Materials Today: Proceedings 84 (2023) 74–82

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

A review of solar thermal desalination using nanotechnology

Suresh Isravel R., Karunamurthy K. ⇑
VIT Chennai, Chennai, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Freshwater is the mandatory requirement for the humankind as it provides health and prosperity.
Available online 24 May 2023 According to WHO, safe drinking water, sanitation, and hygienic conditions are essential to protect us
during all infectious disease outbreaks. However, 97% of the water on our earth is salty and only 3% is
Keywords: freshwater and merely less than 1% of water is potable. This scare commodity is required for drinking,
Potable water domestic use, irrigation, and also for industrial applications. The population explosion with a better stan-
Desalination dard of living demands for the mammoth quantity of potable water. The demand cannot be met from var-
Solar thermal
ious natural sources and hence desalination process compels us to adopt. The water obtained from
Nanotechnology
MED
various sources is treated for microorganisms and other harmful contaminants. The present-day desali-
nation process is expensive and also degrades the environment by leaving the carbon footprints. Solar
energy-based desalination plants help to receive potable water at economic and environment friendly.
In this review article, the applications of nanotechnology in solar thermal desalination are discussed.
Copyright Ó 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Third International Con-
ference on Sustainable Energy Solutions for a Better Tomorrow.

1. Introduction energy-based desalination technologies are categorized as solar,

Freshwater demand of the world is increasing day by day to
meet its demand in agriculture, household, and industrial sectors.
It is estimated that groundwater which accounts for 60% of the
freshwater supply will be overexploited in 2050. The desalination
process is meant to prevent global water insecurity as it converts
the salt water into potable freshwater. The desalination process
is particularly suited for coastal areas and it is adopted in 173
countries in the world [1]. The conventional desalination plants
which work on fossil fuels are facing two major problems, one is
energy consumption and the other is brine discharge. Desalination
plant consumes 3 to 5 kW-hours of electricity to produce 1 kilolitre
of water and the drain water has the salt content twice of the sea-
water is discharged into the sea which threatens the environment
by cratering the oxygen levels and spiking salt content[2]. Thus to
overcome the above-said barriers, the process of desalination
based on renewable energy technologies is to be implemented as
it is the sustainable way of providing freshwater [3]. Renewable
wind, and geothermal. Further, the solar based desalination system
is categorized into solar thermal and solar photovoltaic desalina-
tion plants. Solar energy accounts for 57 % of total renewable
energy-based technologies [4]. The popular solar-thermal desali-
nation technology is solar still, multi-stage flash, or multi-effect
distillation. Solar Stills are appropriate for very small water
demands (one to ten liters of water per day or in areas lacking elec-
tricity or skilled technicians), however, these technologies require
a large area of land [5]. There has been limited coverage of nan-
otechnology’s utilization in solar energy systems in existing review
papers. This review paper provides a concise and lucid outline of
the implementation of nanotechnology in solar desalination sys-
tems. While nanotechnology has numerous applications, this paper
concentrates on nanofluids and nanocoatings employed in solar
stills ( Table 1).
2. Types of solar thermal desalination system

2.1. Solar still

Abbreviations: DO, Distillate output; MF, Mass fraction; MWCNT, Multi walled
carbon Nanotube; PVA, Poly vinyl alcohol; TE, Thermal efficiency.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: sureshisravelr@gmail.com (R. Suresh Isravel), karunamurthy.
k@vit.ac.in (K. Karunamurthy).
Solar still as in Figs. 1 and 2 is a basin-like structure coated with
black paint and covered with inclined glass. The sun rays falling on
the solar still evaporates the water in the basin followed by the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.05.084
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Third International Conference on Sustainable Energy Solutions for a Better Tomorrow.
R. Suresh Isravel and K. Karunamurthy Materials Today: Proceedings 84 (2023) 74–82

Table 1
Nanofluids/Nanomaterials coatings used in Solar stills.

Sl. Author Modifications in solar still Nanofluids/ Percentage of Performance improvent in terms of Distillate
No name Nanomaterials concentrations-Mass output[DO] /Thermal Efficiency[TE]
coatings used Fraction[MF]/Volume
Fraction [VF]/PPM
1 Wenjing Magnetic/ MF 0.0% to 0.04% TE 24.95% to 76.65%
Chen et al MWCNT(Multi
[13] walled Carbon
nano tubes)
2 A.E. Kabeel Vacuum Fan Integration in Basin CuO(Copper MF 0.02% to 0.2% DO - Cuo-133.64% and 93.87% for with and
et al[14] oxide) and without Vacuum fan Al2O3-133.64% and 93.87%
Al2O3(Aluminium for with and without Vacuum fan
oxide)
3 Dattatraya Parabolic trough collector as as Additional heat Al2O3 VF- 0.05% to 0.1% TE 70%
G. Subhedar source
et al[15]
4 Swellam W. (I). Solar still with V-Corrugated absorber plate. CuO MF 1% DO-(I). Solar still with V-Corrugated absorber
Sharshir (II). Solar still with V-Corrugated absorber plate plate 28.38%. (II). Solar still with V-Corrugated
et al[16] and wick Material. (III). Solar still with V- absorber plate and wick Material 45%. (III).
Corrugated absorber plate, wick material and Solar still with V-Corrugated absorber plate,
CuO based nanofluid. wick material and CuO based nanofluid.-72.95%
5 Sina 1.Dual Axis tracker in solar still 2.Linear Fresnel MWCNT MF 0.15% to 0.3% T.E- 9.56% For 0.15% MF and 17.85 for 0.3% MF of
Abbaszadeh collector as an additional heat source. Nanofluid.
Hashemi
et al[17]
6 Seyed (I) Thermo electric heating element added in the Ag(Silver) MF 0.03% T.E - (I) Thermo electric heating element added
Masoud basin of the solar still,(II)Thermoelectric heating in the basin of the solar still 100.5%(II)
Parsa et al and the nanofluid added saline water and (III) Thermoelectric heating and the nanofluid added
[18] Thermoelectric heating and the nanofluid added saline water 26.7% (III) Thermoelectric heating
saline water with thermoelectric cooler as an and the nanofluid added saline water with
external condenser thermoelectric cooler as an external condenser-
50.8%.
7 Wei An et al Photovoltaic panel integrated with solar still Ag and Au(Gold) PPM-26 T.E Au-6.8% Ag-4.8%
[19]
8 T. (I) copper oxide coated absorber plate (CCAP) (II) Copper oxide TE-(I) copper oxide coated absorber plate
Arunkumar polyvinyl alcohol sponge (PVA) (III) Combination (Cuo) coating in (CCAP)-53% (II) polyvinyl alcohol sponge (PVA)–
et al[20] of CCAP and PVA. absorber plate 32% (III) Combination of CCAP and PVA 41%.
9 Bhupendra Basins side walls are white painted CuO MF 0.12% DO-Yield improved by 650 ml/m2-day
Gupta et al
[21]
10 A.E. Kabeel External condenser is integrated with still basins Al2O3 VF-0.2% DO- (I) External condenser without nanofluid-
et al[22] 53.2% (II)External condenser with nanofluid-
116%
11 Z.M. Omara Corrugated wick solar still with internal Al2O3 and CuO MF 1.97% DO- (I)Corrugated wick solar still with internal
et al[23] condenser, Internal reflectors and Nanofluids. condenser, Internal reflectors without
Nanofluids- 180%.(II)Corrugated wick solar still
with internal condenser, Internal reflectors with
CuO based Nanofluids- 285%.
(III) Corrugated wick solar still with internal
condenser, Internal reflectors with CuO based
Nanofluids-255%
12 A.E. Kabeel Absorber plate of the basin is coated with Tio2 Tio2 VF-0.1% With black D0- 6.1%
et al [24] nano particles doped with black paint. paint
13 Saeed External condenser with four Thermoelectric CuO VF- 0.04% and 0.08% Maximum DO obtained at 0.08% 38.5%
Nazari et al cooling modules
[25]
14 S.W. Glass Film cooling CuO and Graphite MF-0.125% to 2% TE- Cuo-46% Graphite Micro flakes-49 %
Sharshir Micro Flakes
et al [26]
15 Swellam W. Basins are provided with Linen wicks Carbon black MF-1.5% DO- 80.57%
Sharshir, Nanoparticle
et al [27]

condensation of water in a glass. The condensate is collected by a separated. This vapor is condensed and collected in a distillate tank
pipe like provision [6]. [6].

2.2. Solar multi-stage flash desalination 2.3. Solar thermal multi-effect distillation

This apparatus illustrated in Fig. 3 consists of a flash chamber
maintained at low pressure by using the vacuum pump. Preheated
saline water is feed through the pump to the solar thermal collec-
tor to hike the temperature of saline water to saturation tempera-
ture. Then it is supplied to the flash chamber where the vapors are
75
In the multi-effect desalination plant as shown in Fig. 4, saline
water is flashed in vessels which are named as effects maintaining
at low pressure by the vacuum pump. Heat is supplied to these
vessels by the solar collectors to produce the steam. Steam from
the previous effect is used to increase the temperature of the salt
R. Suresh Isravel and K. Karunamurthy Materials Today: Proceedings 84 (2023) 74–82

Fig. 1. Schematic layout of solar desalination system.

Fig. 2. Solar still.

Fig. 3. Solar multi-stage flash desalination.

76
R. Suresh Isravel and K. Karunamurthy Materials Today: Proceedings 84 (2023) 74–82

water in the next effect. Afterward, Steam is condensed and col-
lected in a separate tank [7].
2.4. Freeze desalination
In this system as shown in Fig. 5, Seawater becomes solid ice
after removing the heat from it using the Refrigerant. Then the
salts are removed from the ice crystals. These ice crystals are fur-
ther heated to get clean water. [8].
3. Nanotechnology in desalination
In recent times, advances in nanotechnology have propelled the
field of water purification forward. Optimal outcomes are achieved
by integrating various conventional desalination methods with
nanomaterials. Nanomaterials, possessing at least one dimension
below 100 nm, exhibit unique size-dependent properties that are
absent in larger counterparts. They have gained popularity in
water treatment due to their remarkable hydrophilic, hydrophobic,

Fig. 4. Solar multi-effect distillation.

Fig. 5. Freeze Desalination.

77
R. Suresh Isravel and K. Karunamurthy
and electrostatic behavior, controlled pore volume, and substantial
aspect ratio. These traits are highly advantageous for utilization in
diverse fields like sensing, catalysis, optoelectronics, and
adsorption.
4. Performance improvement techniques for solar desalination
In Solar still with nanofluid as working medium, separation of
nanoparticles from the saline water is a tedious problem. To
recover the nanoparticles from the brine, Magnetic/MWCNT based
nanofluid is used. This Nanoparticle has extreme Magnetic behav-
ior can be easily recovered from the brine by the application of
External Magnetic Field. Experimental results shows the evapora-
tion efficiency is increased from 24.9% to 76.65% for the weight
fraction ranges from 0 to 0.04% of nanoparticles. The increase in
yield is due to that solar energy was more usable for the conversion
of saline water to potable water while adding the nanoparticle to
the water in the basin. [9].
Conventional solar still is modified by providing the vacuum fan
in the solar basin, and the nanofluid as the working fluid to
Fig. 6. Solar still with Vacuum fan.
Fig. 7. Double slope Solar still with V-corrugated absorber and Wick material.
78
Materials Today: Proceedings 84 (2023) 74–82
improve the rate of evaporation as shown in Fig. 6, Vacuum fan
exhaust the steam to the External Condenser. Nanoparticles used
in this analysis are CuO and Al2O3.These Nanoparticles are added
with the saline water. Results disclosed that CuO nanoparticle
improves productivity by 93.87 and 133.64% without and with
Vacuum. Al2O3 nanoparticle based nanofluid increase yield by
88.97% and 125.0% by without and with vacuum fan. The vacuum
fan’s ability to increase the suction rate of water vapor and the
nanoparticle’s ability to enhance the absorption of solar radiation
and heat transfer within the water contribute to the increase in
efficiency. [10].
Single slope solar is modified by integrating the parabolic
trough collector(PTC) with the solar still. Nanofluid from the para-
bolic trough collector is pumped to the solar still to evaporate the
water. Experiments were conducted in four different scenarios (I)
Conventional Solar still (CSS) (II) Conventional Solar still integrated
with PTC (III) CSS integrated with PTC for the volume fraction of
0.05% (IV) CSS integrated with PTC for the volume fraction of
0.1%.Al2O3. Results prove that the Maximum yield is obtained at
Scenario (IV) in which yield is increased by 66 % for the volume
fraction of 0.1%. The reason for the enhanced yield is the incorpo-
R. Suresh Isravel and K. Karunamurthy
ration of the parabolic trough collector, which furnishes extra heat
to the solar still, thereby raising the rate of water evaporation in
the basin. [11].
Conventional solar still is modified with V-Corrugated absorber
plate and big material as shown in Fig. 7. Also the CuO based nano-
fluid is used the working fluid in the solar still. Experiments are
conducted in three different scenarios. (I). Solar still with V-
Corrugated absorber plate. (II). Solar still with V-Corrugated absor-
ber plate and wick Material. (III). Solar still with V-Corrugated
absorber plate, wick material and CuO based nanofluid. Research
shows that the productivity is improved by 28.38%, 45% and
72.95% for scenario (I), (II) and (III) respectively. The increase in
efficiency can be attributed to the synergistic effect of the V-
corrugated absorber, which enhances the absorption of solar
energy, and the utilization of a wick for capillary rise of water,
along with cuprous oxide nanoparticles that boost the heat transfer
rate. [12].
In this work solar still Fig. 8 is operated with dual Axis tracking
system for effective grasping of sun rays. Also the linear Fresnel
collector (LFC) is used as heat source for the solar system. LFC acts
Fig. 8. Single slope solar still with Linear Fresnel collector.
Fig. 9. Solar Still with Thermo electric with external condenser and nanofluid.
79
Materials Today: Proceedings 84 (2023) 74–82
as an additional heat source for the solar still. Experiments are con-
ducted in Four different scenarios (I) Conventional solar still(CSS)
(II) CSS with External condenser (EC) (III) CSS with EC and Thermo-
electric coolers (TEC) (IV) CSS with combined EC and TEC linked
with Dual axis tracking system. Heat transfer medium used is
MWCNT/ Water nanofluid for weight fraction of 0.15 % and 0.3 %.
Results prove that maximum thermal efficiency is obtained at Sce-
nario (IV) by 9.56% and 17.85% respectively for weight fraction of
0.15 % and 0.3 % of nanoparticles. The combined action of the Lin-
ear Fresnel collector and the nanoparticles has led to an increase in
the yield of the distilled product. Specifically, the Linear Fresnel
collector is responsible for providing additional heat to the distilla-
tion process, while the nanoparticles aid in the increase in heat
transfer rate. [13].
In this work, Solar still is modified by integrating the Thermo
Electric Modules as shown in Fig. 9. Experiments are conducted
in (I) Thermo electric heating element added in the basin of the
solar still,(II)Thermoelectric heating and the nanofluid added saline
water and (III) Thermoelectric heating and the nanofluid added sal-
ine water with thermoelectric cooler as an external condenser.
R. Suresh Isravel and K. Karunamurthy
Results shows that the efficiency of the system is increased by
100.5%, 26.7% and 50.8% respectively. The utilization of thermo-
electric heating elevates the temperature of water in the basin,
while nanofluids are employed to amplify the absorption rate of
the collector [14].
In the basin of solar still indicated in Fig. 10, photovoltaic panels
are placed. Solar radiation falls on the basin which contains gold
and silver based nanofluid converts light energy into thermal
energy then the remains and light is transferred to the photovoltaic
panel where is the light energy is converted into electrical energy.
This electrical energy is used to operate the pump to carry the
steam to the external condenser. Results show that the thermal
efficiency of the system is increased by 4.8% and 6.8% for the gold
and silver nanofluid. Silver nanofluids exhibit higher efficiency due
to their high Brownian motion, which enhances their ability to
transfer heat [15].
Conventional solar still is modified with copper oxide coated
absorber plate and the polyvinyl alcohol sponge. Experiments are
conducted with (I) copper oxide coated absorber plate (CCAP)
and the (II) polyvinyl alcohol sponge (PVA) (III) Combination of
CCAP and PVA. Nanoparticle coated absorber plate have high ther-
mal conductivity which facilitate the transfer of heat to the water
in the basin. Polyvinyl alcohol sponges increases the evaporation
rate of the solar still. The efficiency of this system will increase
as a result of the facilitation of capillary rise by the polyvinyl
sponge and the enhancement of the heat transfer rate by the
nanoparticles. [16].
Fig. 10. Solar still with PV/T operated Vacuum fan.
Fig. 11. Solar still with V-corrugated wick and External Condenser.
80
Materials Today: Proceedings 84 (2023) 74–82
Solar still is modified with coating the white paint around the
side wall. The white painted side walls minimize the heat loss from
the vapor to the sidewalls of the solar basin and consequently to
the atmosphere. Also the CuO nanoparticles is added with saline
water for the weight fraction of 0.12%. Experiments are conducted
with the different water depth of 5 cm and 10 cm and the results
disclose that yield of the nanofluid is increased by 650 ml/m2-
day for the modified and nanofluid added solar still,. Cuprous oxide
nanofluids exhibit higher efficiency owing to their thermal conduc-
tivity. Normally, it is not recommended to have 5 cm of water in
the basin, as it lowers the evaporation rate. [17].
Solar still is modified with the external condenser with vacuum
fan to fasten the condensation process. Vacuum fan creates the tur-
bulence in the water vapour present in the gas and also exhaust the
water vapour. Also Vacuum fan removes the Non-Condensable
gases present in the basin of the solar still. Instead of conventional
water, nanofluids is used in the basin to enhance the thermal prop-
erties.Al2O3 Nanoparticles for the volume fraction of 0.2% had
been used in this work. This shows that the productivity is
improved by 53.2 % and 116 % for the Modified solar still(MSS)
integrated with the external condenser(EC) and MSS with EC and
Nanofluid as working Medium. As a vacuum fan intensifies the tur-
bulence in the system and the use of nanofluids boosts the heat
transfer rate, the overall efficiency of the system is elevated to a
significant extent. By combining the two mechanisms, the system’s
capability to transfer heat is greatly improved, leading to a notice-
able increase in its overall effectiveness. [18].
R. Suresh Isravel and K. Karunamurthy
Fig. 12. Solar still with Glass film cooling.
Solar still with corrugated wick basin is modified with internal
reflector and integrated with external condenser as shown in
Fig. 11. Experiments are conducted in four different scenario (I)
Conventional solar still(CSS) (II) CSS with IE, EC (III) CSS with IE,
EC with CuO based nanofluid (IV) CSS with IE, EC with Al2O3 based
nanofluid. Comparing to the CSS,the performance of this system is
improved by 180%,285% and 255% in terms of yield for the Scenario
(I)(II)(III) respectively. Several factors contribute to the increased
overall efficiency, including the use of a corrugated wick to induce
turbulence, an external condenser that boosts the condensation
rate, an internal reflector that aids in absorbing more solar radia-
tion, and the implementation of nanofluids to improve the heat
transfer rate. By combining these features, the solar still is able
to operate more effectively, producing a higher yield of purified
water. [19].
Solar still is modified with the basin surface coated with TiO2
Nanoparticles doped with Black paint(NPBP) for the volume frac-
tion of 0.1% to improve the absorptivity of solar radiation. Due to
this the evaporation rate of water is increased. Experiments were
conducted with different depth of the water which varies from
1 cm to 3.5 cm. Experimental results shows that NPBP increase
the water temperature 1.5⁰ C and productivity is improved by
6.1%. The enhancement of the overall distillate output can be
attributed to the incorporation of two factors that work in unison.
Firstly, the use of black paints that exhibit higher absorptivity rates
facilitates the absorption of heat and contributes to an improved
heat absorption rate. Secondly, the presence of nanoparticles
improves the heat transfer, leading to a further increase in distil-
late output. When combined, these two factors result in a signifi-
cant improvement in the overall efficiency of the distillation
process, thus leading to a greater yield of distilled water.[20].
Solar still is modified with four thermoelectric cooling unit as
external condenser to speed up the evaporation process. CuO
nanoparticle is mixed with water to increase the rate of heat trans-
fer. Experiments are conducted in four different scenarios (I) Con-
ventional solar still (II) CSS with Thermo electric condenser (TEC)
(III) CSS with TEC and the CuO nanofluid for the volume fraction
of 0.04%. (IV) CSS with TEC and the CuO nanofluid for the volume
fraction of 0.08%.Comparing to the CSS the distillate yield of the
solar still is improved by 6.7%, 33.6% and 50.6% for Scenario (II),
(III) and (IV) respectively. The elevated yield is attributed to the
supplemental heat provided by the thermoelectric modules and
the augmented heat transfer facilitated by the use of nanofluid..
[21].
Conventional single slope solar still is modified with the flow of
cold water over the top glass to condense the evaporated steam as
81
Materials Today: Proceedings 84 (2023) 74–82
shown in Fig. 12. Nanoparticles are used in the range of 0.125% to
2% MF. Water depth is maintained from 0.25 cm to 5 cm. Flow rate
of water for the film cooling is varied from 1 to 12 kg/hr. Copper
oxide and graphite based nanofluids are used in the system to aug-
ment the yield. The results disclosed that the yield is increased by
46% and 49% for the Copper oxide and Graphite based nanofluids.
The efficency of the solar still hinges on the variation in tempera-
ture between the water and the glass surface. This differential can
be attained by circulating cold water across the glasses. [22].
Classical stepped double slope solar still is modified with linen
wicks and the carbon black nanoparticles based nanofluids are
used. Linen wicks are used to increase the evaporation area of
the water in the basin of the solar still. Experimental results shows
that the productivity of the solar still (I)with wick, (II)with nanoflu-
ids and the (III)combination of linen wicks and nanofluid is
increased by 19.91%, 23.83% and 47.22% respectively. The increase
in yield is due to the capillary rise action of linen wicks and double
stepped solar still. When compared to the single slope solar still
double slope solar still absorbs more amount of sun rays, therefore
the temperature of water in the basin was increased. [23].
5. Conclusion
The desalination technology powered by solar energy can func-
tion without carbon emission and provide potable freshwater
without degrading the environment. Solar energy-based desalina-
tion techniques can solve the water scarcity problem in rural and
remote areas. Further research has to be done for disposal of brine
solution and also to identify proper ways to extract minerals and
salts from the brine solution. The application of nanotechnology
in the solar thermal desalination system improves the productivity
of the solar thermal desalination system. The current focal point in
desalination is nanotechnology, where the utilization of nanomate-
rials has shown tremendous potential in enhancing the outcomes
of desalination. This review paper highlights the role of nanoparti-
cles and nano-coatings in significantly reducing the time and cost
of the desalination process. Moreover, the integration of nanotech-
nology can improve the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of tradi-
tional desalination methods and can have far-reaching
applications, such as waste purification and wastewater treatment.
By leveraging nanotechnology along with thermal energy storage
and heat transfer enhancement techniques will lead to improve-
ment in the overall effectiveness and affordability of the system.
R. Suresh Isravel and K. Karunamurthy
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Suresh Isravel: Conceptualization, Data curation, Resources,
Visualization. K. Karunamurthy: .
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
References
[1] http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publication/global-water-supply-and-
demand-trends-point-towards-rising-water-insecurity/ last accessed 2020/
06/25.
[2] http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publication/research-development-
global-desalination-industry/ last accessed 2020/06/25.
[3] Mirei Isaka, Energy technology system sanalyzing a://iea-etsap.org › PDFPDF,
Water Desalination Using Renewable Energy - IEA-ETSAP.
[4] Mohamed A. Eltawil , Zhao Zhengming, Liqiang Yuan .A review of renewable
energy technologies integrated with desalination systems. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews 13 2245–2262(2009).
[5] Karen E.Thomas, Overview of Village Scale, Renewable Energy Powered
Desalination – NREL, https://www.nrel.gov › oldPDF.
[6] H. Sharon, K.S. Reddy. A review of solar energy driven desalination
technologies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 1080–1118
(2015) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.002.
[7] Toufic Mezher, Hassan Fath, Zeina Abbas, Arslan Khaled, Techno-economic
assessment and environmental impacts of desalination technologies,
Desalination, Volume 266, Issues 1–3 263-273(2011) https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.desal.2010.08.035.
[8] M.V. Rane, Y.S. Padiya, Heat pump operated freeze concentration system with
tubular heat exchanger for seawater desalination, Energy Sustain. Develop. 15
(2) (2011) 184–191, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2011.03.001.
[9] W. Chen, C. Zou, X. Li, H. Liang, Application of recoverable carbon nanotube
nanofluids in solar desalination system: an experimental investigation,
Desalination 451 (2019) 292–1101, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
desal.2017.09.025.
[10] A.E. Kabeel, Z.M. Omara, F.A. Essa, Improving the performance of solar still by
using nanofluids and providing vacuum, Energy Convers. Manage. 86 (2014)
268–274, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.05.050.
[11] Dattatraya G. Subhed ar, Kamlesh V. Chauhan, Krunal Patel, Bharat M. Ramani,
Performance improvement of a conventional single slope single basin passive
solar still by integrating with nanofluid-based parabolic trough collector: An
82
Materials Today: Proceedings 84 (2023) 74–82
experimental study, Materials Today: Proceedings,Volume 26, Part 2, 1478-
1481(2020) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.304 .
[12] Swellam W. Sharshir, M.R. Elkadeem, An Meng, Performance enhancement of
pyramid solar distiller using nanofluid integrated with v-corrugated absorber
and wick: An experimental study, Applied Thermal Engineering, Volume
168,114848(2020) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.114848
[13] Sina Abbaszadeh Hashemi, Mohsen Kazemi, Amin Taheri, Mohammad
Passandideh-Fard, Mohammad Sardarabadi, Experimental investigation and
cost analysis on a nanofluid-based desalination system integrated with an
automatic dual-axis sun tracker and Fresnel lens, Applied Thermal
Engineering, Volume 180,115788(2020) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
applthermaleng.2020.115788
[14] Seyed Masoud Parsa, Amir Rahbar, M.H. Koleini, Sadegh Aberoumand, Masoud
Afrand, Majid Amidpour, A renewable energy-driven thermoelectric-utilized
solar still with external condenser loaded by silver/nanofluid for
simultaneously water disinfection and desalination, Desalination,Volume
480,114354(2020) o .
[15] L.u. Wei An, T.L. Chen, Y. Qin, Enhanced solar distillation by nanofluid-based
spectral splitting PV/T technique: preliminary experiment, Sol. Energy 176
(2018) 146–156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.10.029.
[16] T. Arunkumar, D. Murugesan, Kaiwalya Raj, David Denkenberger, C.
Viswanathan, D. Dsilva Winfred Rufuss, R. Velraj, Effect of nano-coated CuO
absorbers with PVA sponges in solar water desalting system, Applied Thermal
Engineering, Volume 148,1416-1424(2019) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
applthermaleng.2018.10.129
[17] B. Gupta, P. Shankar, R. Sharma, P. Baredar, Performance enhancement using
nano particles in modified passive solar still, Procedia Technol. 25 (2016)
1209–1216, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2016.08.208.
[18] A.E. Kabeel, Z.M. Omara, F.A. Essa, Enhancement of modified solar still
integrated with external condenser using nanofluids: an experimental
approach, Energy Convers. Manage. 78 (2014) 493–498, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.enconman.2013.11.013.
[19] Z.M. Omara, A.E. Kabeel, F.A. Essa, Effect of using nanofluids and providing
vacuum on the yield of corrugated wick solar still, Energy Convers. Manage.
103 (2015) 965–972, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.07.035.
[20] A.E. Kabeel, Ravishankar Sathyamurthy, Swellam W. Sharshir, A.
Muthumanokar, Hitesh Panchal, N. Prakash, C. Prasad, S. Nandakumar, M.S.
El Kady, Effect of water depth on a novel absorber plate of pyramid solar still
coated with TiO2 nano black paint, Journal of Cleaner Production,Volume
213,185-191(2019) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.185
[21] S. Nazari, H. Safarzadeh, M. Bahiraei, Experimental and analytical
investigations of productivity, energy and exergy efficiency of a single slope
solar still enhanced with thermoelectric channel and nanofluid, Renew. Energy
135 (2019) 729–744, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.12.059.
[22] S.W. Sharshir, Guilong Peng, Lirong Wu, Nuo Yang, F.A. Essa, A.H. Elsheikh,
Showgi I.T. Mohamed, A.E. Kabeel, Enhancing the solar still performance using
nanofluids and glass cover cooling: Experimental study, Applied Thermal
Engineering, Volume 113,Pages 684-693(2017) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
applthermaleng.2016.11.085.
[23] Swellam W. Sharshir, Mohamed A. Eltawil, Almoataz M. Algazzar, Ravishankar
Sathyamurthy, A.W. Kandeal, Performance enhancement of stepped double
slope solar still by using nanoparticles and linen wicks: Energy, exergy and
economic analysis, Applied Thermal Engineering, Volume 174,115278(2020)
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.115278.