Guayaquil basin, Pliocene to
present), JF (Jubones fault), J-TB (Jambeli-Tumbez basin, Late Miocene to
present), MB (Manabi
basin, Early to Middle Late Miocene), MTFB (Maranon uirust and fold
belt), PB (Progreso basin,
Early to Middle Miocene), STFB (Sub-Andean thrust and fold belt),TB (Talara basin, Eocene).
Southern Ecuador (south of 2°S)

including the coastal area, is a region where the
intersection between the N-S and E-W
trending tectonic structures of different scales can
be observed (Fig. 5.1). Goossens
(1972,1973) recognised a structural control on minerali¬
sation in Ecuador by the intersection of
Andean-trending and E-W trending transverse
faults between 1° and 4° S. On a larger scale, Shepherd and Moberly (1981) postulated the
presence of two major E-W trending transcontinental megashear zones which border the
transition zone between the central and northern Andes, which may control the forearc
basin formation in Ecuador and Peru. The two megashears represent the limits of the
Precambrian Guayana and Brazil Shields. However, these old structures do not affect the
Late Tertiary structures of southern Ecuador and northern Peru. Smaller scale E-W trending
structures may have been responsible for the opening of the Loja Embayment and the
Vilcabamba Inlet (see Chapter 4.3. and 6.2.) which formed a connection between the
Pacific Ocean and the Oriente of Ecuador during the Middle Miocene. Campbell (1974)
had already suggested the former presence of such a depression across the Andes, the
Marafion Portal, which formed during the Tertiary, where marine incursions reached the
Sub-Andean zone of Ecuador and Peru.
The Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear (DGM, Fig. 5.1) is a major structure in Ecua¬
dor. It represents a dextral shear zone, which separates in the north the Inter-Andean zone
from the Cordillera Occidental. Towards the south (at 2°S) it cuts across the Cordillera
Occidental and splits into several normal faults underlying the Gulf of Guayaquil. Possi¬
bly, the normal faults bend towards the South American trench to accommodate the dex¬
tral motion between the subducting oceanic plate and the South American continental
margin. This setting defines the Progreso and the younger Jambeli-Tumbez forearc-basins
as pull-apart basins (Shepherd and Moberly, 1981, Benitez, 1986b) developing where the
translative movements passed from a marginal position to a intra-arc position. The DGM
separates Upper Cretaceous oceanic crust in the Costa area from continental crust in the
Sierra to the east (Goossens and Rose, 1973, Lebrat et al., 1987). Lebrat et al. (1985)
proposed that the boundary between oceanic and continental basement is a zone of west-
vergent reverse faults which correspond to a former suture. According to these authors,
the DGM was superimposed on the suture zone and is therefore younger. The suture origi¬
nated previously from the collision of the Macuchi arc with continental South America in
the Eocene or Oligocene (Feininger and Bristow, 1980, Egiiez, 1986, Lebrat et al., 1987,
Bourgois et al., 1990). The DGM must have been active at least since the Early Miocene
because it controls the opening of the Early to Middle Miocene Progreso and the Middle/
Late Miocene to Recent Jambeli-Tumbez basins (Benitez, 1986b, Whittaker, 1988). Shep¬
herd and Moberly (1981) tentatively suggested a dextral displacement along the DGM of
about 80 to 100 km. In this context, it is important to note that the Middle Miocene basins
in the southern Sierra of Ecuador were formed at sea level and their evolution was linked
with the fore-arc history (see above).

Mourier et al. (1988) suggested the presence of another suture zone in northwestern
Peru and southwestern Ecuador (Fig. 5.1), which was formed by the accretion of the
Amotape-Tahuin terrane to the northeastern Peruvian margin in Early Cretaceous times.

The trace of this suture zone may be linked with regional faults (e.g. Jubones fault) in
southwestern Ecuador, which form the boundary between the metamorphic El Oro com¬
and the Andean domain. This structure represent major tectonic boundary, which is
plex a
documented by N-S striking east directed thrust faults, which are linked with the E-W
trending Jubones fault (Fig. 5.1). The Late Miocene deformation observed in the Middle
Miocene sedimentary series and older units exposed east of this tectonic boundary was
most likely caused by a northeast and eastward directed indentation of the El Oro block
into the Andean domain. Such an indentation could have been accommodated during the
compressive deformation event at around 8 Ma in the southern Sierra of Ecuador.
Litheriand et al. (1994) suggested the presence of east-vergent NNE-SSW striking

reverse faults at the eastern flank of the Cordillera Real in southern Ecuador (Fig. 5.1). To
the South, Megard (1984) described the Maranon thrust and fold belt (MTFB, Fig. 5.1) in
central and northern Peru which lies in the Peruvian Andean domain between the Western
and Eastern Cordillera. The MTFB extends, according to Megard (1984), from 7° to 12°30'
S and has an eastern vergence and developed in the Eocene during the Incaic phase. It was
reactivated by younger tectonic phases, namely the Quechua 1 (15-17 Ma, according to
Sebrier et al., 1988) by E-W shortening, the Quechua 2 (10 Ma) by dextral strike-slip
movement and the Quechua 3 (7 Ma) by sinistral strike-slip motion. The MTFB forms an
Inter-Andean structure which is parallel to the fold and thrust belt in the Sub-Andean
zone. The observed thrusts and related deformation in the Sierra of southern Ecuador
occur in a very similar setting and lie west of the Sub-Andean fold and thrust zone. There¬
fore, it seems very likely that the thrust zone in the Andean domain of southern Ecuador
forms the northern prolongation of the MTFB.
5.3. MIDDLE MIOCENE EXTENSION AND BASIN FORMATION
53.1. Giron-Santa Isabel basin
The predominant deformation of the Miocene sediments in southern Ecuador is re¬
lated to compression. However, various features in several basins such as onlap geometry,
block rotation along listric normal faults and asymmetric basin fill geometry show that
extensional structures controlled the basin formation and predated the compressional de¬
formation. In the southern part of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin, the basin forming exten¬
sion and subsequent deformation can be observed. In the Quebrada Burrohuayacu, which
lies south of the town Santa Isabel (Figs. 5.2, 5.3) along the northwestern basin margin,
the Middle Miocene basin fill overlies the Lower Oligocene volcanics with a distinct
onlap. The Middle Miocene sediments show wedging towards the southeastern basin mar-
gin and therefore the basin fill has a dominant asymmetric geometry (Fig. 5.3). Listric
normal faults and tilted blocks in the Oligocene volcanics and the subsequent fill of these
half-grabens with Middle Miocene sediments document an extensional setting during this
time. Small scale normal growth faults within the basin series (pers. comm. Urs Helg,
1997) are additional evidence that extension prevailed during the Middle Miocene. Based
on these observations the Giron-Santa Isabel basin is interpreted as a half graben, which
formed at the beginning of the Middle Miocene (at around 15 Ma); the extensional regime
was active until the early Late Miocene (10 Ma). The normal faults have a consistent NE-
SW trend, which is parallel to the basin axis. No strike-slip component on the normal
faults was observed. In the southernmost part of the basin an onlap geometry of the Mid¬
dle Miocene sediments on the Upper Oligocene -
Lower Miocene Saraguro Formation is
observed (Fig. 5.6A). The asymmetric basin geometry implies a master normal fault at the
southeastern margin. This fault is not exposed because of the younger compressional de¬
formation which resulted in a considerable shortening perpendicular to the basin axis. The
basin was much larger than the present geographic area suggests, and the present limits
are controlled by younger tectonic structures. This is evidenced by the presence of relic
sediments outside of the main depression.
5 10 15 20
-nm— i
Kilometers
Fig. 5.2. Geological map of the southern part of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin. The location of the
geological sections in Fig. 5.3, 5.5 is shown on the map. The legend to the geological map is
shown in Fig. 3.3A.
Fig. along the Quebrada Burrohuaycu, showing

5.3. Cross section of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin
normal faulting during basin formation and fill in the Middle Miocene
which is related to extension
(A). The section is drawn from the photo below (B). The Santa Isabel basin was formed as a half
graben with a master NNE trending normal growth fault along the easten margin. The location of
the section is shown in Fig. 5.2.
5.3.2. Loja and Malacatos-Vilcabamba basins
The thickening of the Middle and lowermost Upper Miocene fill in the Loja basin
towards the eastern margin and the onlap geometry along the western margin suggests an
asymmetric basin form in a half graben (Fig. 5.4.). The evolution of the Loja basin during
the Middle Miocene can be summarised in the following way (Fig. 5.4.):
A. Formation of a half graben type basin in a most likely E-W extensional setting in
the Middle Miocene (13.8+1.2 Ma). Deposition of the Lower Sandstone Member of the
San Cayetano Formation in a meandering mixed-load fluvial system. The presence of coal
and the fossil flora (see Chapter 3) indicate a humid tropical environment at low altitude,
most likely only little above sealevel (Berry, 1929, 1945).
B. Ongoing extension and deposition of the Lower Sandstone Member, which con¬
sists only of reworked metamorphic material (see Chapter 3). Further to the west, the
Trigal Formation accumulated in a mixed-load fluvial system with dominant sheet floods
and with reworked volcanic material. The sediments of the two fluvial systems were de¬
rived from two different source areas and were most likely deposited in two individual
half grabens separated by the emergent edge of a rotated fault.
C. At the end of the Middle Miocene (11.1±1.2 Ma) subsidence or a sea-level rise
caused marine transgression as evidenced by the presence of foraminifera, estuarine
ostracods which suggest a lagoonal environment (Peterson et al., in prep.). Deposition of
the limestones of the La Banda Formation in the eastern sub-basin is not documented,
however, differential block movements may have been responsible for their erosion in the
eastern part.
D. The separation into a western and eastern half graben by a horst of metamorphic
rocks was re-established. In the west a fluvial system (Belen Formation) transported domi-
nandy volcanic and lesser metamorphic material. The synsedimentary normal fault at the
eastern basin margin continued to controlled half-graben evolution and sedimentation in a

lacustrine environment (Siltstone Member of the San Cayetano Formation) prevailed until
10 Ma. Several debris flow deposits from landslides are intercalated with the fine grained
lacustrine sediments and are associated with slump structures (Fig. 5.10A), suggesting an
increased relief and tectonic activity along this margin.

E. The lake was filled by the prograding Upper Sandstone Member of the San
Cayetano Formation, a mixed load fluvial system with predominant metamorphic peb¬
bles. The upper part of the Belen Formation also contains metamorphic clasts and there¬
fore a link between the eastern and western depositional systems may be assumed.
Fig. 5.4. Structural evolution of the Loja basin during the Miocene to Pliocene. The different
G explained in the text. Note that dunng the Middle Miocene, extension and
stages from A to are
subsidence prevailed and sedimentation occurred at sealevel. In the Latest Miocene, inversion
occurred, the basinal area was considerably shortened and sedimentation took place in a smaller
intermontane basm.
In the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin the Middle Miocene sediments were also strongly
affected by the Late Miocene compressional deformation and therefore, older extensional
structures are overprinted. However, the many sedimentary dikes within the fill series as
well as andesitic dikes point to a consistent N-S extension.
The present data infer that extension prevailed during the Middle Miocene up to the
earliest Late Miocene (15-10 Ma) in the entire Andean domain of central and southern
Ecuador and caused basin formation. In the northern Giron-Santa Isabel and Cuenca basin
extension was NW-SE directed (see also Steinmann, 1997). The scarcity of evidence in
the southern basins does not allow a clear definition of the direction of maximum exten¬
sion. The geometry of the Loja basin would implie an E-W extension.
5.4. LATE MIOCENE COMPRESSION - A REGIONAL EVENT
Neogene thrust tectonics were until now not recognised in the Andes of Ecuador.
Only Late Tertiary thrusting was inferred in the Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt. How¬
ever, in the study area large scale thrusting was noted. It occurred during the 9-8 Ma event
(see Chapter 2), when compressional features such as reverse faults, folds and thrusts
from metric to regional scale developed in the Middle and lower Upper Miocene sediments
and the underlying volcanic rocks. This compressional event caused the inversion of the
Middle to early Late Miocene basins in the Andean domain and also in the fore-arc region.
Therefore, the extensional structures which were formed during the Middle Miocene were
overprinted and are difficult to reconstruct.
5.4.1. Giron-Santa Isabel basin
In the southernmost part of the Santa Isabel sub-basin, subhorizontal lacustrine sedi¬
ments of the Uchucay Formation with an age of 9.4±1.6 Ma rest with marked angular
unconformity on the deformed Middle to lower Upper Miocene basin series (Burrohuaycu
Formation 14.7-10.5 Ma). Both, the Burrohuaycu and the underlying Saraguro Forma¬
tions are folded and thrust faults of metric to kilometric scale occur. The Uchucay Forma¬
tion seals this compressive deformation which was very short-lived and which occurred at
around 9 to 8 Ma. In the northern Cuenca basin dating of angular unconformities and
cross-cut relations of intrusive rocks define also a Late Miocene deformation event at
around 9 to 8 Ma (Steinmann, 1997). Compressive structures are discussed in more detail
from north to south.
The southern margin of the Santa Isabel sub-basin is a prominent thrust fault (Figs.
horizontal and vertical scale
Fig. 5.5. Characteristic deformation features in the southern part of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin
which are related to the 9 Ma compressional event (basin inversion). A) Large scale thrusting
of
the Saraguro the Middle Miocene basin fill series (see section in Fig. 5.6A); B)
Formation on
thrust imbrication in the Burrohuaycu Formation, west of the village of Jubones; C) intensively
folded and faulted sediments of the Burrohuaycu Formation along the southeastern basin margin,
east of the village of Jubones; D) Characteristic chevron type folding in the Saraguro Formation,
in the region adjacent to the southeastern basin margin (see section in Fig. 5.6B). The symmetric
folds synclines.
open box folds form anticlines and tight chevron
Fig. 5.6. Two cross sections in the southern part of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin which intersect
each other. Section A shows large scale thrust faulting along the southern basin margin which
occurred at around 9 Ma during basin inversion. The volcanic Saraguro Formation (Upper
Oligocene-Lower Miocene) was thrust onto the Middle Miocene basin fill (Burrohuaycu Forma¬
tion). Section B shows the Middle Miocene extensional structures in the western part and the
intense folding in the Saraguro Formation east of the present basin margin, which is related to the
9 Ma inversion. The chevron folding suggests an overall shortening of about 30% in the deformed
belt. The location of the sections is shown in Fig. 5.2.
5.2, 5.5A, 5.6A) along which the Upper Oligocene to Lower Miocene volcanic rocks of
the Saraguro Formation are thrust over the Middle Miocene basin fill (Burrohuaycu For¬
mation). In the footwall of the NE-directed thrust fault, the sediments were overturned and
form a footwall syncline (Fig. 5.7B). Baudino et al. (1996) misinterpreted this situation.
They suggested that the acidic volcanic rocks (their Chinchillo Formation, which is in fact
part of the Saraguro Formation) rest unconformably on the basin fill series and therefore
they assumed an Early Miocene age for the basin sediments. However, the field relation¬
ships and the zircon fission-track ages show that the Saraguro Formation is thrust onto the
Middle Miocene Burrohuaycu Formation. A minimal estimate for the vertical and hori¬
zontal displacement along the thrust fault is 2 km and 4 km, respectively (Fig. 5.6A).
Abundant small-scale thrust faults in the Middle Miocene sediments are observed (Fig.
5.7C). Along the southern basin margin the thrust faults are in general north-directed and
they caused strong shortening in the fine grained sediments (Fig. 5.7D). Towards the north,
south of the town of Santa Isabel, the small scale thrust faults in the sediments are NNW-
directed because of the influence of a master thrust zone along the eastern basin margin
with a NW vergence (Fig. 5.2). Mapping in the strongly dissected region outside of the
Santa Isabel sub-basin (Litheriand et al., 1993) allows the contact relationship between
the metamorphic rocks and the overlying acidic volcanics of the Saraguro Formation to be
delineated (Fig. 5.6A). This shows that the thrust faults involved the basement on a large
scale. Detailed mapping in the frame of the Cordillera Occidental project of the British
Geological Survey (Pratt et al., 1997) revealed the presence of another large scale thrust
fault south of the Santa Isabel basin in the area of Manu (BGS and CODIGEM, in press).
This thrust zone is NE-directed, has an E-W trend and bends near the southernmost edge
of the Santa Isabel basin towards the south, where it joins a regional N-S trending E-
vergent thrust fault (Fig. 5.2, Pratt et al., 1997).
The Burrohuaycu Formation along the southeastern basin margin and the underly¬
ing Saraguro Formation outside of the basin were strongly folded (Fig. 5.2). By correla¬
tion of reference horizons it becomes obvious that the Middle Miocene sediments suf¬
fered, in a 1 km wide NNE-SSW striking belt, complex compressive deformation with
isoclinal folds and reverse faults (Fig.5.5C). The faults and fold axis have a NE-SW trend.
The strong deformation is most likely caused by large scale NW verging thrusting (Fig.
5.2) of the Saraguro Formation over the sediments.
The Saraguro Formation consists predominantly of ignimbrites which form indi¬
vidual layers with thicknesses up to 100 meters. They are separated by ash fall deposits
and minor volcaniclastic sediments. These lithologic repetitions allow mapping of the
deformation in this rather monotonous formation. East of the Santa Isabel sub-basin, the
Fig. 5.7. Structures in the Giron-Santa Isabel basin.

A) Onlap of the Middle Miocene Burrohuaycu
Formation onto the Saraguro Formation (Upper Oligocene-Lower Miocene) along the southwest¬
ern basin margin. B) Footwall syncline in the Burrohuaycu Formation, see Fig. 5.5A, 5.6A. C)
Small-scale thrust faults in the Burrohuaycu Formation and associated sheared shales (D). E)
Strongly folded Saraguro Formation, exposed west of the southeastern basin margin (marked with
line). Some folds are indicated, also in the basin fill series. View towards the north. F) Small scale
thrust (forelimb thrust) in folded sediments of the Burrohuaycu Formation, exposed at the south¬
ern basin margin, where north-directed large scale thrusting is observed.
Saraguro Formation was strongly folded and the geometry displays the characteristics of
chevron folds on a kilometric scale (Fig. 5.7E). This deformation style is only present in a
belt (Figs. 5.2,5.6B) with a N-S trend and a width of 5 km. Its western limit is formed by
west-directed thrust faults within the Burrohuaycu Formation and the eastern limit by
internal thrust faults within the Saraguro Formation. West of the village of Jubones, the
eastern limit of the deformed belt is less well defined. Along several sections symmetric
open box folds, which form anticlines and tight chevron folds representing synclines can
be observed (Fig. 5.5D). In some areas also kink folds occur. The chevron folds account
for a considerable increase in the thickness of the Saraguro Formation and the fold geom¬
etry suggests an overall shortening of about 30% (Fig. 5.6B, Twiss and Moore, 1992). The
folds are cut by a few thrust faults which accommodated further shortening. Such phe¬
nomena was also observed in the Middle Miocene sediments, where anticlines were fur¬
ther deformed by forelimb and backlimb thrusts (Fig. 5.7F). The chevron folding in the
Saraguro Formation is typical for deformation of layered rocks with a strong planar me¬
chanical anisotropy (Twiss and Moores, 1992). Kink and chevron folds are most com¬
monly formed by deformation at relatively low temperature and low burial, respectively
(Suppe, 1985). Typically, the deformed Saraguro Formation does not show any sign of
metamorphism which would suggest a higher temperature overprint. No zircon fission-
track ages in the Saraguro Formation were reset, but reveal consistent depositional ages,
which are younging up-section. Therefore, the temperature did not exceed 260+25 °C, me
closure temperature of zircon fission-track system (Foster et al., 1996).

The Saraguro Formation exposed to the east of the belt with predominant chevron
folding, is only weakly deformed and its bedding is mainly subhorizontal. Northwest of
the town of Ofia an open syncline with a NE-SW trending axis is present (Fig. 5.2). Hence,
shortening was concentrated in a narrow belt at the eastern margin of the Santa Isabel sub-
basin, which is bounded by thrust faults.
5.4.2. Loja basin

The Loja basin fill has a primary asymmetric form. The Middle to lower Upper
Miocene sediments (15-10 Ma) form a wedge and show onlap geometry along the western
basin margin. The beds are steeply inclined to overturned at the eastern margin, which is a
west-vergent reverse fault. The basin is cut by another major west-directed thrust fault
which is parallel to the actual N-S strike of the depression (Fig. 3.5). This fault divides the
basin into two sub-basins. The sediments in the footwall plunge uniformly towards the
east, whereas the sediments in the hangingwall were strongly folded (Fig. 3.5). The fold
axes trend parallel to the thrust fault and the folds have a very tight to isoclinal shape. In
the northernmost part of the basin the folds are overturned and the axial plane plunges to
the east. Such geometric relations show that thrusting and folding occurred at the same
time. The compressive deformation occurred after the end of sedimentation of the San
Cayetano Formation, after 10 Ma and most likely at around 9-8 Ma like in the other ba¬
sins. The overlying coarse clastic Quillollaco Formation rests with marked angular uncon¬
formity on the older basin fill. The Quillollaco Formation was only deformed in open
synclines with a roughly N-S trend, parallel to the basin axis. The different deformation
intensity above and below the angular unconformity indicates that the main deformation
occurred before sedimentation of the Quillollaco Formation. However, the compressional
regime persisted during the presumably short-lived sedimentation Quillollaco Formation.

The reverse fault along the eastern basin margin caused the superposition of Mesozoic
metamorphic rocks onto the Miocene sediments. This fault is also of Late Miocene age
and caused additional shortening as shown by the open folds in the Quillollaco Formation.
The Late Miocene evolution of the Loja basin can be summarised in the following
way (Fig. 5.4):
F. At around 9-8 Ma the half graben type structure was inverted and the Middle
Miocene sediments were strongly deformed by E-W compression as documented by folds,
reverse faults and thrusts. An intermontane basin was established and filled with the
syntectonic coarse elastics of the Quillollaco Formation. This unit is an alluvial fan de¬
posit with the source area in metamorphic rocks, near to the basin. Associated with inver¬
sion surface uplift is assumed to have occurred as shown by the absence of marine/esrua-
rine facies. This deformation and uplift evidenced in the Loja area is correlated with the
regional 9-8 Ma event which is observed in the Sierra of Ecuador between Cuenca and
Vilcabamba.
G. Further shortening and deformation occurred in the Pliocene and Quaternary.

The entire Miocene series, including also the Quillollaco Formation, was folded. Shorten¬
ing was predominately accommodated by large scale thrust faults and sinistral strike-slip
faults. Activity along the reverse faults caused imbrication of the eastern block over the
western basin part the basin. Erosion has been the dominant process since the Latest Miocene
and therefore the sediments are only remnants of those originally deposited. The pyroclastic
Salapa Formation documents a relatively local volcanic activity at around 2.3 Ma.
5.4.3. Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin
The eastern basin margin is formed by a west vergent reverse fault which placed
metamorphic rocks onto the Miocene sediments (Fig. 5.8). In addition, there are two ma¬
jor reverse faults with a similar vergence within the basin. The first marks the western
limit of the La Granja block which lies northeast of the town Malacatos (Fig. 5.8). This
block consists of Middle to Upper Miocene sediments with a NE dip in the range of 30 to
50°. Towards the reverse fault at the basin margin a syncline with a non-cylindrical mor¬
phology and a fold axis oblique to the reverse fault was observed. The second thrust fault
runs parallel to the present basin axis and is also west-directed (Fig. 5.8). The fault is
marked by the occurrence of lower Middle Miocene acidic volcanic rocks (Quinara For¬
mation) in the hangingwall. In the footwall a NNW-SSE trending open syncline in the
Upper Miocene sediments is exposed.
670
9550
9540
9530
4° 15'
9520
Kilometers
Fig. 5.8. Geological map of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin and the southern part of the Cata¬
mayo-Gonzanama basm. The location of the geological sections in Fig. 5.9 is shown on the map.
The legend to the geological map is shown in Fig. 3.3A.
In the northernmost part of the basin, near the village La Merced, the Middle Miocene
basin fill series is intensively deformed, partly because of presence of incompetent gyp¬
sum layers (Fig. 5.10B). In this area, deformation is related to the reverse fault at the basin
margin and the sediments were deformed to isoclinal folds; continued shortening was
accommodated by small scale reverse faults. The folds have conical shapes and the fold
axis plunges obliquely towards the marginal reverse fault in the south.
The age of the compressional deformation is given by zircon fission-track age
determinations of ash-layers, intercalated in synsedimentary deformed sediments. South
of the town of Vilcabamba the Upper Miocene sediments show wedging on metric to
kilometric scale towards the basin centre and continuous flattening towards the top of the
basin fill (Figs. 5.9B, 5.IOC and D). Along the eastern basin margin, which is a west-
directed reverse fault, the sediments are steeply inclined or overturned and pinch out to¬
wards the east. The geometry of the sediment bodies ischaracteristic for cumulative wedges
(progressive unconformities, Riba, 1976, Anaddn et al., 1986) in a compressional setting.

The sediments which are involved in this deformation have an age of 8 Ma and consist of
the coarse elastics of the top of the basin fill (Conglomerate Member of the Cerro Mandango
Formation). Coeval Late Miocene compressional synsedimentary deformation is also docu¬
mented in the Nabon basin (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995) which occurred between 8.5 to 7.9
Ma. The compressional deformation at around 8 Ma strongly affected the Middle Miocene
basin fill series in Malacatos-Vilcabamba, but the syntectonic coarse elastics to a much
lesser degree. The Middle and Upper Miocene sediments are partly steeply inclined and
form imbricated blocks with a prominent eastern plunge (Fig. 5.9A). This geometry may
have been increased by post-Miocene reactivation of the reverse faults.
The conical folds which are adjacent to the reverse fault at the NE basin margin
were most likely linked to a strike-slip motion along the reverse fault (conical drag faults,
Becker, 1995). The obliquity of the folds axis and shear sense criteria suggest a sinistral
strike-slip component along the reverse fault.
5.4.4. Catamayo-Gonzanama basin
Most of the contacts of the Middle Miocene series with other formations are of
tectonic nature, mainly thrust faults (Figs. 3.3,3.5,5.8,5.9A.C). The interpretation of the
contacts by Kenneriey and Almeida (1975a), Marocco et al. (1995) and Jaillard et al.
(1996) as normal stratigraphic transitions are wrong. The thrusts place Oligocene and
older volcanic rocks (Loma Blanca and Sacapalca Formations) onto the Middle Miocene
Fig. 5.9. Cross sections in Malacatos-Vilcabamba and Catamayo-Gonzanama basins. Section A

shows large scale thrust faulting which occurred at around 9 Ma and an inferred older Middle
Miocene normal fault. The basin fill series of Malacatos-Vilcabamba in the region of La Merced
are steeply inclined, due to the Late Miocene inversion. Section B is derived from the south¬
ernmost part of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin, where progressive unconformities in the top of
the fill series document the syn-sedimentary deformation at around 8 Ma. Section C shows large
scale thrust faulting in the region of Nambacola, where the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene?
Sacapalca Formation was thrust onto the Middle Miocene Gonzanama Formation. The location
of the sections is shown in Fig. 5.8.
Catamayo-Gonzanama-Malacatos-Vilcabamba region
-
Santa Rita La Merced section
active at around 9-8 Ma
WSW Cerro Collona section ENE WNW Nambacola section ESE
Catamayo-Gonzanama road
Nambacola
active at around 9-8 Ma

vertical and horizontal scale
14.9±1.6 Ma zircon fission-track ages (error±2cr); [ \ Late Middle Miocene sediments (Cerro Mandango Fm.)
this work
| | Middle Miocene sediments (Gonzanama, San Jose, Santo Domingo Fms.)
~~^~-/ unconformity acidic volcanics
1111 (Quinara Fm., Middle Miocene)
[.'''.] granodioritic intrusion (Paleogene) tJT"sj intermediate to acidic volcanics (Loma Blanca Fm., Up. Eocene-Oligocene)
I //\ Paleozoic to Mesozoic metamorphic rocks | j basic to intermediate volcanics (Sacapaica Fm., Upper Cretac.-Paleoc.)
Fig. 5.10. Structures in the Loja (L), Malacatos-Vilcabamba (M-V) and Catamayo-Gonzanama
(C-G) basins. A) Large slump in the San Cayetano Formation, exposed south of Loja. B) Strongly
folded sediments of Santo Domingo Formation, exposed in the gypsum mine near the village La
Merced (M-V). The gypsum forms the core of an anticline. C) Progressive unconformity in the
Cerro Mandango Formation (M-V), south of Vilcabamba. The beds show a continuous flattening
towards the right. Two volcanic intercalation in this site, which are involved in the syn-sedimen-
tary deformation are dated at 8.0+1.0 (DH 293) and 7.7+D.8 Ma (DH 294). D) Large-scale pro¬
gressive unconformity in the southern part of the M-V basin in the upper fill. View towards the
north. The progressive flattening towards the east is indicated. E) Strongly sheared sediments of
the Gonzanama Formation (Middle Miocene, C-G), exposed west of Nambacola in the footwall of
a large-scale thrust fault. F) Kink folds in the sediments of Gonzanama Formation, exposed along
the road Catamayo-Gonzanama, south of Surunuma. The folding is related to the thrusting of the
older Sacapalca and Loma Blanca Formations over the Middle Miocene sediments.
sediments. There are several well exposed outcrops along the main road from Catamayo
to Gonzanama, where these tectonic relationships can be studied.
About 5 km west of the village Nambacola in the area where the basin fill series
forms anarrow E-W striking belt (679582/9542845, Fig. 5.8), the volcanics of the Sacapalca
Formation (uppermost Cretaceous to Eocene?) and Loma Blanca Formation (Oligocene)
were thrust over the sediments of the Gonzanama Formation (Middle Miocene, Fig. 5.9 A).
Slickenslide measurements on the fault plane show N/NW directed thrusting which is
compatible with the mapped field relations in this region. The sediments in the footwall
are strongly sheared, folded and the bedding is disturbed (Fig. 5.10E). Matrix-supported
breccias are also exposed within the sediments which consist predominantly of angular
andesitic components with diameters up to 2 m. The breccias formed by tectonic rework¬
ing of andesitic blocks from the hangingwall along the thrust plane.
Further to the south, in the region of the village Surunuma (along a 100 m long NW-
SE striking roadcut, 674378/9539250, Figs. 5.8,5.9C), prominent kink folds and smaller
thrusts are present within the Gonzanama Formation (Fig. 5.10F). The orientation of the
thrust planes indicate a NW-directed movement. The sediments are tectonically overlain
by the Sacapalca Formation, but the contact is mostly covered by Quaternary deposits.
The youngest rocks in the Catamayo-Gonzanama basin which suffered deformation
by thrusting, have an age of 14 Ma. Therefore, this tectonic event must be younger and
based on regional correlation, a Late Miocene (9-8 Ma) age is inferred.
5.5. DISCUSSION OF STRIKE-SLIP DEFORMATION
The youngest tectonic structures in the region are strike-slip faults with different
trends and shear directions. In the area of Santa Isabel, Nabon and Saraguro, the NW-SE
striking faults are sinistral; a second group of NNW-SSE-trending faults have possibly a
dextral displacement (Fig. 5.2). This strike-slip faults cut the earlier Late Miocene com¬
pressional structures and are therefore post 8 Ma. Such faults have not been seen in the
Tarqui Formation which has an age of 6.3 Ma (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995).

In the southern basins of Malacatos-Vilcabamba and Catamayo-Gonzanama, a set
of dextral strike-slip faults with a NW-SE-and ENE-WSW-trend deformed partly the Late
Miocene compressional structures (Fig. 5.8). Part of the strike-slip deformation must be
younger, as observed in the region of Saraguro. Another set of sinistral NE-SW striking
faults is exposed in the area of Purunuma and La Merced and east of the village El Cisne
(Fig. 5.8). Strike-slip activity in the central and southern Sierra of Ecuador appears to be
younger than 8 Ma as field observations have not yielded evidence for older strike-slip
deformation or a transcurrent component on the Middle Miocene extensional faults.
Noblet et al. (1988) suggested for the formation and closure of the basins of Cuenca,
Giron-Santa Isabel, Nabon, Loja and Vilcabamba-Malacatos a regional dextral strike-slip

system acting along N-S to NNE-SSW trending faults. The authors assumed a clockwise
rotation of the maximal shortening from NNE-SSW in the Early Miocene to E-W in the
Late Miocene and Pliocene. However, their model was based on the assumption of
synsedimentary deformation in the Cuenca basin which in turn was based on poor
stratigraphic data. Similarly, a strike-slip origin was proposed for the other basins. Basin-
to-basin correlation was based on lithology only (Lavenu and Noblet, 1989) without refer¬
ence to any absolute ages. However, the strike-slip model lacks any evidence in the Cuenca
basin (Steinmann, 1997) because in this basin no synsedimentary compressional deforma¬
tion was observed.
Lavenu et al. (1995a) reported the results of a stress inversion analysis to support
their strike-slip model and their idea of a clockwise rotation of the compressive stresses
from the Early to the Late Miocene in all basins. Detailed chronostratigraphy (this work,
Hungerbuhler et al., 1995, Steinmann, 1997) shows clearly that most of the basins were
formed in the early Middle Miocene in a dominantly extensional regime. Their sediments
cover a range from 15 to 8 Ma, except for the short-lived Nabon basin which was active
from 8.5 to 7.9 Ma. Therefore, no Lower Miocene sediments are present in the basins
which could have recorded the stress regime during this epoch as suggested by Noblet et
al. (1988), Baudino et al. (1994) and Lavenu et al. (1995).

Generally, the temporal grouping of stress fields by Lavenu et al. (1995) based on a
separation of different populations was highly hypothetical and lacks any stratigraphic
control. Moreover, the regional fault pattern in southern Ecuador is very complex. Cashman
and Ellis (1994) suggested that in such areas multiple slip vectors can be generated by the
same event and may reflect local stress states. The stress inversion method assumes that
regional stress fields are homogeneous. Pollard et al. (1993) showed that regional stress
fields may be strongly perturbated by local factors which must be considered. However,
the zircon fission-track data (this work, Hungerbuhler et al., 1995, Steinmann, 1997) from
units interpreted to be of identical age (Lavenu et al., 1995a) and from which these authors
reported microtectonic measurements revealed to be of variable age. In particular, we
observe that Lavenu et al. (1995a) attempted to compensate the lack of proper stratigraphic
correlation by hazardous grouping of structure oriented data, assuming their coeval gen¬
eration. However, close inspection of their structural data reveals that the applied group¬
ing crosses different age ranges and is therefore insignificant.

The structural data and the different timing of the extensional and compressional
deformation is not compatible with either the strike-slip or the tectonic compressive con¬
tinuum model as proposed by Noblet et al. (1988). Strike-slip movement may have oc¬
curred to some extend after 8 Ma along newly formed faults and possibly also along older
reactivated structures. The slickenslide measurements presented by Lavenu et al. (1995a)

might correlate with wrench fault activity which, however, must be younger than the basin
fill series.
5.6. SUMMARY OF BASIN FORMATION AND DEFORMATION DURING THE
LATE TERTIARY
During the Neogene, two different stages of basin evolution were separated by a
regional compressive event at around 9-8 Ma. In the Middle Miocene, several basins de¬
veloped by extension in southern Ecuador, normal to the active margin. The sedimentary
facies and paleontological data suggest a coastal plain environment with periodic marine
transgressions from the west into the Cuenca and Loja Embayments, which existed from
15 to 11 Ma. During and after the Late Miocene, sedimentation continued in smaller
intermontane basins and during compressional deformation. The resulting syntectonic
coarse elastics rest with angular unconformity on the coastal, deltaic and fluvial deposits.
The maximum shortening direction was roughly E-W. Most of the basin margins were
affected by thrusting and reverse faulting. The new intermontane basins covered about the
same areas as the present morphological depressions. The short-lived Nabon basin (8.5 to
7.9 Ma, Hungerbuhler et al., 1995) formed during this time. During the short regional
compressional event, surface uplift occurred as evidenced by the change from a coastal to
an intermontane sedimentary setting at around 9 Ma. From 8 Ma onward, the Cordillera
Real developed a continuous topographic barrier. A first strong input of sediments from
the west in the area of Giron-Santa Isabel at around 9 Ma marks coeval uplift of the
Cordillera Occidental. The prominent uplift of the Cordillera Occidental at around 8 Ma
was also well documented in the sediments of the Cuenca basin by Steinmann (1997) by
provenance trends and an apatite fission-track smdy. The uplift of the two Cordilleras with
respect to the adjacent areas was mainly accommodated by reverse faulting.
The regional extensive accumulation of thick deltaic and estuarine facies (1000 to
4800 m) requires strong subsidence rates for sediment accommodation. This is in line
with the extensional tectonic regime which affected the entire coastal area of southern
Ecuador including the Manabi and Progreso basins. In a few basins (Giron-Santa Isabel,
Loja) the synsedimentary activity of normal faults can be proven by wedging geometry of
the basin fills. However, the normal faults themselves were only preserved in the Giron-
Santa Isabel basin, and in the other basins, the normal faults are not exposed because of
inversion during later compression. The resulting reverse and thrust faults dominate the
today's tectonic pattern. This thrust activity resulted in the formation of smaller basins
during the compression.

Chapter 6 123 Late Tertiary paleogeography
6. Late Tertiary paleogeographic and tectonic evolution in

southern Ecuador
The identification of a coastal environment in the basins of southern Ecuador infers
a different paleogeographic setting than earlier assumed. This chapter attempts in a first
step to compare the basinal facies in the southern Ecuadorian Sierra with that of coeval
basin series in the adjacent regions: to the west with the forearc basins in the Costa area
(Manabi, Progreso, Jambelf-Tumbez) and to the east with the Ecuadorian Oriente. In a
second step the ostracod data and other paleontological information from the Miocene
basins series in southern Ecuador are compared with data from contemporaneous sediments
in the upper Amazon region of northeastern Peru and southeastern Colombia. This corre¬
lation allows to integrate the data from Ecuador into existing paleogeographic reconstruc¬
tions for the Miocene in northwestern South America. The presence of a marine connec¬
tion between the Pacific Ocean and the Oriente of Ecuador in the region of Loja (Vilcabamba
Inlet) is discussed. The occurrence of ostracods and molluscs known from the Caribbean
and the upper Amazon region allow to make some speculation on faunal migration.
Because of dextral strike-slip movement along the Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear
(DGM) the coastal domain was displaced since the Middle Miocene with respect to the
Andean domain. A palinspastic reconstruction of the paleogeographic situation allows to
constrain the timing of dextral strike-slip activity along the DGM. Finally, an overview of
the Late Tertiary uplift history of southern Ecuador is presented and compared with pub¬
lished Andean uplift data in Colombia and northern Peru.
6.1. CORRELATIONS WITH THE COSTA AND ORIENTE OF ECUADOR
The depositional environments and the stratigraphic nomenclature of Miocene to
Pliocene units in the Costa and Oriente of Ecuador are summarised in Table 6.1. and
compared with the evolution stages of the Miocene basins in the southern Sierra.
6.1.1. Ecuadorian Costa
During the Miocene four shallow marine forearc basins formed in the Costa domain
which were separated by submarine and subaerial ridges (Fig. 6.1 A, Marks, 1951, Baldock,
1982). In these basins very thick sequences were deposited and from north to south the
following basins can be distinguished: Esmeraldas (fill of 4 km), Manabi (4 km), Progreso
(5 km) and Jambeli-Tumbez (12 km). The Progreso and the Manabi basins were separated
by a NW-SE trending ridge along the present day Chongon-Colonche hills (Fig. 6.1 A,
Marks, 1951). South of the Progreso basin, in the area of the Jambeli Channel and the Gulf
of Guayaquil lies the Jambeli-Tumbez basin.
The Manabi, Progreso and Jambeli-Tumbez basins are discussed in more detail and
it is shown that their facies evolution can be linked with the depositional environment in
the Cuenca Embayment or in the Loja Embayment. The stratigraphic subdivision and age
ranges of Whittaker (1988) and Benitez et al. (1986) for forearc basins are used for the
correlation.
Costa southern
Jambeli-Tumbez Oriente
Manabi basin Sierra
Progreso basin basin w W
o
Canoa Fm (40m)
u
c
o—
Jagoonal Puna Fm Mesa Fm (1000m)- -
o Jama Fm (50m) i
o ,
litoral-sublitoral litoral-estuanne (alluvial fan system
denved from the W)
~~
Bahia Fm (300m)
(>1000m)
-}:
jntertidal
Guayacan
inner shelf
Fm (eoom) O
<°
T
alluvial fan Chambira Fm
Choconcha Fm (300m c and fluvial
fan, fluvial
alluvial
inner shelf-brackish § systems (denved from W)
Progreso Fm
volcanic arc
i £ (1500m)
Portoviejo Fm (800m) deltaic-estuanne
upper bathyal (12000m)
<d—
hiatus
4: 9="
Arajuno Fm
<D Progreso Fm (2700m) «E lagoonal fluvial
shallow manne-brackish deltaic
<ScB ;iooom)^Curaray Fm
°
5 Subibaja Mb it fluvial lagoonal, estuarine
shelf (750m)
.8S> <.
Tosagua Fm < DosBocas Fm

volcanic arc
Villmgota Mb (esom) Chalcana Fm
upper bathyal-nertttc
with minor
(1000m) shallow manne-shore fluvial'
fluvial
San Augustin Fm Dos Bocas Mb.(2400m) (1000m)
shorezone nentic
reworking
Quinara,
Zapotal Mb.(300m) Santa Isabel,
shelf-nearshore Saraguro Fms
Table 6.1. Correlation chart of depositional facies in the southern Ecuadorian basins (this work
and Steinmann, 1997) with formations and facies in paleogeographically adjacent basins along the
Pacific coast (Marks, 1951, Baldock, 1982, Bem'tez, 1986a, b, Whittaker, 1988) and in the Amazo¬
nian foreland basin (Oriente, Tschopp, 1953, Baldock, 1982). The basins in the coastal area repre¬
sented the continuation of the Cuenca and Loja Embayments. During die Late Miocene, deposi¬
tion occurred in separate systems and intermontane settings were established in the Sierra. The
numbers in brackets indicate the thickness of the individual formations. Note that die Sierra basins
were for most of the time separated from the Oriente basin by the Cordillera Real. A short-lived
connection only occurred via the narrow Vilcabamba Inlet.
During the Middle Miocene open marine conditions (Tosagua Fm., Table 6.1) pre¬
vailed in the Manabi basin (Whittaker, 1988) and its eastern shallow marine continuation
can be seen first in the San Augustin Formation and then in the domain of the Cuenca
Embayment (Table 6.1, Steinmann, 1997). The unconformably overlying Upper Miocene
formations of the Manabi basin reveal a shallowing upward trend (Whittaker, 1988), which
correlates with the increasingly fluvial deposition in the Cuenca basin (Steinmann, 1997).
The shallowing of the Manabi basin during the Late Miocene and its subsequent fill in the
Pliocene (Whittaker, 1988) are most likely caused by the uplift of the Cordillera Occidental
in the west. The highly volcaniclastic composition of the Upper Miocene Portoviejo For¬
mation (800 m thick, Whittaker, 1988) correlates well with the strong volcanic activity in
the Andean domain during this period. The eruption centres were situated north of Nabon
towards Ambato and this region was the source area for the Portoviejo Formation in the
Manabi basin.
The Villingota Member of a latest Early Miocene age and some parts of the Progreso
Formation (Middle Miocene) contain volcanic material (Baldock, 1982). These sediments
were most likely derived from the volcanic zone in the southernmost Sierra which is docu¬
mented by the lower Middle Miocene pyroclastic Quinara Formation and the numerous
volcanic intercalations in the overlying basin fill series of Middle Miocene age. Above, in
the Progreso basin, an erosional unconformity and hiatus are observed in the top of the
uppermost Lower Miocene series, which are followed by a Middle Miocene transgression
(Progreso Fm., Table 6.1, Kenneriey, 1980). Likewise, in the region of the Loja Embayment
a Middle Miocene transgression occurred after a long Late OUgocene to latest Early Miocene
hiatus. Then, the Progreso Formation shows a trend from shallow marine to estuarine-
supratidal conditions (Table 6.1, Whittaker, 1988) with a very poor foraminifera fauna in
the top, suggesting a sernimarine to brackish-water habitat (Thalmann, 1946). The coeval
ostracod faunas in the Loja Embayment indicate also a restricted environment, and ac¬
cording to the sedimentary facies, lagoonal-deltaic conditions prevailed.

The entire Progreso and parts of the Manabi basin were filled in the Late Miocene and
became emergent in the Early Pliocene (Benitez, 1986a, Whittaker, 1988). The closure
and reduction of these two basins coincides with the rise of the Andean domain to the east,
in particular the Cordillera Occidenta. It supplied mainly volcaniclastic material to the
forearc basins. After the Late Miocene uplift event (9-8 Ma), the coastal and Andean do¬
mains formed separated depositional environments. In the Andes, intermontane condi¬
tions prevailed and in the Costa area deposition occurred at least since the Early Phocene
(Baldock, 1982) close to the western flank of the uplifted Cordillera Occidental. In the
southern Costa, the Guayas basin (west of the city of Guayaquil, Fig. 5.1) was formed and
filled with lagoonal and predominantly fluvial and alluvial fan material (Baldock, 1982)
derived from the Cordillera Occidental to the east. The 3000 m thick fill (Baldock, 1982)
indicates most likely a second uplift event of the Cordillera Occidental, which is evi¬
denced by apatite fission-track data in the Cuenca region and started at around 4 Ma
(Steinmann, 1997).
The depositional evolution of the Jambeli-Tumbez forearc basin (Fig. 6. IB) is less
well known, because it is situated offshore in the actual Gulf of Guayaquil, and the exist¬
ing oil exploration data are not available. The basin consists of several E-W and NE-SW
trending graben structures which are controlled by the DGM (Shepherd and Moberly,
1981). Benitez (1986b) suggested an opening of the basin at the transition from the Mid¬
dle to the Late Miocene and deposition continues up the Recent (Progreso and Puna Fms,
Table 6.1). The Jambeli-Tumbez basin formation is younger than the other forearc basins
to the north, which subsided during the Early Miocene. Exposures on Isla Puna in the Gulf
of Guayaquil belong partly to uplifted Jambelf graben fill. There, current indicators infer a
southern provenance (Garcia and Vilema, 1986) of the uppermost Middle and Late Miocene
deposits. Benitez (1986b) suggested that from the latest Middle Miocene on, the sediment
provenance pattern in the basin was the same as observed today, with input from the N and
NE. The source for the up to 12 km thick basin fill series was most likely the rising Cordillera
Occidental in the northeast. This interpretation infers that the Jambeli-Tumbez basin was
situated during its opening at around the same latitude as today.

The western continuation of the Cuenca and Loja Embayments are represented, as
discussed earlier, by the Manabi, respectively the Progreso basins. However, these two
basins in the west were dextrally displaced with respect to their eastern counterparts. This
dextral displacement occurred in the Late Miocene along the DGM, which separates the
coastal from the Andean domain. A palinspastic reconstruction in Chapter 6.3. shows a
conected paleogeographic configuration for the Middle Miocene and allows to constrain
the timing of the displacement of the coastal block towards the north along the DGM.
Fig. 6.1. Proposed palinspastic reconstruction for southern Ecuador.

A) shows the reconstruction
for the Middle Miocene when the Cuenca and Loja Embayments were connected with the Manabi
and Progreso basins, respectively. B) At the beginning of the Late Miocene (at around 9 Ma) the
Jambeli-Tumbez basin was formed as younger pull-apart structure by continued northward move¬
ment of about 100 km along the Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear. It is assumed that the onset of
uplift of the Cordillera Occidental (at 9 Ma) and the compressional deformation in southern Ecua¬
dor (basin inversion, at 9-8 Ma) coincided with the start of the formation of the Jambelf-Tumbez
basin. Abbreviations: ChC (Chongdn-Colonche High), CE (Cuenca Embayment), DGM (Dolores-
Guayaquil Megashear), JF (Jubones fault), JTB (Jambelf-Tumbez basin), LE (Loja Embayment),
MB (Manabf basin), PI (Playas High), PB (Progreso basin), SE (Santa Elena High), SS (Santa
Rosa-Saraguro High), Vi (Vilcabamba Inlet).

Middle Miocene Mama j

(15-11 Ma) /"""^
-
Pacific Ocean
.,
Vilcabamba
.fcTalara
5°--
81° 80° 79°
'
Late Miocene
(post 9 Ma)
environments:
1111 intermontane basins
\. /\ continental facies
coastal Pacific
Hill lagoonal,
deltaic facies coastal
marginal stage
j | open to
marine facies
| | no Miocene deposits
preserved
direction of marine
i
1
^
ingressions
— sediment input from
alluvial flow indicators
j_1°Xj_ topographic high

h'9h
(mountain regions)
-j«_ normal fault
-A_ reverse or thrust fault
81° 80°

6.1.2. Ecuadorian Oriente
The Oriente represents the easternmost region of Ecuador which is part of the Ama¬
zonian catchment. Its western limit is formed by the Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt
where east-directed overthrusting of the Cordillera Real occuned. The lithology and age
ranges of the Tertiary units in the Oriente are not well known, because oil exploration
focuses mostly on Cretaceous series. Tschopp's (1953) excellent description is still the
completest summary of the Ecuadorian Oriente which treats also with the Tertiary sediments.
At least since the Maastrichtian, the Oriente is part of the Amazonian foreland basin which
formed by downbending of the lithosphere induced by overthrusting of the Cordillera
Real onto the Guayana shield (Baldock, 1982). The variable input of terrigenous sediments
from the west and deposition of marine-brackish sediments are controlled by uplift and
erosional events in the Cordillera Real and eustatic sea-level changes during the Tertiary.
Marine transgressions from the Pacific Ocean occurred along narrow inlets (e.g. Vilcabamba
Inlet) across the evolving Cordillera Real, until the end of the Middle Miocene. This sub¬
ject is discussed in more detail in the following.

The Curaray Formation consists of well bedded coaly black clays, locally with gyp¬
sum, fine-grained sandstones, tuffaceous intercalations and lignitic horizons (Tschopp,

1953). The lithology and the sedimentary facies show a close similarity with the San Jose,
Santo Domingo and San Cayetano Formations of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba and Loja
basins series. Tschopp (1953) mentioned in the Curaray Formation (Table 6.1) the pres¬
ence of ostracods, foraminifera, molluscs, fish remains, turtles, crocodile teeth and bones,
charophytes and vertebrates. The fauna infers brackish-water conditions (Tschopp, 1953)
and possibly indicates a lagoonal to estuarine environment (see also, Baldock, 1982). The
age of the Curaray Formation is not exactly known but a Miocene (Table 6.1, Tschopp,
1953) or even Late Miocene age (Baldock, 1982) was assumed. A few samples from the
type locality of the Curaray Formation in the central eastern part of the Orient were exam¬
ined by Dawn Peterson (pers. comm., 1997) and yielded rich associations of marine, es¬
tuarine and non-marine ostracods. Prehminary identifications of the marine and estuarine
species (Dawn Peterson, pers. comm., 1997) show some affinities with Middle Miocene
forms, known from the Gulf of Mexico. Bristow and Hoffstetter (1977) reported the oc¬
currence of an ostracod from the Curaray Formation, which is very similar to
Vetustocytheridea bristowi van den Bold, 1976. This species is found in the Loyola For¬
mation (Middle Miocene, Steinmann, 1997) in the Cuenca Basin (Bristow and Parodiz,
1982, Peterson et al., in prep.). According to this datum a Middle Miocene age for the
Curaray Formation may be assumed and this unit is therefore most likely contemporane¬
ous with the Middle Miocene series exposed in the basins in southern Ecuador.
The Curaray Formation is confined to the eastern Oriente and interfingers to the
west with the proximal freshwater Arajuno Formation (Table 6.1, Tschopp, 1953, Baldock,
1982). A Miocene (Tschopp, 1953) and more specifically, a Late Miocene age (Baldock,
1982) was suggested for the Arajuno Formation. However, based on the above mentioned
data a Middle Miocene age may be possible. The Curaray and Arajuno Formations con¬
tain tuffs and bentonites (Tschopp, 1953) indicating contemporaneous explosive volcanic
activity. The volcanic centres were most likely situated in the Andean domain to the west,
in the region between Loja and Cuenca, as documented by Middle Miocene pyroclastic
rocks in this area (Quinara, Santa Isabel Formations) and numerous volcanic intercala¬
tions in the basin fill series. The Middle Miocene marine deposits of the Loja Embayment
lie today only about 50 km west of coeval brackish facies units in the Oriente. This prox¬
imity of the Miocene Pacific coast line suggests that the marine-brackish fauna in the
Curaray Formation may have been introduced by marine ingressions from the west. The
presence of a connection (Vilcabamba Inlet) between the Loja Embayment and the Oriente
basin, prior to the Late Miocene uplift of the Cordillera Real (9-8 Ma) is thus very likely,
allowing for faunal migration from the Loja Embayment to the Oriente during the Middle
Miocene. Facies and thickness trends in the Arajuno Formation (Tschopp, 1953) suggest
that the main sediment source was situated in the Proto-Cordillera Real between the lati¬
tudes of Quito and Cuenca. The lack of clastic input to the Oriente, south of Cuenca,
argues for a low relief in this part of the Andean domain and the non-existence of a topo¬
graphic barrier south of Gualaquiza (Fig. 6.1 A) during the Middle Miocene.
Fig. 6.2. Paleogeographic maps of northwestern South America for the Middle and Late Miocene.
A) During the Middle Miocene the entire upper Amazon region was flooded by episodic marine
incursions entering from the Caribbean Sea at the area of the present Lake of Maracaibo (Hoorn et
al., 1995). A second seaway at the latitude of Guayaquil (Guayaquil Seaway) is proposed in the
present study, which connected the Pacific Ocean with the Ecuadorian Oriente. B) Andean uplift
events in the Late Miocene closed the seaways and a continental environment was established in
the upper Amazon region. Sources: Ecuador (this work, Steinmann, 1997), Colombia, Venezuela,
Brazil (Nuttall, 1990, Hoorn et al., 1995), Central America (Duque-Caro, 1990, Collins et al.,
1996). Abbreviations: CC (Cordillera Central), ChC (Chong6n-Colonche hills), CM (Cordillera
Merida), CO (CordiUera Occidental, Western C), Con (Cordillera Condor), CPV (Cauca-Patia
Valley), CR (Cordillera Real, Eastern C), Cu (Cordillera Cutucu), EC (Eastern Cordillera), GG
(Gulf of Guayaquil), GS (Guayaquil Seaway), HA (Huancabamba Andes), IV (Inter-Andean Val¬
ley), LM (Lake Maracaibo), MV (Magdalena Valley), Na (Napo uplift), PCO (Proto-Cordillera
Occidental), SM (Santander massif), SN (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta), SP (Sierra de Perija),
WC (Western Cordillera).
Middle Miocene Caribbean
,
Caracas
Brazilian
/shield *
AX a
200 400 600 kilometers
IX I Precambrian shields
depositional environments mountainous regions

I | continental
,
direction of marine
gill estuarine, brackish, transgressions

continental sediment transport direction
basement archs
I I marginal to open marine
submarine barriers

The Arajuno and Curaray Formations are possibly unconformably overlain by the
Chambira Formation (Tschopp, 1953, Table 6.1). The Chambira Formation consists of
alluvial fan deposits which were derived from the Cordillera Real to the west and has a
Late Miocene to Pliocene age (Tschopp, 1953). The Chambira Formation represents a
coarsening upward alluvial fan sequence (Tschopp, 1953) and is contemporaneous with
the alluvial fan evolution during the Late Miocene intermontane stage in the Loja and
Malacatos-Vilcabamba basins (Cerro Mandango and Quillollaco Formations). The pres¬
ence of syntectonic alluvial fan facies on both sides of the Cordillera Real (Table 6.1)
indicates the rise of this mountain chain. The timing of the regional compressive deforma¬
tion, the marine regression and the alluvial fan deposits in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba
basin suggest an onset of uplift at around 9 Ma. The tuffaceous sandstones and bentonitic
clays in the Chambira Formation (Tschopp, 1953) indicate some reworking of volcanic
material which must have been derived from the Miocene volcanic zone in the Sierra of
Ecuador.
The ages of the Upper Tertiary formations in the Oriente basins are mainly based on
regional correlations, indeed. However, it may be reasonably concluded that during the
Middle Miocene marine-brackish-continental conditions prevailed in the Oriente (Curaray

and Arajuno Formation) contemporaneous with similar depositional environments in the
Loja and Cuenca Embayments to the west. The transition to a pure continental environ¬
ment in the Oriente (Chambira Formation) occurred contemporaneously with the main
Andean uplift in the Late Miocene (9-8 Ma) and the onset of intermontane deposition in
the basins of the southern Ecuadorian Sierra.
6.1.3. Northern and central Sierra of Ecuador
The Chota basin north of Quito (Fig. 6.2), in the northernmost Sierra of Ecuador, is
the only exposure of sediments which possibly can be correlated with the Miocene basin
fills series in southern Ecuador. However, age and depositional environment of the 2400
m thick series are not at all clear. Several volcanic rocks in the area have been dated at
6.31±0.1, 6.3010.06 and 3.65±0.07 Ma (K-Ar, Barberi et al., 1988). According to Egiiez
and Beate (1992) and Barragan et al. (1996) they overlie the Chota basin series. However,
Barberi et al. (1988) considered the volcanic rocks with ages around 6 Ma as to belong to
the basement of the Chota basin. Bristow and Parodiz (1982) reported the presence of a
gastropod species from the basal fill in the Chota basin. Nuttall (1990) revised their iden¬
tification and proposed the occurrence of Liris sp., which is a Neogene taxon indicating
either brackish or freshwater conditions. Barragan et al. (1996) introduced a new
stratigraphic subdivision of the Chota basin series and suggested a continental intermontane
setting. Hence, the knowledge on the age and depositional environment of the Chota basin
is rather preliminary.
Elsewhere in the Inter-Andean valley, between Quito and Alausi the sediments are
mainly volcaniclastic and of a latest Miocene to Pliocene age resting unconformably on
Oligocene and older volcanic rocks (Macuchi, Huigra, Moraspamba Formations, Lavenu
et al., 1995b, 1996). Lavenu et al. (1995b) suggested the existence of one large compres¬
sional interarc basin between Quito and Alausi forming the present Inter-Andean valley,
which they characterised as push-down basin, bounded by reverse faults. In contrast, oth¬
ers workers interpreted the Inter-Andean depression as a graben which is bounded by

normal faults (e.g. Hall and Wood, 1985, Tibaldi and Ferrari, 1992). Radiometric age
determinations of volcaniclastic rocks which fill the Inter-Andean valley suggested that
subsidence started at around 10 Ma (Lavenu et al., 1996) which would more or less cor¬
respond to the 9 to 8 Ma regional compressional event documented in the southern Ecua¬
dorian Sierra (Steinmann, 1997, this work).

Well dated Middle Miocene deposits are exposed in the region of Alausi (Steinmann,
1997). Further to the north, between Alausi and Quito, there are no Middle Miocene
sediments known (Lavenu et al., 1996). Their lack suggests that during the Middle Miocene
the central part of the Siena was a topographic high, where erosion predominated. Depo¬
sition of mainly volcaniclastics started in the northern and central Sierra in the Late Miocene,
coeval with the uplift of the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Real.
6.2. REGIONAL CORRELATION OF FAUNAL AND ECOLOGICAL DATA IN
NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA
Several ostracod, mollusc and crab species found in the Miocene basins of southern
Ecuador are also known from the upper Amazon region and the Caribbean domain. There
are two possibilities to explain the presence of marine and brackish faunas in regions
which are situated today in a continental domain far away from the sea: (1) Faunal migra¬
tion by marine ingressions via estuaries, inlets and transcontinental seaways, as discussed
in Chapter 6.2.1., or (2) introduction of marine-brackish species in the egg stage by avian
transport, which is discussed in Chapter 6.2.2.
6.2.1. Evidence for seaways
During the last decades of paleontologic research in northern South America evi¬
dence was accumulated for marin/brackish incursions covering considerable areas of the
continent in the Miocene. It appeared that the upper Amazon region was partly covered by
estuarine systems. Different ecologic interpretations of the faunal association and propos¬
als for the location of marine connections were offered. In particular, there are different
opinions regarding the location of marine seaways connecting the Amazon basin to the
Caribbean Sea, the Pacific or Atlantic ocean.
Sheppard and Bate (1980) described ostracod faunas in the upper Amazon region
from the localities Pebas (NE Peru) and La Tagua (SE Colombia, Fig. 6.2A) and sug¬
gested a brackish/lagoonal environment of deposition. However, these authors assumed a
Pliocene age of the faunas, as did also Purper (1977) when investigating ostracods in drill
cores in NW Brazil at Leticia and Sao Paulo de Olivenca west of the Pebas outcrop site
(Fig. 6.2A). This author also reported the presence of brackish and freshwater faunal asso¬
ciations. The recorded ostracod associations are dominated by Cyprideis and Cyteridea
species. Hoorn (1993) could correlate these faunas with the Middle Miocene. In a prelimi¬
nary smdy of the faunas in the Middle Miocene Curaray Formation of the Amazonian
foreland basin series in Ecuador, Dawn Peterson (pers. comm., 1997) found a very similar
faunal association as at Pebas, La Tagua, Leticia and Sao Paulo de Olivenca. The Curaray
Fm. is known to contain foraminifera (Ammobaculites, Sigmoilina, Polystomella, Rotalia,
Tschopp, 1953). Hoorn (1994b) reported also the presence of microforaminifera
(Protoelphidium, Trochammina, Ammodiscus, Haplophragmoides) from several Middle
Miocene deposits in NE Peru. Nuttall (1990) provided an excellent summary of the Late
Tertiary mollusc faunas in northwestern South America. He also deduced a brackish environ¬
ment for the Amazon area in NE Peru, western Brazil and SE Colombia for all Late Terti¬
ary faunas. Interestingly, he noted that some molluscan species and several molluscan
genera from the Cuenca basin also occur in the faunal associations of Pebas, La Tagua and
Puerto Narino in the Amazon region, as well as in the localities La Mugrosa and La Cira in
the Magdalena Valley of Colombia (Fig. 6.2A). Nuttall (1990) revised also the fauna which
was described by Bristow and Parodiz (1982) from the Miocene basins in the southern
Sierra of Ecuador. He recognised the brackish-water mollusc genera Pachydon and Litis
and the marine genera Neritina in the Cuenca basin which are also found in the upper
Amazon region, the Magdalena Valley sequence in Colombia and in northern Venezuela
(Nuttall, 1990, Fig. 6.2A). Despite of the observed faunal resemblance he did not consider
a marine connection between the Cuenca basin with the upper Amazon region and Carib¬
bean Sea, respectively. However, such a connection is also suggested by other faunal evi¬
dence. The crab Necronectes proavitus Rathbun (1919) which occurs in the Loyola For¬
mation of the Cuenca basin (Bristow and Parodiz, 1982) is also known from the Middle
Miocene of the Caribbean region (Collins and Morris, 1976). The ostracod species Cyprideis
stephensoni Sandberg (1964) and Cyprideis sp. aff. C. ovata (Mincher) van den Bold 1973
recognised in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin are present in Middle Miocene strata of the
Caribbean domain and Lousiana coast (van den Bold, 1976). Moreover, the gastropod
Dyris tricarinata (Boettger) present in the Loja basin (Nuttall, 1990) is well known in the
upper Amazon region of Peru and Colombia (La Tagua and Pebas, Fig. 6.2 A). These faunal
correlations document not only biogeographic links but suggest also contemporaneity of
the Middle Miocene strata in southern Ecuador and the Amazon basin (Hoorn, 1993,1994a,
b, Hoorn et al., 1995). This is in line with our zircon fission-track data in the basins of
southern Ecuador.
Sheppard and Bate (1980) explained the presence of these marginal marine faunal
associations in the upper Amazon region by periodic transgressions from the Atlantic Ocean.
In the view of Hoorn et al. (1995) this was not possible, because during the Miocene,
several basement arches acting as drainage divides in the Amazon area should have shel¬
tered the area from the Atlantic (Fig. 6.2A). Instead, they proposed that the upper Amazon
region was flooded by a seaway entering from the Caribbean Sea at the area of the present
day Lake of Maracaibo. A second seaway along the Magdalena Valley in the early Andean
chain was suggested by Campbell (1970) and Nuttall (1990, Fig. 6.2A). According to
Campbell (1970) the connection along the Magdalena Valley entered the Ecuadorian and
Colombian Oriente in the area of Mocoa (Fig. 6.2B) and was closed during the Late
Miocene.
Very early, Katzer (1903) had already postulated the presence of a marine seaway
between the Pacific Ocean and the Amazon basin. He called it the Marafion Portal which
he thought to have crossed the early Andean chain in northwestern Peru. With this hypoth¬
esis he postulated that the Amazon River first drained into the Pacific Ocean and later was
deviated to the Atlantic Ocean. This interesting opinion found support by other investiga¬
tions as reviewed by Nuttall (1990, p. 350-355), who introduced the name Guayaquil
Portal. Our faunal and sedimentological results from southern Ecuador appear to confirm
the earlier hypothesis in documenting a shallow marine environment in the Loja Embayment
and along the Vilcabamba Inlet which could have connected the Pacific Ocean with the
Amazon region during the Middle Miocene (15-11 Ma, Fig. 6.2A). Possibly there existed
other shallow marine seaways further to the north in the area of the Cuenca Embayment,
and to the south in northern Peru, which together with the Loja Embayment, may be grouped
under the general term Guayaquil Seaway. Later tectonic deformation and uplift in the
Andes dated with 9-8 Ma in the southern Ecuadorian Sierra may have interrupted this
Pacific connection. Contemporaneously, the connections with the Caribbean Sea in Co¬
lombia and Venezuela were closed by uplift of the Andean Cordilleras (Hoorn et al., 1995)
and a continental environment developed in the upper Amazon region (Fig. 6.2B).
6.2.2. Discussion of marine seaways versus avian transport of faunas

The concept of avian transport infers that marine and brackish species can be em-
placed in continental environments as in high salinity lakes without any connection with
the sea. Several studies in Quaternary lakes of northern Africa (Gasse et al., 1987, Plaziat,
1991) revealed the presence of marine to estuarine species (molluscs, ostracods and
foraminifera) in continental high salinity lakes. According to these authors, the marine-
brackish fauna was transported by birds to the lake systems, which are located as much as
500 km from the Sea. Spencer and Patchett (1997) proposed for Late Miocene to Pliocene
marine-brackish faunas in the lower Colorado River system (western edge of the Colo¬
rado Plateau) a similar process. Strontium isotope measurements did not indicate mixing
of fresh and sea water and therefore, the marine-brackish fauna association may have been
transported by birds over a distance of 15 to 60 km from the Gulf of California. These
species successfully colonised the lakes, because appropriate salinity condition may have
prevailed.
These examples show that regional dispersal of marine-brackish species may occur
by other processes than by migration along seaways. However, in the southern Ecuadorian
basins and in the upper Amazon region the avian dispersal as major migration mechanism
may be ruled out from the following arguments:
(1) The marine to brackish Middle Miocene faunal associations in the Colombian,
Peruvian and Brazilian lowland sites are found in deposits which contain typical
sedimentological features of marine influence such as flaser structures and hummocky
bedding (Hoorn, 1994b). In addition, the sediments yielded marine palynomorphs,
foraminifera and mangrove pollen (Hoorn, 1994b) suggesting episodic marine influence.
Sheppard and Bate (1980) reported the presence of a deeper water marine ostracod
(Paracypris) in Miocene deposits in Pebas and excluded therefore avian transport.
(2) Sedimentological evidence for deposition of the southern Ecuadorian sediment
series along the Pacific coast were presented above. In addition, the observations that the
Western Cordillera was not yet (fully) developed in the Middle Miocene is compatible
with a marine migration of the faunas from the west and if avian transport was important
at all, it should have worked also later, during the intermontane stage. There is no evi¬
dence for this.
It can be reasonably concluded that the Middle Miocene brackish-marine fauna observed
in the southern Ecuadorian basins, in the Amazon region and Magdalena Valley were
introduced along seaways and inlets. The flooding may have been partly driven by pre¬
vailing high global sealevel during the Middle Miocene (Haq et al., 1988). However, tec¬
tonic forcing of different kind most likely has favoured the presence of marine incursions.
The discussion of tectonic processes in the Amazon basin is out of the scope of the present
work. With regard to the southern Ecuadorian basins it appears evident, that the formation
of marine embayments and inlets coincides with a period of general extension along the
Pacific margin.
The discussion about the origin of the marine-brackish fauna in the Amazon region
from the Caribbean or Pacific domain is somewhat semantic, because the Panama Isthmus
did not yet form a divide between these domains. The Isthmus was closed between 3.7 to
3.1 Ma (Duque-Caro, 1990). Therefore, one can agree with Nuttall (1990) who stated that
the marine taxa could have entered the upper Amazon basin either or both from the Pacific
and Caribbean Sea.
6.3. PALINSPASTIC RECONSTRUCTION FOR THE MIDDLE MIOCENE IN
SOUTHERN ECUADOR
Earlier paleogeographic reconstructions of the Miocene basins in southern Ecuador
were based on the assumption that the basinal areas remained more or less stable through¬
out their evolution. However, it must be accounted for that the forearc basins of Manabi,
and Progreso (which match with the southern Ecuadorian basins, Chapter 6.1.1.) were
displaced along the DGM towards the NNE. These basins were formed in a large pull-
apart structure connecting the subduction zone of Peru with the transpressi ve intracontinental
DGM (Fig. 6.1). Shepherd and Moberly (1981) estimated a dextral displacement of the
coastal block of about 80 to 100 km with respect to the mainland. I estimated a similar
distance of displacement between the correlated basins of at least 100 km. The southern
margin of the Manabi basin is today simated about 100 km north of Cuenca and the Loja
and Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin areas lie today about 130 km south of the southern mar¬
gin of the Progreso basin. The palinspastic reconstruction for the Middle Miocene tries to
account for the predominant N-S displacement between the Coastal and Andean domains
(Fig. 6.1), and several assumptions are necessary: (1) The orientation of the controlling
faults is fixed, (2) no E-W shortening is included, (3) the N-S displacement along the
DGM is based on the width of the Progreso, respectively the Jambeli-Tumbez basins, (4)
no major rotation of blocks along vertical axis occurred, and (5) the location of Andean
domain remained fixed.
The palinspastic restoration of the Middle Miocene period (Fig. 6.1 A) juxtaposes
the Manabi basin with the Cuenca Embayment and the Progreso basin with the Loja
Embayment during the Middle Miocene Pacific coastal stage. The stratigraphic and sedi¬
mentary data from these basins are compatible with such a situation (see Chapter 6.1.1.).
The Chongon-Colonche High, which separated the Manabi basin from the Progreso basin,
conelates with the Santa Rosa-Saraguro High which existed between the Cuenca and Loja
Embayments. The predominandy deltaic series of the Cuenca basin during the Middle
Miocene, which is up to 4800m thick (Steinmann, 1997), accommodated the main part of
the terrigenous input. Coeval open marine deposits in the adjacent Manabi basin attain a
thickness of 1000 m and formed the seaward facies continuation of the Cuenca Embayment.
The up to 6000 m thick Progreso basin fill was partly derived from the west (Fig. 6.1 A,
Playas High, Marks, 1951, Benitez et al., 1986). The present paleogeographic reconstruc¬
tion (Fig. 6.1) shows that the region south (Huancabamba Andes) of the Progreso basin
was emerged during the Middle Miocene and most likely formed an additional source
area. The relatively thin Middle Miocene units in the Loja Embayment suggest that sedi¬
ment by-pass predominated there and that, large volumes of terrigenous material from the
east (Loja Embayment), the south (Huancabamba Andes), the west (Playas High) and the
north (Chongon-Colonche High) were deposited in the fast subsiding Progreso pull-apart
basin.
The Jambelf-Tumbez basin opened during the transition from the Middle to the Late
Miocene (Benitez, 1986b, Fig. 6.1B) when the Progreso and Manabi basins were moved
with the coastal block along the DGM. A northward displacement of the coastal block of
about 100 km (Fig. 6.IB) is estimated. The basin opening represents a major tectonic
event at the beginning of the Late Miocene which should also be recorded in the adjacent
Andean domain. According to the present data this conelates with the regional compressive
event in the Andean domain at around 9-8 Ma and the coeval surface uplift (see also
Steinmann, 1997). The scarce compositional data of the clastic sediments in the Progreso
and Jambeli-Tumbez basins support that: (1) The Lower Miocene units of the Progreso
basin consist of reworked material from underlying rocks (mainly Azucar Formation,
Benitez et al., 1986) which are exposed to the west of the basin and (2) the conglomerates
of the Upper Miocene to Pliocene Puna Formation in the Jambeli-Tumbez basin (Table
6.1) contain magmatic rocks (acidic to ultrabasic, Benitez, 1986b). This magmatic mate¬
rial implies that the rising Cordillera Occidental was the main source area (Fig. 6. IB).
Depositional geometries reconstructed from seismic lines (Benitez, 1986b) in the Jambelf-
Tumbez basin suggested also a sediment transport from NE to SW. Therefore, it can be
concluded that the start of the fill of this basin coincides with the uplift of the Cordillera
Occidental.
The dextral movement along the DGM may have induced the observed compres¬
sional deformation in the basins in the Andean domain (Fig. 6.1B). The indentation of the
northern part of the Amotape-Tahuin terrain into the Andean domain (Fig. 6. IB) along the
Jubones fault and west-vergent thrusting between Jubones and El Cisne (Fig. 6.2) oc-
cuned at the same time as indicated by the deformation of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin fill
(see Chapter 5).

On a much larger scale Dewey and Pindell (1985) constructed block vector dia¬
grams for the triangle of northwestern South America and deduced relative slip rates. This
triangle zone includes the coastal and andean regions of Ecuador and Colombia, the An¬
des of Merida in Venezuela and is delimited by the Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt to the
craton in the east. Their model suggests that the Cordilleran tenanes of Ecuador, Colom¬
bia and western Venezuela migrated about 100 km to the northeast with respect to a fixed
South America craton during the last 9 Ma. This different line of evidence shows that
since the Late Miocene considerable lateral movement have involved the northern An¬
dean domain, indeed.
6.4. LATE TERTIARY UPLIFT HISTORY OF THE SOUTHERN ECUADORIAN
ANDES AND CORRELATION WITH PERU AND COLOMBIA
6.4.1. Late Tertiary uplift in the southern Ecuadorian Andes
The uplift history of the southern Ecuadorian Andes can be reconstructed from the
Middle to Upper Miocene basin fill series in the Sierra and the larger regional evolution
(Costa, Sub-Andean zone, Oriente and upper Amazon basins). A first important observa¬
tion is that the Middle Miocene deltaic, lagoonal and coastal formations of the different
basin series are today simated in the highlands of Ecuador (the Sierra) at an altimde of
1000 to 3000 m above sealevel. This gives direct evidence for considerable surface uplift
since the end of coastal sedimentation stage in the Sierra at 9 Ma, in the early Late Miocene.
Such a major uplift event was supposed to have occuned from the Late Miocene to the
Early Pliocene (the Andean event) by Kenneriey (1980). The temporal conelation of this
event was derived from observations of the deformation in the Sub-Andean fold and thrust
belt (Tschopp, 1953, Campbell, 1970), because Miocene to Pliocene foreland basin series
are involved in the deformation. In the Sierra of southern Ecuador this event can be con¬
strained more precisely, as it coincides with the transition from the coastal Pacific to the
intermontane sedimentary stage at 9 Ma. Deformation and uplift are documented by the
formation of angular unconformities and progressive unconformities in the basins of
Catamayo-Gonzanama, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Loja, Giron-Santa Isabel (present work)

and Cuenca (Steinmann, 1997). The small Nabon basin (Hungerbiihler et al., 1995) formed
during the intermontane stage.
The data from the area of Loja-Malacatos-Vilcabamba suggest that until 11 Ma the
Cordillera Real formed a discontinuous low-relief mountain range which was crossed by
at least one nanow seaway connecting the Oriente and upper Amazon region with the
Pacific domain via the Vilcabamba Inlet. The area south of this seaway and west of
Gonzanama towards Alamor and Zapotillo (Fig. 6.1, Huancabamba Andes) possibly formed
during the Middle Miocene a topographic high, which is documented by sediment input
from the west in the area of Gonzanama and into the Jambeli-Tumbez basin from the
south. The Pacific connection with the Oriente and the upper Amazon region was closed at
around 9-8 Ma when the uplift of the Sierra, especially of the Cordillera Real started. This
uplift is evidenced by the regional compressive deformation event in the studied basins
and in the Sub-Andean zone, as well as by the onset of syntectonic coarse clastic supply
derived from the rising Cordillera Real and deposited on both sides (Fig. 6. IB). The thick¬
ness and the grain size of the Chambira Formation in the Oriente increase south of Macas
(Fig. 6.2,2° 20'S, Tschopp, 1953). These trends may have been induced by the upthrusting
of the Cumcu range in the Sub-Andean zone, which started to rise in the Late Miocene
(Campbell, 1970). Notably, this tectonic structure lies to the east of the Cuenca-Vilcabamba
region in the Siena. The formation of the Cumcu uphft could be coeval with the uplift of
the Cordillera Real and may have occuned at around 9-8 Ma.
During the Middle Miocene, the Cordillera Occidental in the Cuenca region did not
form a continuous positive relief, but allowing for marine incursions in the Cuenca
Embayment (Fig. 6.1 A, see Steinmann, 1997). A major uplift of the Cordillera Occidental
occurred in the Late Miocene at around 9 to 8 Ma, which is evidenced by several independant
observations: (1) The first sediment supply from the west in the Giron-Santa Isabel (this
work) and in the Cuenca basins (Steinmann, 1997) started at around 9 Ma, (2) at the same
time, a continental environment was established in the region of Cuenca (Steinmann, 1997),
(3) a regional compressive deformation event at around 9-8 Ma is evidenced by the timing
of angular unconformities in the Santa Isabel subbasin (this work) and similar data from
the Cuenca basin (Steinmann, 1997), and (4) thermal modeling of apatite fission-track
data documents a cooling event in the Cuenca basin series and adjacent Andean regions,
which started at around 8 Ma (Steinmann, 1997). The Cordillera Real east of Cuenca
formed throughout the entire Miocene a positive feature which is evidenced by the domi¬
nantly eastern provenance of the sediments (Steinmann, 1997). Thermal modeling of apa¬
tite fission-track parameters by Steinmann (1997) indicates that further uplift in Ecuador
started at 4 Ma.
6.4.2. Correlation with the Andean uplift history in Colombia and Peru
The Ecuadorian Cordillera Real is the continuation of the Colombian Cordillera
Central and the uplifts in the Sub-Andean zone of Ecuador form the southern prolongation
of the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia (Fig. 6.2A). The CordiUera Merida in western
Venezuela forms the northwestern continuation of the Colombian Eastern CordUlera.
In the Colombian Andes, the initiation of Late Tertiary uplift of the CordiUera Ori¬
ental occurred at around 12 Ma (Hoorn et al., 1995). Several regional studies conaborate
this finding: (1) facies and provenance studies combined with radiometric dating and
magnetostratigraphy in Neogene deposits in the Magdalena Valley (Fig. 6.2, e.g. Van der
Wiel, 1991, Flynn et al., 1993) document the appearance of the Eastern CordiUera as a
continuous range at about 12 Ma and further uplift of the Cordillera Central and Eastern
Cordillera at 10 Ma, (2) provenance and biostratigraphic data from the region of the
Cordillera Merida (Fig. 6.2A) suggest a Late Miocene uplift of this mountain chain (Hoorn
et al., 1995). This uplift closed most likely the Caribbean connection with the upper Ama¬
zon region. The transcontinental seaway from the Caribbean to the upper Amazon region,
with a southern connection to the Pacific via the Guayaquil Seaway predates the Late
Miocene Andean uplift. For the Ecuadorian Oriente, Campbell (1970) already postulated
that the Curaray Formation (lagoonal, brackish sediments) predated the Andean uplift.
Further uplift of the Colombian Andes is evidenced by a palynological smdy and zircon
fission-track dating of sediments in the Bogota area (Helmens and van den Hammen,
1994). These authors suggested 2000 m uplift of the Eastern Cordillera in Colombia be¬
tween 5 to 3 Ma, and they noted that this uplift took place in various pulses of tectonic
activity. The first regional fission-track smdy from the northern Andes was carried out in
the Cordillera de Merida, the Santander Massif and the Siena de Perija (Fig. 6.2., Kohn et
al., 1984, Shagham et al., 1984) and infened a complex temporal and spatial uplift history
of individual domains (massifs). These data sets suggested general Late Miocene uphft
(ca. 7 Ma) and further Phocene uplift (5-2 Ma) for the different massifs during short pulses.
In conclusion, the available age data show that major uplift events in the northern
Andes occuned between 12 to 10 Ma in Colombia (Hoorn et al., 1995), at around 7 Ma in
Venezuela (Shagham et al., 1984), at around 9 Ma in Ecuador (this work, Steinmann,
1997). Further uplift took place from 5 or 4 Ma on in the entire northern Andes. These
results point to regional differences in the timing of uplift events in the northern Andes.
Therefore, it may be suggested that large scale tectonic conelations present an oversimpli¬
fied view and miss the details. It appears that the northern Andes developed rather in
individual segments than as a rigid entity. On the other hand, the data from the Colombian
and Venezuelan Andes point to short-lived uplift events. This is in good agreement with
the present results in Ecuador, where the short-lived nature of deformation events infers
periodic uplift pulses at high rates.
In the central Andes several studies infened the presence of six short-lived com¬
pressional tectonic event, which were classified by Sebrier et al. (1988, Table 8.1) as
foUows: an Eocene Incaic event (Fl, ca. 42 Ma), a Late Oligocene Ayamara event (F2, ca.
26 Ma), an Early Miocene Quechua 1 event (F3, ca. 17 Ma), a Middle Miocene Quechua
2 event (F4, ca. 10 Ma), a Late Miocene Quechua 3 event (F5, ca. 7 Ma) and a latest
PUocene event (F6, ca. 2 Ma). The short compressional pulses during the Miocene cone-
late with uplift events in the Peruvian Andes (S6brier et al., 1988). The pulses are sepa¬
rated by periods of extension or tectonic quiescence (Sebrier et al., 1988). The results of
two studies of Tertiary basins simated between the CordiUera Occidental and Oriental in
northern and central Peru are briefly presented:

(1) In the northern Bagua region (Fig. 6.1) alluvial fan deposits with an age of 8.6±1.1
Ma (zircon fission-track, Naeser et al., 1991) rest unconformably on fluvial sediments
with an upper age limit of 12.4±1.6 Ma (Naeser et al., 1991). The unconformity and the
subsequent deposition of aUuvial fan material was related by this authors to the Quechua
2 pulse (10 Ma, Sebrier et al., 1988) and indicates Andean uplift. The alluvial fan deposits
were conelated by Naeser et al. (1991) with the Chambira Formation in the Ecuadorian
Oriente and the Capas Rojas 5 Formation in the Peruvian Oriente. Hence, these ages de¬
fine a general compressional period between 12 and 8 Ma. However, it also can be in¬
fened that the discordant alluvial fan deposits (8 Ma) document most likely the main
deformation and uplift event in the region.

(2) In the Ayacucho basin in central Peru a compressional deformation occuned
between 9.5 and 8.5 Ma (Megard et al., 1984). The compressional event is foUowed by
coarse clastic deposits in the basin, derived from the CordUlera Oriental, indicating uplift
of this mountain chain.
The two examples suggest that the Peruvian Andean uphft and deformation started
at around 10 Ma which coincides with short-hved compressive deformation dated in south-

em Ecuador with 9-8 Ma (this work, Steinmann, 1997). This example confirms the idea of
short-lived compressional events as observed in the Central Andes by Sebrier et al. (1988).
The 9-8 Ma event in Ecuador could be conelated with the Quechua 2 pulse. But, we have
to consider the variable age data and therefore we cannot simply take a mean value of 10
Ma out of a spread from 12 to 8 Ma. Rash correlations on Andean scale may lead to
erroneous conclusions. However, the present data show that a major tectonic event oc¬
curred in the Late Miocene in the southernmost part of the northern Andes in Ecuador and
the Central Andes of Peru.

Chapter 7 142 Late Tertiary tectonic evolution
7. A Late Tertiary tectonic model of southern Ecuador
This chapter discusses the shift from extension to compression in a plate tectonic
framework and presents a model for the Neogene tectonic evolution of southern Ecuador.
7.1. DISCUSSION OF EXTENSIONAL PERIODS VERSUS COMPRESSIONAL
EVENTS
The presented data for southern Ecuador prove that extension occuned during the
Middle Miocene which was foUowed by a compressional event at 9-8 Ma. In addition, the
data from the volcanic units and older sediments which underlie the Miocene basin fill
series in southern Ecuador provide information about similar alternations of extension
and compression during Paleocene to Early Miocene (Table 7.1). The compressional events
involved large areas as for instance the 9-8 Ma event which can be conelated over a N-S
distance of more than 200 km in the entire region of southern Ecuador. An important
question arises: How is the process of ocean subduction along the convergent continental
Ecuadorian margin responsible for the alternations of compression and extension in the
overriding plate?
A few models on a plate tectonic scale and controlling geodynamic parameters are
presented which aUow to explain partly the observed changes in the tectonic regime. Fur¬
thermore, the influences of variations of the geodynamic parameters for the Tertiary tec¬
tonic history, especially during the Neogene of southern Ecuador, are discussed.
7.1.1. Plate tectonic models and controlling parameters
The interaction of the following geodynamic factors controUed the Tertiary tectonic
evolution of the Ecuadorian continental margin: (1) motion of the oceanic Farallon/Nazca
plate, (2) absolute trenchward motion of the South American plate, (3) subduction rollback,
(4) dip of the subducting slab, (5) direction of convergence (obliquity) and (6) age of the
subducting slab. In addition, the effects of the collision of the oceanic Piiion tenane and
the subduction of the aseismic Carnegie ridge must be considered. The relations of the
various geodynamic parameters and the implications for the continental tectonic regimes
were discussed in the Central Andes and the main implications are presented:
(1) The opening of the South Atlantic Ocean in the Albian caused the relative west¬
ward movement of the South American plate and coincides with the initiation of
contractional deformation along the Peruvian-Ecuadorian margin (e.g. Frutos, 1981, Soler
andBonhomme, 1990).
(2) Sebrier and Soler (1991) applied the subduction rollback model (Uyeda and
Kanamori, 1979) to the Neogene evolution of the Peruvian Andes in order to explain the
unstable tectonic situation. In this model, variations in the tectonic style are due to the
relationship between the rollback of the subduction trench line and the motion of the over¬
riding plate towards or away from the trench line. During a tectonically quiet or extensional
period (Fig. 7.1 A) most of the westward movement of the South American plate is accom¬
modated by the retreat of the Nazca slab (absolute westward overriding of the continental
plate); during a short-lived compressional event (Fig. 7.IB) the westward movement of
the South American plate is accommodated by shortening at the western continental mar¬
gin and the slab retreat is weak or blocked. According to Sebrier and Soler (1991) the
blocking of the slab retreat is the driving mechanism of the short-lived compressional
events, which can even result in a slab break-off.
Fig. 7.1. Diagram showing the variation in the tectonic style along an active continental
margin by
the interaction of rollback of the subduction trench line and the motion of the overriding plate.
This generalised sketch is redrawn after Sebrier and Soler (1991) who proposed this model for the
Neogene evolution of the Peruvian Andes. A) The rollback velocity is higher than the velocity of
the overriding plate (vsoam) and most of the westward movement of the South American plate is
accommodated by the retreat of the Nazca slab. An extensional regime prevails in die continental
margin with minor thrusting in the Sub-Andean zone. B) The overriding plate (vsoam) advances
faster than the rollback and most of the westward movement of the South American plate is ac¬
commodated by shortening in the retroarc (Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt) and in the Andean
domain. This setting results in a short-lived compressional event. The blocking of the slab retreat
may even result in slab break-off. and the rebound of the remaining slab may accelerate the uplift.
(3) Jaillard and Soler (1996) suggested that the short-lived compressional or
extensional phases observed in the northern Central Andes are mainly hnked to changes
(acceleration or deceleration) in the convergence rate between the oceanic and continental
plates and possibly changes in the convergence direction. In contrast long-termed com¬
pression is controlled by the absolute trenchward motion of the overriding South Ameri¬
can plate and by the young age of the subducting oceanic crust. According to these au¬
thors, the observed accretion of island arcs in Ecuador resulted from changes in the con¬
vergence direction and induced contractional deformation in the active margin (Table 7.1,
e.g. accretion of Cayo arc in the Late Paleocene, Jaillard et al., 1995, accretion of Macuchi
arc in the Late Eocene?, Bourgois et al., 1990).
7.1.2. Application to the Tertiary tectonic evolution of southern Ecuador
It is out of scope of this chapter to discuss in detail an apphcation of these boundary

forces to the evolution of the active Ecuadorian margin during the Tertiary. However, a
few prominent features are briefly discussed for two time periods, which are separated by
the reorganisation of the oceanic plates in the Eastern Pacific between 30 to 26 Ma (Table
7.1, Wortel and Cloetingh, 1981), when the Farallon plate broke up into the Cocos and
Nazca plates.
Paleocene to Late Oligocene (Subduction of Farallon plate)

From latest Cretaceous to the Late Eocene, the convergence direction of the
subducting oceanic Farallon plate was more oblique than today (about S W-NE, Table 7.1,
Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987). This oblique convergence induced a large scale dextral
strike-slip component in the active margin and possibly drove extension which is indi¬
cated by two observations: (1) the Middle Eocene Playas basin in southwestern Ecuador
was formed as a half graben, indicating N-S extension, (2) the Paleocene to Eocene Talara
fore-arc basin in northwestern Peru was formed in a N-S directed extensional setting
(Carozzi and Palomino, 1993).
Table 7.1. Geological during the Tertiary in the forearc region

evolution of southern Ecuador
(Costa), die Andean domain (interarc) and the region (Oriente). The geodynamic frame¬
retroarc
work is indicated which allows to explain partly the observed stress regimes in the overriding
continental plate. In addition, the different compressive tectonic pulses which occurred in the
Central Andes during me Tertiary (Sebrier et al., 1988) are shown. The present results imply that
no direct correlation of the observed compressive events in Ecuador with the pulses in the Central
Andes can be made. However, in bom regions short-lived compressional events occuned which
coincided with uplift and which are often separated by extensional periods. Abbreviations: C (Cuenca
basin), C-G (Catamayo-Gonzanama basin), G-SI (Giron-Santa Isabel basin), L (Loja basin), M-V
(Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin), N (Nabdn basin), T (Turi Formation).
Andean domain central and southern compressive
(interarc region, Sierra) retroarc region geodynamic tectonic
forearc region
(Oriente) framework pulses
(Costa) regional tectonic basin formation volcanic Plutonic activity
activity {Sebner et al
m,
, regime and environment0
N N | o N | S N l S 1988)
alluvial fans 3°30' S 'L
of
Quat. alluvial fans T buoyancy young F6
from C.Occid oceanic crust
Salapa fed from I
E uplift
emergence I Cordillera Real subduction of
Plioc. of Costa of Cordilleras
5-
[uplift Carnegie ridge
n_ basin inversion
L deformation -c- (/J
pull-apart F5
controlled hn Sub-Andean -5- -2
fold & E § blocking of the
byDGM "
compr [ thrust belt 2" slab retreat, ^
"
_^
iasin inversion ra slab break off
<1> 10" 'M 8 F4
o 0) ">
-
.
extension o increase of
4^ E
> "XI c
<
4^ "D ca
roll back and
.
15- Bt slab retreat

- .
2 I is c I F3
4 c Quinara
'
>m
ca -
pull-apart
. on .
>.
controlled
m
r-
byDGM compression blocking of
CO proto-S!
20- slab retreat
LJJ
?n
a.ca
E-W
subduction
CD 25-
Q) Farallon plate
c
w 0breaks up into I F2
CI) 1 y> deformation in Sub-Andean
o
Cocos and (Aymara phase)
() fold & thrust belt Nazca plates
en
30- uplift of Cordillera Real
O rly low convergence
m extension
LU emergence of Costa (<10 cm/yr)
35-
accretion of Solanda deformation in Sub-Andean
0) Macuchi arc tf
c o fold & thrust belt
01 °£ V
_l
GO uplift of Cordillera Real
40- deformation
(accretion
0) of coastal Ecuador)
If
c (Incaic phase)
(1)
o
LJJ 45- trans-

ddl tension ? ;;;;;jS£-^
5
Protocordillera
Real, sediments
50- from W
>%
emergence of Costa and
m
marine
LU ~ ''is,'*
deformation \ ingressions
55- (accretion of Cayo arc) from W
0)
cen Lat <§ / trans- "
O 60- tension
en
a> y/
CO
a.
Early 65- 1
facies I I shallow marine facies || | | reef facies ||[|||||| coastal and brackish facies | | continental basic-intermediate volcanics | | acidic volcanics
l/Jturbiditic |||||
Dated angular unconformities and field relationships between deformed and
undeformed rocks suggest die presence of a Late Eocene compressional deformation event
in southern Ecuador, which succeeded the extension (Table 7.1): (1) the Playas basin fill
series is unconformably overlain by the Upper Eocene to Upper Oligocene volcanic Loma
Blanca Formation (40-26 Ma), (2) the Upper Eocene to Upper Oligocene Quingeo Forma¬
tion (42-36 Ma, east of Cuenca, Steinmann, 1997) rests with angular unconformity on the
deformed volcanic Chinchfn Formation (43 Ma, Steinmann, 1997). This compressive de¬
formation was most likely caused by the change in the convergence direction in the Late
Eocene from SW-NE directed to E-W oriented subduction (Table 7.1). Jaillard et al. (1995)
reported a similar evolution in the Ecuadorian fore-arc, where in the Early to Middle
Eocene extensional basins were formed and filled with shallow marine deposits, which
are unconformably overlain by continental coarse-grained deposits of Late Eocene age.
Based on diese data, Jaillard et al. (1995), suggested a Late Eocene inversion event which
most likely coincided with the collision of die coastal Pifion terrane and the Macuchi arc
witii the South American margin resulting in emersion of die coastal area (Table 7.1). The
Late Eocene accretion is recorded in die Cordillera Occidental by me presence of coarse
grained continental deposits (Apagua Formation) of Middle/Late Eocene age which over¬
lie unconformably die Macuchi Formation (Egiiez, 1986, Bourgois et al., 1990).
Two voluminous ignimbritic units were deposited in soutiiem Ecuador (Table 7.1):
(1) die Upper Eocene to Upper Oligocene Loma Blanca Formation (40-26 Ma, up to 2000
m diick) in me region of Catamayo-Malacatos-Catacocha, south of 4°S, (2) me Upper
Oligocene to lowermost Miocene Saraguro Formation (28-20 Ma, up to 2000 m) in die
region from Alausi to Saraguro, covering an area of 14.000 km2 between 2° 15' S and 3°
45' S. These tiiick and voluminous ignimbritic deposits reflect most probably an extensional
setting, by which large volumes of magma are vertically mobilised along faults and erupted
in fissures and caldera-type eruptions. Similar conclusions were drawn in die Central An¬
des (Perford and Adieron, 1992, Petford and Atiierton, 1994). Additional evidence for
extension during a part of die Loma Blanca time is available by the formation of die Late
Eocene to Early Oligocene Quingeo basin, which was most likely formed in a E-W di¬
rected extensional setting (Steinmann, 1997). The continental Quingeo sediments (Stein¬
mann, 1997) are partly coeval with die upper part of die Eocene Apagua Formation
(Bourgois et al., 1990) exposed in die Cordillera Occidental. Apart of die extension can be
explained by the very low convergence rate between 36 to 26 Ma (Pardo-Casas and Molnar,
1987) and the plate reorganisation between 30 to 26 Ma (breakup of the Farallon plate,
Wortel and Cloeting, 1981).

Latest Oligocene to Present (Subduction of Nazca plate)

After die plate reorganisation, die convergence direction remained more or less
orthogonal to the trench until today, widi a convergence rate of about 10 cm/yr (Table 7.1,
Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987). There is however, no correlation observed between
changes in convergence rate and die tectonic evolution in Ecuador, as suggested by Daly
(1989). Moreover, die timing of changes in die convergence rate is poorly constrained,
and tiiere are in fact no significant changes during die Neogene (Table 7.1, Pardo-Casas
and Molnar, 1987). Because of diis ratiier stable setting, other factors must have caused
the alternation of extension and compression in soutiiern Ecuador. Variations in the veloc¬
ity of die slab rollback represent a possible model (Fig. 7.1), which was already proposed
by Sebrier and Soler (1991) for the Peruvian Andes. These authors assumed a continuous
westward motion of die Brazilian shield of 2 cm/yr in an absolute mantle reference frame
and Daly (1989) suggested a typical rate of rollback of 1-2 cm/yr for Ecuador. The two
rate estimates are very similar and tiierefore, according to die model, small changes would
lead to variations in die tectonic regime of die overriding plate.
Consequendy, me following development may be proposed. The Saraguro Forma¬
tion is overlain witii angular unconformity (dated witii 19 Ma) by Lower Miocene sediments
(Jacapa Formation) and volcanics (Santa Isabel Formation). The deformation in die Saraguro
Formation and older units documents most likely a compressional event. Blocking of die
slab-retreat may have caused this deformation in die overriding Soutii American plate
(Table 7.1).
From the Early Miocene on pull-apart basins were formed in the forearc area (Manabi,
Progreso) and subsidence continued throughout die Middle Miocene (Fig. 7.2A). During
die Middle Miocene (15-10 Ma) extensional basins were formed in soutiiern Ecuador
parallel to the trench. Additionally, during die Middle Miocene die Guayaquil Seaway
(Vilcabamba Inlet) connected die Loja Embayment witii the Oriente basin. The wide¬
spread extension could primarily be explained by an increase of die rollback velocity and
the slab-retreat (Table 7.1).

However, in die particular case of soutiiern Ecuador a relationship of basin subsid¬
ence witii the beginning of the NNE-directed dextral displacement along the DGM may be
inferred (Fig. 7.2A). Basin formation occurs in the area of die triple point, where die
intersection of die DGM with die Peruvian and Ecuadorian trench occurs (Shepherd and
Moberly, 1981). We may assume that die suture between die South American continental
margin (consisting of various older terranes) and die oceanic Pifion-Macuchi terrane served
as a weak zone along which die NNE-directed displacement of die Pifion-Macuchi terrane
could occur. In the rear of die displaced terrane stretching and subsidence of die Manabi
Chapter 7 146$ Late Tertiary tectonic evolution
and Progreso pull-apart basins is indicated from the Early Miocene onwards. Continued
crustal stretching in die coastal pull-apart domain removed mechanical support in die east
(extensional collapse) and drove secondary WNW-ESE oriented extension giving rise to
subsidence in the Cuenca and Loja Embayments from the Middle Miocene on (Fig. 7.2A).
In die soutii, extension propagated further towards the east in opening the Guayaquil Sea¬
way to the Oriente basin. It is an open question which processes have initiated the displace¬
ment of the coastal terrane. A long term relation with the break up of the Farallon plate
between 30 to 26 Ma and me changing convergence direction may be taken in considera¬
tion.
Fig. me Miocene tectonic evolution in southern Ecuador. A) During me

7.2. Reconstruction of
Middle Miocene extension prevailed in entire soutiiern Ecuadorian Sierra and enhanced the open¬
ing of the Guayaquil Seaway. The Manabi and Progreso basin formed die western continuation of
die Cuenca and Loja Embayments (see text for discussion). B) The situation at and after the 9-8
Ma regional compressional event which resulted in basin inversion in me Andean and coastal
domains. This short-lived event coincided witii uplift of die Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera
Real, me onset of die intermontane stage in me Andean domain, block rotation in me coastal area
and die opening of me Jambeli-Tumbez basin as pull-apart structure by continued dextral dis¬
placement of about 100 km along me DGM. Abbreviations: BF (Babahoyo fault), CB (Cuenca
basin), CGB (Catamayo-Gonzanama basin), ChC (Chongon-Colonche High), DGM (Dolores-
Guayaquil Megashear), GSB (Gir6n-Santa Isabel basin), JF (Jubones fault), JTB (Jambelf-Tumbez
basin), LB (Loja basin), MB (Manabi basin), MVB (Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin), NB (Nabon
basin), PB (Progreso basin).
During the period from 9 to 8 Ma various modifications of the earlier basins setting
occurred, implying a major change of the tectonic development. The earlier basins in the
Andean domain were deformed by compression and new, smaller intermontane basins
developed (Fig. 7.2B). At the same time, the Cordillera Occidental was uplifted. Along die
DGM the Manabi and the Progreso basins were displaced and inverted while the new
Jambeli-Tumbez pull-apart basin opened and subsided (Fig. 7.2B). Daly (1989) suggested
that the normal faults of the earlier pull-apart basins were inverted and clock-wise block
rotation occurred. Roperch et al. (1987) suggested by paleomagnetic measurements a clock¬

wise rotation of about 70° of die Pinon Formation which forms the basement of the coastal
domain. However, it is not known when this rotation occurred. According to Daly (1989),
die rotation took place in several segments bound by the dextral DGM and Babahoyo fault
and sinistral NW-SE trending faults recognised by Benitez (1986a, Fig. 7.2B). Further to
the south, in the El Oro Province, the indentation of die Amotape-Tahuin block by clock¬
wise rotative movement occurred. This indentation by reactivation of terrane boundaries
is dated by the deformation in die area of Giron, Loja and Vilcabamba, which took place at
9-8 Ma (Fig. 7.2B).

Moreover, in the Peruvian Andes during the same period (at 10 Ma) the compressive
Quechua 2 event is inferred (see above). In the Sub-Andean zone, a major thrust event is
suggested (Tschopp, 1953, Campbell, 1970). From this it appears evident that the entire
Andean margin in Ecuador and Peru experienced compressive deformation. Pilger (1981,
1984) and Daly (1989) speculated that the subduction of the aseismic Carnegie ridge (with
increased plate coupling) started already at about 8 Ma and might have driven the com¬
pression. However, compression is observed in a large area, in particularly also in Peru.
Therefore, larger scale processes should have been responsible. For a short period from
about 10 to 6 Ma Brozena (1986) reported an accelerated half-spreading rate in the Equa¬

torial Atlantic implying an increased west-directed movement of the South American plate.
Assuming a constant slab-retreat along the Peru-Ecuador trench or even blocking of the
slab retreat (Fig. 7. IB), strong compression might have resulted, which was accommo¬
dated in different parts of the margin.

After the intermontane stage in the soutiiern Ecuadorian basins, erosion predomi¬
nated in the Andean domain. A second uplift pulse at 4 Ma is indicated by apatite fission-
track analysis (Steinmann, 1997). A discussion of die state of stress during die Pliocene to
present in southern Ecuador is out off scope of this chapter. However, the occurrence of
large-scale landslides, deeply incised valleys, tilted Quaternary deposits and recent faults
suggest continuing tectonic activity in the southern Ecuadorian Andes and possibly ongo¬
ing uplift. In the coastal area continued tectonic activity is documented by the vertical
uplift of Pleistocene marine terraces along the present day coastline (Tablazo Formation)
to an altimde of up to 225 m above sealevel (Baldock, 1982).
7.2. CONCLUSIONS
1. The sedimentological and paleontological data prove that during the Middle
Miocene (15-11 Ma) the series of Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Catamayo-Gonzanama

and Cuenca were deposited in coastal environments with lagoons and deltas in front of
fluvial systems. These series were deposited in me large Loja and Cuenca Embayments
during a Pacific coastal stage. At that time the basin was much larger than today.
2. The Giron-Santa Isabel basin remained during its entire evolution a continental
basin. The fluvial and alluvial fan systems drained towards die north into the coastal plain
system of the Cuenca Embayment (Steinmann, 1997). The E-W-trending Santa Rosa-
Saraguro High divided this northern drainage system from the Loja Embayment in the
south.
3. Direct evidences for basin forming mechansims are scarce, mostly because of
strong later deformation and basin inversion. However, in the area of Giron-Santa Isabel
and Loja, die existence of a half graben formed under NW-SE directed extension is evi¬
dent. Extension persisted tiirough the Middle Miocene and was oriented normal to die
active continental margin.

4. The Manabi and Progreso basins in the forearc area represented die western shal¬
low marine continuations of the Cuenca and Loja Embayments, respectively.

5. During die Middle Miocene the Cordillera Real between Loja and Vilcabamba
was a low relief mountain chain which allowed me development of seaways from the
Pacific Ocean via die Loja Embayment and the Vilcabamba Inlet to die Oriente of Ecua¬
dor and further to the upper Amazon basins. Faunal relations favour a close connection
between these two regions, prior to the Andean uphft.

6. The faunal and facies associations in the series of Loja and Malacatos-Vilcabamba
indicate variable climatic conditions during die Middle Miocene. The inferred temporal
and spatial changes from humid to dry local climate domains can be explained by the
interaction of cold and warm oceanic currents and die presence of submarine and topo¬
graphic barriers, as observed today along die Pacific coast of Peru and Ecuador.
7. In the Late Miocene (at around 10-9 Ma) a transition to continental deposition
occuned in die area of Loja, Malacatos and Vilcabamba with the deposition of fluvial and
alluvial fan sediments. The terrigenous material came from the rising mountain belts in
the southwest (Huancabamba Andes), and mainly from the Cordillera Real in die east.
Smaller basins were formed and the margins of which coincided more or less with die
recent basin margins. At this time, an intermontane setting was established, which pre¬
vailed also in die regions of Nabon (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995) and Cuenca (Steinmann,
1997).
Chapter 7 15J Late Tertiary tectonic evolution
8. Simultaneously, at 9 to 8 Ma compressive tectonic deformation occurred which
affected the entire southern Ecuadorian Sierra between Cuenca and Vilcabamba (basin
inversion). Uplift of the Cordillera Real occurred during this period which is evidenced by
coeval thick (syntectonic) alluvial fan deposits in me area of Loja, Vilcabamba and the
Oriente of Ecuador. The seaway between the Loja Embayment and the Oriente was closed
during this uplift event.
9. In the Giron-Santa Isabel basin the change of the sediment provenance at around 8
Ma to a predominant western source indicates a Late Miocene uplift of the Cordillera
Occidental. This uplift was accompanied by regional compressive deformation. Apatite

fission-track modelling in the Cuenca region (Steinmann, 1997) also indicates uplift of
the Cordillera Occidental after 9 Ma and regional compressive deformation between 9 and
8 Ma.
10. Today die Middle Miocene coastal sediments are situated at 1000 to 3000 m
above sea level and document surface uphft of the Andes since die Late Miocene. Taking
into account burial of the coastal sediments by younger fluvial and alluvial fan deposits,
rock uplift must have been considerably higher. Since the Late Miocene, surface uplift
occurred with a minimum rate of 0.2 mm/yr. However, the short-lived nature of deforma¬
tion events points to periodic uplift pulses at higher rates.

11. The northward displacement along the Dolores Guayaquil Megashear of the coastal
forearc basins witii respect to the stable Andean domain, of more than 100 km, occurred in
the Late Miocene. The onset of this displacement coincides most likely witii the Late
Miocene compressional event at around 9-8 Ma. During this dextral movement me Jambeli-
Tumbez basin was formed as pull-apart structure and mainly filled witii clastic material
(up to 12 km) derived from me rising Cordillera Occidental in the northeast.
12. In tiie Miocene, a change from an extensional period from 15-10 Ma to a short¬
lived compressional event at 9-8 Ma with coeval uplift occurred in southern Ecuador. In
plate tectonic terms, this change can be explained by a blocking of the slab retreat at
around 9 Ma, which could have led to a slab break-off and the rebound of the remaining
slab, causing uplift and deformation. The extensional period is most likely linked with an
increase of the rollback velocity and slab retreat. Similar alternation of extension and
compression occurred also in the earlier Tertiary history of the southern Ecuadorian active
margin.
13. The short-lived compressional pulses, the extensional periods and the uplift events
noted in the southern Ecuadorian Andes cannot be simply conelated with similar observa¬
tion in the Colombian and Peruvian Andes, because the timing is partly different.
152 References
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Winkler W., A. Eguez, D. Seward, M. Ford, F. HeUer, D. Hungerbuhler & M. Steinmann, 1993. A short¬
livedcompression related sediment fiU in the intermountain basin of Nabon (late Miocene, southern
Ecuador). In Second International Symposium on Andean Geodyanamics in Oxford, 21-23 Septem¬
ber 1993, 321-324.
Winkler W., M. Steinmann & D. Hungerbuhler, 1996. Commentaire a la note: Un evenement tectonique
neogtee majeur dans les Andes du Sud de 1'Equateur. Deformation syns6dimentaire dans le bassin
de Nab6n. By R. Baudino, A. Lavenu & J. Delfaud. Comptes Rendus Academie de Sciences, Paris
322 (serie Ha), 515-518.
Wolf T, 1876. Briefliche MittheUungen: 1. HerrTh. Wolf and Herrn G. vom Rath. Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Geologischen GeseUschaft 28 (1), 391-394.
Wortel R. & S. Cloetingh, 1981. On the origin of the Cocos-Nazca spreading center. Geology 9, 425-430.
Zaun P.E. & G.A. Wagner, 1985. Fission-track stability in zircons under gelogical conditions. Nuclear Tracks
10, 303-307.
Zuniga A. & E. Cilio, 1980. Mapa geol6gico del Ecuador, hoja de Machala (36), escala 1:100.000. Instituto
Geografico Militar (IGM), Ministerio de Recursos Naturales y Energeticos (MRNE), Direcci6n General
de Geologfa y Minas (DGGM), Institute of Geological Sciences London (IGS).
Publication I Sample I Stratlgr. unit | Grid references I Lithology | Methodl Age In Ma I Comments
a >
Tertiary plutonic rocks in U \e Sierra ofEcuc idor (46 ages) e v
a) Plutonic bodie s in Cordi lera Occidental,, from N to S 5-v
Van Thournout NWA-R Maldonado 101500/822200 Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Cayo de la Sierra Fm., Macuchi Fm. and Unacota o rt
377 bt 8.9±0.4 Fm. nicS3

etal., 1990 pluton a
plag 8.8±0.4
98500/784100 Granodiorite K-Ar in Macuchi Fm. u> R"
Van Thournout NWA-R Rio Babosa Emplaced
s h-t
et al., 1990 394 pluton hbl 40.0±3.0 • •
a
bt 42.3±1.7
< a
Van Thournout NWA-R Apuela pluton 30100/776600 Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Cayo de la Sierra Fm., Macuchi Fm. and Unacota © i-i
Fm. n
etal., 1990 374 hbl 18.5±0.9
<
bt 15.8±0.6 S
La Cord. Occidental Granodiorite K-Ar 39 Emplaced in Piflon de la Sierra Fm. and Cayo de la Sierra Fm.
Egiiez, 1986 Esperie
pluton
nic OUS
Chaupicruz Cord. Occidental Granodiorite K-Ar 12 Emplaced in Macuchi Fm. and Apagua Fm.
Egiiez, 1986
pluton
Eguez, 1986 Agagua pluton Cord. Occidental Granodiorite K-Ar 21 Emplaced in Macuchi Fm. rocks aged
et al., AE55 78° 58' 25" W Andesitic K-Ar Emplaced in Apagua Fm. n
Bourgois ...
1990 0° 59' 03" S porphyry wr 24.7±1.2
Bourgois et al., AE314 78° 55' 19" W Microdacite K-Ar Emplaced in Apagua Fm.
1990 0° 57' 58" S wr 21.3±1.1
Misi6nJaponesa, Industria pluton Cord. Occidental Granodiorite K-Ar 25 Emplaced in Macuchi Fm.
1988-92 as* p
1980 77.1189, Balzapamba 79° 06' W Quartzdiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Macuchi Fm. and Apagua Fm. Pluton was also *i
Kennerley, O
77.1188 pluton 1° 48' S hbl 19.2±3 called Telinbela pluton. W-flank of Cordillera Occidental.
65
(36) (Las Guardias) bt 30.8±1
Pichler & Aly, m-3 Bilevan pluton 79° 03' W Tonalite K-Ar Emplaced in Macuchi Fm. Authors correlated Bilevan with
1983 1° 48'S, 2740 m bt 78.0±3.0 Gomez and Pascuales plutons in the Costa and their
w
geochemical data inferred similar composition of the three o
plutons. c
65
MUller-Kahle & MKlll Chaucha 79° 25' 30" W Biotite- K-Ar Emplaced in La Victora unit, Piflon de la Sierra Fm., Cayo de a
Damen, 1970 (10) batholith 2° 55' 30" S granodiorite wr? 9.77+0.29 la Sierra Fm, Macuchi Fm., Apagua Fm. and Saraguro Fm. o
W- flank Cordillera Occidental ii 3
Putzer, 1976 Chaucha 79° 35' W Quartzmonzo- K-Ar This age dates the porphyry copper ore in the country rocks,
batholith 2° 58' S nite porphyry wr 9.9 -12.0 which is related to the Chaucha batholith.
Kennerley, 1980 69.211 Chaucha 79° 25' 20" W Granodiorit K-Ar
(1) batholith 2° 54' 00" S bt 12.8±0.6
Hall & Calle, Chaucha 20kmSE Granodiorite K-Ar
1982 batholith Naranjal wr? 10.0+.0.5
Steinmann, 1997 SE12 Porotillos 653857 / 963249 Granite f-t Emplaced in La Victoria unit and Saraguro Fm. Jubones
pluton zircon 20.2±2.0 valley.
Steinmann, 1997 SE13 San Antonio 662162/963447 Granite f-t Emplaced in Saraguro Fm. Jubones valley.
pluton zircon 20.0+.1.6
b) Plutonic bodie s in Cordii lent Real from f JtoS

Pichler & Aly, 11-28 Pimampiro IT 56' W Tonalite K-Ar Emplaced in Monte Olivo unit. Cord. Real / Inter-Andean
1983 pluton 1° 40'N, 1960 m bt 34.6±1.3 valley. Also called Chuga pluton.
Evernden, 1961 Pimampiro Cordillera Real Granodiorite K-Ar Pichler & Aly (1983) suggested that this age is too old.
pluton wr 72 However, Aspden et al. (1992) reported similar ages.
Aspden et al., CCR Pimampiro 174400 /0042000 Granodiorite K-Ar
1992 87/1 pluton 178500/0043800 hbl 94±4,91±3
hbl 81±3,79±6
bt 84±3,73±2
bt 73±4
Herbert & No. 1 Baeza dome 77°51'W Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Tena Fm.
Pichler, 1983 0° 29' S bt 0.54±0.06
Pichler & Aly, 11-33 Pungala pluton 78° 34' W Granodiorit K-Ar Emplaced in Guamote unit. Cordillera Real / Inter-Andean
1983 1° 47' S, 2780 m bt 41.3±1.6 valley.
Aspden et al., CCR Pungala pluton 768000/9796500 Granodiorite K-Ar
1992 87/12 hbl 42±2
bt 42±1
Kennerley, 1980 76.47 Magtayan 78° 33' 00" W Hornblendite K-Ar Emplaced in Aloa-Paute unit. E-flank Cordillera Real
(33) pluton 2° 14' 30" S hbl 85±3
Kennerley, 1980 76.48, Magtayan 2°12'00" S Diorite K-Ar

76.50 pluton 78°31'30" W hbl 75±3
(34) K-fsp 54±2
Aspden et al., CCR Magtayan 767800/9758000 Diorite and K-Ar

1992 87/13 pluton 762100/9752000 gabbro hbl 74±3, 79±3
hbl 86±5, 89±4
bt 68±5
Herbert & No. 2 Amaluza pluton 78° 22' W Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in El Pan unit and Aloa-Paute unit. Cordillera Real
Pichler 1983 2° 36' S bt 34.0±1.0 / Inter-Andean valley.
Kennerley, 1980 73.202, Amaluza pluton 78° 34' 05" W Granodiorit K-Ar Kennerley (1980) prefered the hornblende age of 49±2 Ma.
73.204- 2° 35'45"S bt 36.4±0.5
207(17) hbl 49+2, 39±1

plag 38.3±1
K-fsp 46±0.7
Aspden et al., CRSH Tampanchi 762500/9708000 Gabbro, K-Ar Emplaced in Aloa-Paute unit.
1992 89/17 mafic igneous horblendite hbl 66±3,61±4
complexe and basalt wr 61±10
Aspden et al., FV83 Ishpingo pluton 765000/9666300 Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Chiguinda unit.
1992 bt 39±4
Aspden et al., CRSH Pichinal pluton 704500/9599900 Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Tres Lagunas metagranite.
1992 89/15 bt 54±4
c) Plutonic bodie s in southe rn Ecuador

Steinmann, 1997 SE7 El Prado pluton 658870 /9578475 Granite f-t Emplaced in El Tigre unit
1320 m zircon 24.0+.1.2
Steinmann, 1997 SE9 Calera pluton 650061/959148 Granite f-t Emplaced in Celica Fm.
910 m zircon 26.5±0.9
Herbert & No. 3 San Lucas 79° 15' W Biotite granite K-Ar Emplaced in Chiguinda unit, Agoyan unit, El Pan unit and
Pichler 1983 pluton 3° 43' S bt 52.1±2.0 Sacapaica Fm.
Kennerley, 1980 73.171, San Lucas 79° 10' 45" W Granodiorite K-Ar
73.166 pluton 3° 51' 30" S bt 63±1
= 023/734 62±1
(14) plag
Kennerley, 1980 73.173, San Lucas 79° 15' 00" W Biotite- K-Ar
73.172 pluton 3° 46' 20" S granodiorite plag 70±2
= 943/828 bt 67±2
(15)
Aspden et al., FV San Lucas 692800/9585700 Granodiorite K-Ar
1992 11,15,34 pluton 694800/9578500 hbl 61±4, 66±4
698500/9574000 bt 51±2,52±2
bt 57±2, 58±2
bt 59±2
Aspden et al., CCR San Lucas 693300/9584900 Granodiorite Rb-Sr

1992 87/28 pluton wr,
3 point 53±2 >
TJ
Steinmann, 1997 SE1 San Lucas 690030/9578660 Granite f-t Cooling age which is similar to the zircon f-t data of the TJ
CD
pluton 2640 m zircon 39.1±3.0 Rodanejo pluton (N Nambacola) with 38.7±5.6 Ma (this 3
Q.
work).
Aspden et al., CCR Catamayo W flank Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Chiguinda unit.
1992 87/29 pluton Cordillera Real bt 57±2, 58±2
Kennerley, 1980 73.163, El Tingo 79° 23' 30" W Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Sacapaica Fm. A zircon f-t age of 21.2±2.6 was
73.162 pluton 3° 59' 30" S hbl 47±2 obtained for this pluton (cooling age, this work).
- 784/587 bt 50±3
(12)
Jaillard et al., Palo Blanco 9541800/669200 Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Celica Fm. and according to authors in Sacapaica
1996 pluton wr 21.2±0.6 Fm.
Plag 26.6±1.6
Kennerley, 1980 73.242, Portachuela 79° 25' 30" W Granite K-Ar Emplaced in Chiguinda unit, Tres Lagunas granite and
73.211, batholith 4° 34' 54" S bt 29±5 Sabanilla granite. W flank Cordillera Real.
212(26) plag 24.5±0.8
K-fsp 24.2±0.8
Aspden et al., CCR Portachuela 677300 /9472300 Granodiorite, K-Ar
1992 87/27 batholith 675500/9474400 diorites and hbl 20±7, 24+5
674500 /9476500 felsic bt 12±1, 12±1
porphyry bt 17±1, 18±1
bt 19±1
d) Plutonic bodies in the Costa
Pichler & Aly, IV-77 Gomez pluton 80° 34' W Tonalite K-Ar
1983 1° 38' S hbl 76.916.9
Pichler & Aly, IV-79 Pascuales 79° 55' W Tonalite K-Ar Emplaced in Piflon Fm.
1983 pluton 2° 03' S hbl 73.014.8
Tertiary volcanic rocks in ti \e Sierra ofEcui idor (59 ages)

Cotecchia & Macuchi Fm. 78° 32' 30" W Andesite K-Ar Sample from the eastern edge of the Inter-Andean valley. NE
Zezza, 1969 1° 12' 40" S wr 51.5+2.5 Ambato in the Inter-Andean valley
Kennerley, 1980 74.106 Pachacmama 79° 26' 40" W Rhyolite K-Ar The sample is derived from a rhyolitic intrusion which
(19) pluton 3° 19' 20" S wr 26.810.7 crosscuts the Saraguro Fm. However, similar zircon fission-
track ages were obtained for the base of the Saraguro Fm. (this
work). This sample is clearly not derived from the top of the
Saraguro Fm. as suggested by Lavenu et al. (1992).
Kennerley, 1980 74.111 Santa Isabel 3° 14' 15" S Rhyolitic K-Ar A zircon fission-track data of the same lithology yielded
an agt
(18) Fm. 79° 12' 05" W lavaflow wr 21.410.8 of 15.911.6 Ma (this work). Based on
this age the lavaflow is
attributed to the Santa Isabel Fm. and not assumed as Saraguro
Fm.
Kennerley, 1980 74.108 Santa Isabel 3° 19' 25" S andesitic dike K-Ar This dike is related to the volcanic activity, documented by the
(20) Fm. 79° 26' 25" W wr 19.510.4 andesitic Santa Isabel Fm.
Kennerley, 1980 74.107 Santa Isabel 3°13' 40" S Andesite- K-Ar These andesitic rocks are included in the Santa Isabel Fm.,
21) Fm. 79°13'00"W porphyry wr 14.210.5 which replaces the Chinchillo Fm. (this work)
Kennerley, 1980 74.104 El Descanso 2° 50' 10" S Andesite K-Ar Egiiez & Noblet (1988) assumed the El Desc. as a stock,
(24) Andesite 78° 52" 40" W wr 19.710.5 which has no contact with the Biblian Fm. Bristow (1973)
interpreted the El Desc. as an extrusive body which is

intercalated in the top of the Biblian Fm. and overlain by the
Loyola Fm.
Kennerley, 1980 74.105 El Descanso 2° 50' 00" S Andesite K-Ar The El Descanso Andesite is thrust over the Cuenca basin fill
(25) Andesite 78° 52' 13" W wr 21.010.6 series (Steinmann, 1997, therefore, it is a tectonic contact).
The andesite consists of intrusive or
subvolcanic rocks. A part
of it is older and was dated with 33 Ma (by Swisher, pers.
comm. A. Egiiez, 1995).
Henderson in Santa Isabel W of Saraguro andesitic dike K-Ar This dike is related to the volcanic activity, documented by the
Hall & Calle, Fm. wr 18.910.4 andesitic Santa Isabel Fm. (this work)
1982
Barberi et al., CH 1791 Saraguro Fm. ? Andesite K-Ar 28.911.4
-
1988
Barberi et al., CH 1787 Pisayambo Fm. 25 km WSW Ignimbrite K-Ar 15.410.7 Lavenu et al. (1992) assumed these pyroclastsics as products
1988 Cuenca, Soldados of a Miocene volcanic
activity and not as Tarqui Fm. This
volcanic activity is also evidenced in the Miocene basin fills.
Barberi et al., CH590 Fm. ? Andesite K-Ar 12.210.4 as above

Pisayambo
1988
Barberi et al., CH589 Pisayambo Fm. 28kmSE Dacitic K-Ar 11.210.4 as above
1988 Cuenca, Sigsig ignimbrite
Barberi et al., CH 1781 Pisayambo Fm. ? Andesitic K-Ar 8.1210.1 Barberi et al. (1988) correlated this sample with CH 1784.
1988 lavaflow
Barberi et al, CH 1776 Pisayambo Fm. ? Andesitic K-Ar 7.110.3 Barberi et al. (1988) correlated this sample with CH 1784.
1988 lavaflow
Barberi et al., CH 1784 Mangan Fm. 38kmNNE Dacitic K-Ar 8.010.08 This lavaflow may be intercalated in the Mangan Fm. Lavenu
1988 (top) Cuenca, S Canar lavaflow et al. (1992) place the sample tentatively in the Turi Mb.
(which forms the top of Mangan Fm.).

Barberi et al., CH582 Cojitambo 20kmNW Dacite K-Ar 5.210.2
1988 Andesite Cuenca
OLADE 1980 EC 46 Cojitambo 20kmNW Dacite K-Ar 6.33+0.2
Andesite Cuenca
Barberi et al., CH682 Pisayambo Fm. ? Dacite K-Ar 6.110.6 Basement of the Quilotoa volcano. Lavenu et al. (1992)
1988 (top) include sample tentatively in the upper part of Pisayambo Fm.
Barberi et al., CH535 ? W margin Chota Andesite K-Ar 6.3010.06 Barberi et al. (1988) assumed these rocks as basement of the
1988 basin Chota basin fill. However, Egiiez and Beate (1992) and
Barragan et al. (19%) described that these volcanics overly
unconformably the uppermost part of the Chota basin fill.
Barberi et al., CH537 ? W margin Chota Andesite K-Ar 6.3110.1 Same field relations as above (CH 535). These volcanics
1988 basin suggest an upper age limit for the Chota basin fill of latest
Miocene.
Van Thournout NWA-R Macuchi Fm. 91500/791000 Gabbro K-Ar Authors favoured older Eocene age. They correlated the rocks
etal., 1990 389 Cord. Occid. px,hbl 4519 with the Macuchi Fm. Age correlates well with data of Egiiez
plag 12.410.4 (1986) and it is in good agreement with other observations.
Van Thournout NWA-R unit 83600/806400 Microdiorite K-Ar Author included rocks in Tandapi unit which was introduced
Tandapi
et al., 1990 388 Cord. Occid. hbl 32.611.3 by Egiiez (1986).
Wallrabe-Adams Silante Fm. Cord. Occidental, Quartzandesite K-Ar Age places Silante Fm. clearly in Eocene. Sample is derived
1990 W Nono, 2330 m wr 52.712.9 from road Nono-Tandayapa, 11.6 km W of Nono.
Wallrabe-Adams Cayo Fm. Costa, E of Puer¬ Placidacite K-Ar Date assignes a Eocene age to the Cayo Fm. Sample is derived
1990 to Cayo, 150 m wr 52.912.4 from the road Puerto Cayo to Joaz, 6.5 km E of P. Cayo. It is
an important age because the Cayo volcanics are coeval with
the volcanic activity evidenced in the Cordillera Occidental
(Macuchi Fm.)
Madden 1990 Cerro Cojitambo, Andesitic Ar-Ar Madden (1990) assumed Cojitambo as intrusive rock, which
Cojitambo
Andesite 2 km from Q. lavaflow bt 6.7 can not be correlated with the El Descanso andesite.
Agua Sucia plag 5.2-12.0
Madden, 1990 87-G Nabon Group S Loma la Cruz Acidic tuff Ar-Ar Sample from the Dumapara Mb. (Iguincha Fm.). Ages are
hbl 10.8510.5 derived from multi component samples. The Nabon has an age
plag 11.9-13.9 of 8.5-7.9 (Hungerbuehler et al., 1995).
Madden, 1990 87-D.87- Nab6n Group S Loma la Cruz Acidic tuff Ar-Ar Sample from the Patadel Mb. (Picota Fm.). Age derived from
E, 87-F plag 10.3 samples of three different tuff layers and is therefore a
multicomponent age.
Lavenu et al., N87C5 Fm. 78° 54' W Andesite K-Ar The grid reference place this sample in the area of the El
Saraguro
1992 2° 50' S plag 35.310.9 Descanso Andesite. However, authors wrote that sample is
derived 5 km S Saraguro. This two possible sample locations
lie about 100 km seperated from each other. Age can not be
considered.
Lavenu et al., FD87068 Huigra-Tandapi 2° 17' S Andesite K-Ar Pyroclastic rocks mapped as Macuchi Fm. Sample could
1992 Fm. ? 78° 59' W wr 35.910.9 belong to the Huigra-Tandapi Fm. (Egiiez et al., 1988, cont.
20 km SW of plag 35.511.3 volcanic arc, which overlies Macuchi arc). Lavenu et al.
Alausf (1992) included rocks tentatively in Alausf Fm. (Saraguro
Gp.)
Lavenu et al., FD87040 Huigra-Tandapi 2° 08' S,78° 57'W Andesite K-Ar The sample was included in the Saraguro Fm. (Lavenu et al.,
1992 Fm. 12.5 km NW of Plag 27.210.9 1992). See above.
Alausf wr 21.011.0
Lavenu et N86C12 7 2° 42' S tuff K-Ar to Lavenu et al. (1992) the sample is derived from
al., Rhyolitic According
1992 78° 53' W plag 22.010.8 the Biblian Fm. However, taking into account a Middle
1 km E Biblian wr 24.710.6 Miocene age of this formation (Steinmann, 1997) this sample
must have been derived from volcanics of the Saraguro Fm.
Lavenu et al., N86C13 ? 2° 44' S Rhyolitic tuff K-Ar Lavenu et al.(1992) included sample to the lower part of the
1992 78° 54' W plag 16.310.7 Mangan Fm. The
Mangan Fm. has an well defined age range
of 10-9.5 Ma (Steinmann, 1997) and therefore the K-Ar age is
too old.
Lavenu et al., N86C10 Cojitambo 2° 45' S Andesite K-Ar Lavenu et al. (1992) assume the Coj. andesite as stock, which
1992 Andesite 78° 53' W plag 7.110.3 cuts the Biblian and Loyola Fms. Bristow (1973) interpreted
the Coj. andesite as extrusive rocks, which are intercalated
inbetween the Biblian and Loyola Fms. The first interpretation
is correct and the Coj. andestite cuts the deformed Middle
Miocene sediments (Steinmann, 1997).
Lavenu et al., N87C6 Tarqui Fm. 3° 39' S Andesite K-Ar Grid reference place this sample 5 km SW of Saraguro and not
1992 79° 15'W plag 8.210.4 5 km NE of Saraguro as published by the authors. The
volcanics belong to the Tarqui Fm. and not to the Pisayambo
Fm. as assumed by Lavenu et al. (1992).
Lavenu et al., FD87045 Pisayambo Fm. 2°10'S,78°51'W Andesite K-Ar Mapped as Alausf Fm. (Litherland et al., 1993). Lavenu et al.
1992 2.5 km WSW of plag 8.810.4 (1992) included this volcanics in the Pisayambo Fm.
Alausf plag 12.510.9
wr 7.910.4
Lavenu et al., FD87100 Pisayambo Fm. 0° 58' S,78° 52'W Andesite K-Ar Lavenu et al. (1992) assumed rocks as base of the Pisayambo
1992 (base) llkmSSEof wr 10.011.3 Fm. The sample is derived from an altitude of 3600 m.
Laguna Quilotoa plag 9.110.5
Lavenu et al., FD Scialpa Fm. 1°44'S,78°41'W acidic tuff K-Ar

1992 87106A 7 km SSW of wr 3.5910.28
Riobamba plag 5.1411.11
plag 3.1210.39
Lavenu et al., FD87 Scialpa Fm. 1° 44' S,78° 41'W acidic tuff K-Ar
1992 106 B 7 km SSW of wr 2.65 10.21
Riobamba plag 4.7610.57
Lavenu et al., FD85066 Altar Group 1° 47' S,78° 36'W Andesite K-Ar Lavenu et al. (1992) correlated this pyroclastics with the
1992 13 km SSE of wr 3.5310.94 Scialpa Fm. The sample is derived from a site, which lies near
Riobamba to the base of the Altar volcano.

Lavenu et al., FD86104 Latacunga Fm. 1°11'S,78°34'W Andesite K-Ar Mapped as Pisayambo Fm. But Lavenu et al. (1992) assigned
1992 7 km NE Ambato plag 1.7310.35 volcanics as Latacunga Fm.
Lavenu et al., FD87081 Latacunga Fm. 0° 55' S,78° 35'W basaltic K-Ar see above
1992 2kmNE andesite wr 1.85 10.19
Latacunga
Lavenu et al., FD87110 Latacunga Fm. 1° 09' S,78° 38'W Andesite K-Ar See above. The sample is derived from a the east side of the
1992 10 km NNW of wr 1.4010.29 Sagoata volcano.
Ambato
Rivera et al., Saraguro Fm. 977/752 Ignimbrite K-Ar Pyroclastics belong to the basal part of the Saraguro Fm.
1992 Soldados area bt 26.010.8
Rivera et al., Saraguro Fm. 963/762 Ignimbrite K-Ar Pyroclastics belong to the basal part of the Saraguro Fm.
1992 Soldados area bt 27.010.7
Baudino et ? 7 7 K-Ar
al., According to Baudino et al. (1994) all 3 samples are derived
1994 plag 20.812.1 from the Ayancay Group. However, these authors did not
consider the complex interfingering between the Santa Isabel
Fm. and the Burrohuaycu Fm. (this work). The samples may
belong to the volcanic rocks of the Santa Isabel Fm.
Baudino et al., 7 7 7 K-Ar as above

1994 plag 18.210.8
Baudino et al., 7 7 7 K-Ar as above
1994 Plag 15.211.7
Jaillard et al., Catamayo Fm. 2 km SW of Acidic K-Ar The age is derived from a acidic volcanic clast in a
1996 Catamayo volcanic clast plag 25.110.8 conglomerate which was fluvially reworked. Therefore, this
wr 21.010.5 age cannot be interpreted as depositional age. The Catamayo
Fm. is assumed as Middle Miocene (this work).
Pratt et al., 1997 WP275 Saraguro Fm. 661900/9650900 f-t The following 11 age determinations were carried out by
(BGS) zircon 27.712.0 Michael Steinmann for the Cordillera Occidental Project of the
British Geological Survey (BGS) in Ecuador.
Pratt et al., 1997 WP298 Saraguro Fm. 690700 /9629300 Dactic tuff f-t
(BGS) =DH 485 zircon 26.712.2
Pratt et al., 1997 WP472 Saraguro Fm. 703862/9618808 Ignimbrite f-t
..
(BGS) =DH 465 zircon 25.011.8
Pratt et al., 1997 WP620 Fm. 681700/9620300 Andesite f-t These intermediate rocks are included in the Sacapaica Fm.
Sacapaica
(BGS) zircon 24.813.6 (Pratt et al., 1997). They interfinger with the lower part of the
Saraguro Fm. the region west of Saraguro and Manii. They
forms possibly the uppermost part of the Sacapaica Fm. and
may be correlated with the Tandapi unit.
Pratt et al., 1997 WP176 Saraguro Fm. 632400/9635400 f-t Based on this age, the acidic volcanics exposed in the Costa
(BGS) zircon 23.211.6 (Pasaje region) can be correlated with the Saraguro Fm.
Pratt et al., 1997 WP481 Saraguro Fm. 702934/9614065 Ignimbrite f-t Flat lying ignimbrites with a thickness up to 400m, which
(BGS) =DH 466 zircon 22.511.8 rest with an angular unconformity on older pyroclastics. They
were formerly assumed as Tarqui Fm.
Pratt et al., 1997 WP509 Saraguro Fm. 690200/9629700 Rhyolitic f-t
(BGS) =DH 484 dacitic tuff zircon 22.412.0
Pratt et WP765 Fm. 650200/9591600 f-t The volcanic rocks exposed in the Zaruma area can be
al., 1997 Saraguro
(BGS) zircon 21.511.6 correlated with the Saraguro Fm.
Pratt et al., 1997 WP717 Fm. 672700/9614400 f-t Only 3 zircons were dated.
Saraguro
(BGS) zircon 20.714.8
Pratt et al., 1997 WP8B 7 658700/9651500 f-t Intrusion
(BGS) zircon 13.911.0
Pratt et al., 1997 WP653 Fm. 694100/9595400 f-t Dacitic intrusion or lavaflow. Sample is derived from a
Tarqui
(BGS) zircon 9.611.0 locality which lies about 2 km south of site N87C6 (Lavenu
et al., 1992).
Appendix 173
Appendix 2: Radial plots of fission-track samples
plots allow a visual judgement of the homogeneity of a set of ages measure¬

Radial
ments in sample and the identification of possible detrital grains (Galbraith, 1990).
one
This graphical method can help to determine whether a sample is representative of one or
more age groups, in the case of multi-component samples (Galbraith, 1990). The recog¬
nised sub-populations can be further statistically tested for their significance (Galbraith
and Laslett, 1993).
The radial plot is an plot with one point plotted for each age estimate: on
x-y scatter
the x-axis thereciprocal (relative error to the age) and on the y-axis the standardised
error
error ±2 sigma is plotted. There is in addition a circular age scale at the right of die graph,
which is centred at the mean of all ages. The single crystal age can be read off the age
scale, by drawing a line from the origin (0/0) through (x, y). A 2 sigma standard error bar
is shown on the
y-axis.
The twoexamples for southern Ecuador, shown below, represent two different cases:
(1) DH 373 contains zircon which belong clearly to one population and the single
crystal ages plot within the 2 sigma error limit. The depositional age of this sample is
11.2±1.2Ma.
(2) DH 225 consists of two populations and further statistical treatment allowed to
calculate the ages of the two sub-populations at 2.3±0.8 Ma and 38.1+.4.4. The mean age
of 24.8±8.2 has in this case no geological meaning. The younger age of 2.3+0.8 Ma repre¬
sents the depositional age of this sample.

DH 373 Santo Domingo Fm.
+2r r15
V14
-12
0 -
11
• •
-
•
>.• *
-10
L9
% relative error
Central age-11.2±1.2
32 17
—
' v2v 99%
P (Xz)-
i—i—i— T
10 20
0
precision (1/sigma)
59
Vat
DH 225 Salapa Fm. • r_Zi—38.1±4.4
_47
-36
-
24
apparent central
age:16 4±7 4
P (x2)- 0%
2.310.8
20 30
precision (1/sigma)
174 Appendix
..,*
Praam an (i/aaaM)
1 0 »»>• 11
V
• • •
% ralata/a a
W 10 >
•racial en (l/<••*•)
MS 225
». • 17.
• -
35
[3.
%ralatteaarrar £. 26
Praatalan p/atama)
MS 226
13
\ 12
•
•
• I 11
• •
%
"
*• • 9
*
•
•
/ .
s
L L 7
% ralaO.a arrar
> 11
10 10
MS 227
20
•
V"
•
V15
13
•
1
/
.
10
1
»a
1>
,
10
IT
Ir
•raala)an<Vakj ""
MS 226 19
• • •
•
*
1* !• SO 41 ( 10
PraclalanlVabm)
Appendix 175
y ••
.
• .
•' w
«%latlt« • rm.
10 10 10 40
•rtclalBi p/at a ma)
19
„„,
.7-
•.*
'
%ral(tt*a arrsr
ie io m
DH 247
..
'<»
14
•
• 11
••»
.
.
*> .
10
/.
• •
*
40 10
10 20
MS 247 „
94
•
•
•
L 90
• •
•
_
47
i
• •
/«
I
4* 10
W 10 A
< 23
% ralatlva
•*raalak>n( lalfina)
176 Appendix
15
„,,
14 »,„
10 10
DH 300
4*
|-
*ralatlva arrar
0 10 10
10 10
•raetalon (1/•*>•) l>raslalon<Valgma)
DH 314
42
+a V, 30
•
a*
V 3.
• •
0
• •
«
L 29
a
/. 29
w 10 a
DH 317
4 r
13
M •
••
•
r
L 12
12
L 11
rahtlva error
I • 1* 10
• racial on(Valaai>)
Appendix 177
DH 335
+a r
Pre a 1*1 on (1/aama)
"
r • -
t
i 11
10 10 • 4 0 11 0
Praelelon (1*1 am a)
DH 330
• •
•
• •
raEla)an(ValBMM)
DH 343
a
r
**•••
« •
.
* ralatlvaarrar
free hi en p/elami)
DH 344
43
r
L 32
r 29
<
25
/
•
•• 22
19
%r«la1lw vror
DH 373
.1 |>
•
'• ...
Praeltf on <"*»••>
178 Appendix
%rakltr*«rror
i 1 H—' H
10 m ae
•
Prae! lan(lM*jaia) ncttfMitVoUMO)
DH 395
•
V- DH 415
• •
\_
75
20
*•
\
-
• 95 18
/• _
.
•
: *
L • •
•
% real** erre % ret*i*eerri
10 11
10 10 10 .0
( 45
•rol den p/tfgni)
racial en (Vatjna)
%ralatl*> arm
'
,' 0 13 10
took an 0*1 am a)
DH 450
•
•
•
•
•
-
M 1T
10 10
•reekrK)n(lMlana)
DH 451
1 9 >(«> *
23
22
20
19
% ralolvaorror
10 10 10
Praalalan(Valjna)
Appendix 179
DH 464
Onr« nt ma
**
r»
r
•.
~
21 #
•*• a
•
•
t:
11 11 10
'
23
V 21
13
14
10 al 40
atonflMliaia)
'0
-
CH 93
i r
21
19
10 10 10
Praaailai (1/aana)
32 „« .
V «
» V
23
* ralattir* error
21
10 10 10
DH 497
*
20
\
r kiwi
•
.
27
V16 -
•
•
14
.
24
12
0)
•
22
* -
10
L 20
•
11 11
/ 17
10 10 M 40 1 11 10 10
*Te«lal«. p/etfraa) l>raclalan'VelBina)
CH 61
*a
r
••• ill •
_
11
10
/.
'
0 11 10
180 Appendix
13
12
11
10
% ralallaaarrar
10 »
*Ye«»ton(l*tai>a)
UH 141
\"
•
• •:
•> ra>Jai.Va aifor
.»
A
raaielan fl Jit am*,)
^
-•
10
< .
a
%r«mi,#arror
/.
Appendix 181
Appendix 4: Location of ostracod samples
Sample Stratigraphic unit Locality Grid references,

UTM and longitude/latitude
Catamayo-Gonzanama basin
DH389 Gonzanama Fm. W of the village Santa 681271 / 9546694
DH390 Rita, along Catamyo- 79°22'01.5"W 4°05'57.8"S
Cariamanga road
DH406 Rita, along Catamyo- 79°22'02.1"W 4°06'05.1"S
Cariamanga road
DH407 Gonzanama Fm. Portete de Nambacola 677948 / 9543309
79°23'48.4"W 4°07'49.6"S
Rita 79021'34.3"W 4°06'28.6"S
DH444 Gonzanama Fm. W of the village 675091 / 9540275
DH445 Surunuma 79°25'21.6"W 4°09'27.4"S
DH449 Gonzanama Fm. Uruchambo, N of the 672978 / 9548691
village Nambacola 79°26'30.4"W 4°04'53.2"S
DH473 Gonzanama Fm. San Vicente area 674248/ 9540519
79025'49.1"W 4°09'19.4"S
Loja basin
DH244 San Cayetano Fm. nearthe village San 701018/9559379
Siltstone Mb. Cayetano Bajo, along 79°11'22.3"W 3°59'03.6"S
Loja-Zamora road
DH258 La Banda Fm. near the village La 696267 / 9559567
Banda, West of the city 79°13'56.3"W 3°58'57.8"S
of Loja
DH416 La Banda Fm. near the village Carigan, 696922 / 9561374
DH417 NW of the city of Loja 79°13'34.9"W 3°58'00.4"S
Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin
DH304 San Jose Fm. San Jose region 688652 / 9537002
DH305 79°18'00.7"W 4°11'12.3,,S
Dh307 79°18'00.7"W 4°11'12.3"S
DH365 San Jose Fm. West of the village El 685750/ 9551384
DH366 Tambo 79019'36.2"W 4°03'24.7"S
DH367
DH401 79°18'00.7"W 4°11'12.3"S
Cuenca basin
MS 450 Loyola Fm. Quebrada Ollebos, 1 m 740074 / 9692351
above contact with 78°50'26.7"W 2°46'53.1 "S
Yunguilla Fm.
MS 453 Loyola Fm. Quebrada Ollebos, 20 m 739836 / 9691761
MS 454 above contact with 78°50'33.1"W 2°47'12.2"S
Yunguilla Fm.
MS 503 Loyola Fm. Quebrada Purcu near 739981 / 9691681
MS 504 the village San Miguel 78°50'28.6"W 2°47'14.7"S
MS 505 Loyola Fm. Quebrada Purcu near 739760 / 9691756
MS 506 the village San Miguel 78°50'36.4"W 2°47'12.3"S
Proto-Santa Isabel basin

CH113 Jacapa Fm. 8.5 km South of the 683350 / 9622250
village Uchucay
182 Curriculum Vitae
Curriculum Vitae
Dominik Hungerbuhler
Personal
Address: Institute of Geology

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH)
Sonneggstrasse 5
CH 8092 Zurich
Switzerland
Phone: +41 1 632 36 39
Fax: +41 1 632 10 80
e-mail: dominik@erdw.ethz.ch
Date of birth August 24, 1968

Nationality Swiss
Marital status married to Carmen Guerrero
Education
1994-1997 Geology ETHZ,

Ph.D. student and research assistant at the Institute of
with the thesis"Neogene basins in the Andes of southern Ecuador:
sedimentary evolution, deformation and regional tectonic implications".
Advisors: PD Dr. Wilfried Winkler, Dr. Diane Seward, Prof. Daniel
Bernoulli, Prof. Martin Burkhard.
1988-1993 Study of Geology at the University of Zurich with a Master's thesis

"Geologie des intermontanen Beckens von Nabon (oberes Miozan,
Siidecuador), mittlerer Beckenteil". Advisors: Prof. Daniel
Bernoulli, PD Dr. Wilfried Winkler, Dr. Mary Ford.
1983-1987 CoUege, Wetzikon (Canton of Zurich), Matura Type E (Economics)
1981-1983 Secondary School, Riiti (Canton of Zurich)
1975-1981 Primary School, Riiti (Canton of Zurich)
Languages
German (native language), English, Spanish, French

LOCATION OF DATED PLUTONIC ROCKS (FROM N TO S)
Geological map of southern Ecuador number
on map
name
age
(amount of aqes) method mineral reference
Append ix3 1 Chaucha 9 8±0 3 K-Ar wr? Muller-Kahle&Damen 1970
9 9-12 0 K-Ar
COLOMBIA wr Putzer 1976
12 8±0 6 K-Ar biotite Kenneriey 1980
100±05 K-Ar wr"? Hall & Calle. 1982
2 PorotiUos 20 2±2 0 fission-track zircon Steinmann 1997
3 San Antonio 20 0+1 6 fission-track zircon Steinmann, 1997
4 Pachacmama 26 810 7 K-Ar
STRATIGRAPHIC LEGEND wr
Kenneriey, 1980
5 Pichinal 54±4 K-Ar biotite Aspden etal 1992
6 Marcabeli 214±6 K-Ar biotite Feininger SSilberman 1982
Quaternary 221 ±6-193+1 3 (4) K Ar biotite Aspden et al
| undifferentiated Quaternary in the Costa
219122 Sm-Nd
1992
wr garnet Aspden et al 1992
228+1 U Pb monzonite
Pis I Salapa Formation
Tdr~ *Cuenca-'
Aspden et al 1995
Pliocene 7 Calera 26 510 9 fission-track
''map r zircon Steinmann 1997
^^B Tarqui Formation 8 El Pindo 128 9+6 8 fission-track zircon Steinmann. 1997
-4°S 9 El Prado 24 011 2 fission-track zircon Steinmann, 1997
^^H Tun Formation 10 San Lucas 52 112 0 K-Ar biotite Herberts Pichler 1983
80° W J
Upper 6712 6311 K-Ar biotite
|y. j Quillollaco, Cerro Mandango Uchucay 78° W
Kenneriey 1980
7012 6211 K-Ar plagioclase
—-—'
Formations and Nabon Group Kenneriey 1980
61+4 66+4 K-Ar hornblende Aspden et al 1992
59+2-5112(5) Rb Sr wr
Aspden et al 1992
Mq/| I Gonzanama Catamayo, San Jose Santo Domingo, Trigal, La Banda,
5312 K Ar biotite
Belen San Cayetano Burrohuaycu Giron Formations Aspden et al 1992
o Middle 49 212 5 fission-track zircon Steinmann 1997
K^9 Quinara Formation 11 Catamayo K-Ar biotite
5712. 5812 Aspden et al, 1992
12 El Tingo 4712 K-Ar
Santa Isabel Formation hornblende Kenneriey 1980
Lower 5013 K-Ar biotite Kenneriey 1980
*"
21 212 6 fission-track this work
Ok" I Saraguro Formation INTRUSIVE ROCKS zircon
13 Rodanejo 38 715 6 fission-track
Oligocene zircon this work
Latest Cretaceous 14 Palo Banco 21 210 6 K-Ar
Loma Blanca Formation -
Tertiary plutons wr Jaillard etal 1996

26 6+1 6 K-Ar plagioclase Jaillard etal. 1996
(granodiorites)
Rio 15 Sabanilla 224137
Eocene Playas Formation Rb-Sr wr
Aspden et al 1992
Tertiary plutons (gabbros diorites) 13518 12816 K-Ar hornblende et al
Aspden 1992
9713-7212(11) K-Ar
Pas| Sacapalca Formation
Cretaceous
biotite Aspden et al 1992
Paleocene plutons (granodiorites) 7713 6516 (6) K-Ar muscovite Aspden et al, 1992
HH 16 Tres Lagunas K-Ar

Macuchi Formation 17314 plagioclase Kenneriey, 1980
7811 K Ar biotite
METAMORPHIC ROCKS Kenneriey, 1980
200112 Rb-Sr wr
Ccn I Casanga and Naranjo Aspden et al 1992
K-Ar
Formations ^^H Jurassicmetasedimentary and 8614-5012 (8)
K-Ar
biotite Aspden et al 1992
10013-6813 (6) muscovite Aspden et al, 1992
^m Yunguilla Formation metavolcanic rocks (El Pan Delicia units)
61 615 0 fission-track zircon this work
Alamor Formation ^^H Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks 17 Tangula 114130 113+3 K-Ar hornblende Kenneriey 1980
(Chiguinda Ayoyan El Tigre La Victoria units) 49+2 95+1 K-Ar biotite Kenneriey 1980
11013 K Ar plagioclase Kennerlev, 1980
Ceiica Formation ^^H Triassic metagranites (Tres Lagunas 18 Portachuela 2915 K-Ar biotite Kenneriey 1980
Sabanilla Mormoro Marcabeli) 24 510 8 K-Ar plagioclase Kenneriey 1980
Pinon Formation
K-Ar
24 210 8 K-feldspar Kenneriey 1980
El Toro unit undifferentiated Paleozoic and Mesozoic 2415 2017 K-Ar hornblende al
Jurassic PMz Aspden et 1992
rocks 19-12+1 (4) K-Ar biotite Aspden et al, 1992
AGE DETERMINATIONS PALEONTOLOGICAL LOCATIONS Compilation Dominik Hungerbuhler Institute of Geology ETH Zurich, Switzerland
Database This map is based field studies carried out under the author's Ph D project
i zircon fission-track ages this work
on
(1994-97) and a
O Middle Miocene ostracods compilation of published data (Kenneriey 1973 Baldock 1982 Litheriand
etal, 1993 Hunger¬
zircon fission-track ages (this work Peterson et al in prep ) buhler et al 1995 Aspden et al 1995 Jaillard et al 1996 and Pratt et al 1997) The regions
0 (Hungerbuhler et al 1995 Steinmann 1997) Neogene mammals of San Fernando-Giron Santa Isabel-Ona and
Loja-Vilcabamba-Catamayo-Gonzanama Cata¬
f—3
(R Madden pers 1996) cocha were mapped by D Hungerbuhler (a total of 2500 km2 1 50 000
K-Ar ages
comm in scale) Some line-
^ work from regions situated outside of the studied area is derived from the project of the British
(Kenneriey, 1980 Aspden etal 1992) STRUCTURES
Geological Survey in the Cordillera Occidental (Pratt etal 1997, BGS and CODIGEM in press;
* zircon fission-track ages A, thrust fault inverse fault and is marked "BGS"
(Pratt et al, 1997) Geographic The geographic and topographic data are compiled from 1 250 000 topographic
_JBL_ normal fault maps of the
base Instituto Geografico Militar (sheets Guayaquil Machala, Macara)
_ K-Ar ages (Barberi et al, 1988, Rivera et al,
-*—
strike-slip fault lineament
1992, Lavenu et al, 1992, Jaillard et al, 1996) Funding The work of D Hungerbuhler was funded by the Swiss Science Foundation grants r^/JI'r'
anticline syncline
+4120 m altitude (m)
W No 21-39143 93 and 20^15256 95
[^ i ]J-'
(C) Dominik Hungerbuhler, 1^9>7\ ,
~?
J> »tt PTH A1314

79° 00
61,0 80° OCT 620 630 79° 45
9680
ajBalao
9670
-3° 00
Pacific Ocean
9640
9530
—4° 15
) Dominik Hungerbuhler, 1997 fbtfc Em AZ. Si 4

10 15 20
kilometers

Hungerbuhler These, 1997

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Diss. ETHZ No.

Neogene basins in the Andes of southern Ecuador: evolution,

A dissertation submitted to the

SWISS FEDERAL LNSTTTUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ZURICH

for the degree of

Doctor of Natural Sciences

born August 24,1968

accepted on the recommendation of

PD Dr. Wilfried Winkler ETH Zurich examiner

(California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco) for diatom identifications.

ideas and results in the field and also by numerous e-mails.

support of my "long" education period, although I tried to finish as fast as possible.

39134.93 and 20-45256.95.

2. Zircon fission-track chronostratigraphy..................„.....«...................-........«...............«.....................7

2.2.1. Age determinations on zircon -

2.2.4. Statistical treatment of mixed fission-track ages 15

2.3.1. Volcanic and metamorphic rock underlying the Tertiary basins 17

2.3.2. Basin fill series 24

2.3.3. Timing of deformation 24

3.2. Metamorphic basement 28

3.2.1. Chigunda and Agoyan units 28

3.3. Cretaceous series 30

3.3.1. Celica Formation 30

3.3.2. Naranjo and Casanga Formation 33

3.4. Paleogene volcanic series 33

3.4.1. Sacapalca Formation 33

3.4.2. Loma Blanca Formation 35

3.4.4. Jacapa Formation (sediments) 41

3.4.5. Santa Isabel Formation 41

3.5. Playas basin 44

3.5.1. Rio Playas Formation 44

3.6. Miocene basin series 45

3.6.1. Gir6n-Santa Isabel basin 45

3.6.2. Loja basin 53

D Ceno Mandango Formation 75

3.6.4. Catamayo-Gonzanamd basin 79

4. Evolution of the Miocene depositional environments..............................................................................89

5. Miocene extensional basin formation and basin inversion..................................,..............................100

6. Late Tertiary paleogeographic and tectonic evolution in southern Ecuador............ ......123

7. A Late Tertiary tectonic model of southern Ecuador............................ .

Curriculum Vitae. 182

The Miocene series of the Giron-Santa Isabel, Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba and

Catamayo-Gonzanama basins rest unconformably on volcanic rocks (Paleocene to Early

The Middle Miocene series of Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba and Catamayo-Gon¬

The unconformities, resulting from the compressive deformation event at around 9

synsedimentary deformation points rather to periodic uplift pulses at higher rates.

extension propagated into the Andean domain by margin-parallel halfgraben formation

may have opened the Guayaquil Seaway.

ken innerhalb der alteren Ablagerungsraume.

bamba und Catamayo-Gonzanama liegen diskordant auf vulkanischen Gesteinen (Palaozan

Becken zeigt eine Position im kontinentalen Vulkanbogen an. Die Chronostratigraphie

Zirkonen der vulkanischen Unterlage und vulkanischen Einschaltungen in den Sedimenten

Die mittelmiozanen Serien von Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba und Catamayo-Gonza¬

schen Liefergebieten im Westen zu verzeichnen. Die Cordillera Real bildete im siidlichen

diskordant von kontinentalen grobklastischen Ablagerungen des spaten Miozans iiberla-

grobklastischen Alluvialfachem und geringmachtigen lakustrinen Sedimenten iiberlagert

Schuttungsrichtung um 9-8 Ma zu einer dominanten westlichen Quelle zeigt eine

die Diskordanzen manifestiert.

markant hoherer Rate angenommen werden.

eine minimale Nord-Verschiebung des Costa-Blockes von 100 km seit 9 Ma hin.

Die miozane Beckenbildung in Siidecuador ereignete sich im Bereich des Tripel-

andinen Domane verursachte Extension und Beckensubsidenz im Kiistenbereich. Die

Krustenausdiinnung in den pull-apart Becken im forearc fiihrte zu regionaler westgerichteter

Ma und einem kompressiven Ereignis um 9-8 Ma gekennzeichnet. Das kurzlebige kom-