Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Review

A synergistic evaluation on application of solar-thermal energy in water T

purification: Current scenario and future prospects
Sujit Kumar Verma , Piyush Singhal, Durg Singh Chauhan
⁎

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering and Technology, GLA University, Mathura 281406, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Present synergistic review is an attempt to evaluate compatibility of application of solar energy based systems for
Synergistic water purification. It provides an eagle’s perspective on progressive and contemporary, experimental and the-
Photo-catalytic oretical studies of water purification and production. Review focuses on conventional as well as modern tech-
Membrane filter niques of desalination and waste water treatment. Systems modification with application of advanced materials
Electrolysis
and mimicking nature’s ways of conversion of waste water into potable water in vapor form has been new areas
Nanomaterials
of research. Twenty-first century being marked with consistent and focused effort to conserve natural resources.
Core-shell
It can be addressed by putting enhanced emphasis on use of non-conventional energy resources. Hybrid mate-
rials, like core shells, blended nanofluids can be used for selective absorptance of ultraviolet and infra-red
radiation. This may be utilized in disinfection of certain type of harmful bacteria, and to enhance rate of dif-
fusion through thin membrane. These are an innovative and promising techniques being used in recent years.
There has been policy initiative taken by governments and research institutions to use solar energy in devices
which are designed for water purification and production. With use of advanced materials for filter design,
design modification of solar energy collecting devices, employing suitable photocatalytic conversion processes,
area specific need based purification systems can be developed.

1. Introduction number of conventional methods of purification of saline, brackish and

Since beginning of life on planet earth, nature has provided pure
water, air and solar energy to sustain life of all creatures. Nature’s ways
of creation and destruction is based on zero waste. Twenty-first century
being marked with consistent and focused effort to conserve natural
resources and progressively enhanced emphasis on use of non-con-
ventional energy resources. Energy and water naturally have synergetic
relationship. Per capita use of energy being considered as an index of
development. Ironically quality of available natural water is inversely
proportional to per capita energy use. Excessive use of fresh water in
energy generation, construction linked activities and processing works
resulted in severe scarcity of potable water [26]. To fulfill growing
demand of potable water for more than 7 billion population, applica-
tion of new technologies supported by advances in materials to design
smart and efficient systems to clean all water resources (saline, brackish
and contaminated) have been in horizon in recent years. There has been
contaminated water for long time. With use of advanced materials for
filter design, design modification of solar energy collecting devices,
photocatalytic conversion processes, area specific need based purifica-
tion systems can be employed. Water and air both are polluted in every
nook and corner on this planet where mechanized civilization has
spread its domain. Water is most affected resource in developed and
under developing countries. Developing countries are severely affected
from two aspects. First, lack of adequate quantity of potable water and
second one is more severe which is related to available water in rivers,
lakes, pond and wells is becoming rapidly polluted due to waste of non
biodegradable materials, by products of industrial activity. To provide
potable water in adequate quantity, people have to rely on available
polluted resources treated by conventional methods or use it as it is and
putting them in risk of getting fatally ill. Sustained and assured fresh
water availability is core for life and for all domains that are supple-
mentary to our life. Spurt in population growth marred with increase in

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sujit.verma@gla.ac.in (S.K. Verma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.10.090
Received 15 September 2018; Received in revised form 25 October 2018; Accepted 28 October 2018
0196-8904/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.K. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390

Nomenclature PT product tank

PTFE poly tetra flouoro ethylene
R-GO reduced graphene oxide VHDH vacuum humidification-dehumidification
EF enhancement factor HDH humidification and dehumidification
RO reverse osmosis 4E energy, exergy, economy and environment
MD membrane distillation SSF single-stage flashing
MED multi effect distillation SGVF super gravity flash chamber
ED electro dialysis SGVE super gravity vacuum evaporator
MVC mechanical vapor compression UWW urban waste water
MSF multistage flash distillation SDHW solar domestic hot water
EDR electro dialysis reversal CF carbon fabric
TVC thermal vapour compression TCF titanium rod grown carbon fabric
AF air fan N-ZVI nano zero valent iron
CHE cross flow heat exchanger CFU colony forming units
CP cooling pad SODIS solar disinfection
CU cooling unit SOLWAT solar water purification and renewable energy generation
CV control unit system
FM orifice meter K.cal kilo calorie
ETSH evacuated tube solar heater Gmean global mean insolence (W/m2)
DCMD direct contact membrane distillation
WDS water distribution system Greek
WT water tank
LI level indicator gc transmittance glazing to collector (dimensionless)
AV air vent w absorptance of water (dimensionless)

per capita income along with behavioral changes in consumption habits
have put enormous stress on energy water and food [27]. According to
WHO study [28] developing countries are facing acute crisis of avail-
ability of safe drinking water. It is expected that by 2030water shortage
will further aggravate and will affect up to 40% of population on planet
earth. Water purification is complex process of segregating of all ma-
terials, either biological, chemical, physical which are potentially
threatening to health of population for whom it is prepared. Operating
cost for conventional methods is comparatively higher. Following are
some traditional methods have been in use since ages. These are sedi-
mentation, filtering, chlorination, boiling and ozonation. Conventional
processes of water cleaning are not free from harmful byproducts which
causes dangerous disinfection [29,30]. Apart from traditional methods
which are parallel in use, researchers have been working to develop
technologies and smart and small systems which can be used to purify
water from any available resource. Since last decade of century there
has been spurt in development of new systems which can use solar-
thermal energy and new advance materials based filter to clean water.
In advance materials, nanomaterials are highly promising to be used in
design of smart system for water purification. Nanotechnology has been
recognized as “key asset technologies” [31,32]. Opportunities in na-
notechnologies may be utilized in terms of providing access to potable
water, advanced material energy storage systems and in field of health
care [33]. Refs. [34,35] conducted a comprehensive review to analyze
technical and economic feasibilities adopting available desalination
techniques and its geographical acceptability along with economic ac-
ceptability. Authors devised rank methods to categorize all countries
where desalination technologies can be successfully installed and run.
Ref. [14] conducted comprehensive and detailed chronological review
to discuss growth of sensor technology in monitoring of relation be-
tween water availability and energy requirement. To use wastewater
for energy to reduce burden on potable fresh water, sensor technology
is very crucial.
Core objective of presenting this synergistic review is to analyze all
available techniques of purification of water with respect to availability
of resources. How synergistic application of advanced materials and
solar energy can prop-up desired results. Impurity specific nanomater-
ials catalysts are very important for removing specific impurity in
water. By selecting proper material and design of impurity specific
filter, nano, micro and macro impurities can be effectively removed.
Possibility of water irradiation by ultrasound and high energy beams
will also be explored in search of techniques and material means, and
suggestions for future research and its engineering applications.
2. Techniques and processes of water purification
Following distinctive processes and techniques have been surfaced
in recent years and very fruitful and promising outcomes are spin-offs
due to successive hard work and innovations being put behind by re-
searchers. Solar desalination broadly categorized into two methods
[36]. First one is direct use of sunrays in solar still to humidify or de-
humidify. In indirect usage, we can convert solar energy into heat by
absorbing it into water or another modified fluid or convert it into
electricity by PV system. We can use absorbed heat or electricity to

373
S.K. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390

Fig. 1. Possible use of solar energy for different desalination techniques [17].

desalinate water by reverse osmosis, membrane distillation, electro-
dialysis or any other alternative process which is based on secondary
use of absorbed heat or electricity. In overall energy required for water
cleaning is met by solar energy and it reduces load on carbon emitting
sources. We here enumerated these distinctive methods to purify Water
taken from various resources. These are listed as:
I. Solar photocatalytic method of purification
II. Direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) and solar energy.
III. Electrolysis supported by solar energy
IV. Naturally circulated solar energy systems
V. Solar desalination, flash chamber.
VI. Nanomaterials and solar energy based water purification
3. Solar desalination, flash chamber
Solar desalination device is used for converting sea water which is
highly saline or any wastewater having high saline content. Ref. [17]
conducted review to search feasibility of designing a system run by
solar, wind, geothermal and ocean energy for desalination of sea water.
Fig. 1 schematic demonstrate possible uses of different energy resource
for various desalination techniques. Authors suggested integrating en-
ergy storage system with intermittent energy source in order to provide
energy required to run the system round the clock. System uses solar
energy to evaporate saline water separating fresh water in separate
chamber. Ref. [37] performed economic and technical study of multiple
tray solar desalination system. Authors suggested, on the basis of their

Fig. 2. Schematic of solar–still with position of absorbing material [16].

374
S.K. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390

Fig. 3. Schematic of solar desalination unit [2].

Fig. 4. Spray assisted low temperature system solar desalination system [6].

375
S.K. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390

Fig. 5. Schematic representation of working apparatus [10].

study findings that solar energy assisted multiple tray desalination
systems are feasible solution to fulfill requirement for remote areas
where brackish water is plentifully available. Ref. [38] proposed direct
conversion of surface water into vapour by using sun, it is a natural
process which causes evaporation and rain itself based on this concept.
Authors have used carbon black nanoparticles dissolved in ethyl alcohol
(20 g/l). Results confirm that for increasing light intensities: 25, 50, 100
& 120 W/cm2, ratio of actual evaporation rate to theoretical limit (EF)
has been 2.4, 1.5, 1.1 and 1.0 respectively. It indicates that at lower
interface temperature and low solar intensity, more energy can be
absorbed from surroundings is reason behind high EF. Ref. [39] devised
a system based on reduced Graphene oxide (R-GO) Solar-Thermal
evaporator. R-GO is layered with magnetic nanoparticles. This material,
being highly efficient (95%) in absorption of solar spectrum, systems
evaporation efficiency achieved was 70%. Ref. [40] presented com-
prehensive review of desalination methods and technologies applied for
desalination. Authors concluded that in spite of significant technical
challenges needs to be address, direct desalination systems taking en-
ergy from solar collector, possesses higher energy efficiency among all
types available. Ref. [16] performed experimental analysis to determine

Fig. 6. Schematic of SDMD Apparatus used for desalination [5].

376
S.K. Verma et al.
Fig. 7. Schematic of desalination of seawater by dye modified PTFE membrane [4].
Fig. 8. Detailed schematic of working apparatus [11].
yield of desalination system using absorbing materials Charcoal, Bi-
tumen and Black ink. Absorbing materials maintains evaporation
during night thus increases overall efficiency of desalination unit. Fig. 2
represent schematic and material application. Experimental findings
377
Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390
confirm that solar energy is best option to convert ground brackish
water into potable water in semi arid and arid zone where plenty of
ground water and solar insolence is available. Black ink, charcoal have
enhanced the productivity of solar desalination system by 6.87%,
18.42% and 25.35% considering night desalination facilitated by ab-
sorbent material. Ref. [2] experimentally studied single stage, spray
assisted solar desalination system to enhance evaporation and con-
densation. Maximum efficiency achieved 87% at a TDS level 40 ppm.
Production cost of distilled water produced was 0.029$/L. Fig. 3 de-
scribes about experimental set-up. Ref. [6] performed experimental &
simulation model to establish that at optimal flow/feed rate, desalina-
tion inefficiencies for spray assisted low temperature system reduces to
minimum and solar collector efficiency enhanced to maximum. Sche-
matic of system is shown in Fig. 4. It consist of solar collector, Feed
tank, spray evaporator and coil condenser. Ref. [10] performed ex-
perimental work to study effect of PCM on working capacity of solar
desalination unit. Authors observed that at optimum flow rate 10 ml/s
of cooling water, production rate of fresh water has been maximum.
Fig. 5 is schematic of working system comprise of solar collector to
absorb sun energy and PCM material Sodium, Thio Sulphate Penta
Hydrate (STSPH) in tube so that excess of energy can be stored in tubes
and can be used in night to produce fresh water round the clock. Ref.
[11] performed investigation of working of vacuum-VHDH desalination
system. Schematic and flow chart of working apparatus is shown in
Fig. 8. Among all parameters which governs water production rate,
drop in humidifier pressure from (90 kPa to 50 k Pa) is the most
S.K. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390

Fig. 9. Schematic of SSF system [1].

Fig. 10. Solar heating equivalent price versus collector area [12].

378
S.K. Verma et al.
Fig. 11. Schematic of SGVF [9].
significant. GOR reaches highest 3.43, desalination rate recorded
1.07 L/h m2. Ref. [1] have performed experimental investigation for
flashing desalination system using nanofluids based solar collector to
fulfill small scale requirements of people. Authors reported to attain
7.7 L/h m2 of fresh water production. Application of nanofluid (Cu/
water) further enhances heat absorption rate. Process working is de-
picted in schematic shown by Fig. 9. Ref. [12] performed area opti-
mization of system based on adsorption desalination. Authors aim is to
minimize production cost of fresh water. Fig. 10 shows comparative
graphs of area reduction and unit cost of fresh water for different en-
ergy source. For solar heating equivalent cost is minimum for given
area. For adsorption-desalination solar energy heating is more pro-
mising than other auxiliary energy sources.
Ma et al. [9] proposed conceptual model with theoretical support
“super-gravity” assisted vacuum flash chamber to clean sea water.
Fig. 11 demonstrate schematic of proposed working system. This system
is based on creation of vacuum in chamber by using wind or solar en-
ergy to rum mechanical device. Vacuum which reduces evaporation
pressure enhances evaporation of sea water. Wind energy source is
more compatible with this system (see Tables 1–3).
Manfrida et al. [3] this system is based on natural circulation under
gravity and buoyancy effect, which is created by solar collector heating
of water. Schematic of simple working process is demonstrated in
Fig. 12. The simulation model study depicts that 40–80 kg/day m2 fresh
water can be produced. Ref. [41] have tested HDH system coupled with
solar and geothermal energy for production of fresh water round the
clock. Total daytime productivity achieved was 104 L/m2 at US $0.003/
L which is very economical. This system can be used in areas where hot
water from geothermal source available at 60 °C at 0.15 kg/s. Ref. [42]
performed 4E analysis of solar desalination system works on HDH
process. Observations confirm that energy efficiency was 31.54% while
exergy efficiency reaches at 1.87% with fresh water production
1.117 L/h.
379
Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390
3.1. Direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) and solar energy
Distillation process using thin membrane coupled with alternative
energy resource, wind, solar and low grade thermal energy offers new
solutions to water cleaning. Ref. [5] performed experimental in-
vestigation on solar energy driven membrane system for desalination of
sea water. Observation results confirm that, gained output ratio reaches
0.49 and production rate of fresh water achieved was 33.55 L/day/m2.
Schematic of working apparatus is shown in Fig. 6. Ref. [4] have in-
vestigated use of dye modified PTFE membrane. Application of dye on
surface of membrane enhances solar energy harvest. Results shows that
permeation of water through membrane occurs due to dye modified
surface. Used dies are DR1 (disperse red, azobenzene), DR14 (disperse
blue, non-azobenzene) gives similar results. Schematic of proposed
working apparatus is shown in Fig. 7. Major hurdle in by membrane
distillation is low energy density of sun rays, but in large plants, this
problem is overcome either increase of surface area or use con-
centrating device. Ullah et al. [43] have comprehensively-reviewed
about design, material and shape parameters of membrane and in-situ
flow conditions, which affects its performance on energy consumption
and GOR. More focused research is required to find compatibility of
solar energy in DCMD in various working conditions. Ref. [20] authors
have experimentally investigated membrane distillation and photo-
phenton process to clean waste water effectively along with removal of
bacterial spores to much extent. Combined use of photo-phenton and
membrane distillation is more effective in reduction of B.subtilis &
clostridium spores. Clean water can be safely used for irrigation pur-
pose. Fig. 13 demonstrate the process of membrane distillation and
photo-phenton process.
Zaragoza et al. [7] investigated various modes of membrane dis-
tillation processes using solar energy for evaporation. Fig. 14 demon-
strate schematic of various modes. Authors conclude that spiral wound
modules are more efficient with solar energy driven membrane dis-
tillation.
S.K. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390

Kang et al. [44] have written a short communiqué, based on ex-

through micro pores but allow vapor molecules to cross-over

perimental evaluation of performance of hydrophilic membrane over

Further investigation is required to generalize the claim of

To increase fraction of solar energy use, low conductivity

molecular sieves in removal of water from bio-ethanol/water azeo-

Reduced cost, less energy consumption can be achieved

Surface tension force prevents liquid molecules to enter tropic mixture. Results confirm that membrane can save both steam
consumption and cost which is more for molecular sieves. Kumar et al.
[45] performed experiment for pilot project based on supply of hot
water to fulfill need of 4 to five person and simultaneously produces
1.5–2 L/h fresh potable water. Energy requirement to run the plant is
fulfilled by higher fractional use of solar energy. Ref. [21] investigated

membrane materials is required

PV/T driven DCMD system for desalination of water. Results confirm
that most important operating parameters which govern plant perfor-
mance are temperature difference across membrane, hot and cold fluid
flow rate across the membrane. Plants performance was tested under
actual weather condition at Jeddah. Fig. 15 exhibits that permeate flux
the membrane

increases asymptotically with mass flow rate of hot feed water at con-
Remarks

stant temperature.
authors

3.2. Nanomaterials and solar energy based water purification:

Temperature difference across the membrane and hot feed water

Desalination using conventional methods has been in use since ages,

Investigated comparative study of various modes of membrane

Can produce 20 L/day fresh water and 250 L/day hot water

but light to heat conversion efficiency were considerably small for

Membrane can replace high weight and energy consuming

water. Dispersion of nanoparticles can enhance energy conversion ef-

flow rate are most influencing operating parameters in

ficiency of working fluid [46–48]. Design of membrane using advanced

materials can further enhance performance of permeation rate of
DCMD. Many researchers have reported very promising results of
working of purification systems using nanoparticles as absorbing ma-
terial, acting as catalyst or better filter material in membrane fabrica-
tion to separate bacteria or heavy molecules.[49–65]. Higging et al.
[13] in experimental investigation, have used nano carbon fabric for
performance of the system

decontamination of waste and saline water. Solar energy generated

steam acts as an energy source. Authors got success in removal of 99.7%
Findings/Observations

of salt and 87% of organic effluents from saline water and organic
distillation system

molecular sieve

waste. Fig. 16 demonstrate how process work and absorption spectra of

CF and TCF. Ref. [66] authors performed investigation to find out
heavy metal (Cr, Se and Co) removal rates by adsorption from polluted
water using nanomaterials. Nanomaterials synthesized were, n-ZVI,
CNTs and their composites. Results confirm that CNT- n-ZVI shows
highest material removal rate through adsorption. Ref. [67] in-
Selective permeation of water vapour molecules and opposition

vapor form due to pressure and temperature gradient across the

hydrophobic membrane, evaporated by solar-thermal energy

Hydrophobic membrane allows crossing water molecules in

vestigated effect of modified magnetic nanoparticles

(Fe3O4 + MWCNT) in absorption of solar energy and enhancement of
Selective permeation of water molecules from mixture
diffusion of vapor molecules through micro pores of

evaporation rate of brine water. Results confirms that at 0.04% (wt%)

and 1 cm thickness of nanofluid. As 100% solar energy absorption takes
place. Evaporation efficiency also changes from 24.91% (0.0 wt%) to
76.65% (0.04 wt%). Madigpu et al. [68] have used composite of Chit-
Mechanics (physical/chemical process)

osan and carbon nanoparticles (CHT + CNT) to disinfect water. Ob-

servations confirm that disinfection efficiency for E-Coli bacteria en-
hanced when assisted by solar energy. Liu et al. [69] presented very
informative review on status and future of black carbon nanomaterials
Summary of application of membrane in water purification.

sheets, plasmonic sheets used to enhance solar assisted evaporation of

to water molecules

water. Black nano sheets enhances absorption rate of solar energy and
simultaneously porous capillary inside nanosheets acts as channel to
bring water on surface and accelerate evaporation rate. Li et al. [24] in
membrane

their experimental work have developed graphene oxide porous jellies

like structure to enhance evaporation of water to clean contaminated
water using solar energy. Pictorial schematic of process is give in
Fig. 17
Membrane distillation and

Liu et al. [23] inspired with plants transpiration process authors

Hydrophilic membrane
Desalination/cleaning

Membrane with solar

have designed innovative system (capillary driven pump) which en-

PV/T driven DCMD

hances efficiency of vapour generation by solar energy. Fig. 18 illus-

trates how it works. Chen et al. [25] have developed unique asymmetric
solar energy
technique

plasmonic structure by self assembling of Ag NPs. This porous template

energy

structure is comprise of small nps towards dielectric side acts as en-

hanced solar energy absorption used for water purification by eva-
poration while bigger nanoparticles towards metallic side acts as de-
Authors
Table 1

tection of water impurity. Fig. 19 is a schematic of working process.

[44]

[45]

[21]
[7]

Ref. [70] authors have prepared novel trifunctional membrane made of

380
 S.K. Verma et al.

Table 2
Summary of application of nano material in water purification.
Authors Desalination/cleaning technique Mechanics (physical/chemical process) Findings/Observations Remarks

[13] Nano carbon fabric and TiO2 grown on CF surface Higher absorption enhances more steam formation, and Enhances absorption spectra by CF thus By evaporation, condensation process, CF helps in getting
catalytic conversion of Rhodamine into harmless inorganic enhances solar steam formation rid of inorganic contaminants like NaCl from saline water
molecules and organic contaminants from industrial waste
[67] Evaporation and absorption by magnetic nanoparticles At 0.04 wt% absorption reaches 100% at Efficiency of brine water evaporation changes from
(Fe3O4 + MWCNT)/brine water depth more than 1 cm 24.91% to 76.65%
[68] CHIT-CNP with solar energy to disinfect water Chitosan + CNT composite material enhances disinfection CHIT + CNT likely has synergic effect Useful for cleaning water having harmful bacterial
rate of water from E-coli bacteria and similar parasites resulting in broadening of solar energy contamination due to biological, medical and industrial
absorption spectrum waste water
[66] n- ZVI and carbon nanotubes act as adsorbent Adsorption is main removal mechanism CNT-n-ZVI shows maximum adsorption of Removal of Cr(VI) not affected by variation of pH value of
heavy metals, Cr, Se and Co solution when adsorbent as n-ZVI, but inversely

381
proportional to increase of pH when used other materials
[69] Black nano photo thermal sheets enhance solar energy Black nanosheets of carbon materials enhances absorption of Large number of micro nano capillaries Photo thermal conversion efficiency reported: 70–85%
assisted evaporation solar energy facilitates passage to flow pure water and (black carbon sheets), 40–85% (plasmonic sheets), 50–77%
block micro materials (semiconducting sheets)
[24] Graphene oxide porous 3-D pillars acts like capillary Jelly structure enlarges surface area of graphene oxide, more Solar thermal efficiency of system achieved GO 3D pillars are developed by 3-D printing process
tubes to multiply evaporation rate water droplets available on surface to be evaporated by sun is 87.5% at intensity equivalent of normal
energy solar radiation
[23] Direct evaporation enhanced by capillary action Porous TiO disc acts as micro channel for flow of water and Solar thermal efficiency achieved by Evaporation rate achieved by capillary driven pump is
deposited nano TiAlON solar absorber enhances efficiency of capillary driven pump was 77% at one sun much improved compare to achieved by free water surface
solar thermal conversion, causing higher evaporation work equivalent and 90% at 4 sun equivalent
[25] Absorption of solar energy and detection of impurity by Smaller nanoparticles towards dielectric side broaden solar Solar thermal conversion efficiency reaches Plasmonic structures are more efficient in water cleaning
asymmetric porous structure of self assembled silver absorption spectra acts as enhanced water evaporation while 80% (dark side) while detection efficiency and detection of impurities due to size change causes
nano particle shiny side comprise of small NPs acts as detection of impurity ∼90% change in absorption and scattering
[77] Polymeric antimicrobial membrane prepared by Nanomaterials prevent bio-fouling of membrane. Thus It needs more research and take it from lab Highly promising technique and approach for future water
nanomaterials to treat water increases life and efficiency of the system stage to commercial stage by further treatment applications
research and validation
Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390
 S.K. Verma et al.

Table 3
Brief summary of photo-catalysis in water purification.
Photocatalytic material Authors Desalination/cleaning/purification Mechanics (physical/chemical process) Findings/Observations Remarks
technique

Ag core-TiO2 Shell [73] Disinfection of bacterial
concentration in water (Escherichia
coli)
Au@TiO2 core shell film [19] Photo catalysis and selective band
absorption for evaporation and
disinfection
TiO2 NTs [22] Morphological effect of TiO2 on
disinfection of water from E. coli
Reactive oxygen species produced by catalytic
activation and solar energy destroys cell wall and kill
the bacteria
Concentration of nanoparticles on surfaces enhances
absorption magnitude while core shell structure
allows selective absorption of spectrum specific to to
disinfect bacterial strains by reactive oxygen species
UV light exposure over TiO2 generates hydroxyl
radicals. hydroxyl radicals react with bacterial
membrane
Disinfection of 40 × 108 CFU/ml resulted in 15 min of
exposure at 0.4 g/L of catalyst concentration
Evaporation rate enhanced with core-shell material
thin sheet. Core shell particle have two distinctive
absorption peaks shown in Fig. 24 one towards UV
region, useful for bacterial disinfection and another
peak towards red spectrum having heat value useful.
for enhanced evaporation rate
96.7% disinfection of E-coli bacterial contamination
achieved under exposure of UV
Highly efficient and effective process to
clean water infected by bacterial pathogens
New future materials for water cleaning and
disinfectiom from bacterial presence by
selective absorption band intensification
By morphological modification of
nanotubes, range of bacterial and microbial
disinfection can be achieved

382
ZnO [18] Photocataytic degradation of – ZnO in presence of solar energy produces hydroxyl ZnO is more effective compare to TiO2 because By suitable modification of pH, ZnO can be
Methyl styrene assisted by ZnO (reactive oxygen species) which degrade infecting absorption spectrum of ZnO is wider than TiO2 used for disinfection of water from
reagents present in water and mineralized it into -Methylstyrene traces from water
potable water
E. coli [15] Solar thermal synergetic effect on Synergistic effect of UV induced formation of ROS and Intensity of UV exposure and temperature both have Experimental values are closely fit to
disinfection of water from E. coli thermal heat assisted internal damage of cell wall positive impact on disinfection rate mechanistic modeling
responsible for disinfection of water from E. coli
TiO2/clay doped with Ce [78] Effect of heterogeneous structure on Doped Ce particle with TiO2 over exfoliated clay Photocataytic degradation is a function of textural Material prepared by modified sol-gel
photo degradation of Rhodamine B enhances surface area thus photocatalytic degradation property, dopant concentration and quantity of technique
and phenol was studied activity enhances anatase phase present
TiO2 (20 nm) [74] Combined system for water Photo degradation of of Acid Red-26 is faster for V- Maximum energy intensity achieved 33 W, Sufficient More testing and cost economy is required to
purification and energy generation trough concentrating system than non concentrating to run photo catalysis and excess can be used for reach viability of the system
system system electricity generation
E. coli Enterococcus spp. [75] Effect of weather fluctuation on At temperature between 45 °C and 50 °C synergetic Among all micro bacteria tested, clostridium High UV radiation and high ambient
Clostridium performance of SOLWAT system effect of UV radiation and heat accelerates the SODIS preferingens is most resistant to SODIS followed by conditions are desirable condition for
perfringens process Escherichia coli and least resistant is Enterococcus spp. working of hybrid system
Zinc coated metal sheets [76] Effect of UV radiation and heat is During summer maximum temp. difference between Zinc coated sheets also acts as catalyst and having Suitable and very effective water
and Bamboo cover factor in disinfection of E. coli zinc coated sheet and bamboo cover is about 2.5 °C, broad absorption spectrum purification process in rural areas
bacteria from water kept in glass enough to have enhanced disinfection
bottle
Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390
S.K. Verma et al.
Fig. 12. Schematic of natural draft circulation, solar pasteurization system [3].
mixed cellulose aster with ZnO particles and (AuNPs). By putting this
membrane over surface of Rodamine infected water. Vapour generation
rate was achieved is 8.7 kg/h m2. This new membrane made of material
which can absorb more light by inducing localized plasmon resonance
and simultaneously disinfect the contaminated water.
3.3. Purification by solar photocatalytic process
In presence of solar energy, nanomaterials photo catalyst can be
effectively used to purify drinking water. Solar induced disinfection of
bacterial and microbial concentration usually suppressed by regrowth
of bacteria at optimum temperature and suppresses the process [71]. In
photocatalytic method of disinfection of water caused by reactive
oxygen variants which destroys the cell leading to its death. TiO2 coated
surfaces over nanoparticles are highly effective as catalyst to enhance
disinfection of contaminated water caused by bacterial and microbial
presence [72]. Shreeja and Shetty have performed investigation on ef-
fect of catalyst (Ag coated with TiO2) on disinfection of water con-
taminated with Escherichia coli [73]. Results confirm that disinfection
Fig. 13. Process flow chart of membrane distillation with photo-phenton technique [20].
383
Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390
process is more effective due to Ag and TiO2 combination rather than
using TiO2 alone. Surface coated Ag enhances surface plasmonic re-
sonance, is most logical reason responsible for widening of absorption
spectrum, enhances rate of production of reactive oxygen responsible to
destroy cell wall of bacteria. Abbas et al. have performed systematic
investigation for effect of morphology of TiO2 structure on disinfection
efficiency from E. coli bacteria in water. Fig. 20 exhibits working
schematic of disinfection process [22]. Rajeev et al. investigated ap-
plication of ZnO as catalyst in disinfecting of – Methyl styrene small
trace found in industrial effluents. Schematic of working process [18]
shown in Fig. 21. Results confirm that degradation of – Methyl
styrene degraded into acetophenon an intermediate product which
subsequently gets mineralized, thus resulting into disinfected water.
Alferez et al. [15] have developed model of inactivation of E. coli.
Authors successfully explained synergetic effect of UV radiation and
temperature in SODIS. Fig. 22 explain correlation in experimental and
model study of inactivation of E. coli versus exposure time. Synergetic
effect of temperature and UV radiation well established in graph. As
temperature increases rate of disinfection increases shown by steep
lines. Qin et al. investigated combined SOLWAT (solar water purifica-
tion and renewable electricity generation) for water purification and
electric generation [74]. Due to V-trough concentrating system, it is
more efficient in photo degradation of pollutant (acid Red-26) than non
concentrating system. Excess solar power can be used for electric gen-
eration through PV system. Pichel et al. [75] also tested SOLWAT hy-
brid system for purification of water from bacteria and photovoltaic
power generation. Authors investigated the systems for environmental
and weather variations throughout the year on efficacy of water pur-
ification and PV electric generation. Vivar et al. [76] investigated dis-
infection of E. coli in rural areas using zinc coated roofs and bamboo
roofs in presence of sun light. Zinc coated roofs easily get heated above
40 °C under Sun light. Catalytic action of zinc and heat at temp above
threshold level accelerates disinfection of water (see Fig. 23).
3.4. Electrolysis supported by solar energy
Brackish water can be purified by electrodialysis process. Solar
energy based electrodialysis system are more suitable because D.C
S.K. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390

Fig. 14. Various modes of membrane distillation [7].

Fig. 15. Permeate flux versus mass flow rate of hot feed water at temperature 69.2 °C [21].

384
S.K. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390

Fig. 16. (a) Photocataytic dye degradation of Rhodamine and (b) absorption spectra of CF and TCF [13].

Fig. 17. Pictorial schematic of steam generation assisted by graphene oxide jelly structure embedded with pillars acts like capillary tubes [24].

Fig. 18. Mimicking of nature’s way of transpiration by schematic showing artificial device to enhance evaporation rate [23].
385
S.K. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390

Fig. 19. (a) Schematic representation of asymmetric structure of silver nps structure showing solar energy absorption and impurity detection. (b) Graph drawn for
solar evaporation rate versus time for with and without APS for dark side and shiny side [25].

Fig. 20. Schematic of disinfection process [22].

Fig. 22. E. coli inactivation versus exposure time, co-relation between experi-
mental and simulation model at 30 W/m2 UV exposure [15].

current being used in electrolysis, which can be generated by PV panels

Fig. 21. Schematic representation of formation of hydroxyl radical precursor of
disinfection, ZnO acts as catalyst [18].
[79]. Last decade has witnessed installation of many pilot desalination
system in rural areas based on ED process and run by PV energy
[80,81]. Number of researchers performed theoretical evaluation of ED
based desalination systems performance [36,82]. Gonzalez et al. have
investigated pilot scale water purification small system based on PV and
electrodialysis [8]. Schematic of pilot ED system shown in Fig. 24.
Results shows that salt removal efficacy of the process is at acceptable
level and TDS of water. Recorded also confirm standard prescribed limit
but level of arsenic present is not acceptable with standard norms for
which further filtering is suggested to make it potable.

4. Conclusion and future scope of work

In presented synergistic review of application of solar energy with

386
S.K. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390

Fig. 23. Batch type ED desalination system in which DC power can be supplied by PV module [8].

impurity specific purification systems can be developed. By mimicking

Fig. 24. Comparative absorption spectra for different materials [19].
advanced use of material, system modification, water purification can
be achieved. Conventional processes of water purification have been in
use for ages. Solar energy based devices are now getting more attention
to make it available in every nook and corner of affected regions. In
light of reviews of work done by many researchers, it can be concluded
that by synergetic use of solar energy and advances in materials,
nature’s ways of using waste water and convert it into vapour is very
enticing idea. Recently it is getting attention for research. More re-
search and support needed to further explore its viability at larger scale.
Photocatalytic methods of purification can be further modified by
adopting hybrid nanomaterials photo catalyst which can widen ab-
sorption of UV spectra for producing reactive oxygen radical which
damage cell wall of harmful bacteria and simultaneously absorb more
heat energy at higher temperature to raise rate of process. Membrane
based purification of contaminated water getting enhanced attention.
Efficiency of membrane decreases due to its contamination by ag-
glomeration of particles. Self cleaning smart nanomaterials may be
suitable choice to solve the problem.
Synergy of solar energy with advance nano material based smart
systems for water purification are in initial stage of development. More
focused specific research should be given strategic importance to fulfill
potable water needs of millions of people and keep intact naturally
available water resources for all living beings and future generations on
planet earth.
Conflict of interest
We have no conflict of interest with any person or organization.

Appendix A

Appendix is a supplementary part of the manuscript. It contains, theories which further emphasize results and clarify physical mechanism of
process, empirical relations and physical relations which are complementary to explain, mechanics and various processes involved in specific case of
purification.
1. Calculation of distilled water amount m w (kg/m2/h)
3600. Qew
mw =
Lv (1)
Here Qev is evaporation heat (k.cal), L v is latent heat of vaporization for water (K.cal/kg) [83].
Latent heat of water is a polynomial function of the saline water temp of basin Tsw (°C), [84] can be expressed as:
L v [2501.9 2.4076Tsw + 2.407Tsw + 1.19221710 3 3
1.586310 5Tsw ] (2)

387
S.K. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390

1.1. Internal efficiency of solar still can be calculated by equation:

mw. Lv
in =
3600. gc . w . Gmean (3)
1.2. Overall performance analysis of desalination system based on humidification and dehumidification (HDH): specific electricity consumption
(SEC) [85]
.
wep
SEC =
mw (4)
Gained output ratio (GOR) [86,87]
.
mw
GOR = .
Qin (5)
Performance ratio (PR) [87]
.
mw
PR = .
Qin + wsep (6)
where

• Q = net inlet heat energy (kW)

in

• m = flow rate (kg/h)

• w = Work input Kw
w

• = Latent heat energy (kJ/kg)

sep

2.0. Mathematical formulation for spray assisted solar desalination:

2.1. From concept of lumped parameter system
dTd
(MC )d = Qevap Qcond Qloss
dt (7)
(MC )d = thermal capacity, Td = Bulk average temperature.
Qloss = It represent heat loss rate with ambient, which can be calculated by equation.
Qloss = hloss Ad (Te Tamb) (8)
hloss = heat transfer coefficient with ambient, Te = evaporation temperature.
Qevap = rate of evaporation, Qcond = conduction rate
. .
Qevp = mf Cp (Tf Tb ) (9)
.
mf = Feed rate, Tf = feed temperature.Tb = brine temperature.
Brine temperature always above than vapour temperature. It can be expressed as:
Tb = Te + (Tf Te) (10)
where is dimensionless temperature parameter, indicates completion of evaporation process.
It depends upon droplet size, feed water salinity and speed of drops at marginal operational temperature difference [88].
3.0. Heat consumed by adsorption process in a single cycle can be determined by equation [89,90]
0.5t .
Qdes, cyc = [Mbed × Cpbed + Mab × (Cpab + wmax × Cpw )][(T2 T1) + Qeps + Qepl] = [mhot × Cphot × (Tout Tin )] dt (11)
0

where Mbed and Mab are the mass of sorption element (structural metal) and adsorbent in kg, Cpbed , Cpab , and Cpw are the specific heat capacity of
sorption element, adsorbent and adsorbed water kJ/kg, Wmax = maximum specific adsorption capacity of the adsorbent (kJ/kg).
T2 = Temp. of SE after desorption.T1 = temp. of SE before desorption, Qeps = sensitive heat of vapor regeneration (kJ), Qepl = latent heat of vapor
regeneration. (kJ).
3.1. To prepare nanofluids of given concentration X% in water following equation can be used
X%
mnp = water (ml).
100 np (12)
mnp = mass of nanoparticles in gram, X is given percentage, np = density of nanoparticles gram/ml.
3.2. For solar driven membrane distillation system, performance parameters can be defined as:
.
mdis . fg
Gained output GOR = . .
mf cpf (Tf , in Tf , o) (13)
. .
mdis = distillation flow rate (kg/s), mf = hot fluid flow rate (kg/s), fg = latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg).
3.2. Efficiency of the system can be defined as ratio of latent heat of distilled water to the input power to run the system.
.
mdis . fg
=
sEPSH + wPn + wAF (14)

388
S.K. Verma et al.
sEPSH = radiant absorbed solar energy, wPn = power of n pumps, wAF = power of air fan.
3.3. Pressure loss Δp through membrane can be determined by Hazen William equation [92] given as:
. 1.85
vf
p= f gH , and H = 10.67Ldin4.87 ,
cn
Δp = pressure loss in membrane (Pa), H = head loss (meter of water), L = length of membrane (m), vf = feed water flow rate (m /sec), n = number
of membranes, C = pipe roughness factor, din = inner diameter of the membrane.
3.4. In photocataytic disinfection process, Chick and Watson model is appropriate to calculate disinfection rate using following formula:
N
log = kt
N0
N = concentration of microorganism at time t, N0 = initial concentration k = rate constant, at constant.
Solar irradiation and at constant concentration of catalyst [93].
Langmuir–Hinshelwood expression describes kinetics of heterogeneous catalytic process assisted by solar energy.
dc k.kC
= r s =r
dt 1 + ks C
3.5. Transmittance calculation of nanofluid can be done by equation.
1
A = log
T (18)
A = absorptance of sample, T = transmittance of sample.
Spectral extinction coefficient of nanofluid can be calculated by Beer-Lambert law.
T( ) = exp( k ( )) L
k ( ) = extinction coefficient (dimensionless), L = length of propagation of light (m).
References:
[1] Kabeel AE, El-Said EMS. Applicability of flashing desalination technique for small
scale needs using a novel integrated system coupled with nanofluid-based solar
collector. Desalination 2014;333:10–22.
[2] El-Agouz SA, Abd El-Aziz GB, Awad AM. Solar desalination system using spray
evaporation. Energy 2014;76:276–83.
[3] Manfrida G, Petela K, Rossi F. Natural circulation solar thermal system for water
disinfection. Energy 2017;141:1204–14.
[4] Fujiwara M, Kikuchi M. Solar desalination of seawater using double-dye-modified
PTFE membrane. Water Res 2017;127:96–103.
[5] Kabeel AE, Abdelgaied M, El-Said EMS. Study of a solar-driven membrane dis-
tillation system: evaporative cooling effect on performance enhancement. Renew
Energy 2017;106:192–200.
[6] Chen Q, Kum Ja M, Li Y, Chua KJ. Evaluation of a solar-powered spray-assisted low-
temperature desalination technology. Appl Energy 2018;211:997–1008.
[7] Zaragoza G, Ruiz-Aguirre A, Guillén-Burrieza E. Efficiency in the use of solar
thermal energy of small membrane desalination systems for decentralized water
production. Appl Energy 2014;130:491–9.
[8] Gonzalez A, Grágeda M, Ushak S. Assessment of pilot-scale water purification
module with electrodialysis technology and solar energy. Appl Energy
2017;206:1643–52.
[9] Ma Q, Yi C, Lu H, Xie L, Fan J, He W. A conceptual demonstration and theoretical
design of a novel “super-gravity” vacuum flash process for seawater desalination.
Desalination 2015;371:67–77.
[10] Al-harahsheh M, Abu-Arabi M, Mousa H, Alzghoul Z. Solar desalination using solar
still enhanced by external solar collector and PCM. Appl Therm Eng
2018;128:1030–40.
[11] Rahimi-Ahar Z, Hatamipour MS, Ghalavand Y. Experimental investigation of a solar
vacuum humidification-dehumidification (VHDH) desalination system.
Desalination 2018;437:73–80.
[12] Du B, Gao J, Zeng L, Su X, Zhang X, Yu S, et al. Area optimization of solar collectors
for adsorption desalination. Sol Energy 2017;157:298–308.
[13] Higgins MW, Shakeel Rahmaan AR, Devarapalli RR, Shelke MV, Jha N. Carbon
fabric based solar steam generation for waste water treatment. Sol Energy
2018;159:800–10.
[14] Abegaz BW, Datta T, Mahajan SM. Sensor technologies for the energy-water nexus –
a review. Appl Energy 2018;210:451–66.
[15] Castro-Alférez M, Polo-López MI, Marugán J, Fernández-Ibáñez P. Mechanistic
modeling of UV and mild-heat synergistic effect on solar water disinfection. Chem
Eng J 2017;316:111–20.
[16] Ouar MLA, Sellami MH, Meddour SE, Touahir R, Guemari S, Loudiyi K.
Experimental yield analysis of groundwater solar desalination system using absor-
bent materials. Groundwater Sustain Dev 2017;5:261–7.
[17] Abdelkareem MA, El Haj Assad M, Sayed ET, Soudan B. Recent progress in the use
of renewable energy sources to power water desalination plants. Desalination
2018;435:97–113.
[18] Rajeev B, Yesodharan S, Yesodharan EP. Application of solar energy in wastewater
389
Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390
(15)
. 3
(16)
(17)
(19)
treatment: photocatalytic degradation of α-methylstyrene in water in presence of
ZnO. J Water Process Eng 2015;8:108–18.
[19] Huang J, He Y, Wang L, Huang Y, Jiang B. Bifunctional Au@TiO2 core–shell na-
noparticle films for clean water generation by photocatalysis and solar evaporation.
Energy Convers Manage 2017;132:452–9.
[20] Kim Y-D, Thu K, Ghaffour N, Choon Ng K. Performance investigation of a solar-
assisted direct contact membrane distillation system. J Membr Sci
2013;427:345–64.
[21] Bouguecha ST, Aly SE, Al-Beirutty MH, Hamdi MM, Boubakri A. Solar driven
DCMD: performance evaluation and thermal energy efficiency. Chem Eng Res Des
2015;100:331–40.
[22] Abbas WA, Ramadan M, Faid AY, Abdellah AM, Ouf A, Moustafa N, et al.
Photoactive catalysts for effective water microbial purification: morphology-ac-
tivity relationship. Environ Nanotechnol Monit Manage 2018;10:87–93.
[23] Liu H, Zhang X, Hong Z, Pu Z, Yao Q, Shi J, et al. A bioinspired capillary-driven
pump for solar vapor generation. Nano Energy 2017;42:115–21.
[24] Li Y, Gao T, Yang Z, Chen C, Kuang Y, Song J, et al. Graphene oxide-based eva-
porator with one-dimensional water transport enabling high-efficiency solar desa-
lination. Nano Energy 2017;41:201–9.
[25] Chen C, Zhou L, Yu J, Wang Y, Nie S, Zhu S, et al. Dual functional asymmetric
plasmonic structures for solar water purification and pollution detection. Nano
Energy 2018;51:451–6.
[26] Kılkış Ş, Krajačić G, Duić N, Rosen MA, Al-Nimr MdA. Advancements in sustainable
development of energy, water and environment systems. Energy Convers Manage
2018;176:164–83.
[27] Gençer E, Agrawal R. Toward supplying food, energy, and water demand:
Integrated solar desalination process synthesis with power and hydrogen copro-
duction. Resour Conserv Recycl 2018;133:331–42.
[28] WHO. Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 update. World Health
Organization and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP). 2014.
[29] Qilin L, Mahendra S, Lyon DY, Brunet L, Liga MV, Li D, et al. Antimicrobial na-
nomaterials for water disinfection and microbial control: potential applications and
implications. Water Res 2008;42:4591–602.
[30] Richardson SD, Plewa MJ, Wagner ED, Schoeny R, DeMarini DM. Occurrence,
genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emergingdisinfection by-pro-
ducts in drinking water: a review and roadmap for research. Mutat Res – Rev Mutat
Res 2007;636:178–242.
[31] Chen H, Roco MC, Son J, Jiang S, Larson CA, Gao Q. Globalnanotechnology de-
velopment from 1991 to 2012: patents, scientificpublications, and effect of NSF
funding. J Nanopart Res 2013;15.
[32] European Parliament. Horizon 2020: key enabling technologies (KETs), booster for
European leadership in the manufacturing sector. Directorate-General for Internal
Policy, Policy Department A. In. Economic and Scientific Policy, IP/A/ITRE. 2013;
2014.
[33] Invernizzi N, Foladori G, Maclurcan D. Nanotechnology’s controversial role for the
south. Sci Technol Soc 2008;13:123–48.
[34] Pugsley A, Zacharopoulos A, Mondol JD, Smyth M. Global applicability of solar
desalination. Renew Energy 2016;88:200–19.
[35] Pouyfaucon AB, García-Rodríguez L. Solar thermal-powered desalination: a viable
S.K. Verma et al.
solution for a potential market. Desalination 2018;435:60–9.
[36] Ali MT, Fath HES, Armstrong PR. A comprehensive techno-economical review of
indirect solar desalination. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:4187–99.
[37] Diaf A, Cherfa A, Karadaniz L, Tigrine Z. A technical–economical study of solar
desalination. Desalination 2016;377:123–7.
[38] Li X, Li J, Lu J, Xu N, Chen C, Min X, et al. Enhancement of interfacial solar vapor
generation by environmental energy. Joule 2018.
[39] Wang X, Ou G, Wang N, Wu H. Graphene-based recyclable photo-absorbers for
high-efficiency seawater desalination. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2016;8:9194–9.
[40] Reif JH, Alhalabi W. Solar-thermal powered desalination: its significant challenges
and potential. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;48:152–65.
[41] Elminshawy NAS, Siddiqui FR, Addas MF. Development of an active solar humi-
dification-dehumidification (HDH) desalination system integrated with geothermal
energy. Energy Convers Manage 2016;126:608–21.
[42] Deniz E, Çınar S. Energy, exergy, economic and environmental (4E) analysis of a
solar desalination system with humidification-dehumidification. Energy Convers
Manage 2016;126:12–9.
[43] Ullah R, Khraisheh M, Esteves RJ, McLeskey JT, AlGhouti M, Gad-el-Hak M, et al.
Energy efficiency of direct contact membrane distillation. Desalination
2018;433:56–67.
[44] Kang Q, Huybrechts J, Van der Bruggen B, Baeyens J, Tan T, Dewil R. Hydrophilic
membranes to replace molecular sieves in dewatering the bio-ethanol/water
azeotropic mixture. Sep Purif Technol 2014;136:144–9.
[45] Kumar NTU, Martin A. Co-generation of drinking water and domestic hot water
using solar thermal integrated membrane distillation system. Energy Procedia
2014;61:2666–9.
[46] Verma SK, Tiwari AK. Progress of nanofluid application in solar collectors: a review.
Energy Convers Manage 2015;100:324–46.
[47] Verma SK, Tiwari AK, Chauhan DS. Experimental evaluation of flat plate solar
collector using nanofluids. Energy Convers Manage 2017;134:103–15.
[48] Verma SK, Tiwari AK. Application of nanoparticles in solar collectors: a review.
Mater Today: Proc 2015;2:3638–47.
[49] Thakur S, Govender PP, Mamo MA, Tamulevicius S, Mishra YK, Thakur VK.
Progress in lignin hydrogels and nanocomposites for water purification: future
perspectives. Vacuum 2017;146:342–55.
[50] An S, Joshi BN, Lee J-G, Lee MW, Kim YI, Kim M-W, et al. A comprehensive review
on wettability, desalination, and purification using graphene-based materials at
water interfaces. Catal Today 2017;295:14–25.
[51] Ahmed SF, Khalid M, Rashmi W, Chan A, Shahbaz K. Recent progress in solar
thermal energy storage using nanomaterials. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2017;67:450–60.
[52] Thines RK, Mubarak NM, Nizamuddin S, Sahu JN, Abdullah EC, Ganesan P.
Application potential of carbon nanomaterials in water and wastewater treatment: a
review. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2017;72:116–33.
[53] Zhang Y, Wu B, Xu H, Liu H, Wang M, He Y, et al. Nanomaterials-enabled water and
wastewater treatment. NanoImpact 2016;3–4:22–39.
[54] Wang D, Pillai SC, Ho S-H, Zeng J, Li Y, Dionysiou DD. Plasmonic-based nanoma-
terials for environmental remediation. Appl Catal B 2018;237:721–41.
[55] Prathna TC, Sharma SK, Kennedy M. Nanoparticles in household level water
treatment: an overview. Sep Purif Technol 2018;199:260–70.
[56] Lu F, Astruc D. Nanomaterials for removal of toxic elements from water. Coord
Chem Rev 2018;356:147–64.
[57] Ihsanullah. Carbon nanotube membranes for water purification: developments,
challenges, and prospects for the future. Sep Purif Technol 2019;209:307–37.
[58] Daer S, Kharraz J, Giwa A, Hasan SW. Recent applications of nanomaterials in water
desalination: a critical review and future opportunities. Desalination
2015;367:37–48.
[59] Leudjo Taka A, Pillay K, Yangkou Mbianda X. Nanosponge cyclodextrin poly-
urethanes and their modification with nanomaterials for the removal of pollutants
from waste water: a review. Carbohydrate Polym 2017;159:94–107.
[60] Santhosh C, Velmurugan V, Jacob G, Jeong SK, Grace AN, Bhatnagar A. Role of
nanomaterials in water treatment applications: a review. Chem Eng J
2016;306:1116–37.
[61] Teow YH, Mohammad AW. New generation nanomaterials for water desalination: a
review. Desalination 2017.
[62] Jiang C, Lan L, Yao Y, Zhao F, Ping J. Recent progress in application of nanoma-
terial-enabled biosensors for ochratoxin a detection. TrAC Trends Anal Chem
2018;102:236–49.
[63] Lu GQ. Nanomaterials for clean air, energy and water. Prog Nat Sci: Mater Int
2018;28:97–8.
[64] Boccuni F, Gagliardi D, Ferrante R, Rondinone BM, Iavicoli S. Measurement tech-
niques of exposure to nanomaterials in the workplace for low- and medium-income
countries: a systematic review. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017;220:1089–97.
[65] Ying Y, Ying W, Li Q, Meng D, Ren G, Yan R, et al. Recent advances of nanomaterial-
based membrane for water purification. Appl Mater Today 2017;7:144–58.
[66] Vilardi G, Mpouras T, Dermatas D, Verdone N, Polydera A, Di Palma L.
Nanomaterials application for heavy metals recovery from polluted water: the
390
Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 372–390
combination of nano zero-valent iron and carbon nanotubes. Competitive adsorp-
tion non-linear modeling. Chemosphere 2018;201:716–29.
[67] Chen W, Zou C, Li X, Liang H. Application of recoverable carbon nanotube nano-
fluids in solar desalination system: an experimental investigation. Desalination
2017.
[68] Maddigpu PR, Sawant B, Wanjari S, Goel MD, Vione D, Dhodapkar RS, et al. Carbon
nanoparticles for solar disinfection of water. J Hazard Mater 2018;343:157–65.
[69] Liu G, Xu J, Wang K. Solar water evaporation by black photothermal sheets. Nano
Energy 2017;41:269–84.
[70] Wang X, He Y, Liu X. Synchronous steam generation and photodegradation for
clean water generation based on localized solar energy harvesting. Energy Convers
Manage 2018;173:158–66.
[71] Vivar M, Pichel N, Fuentes M. Solar disinfection of natural river water with low
microbiological content (10–103CFU/100ml) and evaluation of the thermal con-
tribution to water purification. Sol Energy 2017;141:1–10.
[72] Meierhofer R, Wegelin M. Solar water disinfection—a guide for the application of
SODIS. Swiss Federal Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (EAWAG),
Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC); 2002.
ISBN 3-906484-24-6.
[73] Sreeja S, Shetty V. Photocatalytic water disinfection under solar irradiation by
Ag@TiO2 core-shell structured nanoparticles. Sol Energy 2017;157:236–43.
[74] Qin L, Wang Y, Vivar M, Huang Q, Zhu L, Fuentes M, et al. Comparison of photo-
voltaic and photocatalytic performance of non-concentrating and V-trough
SOLWAT (solar water purification and renewable electricity generation) systems for
water purification. Energy 2015;85:251–60.
[75] Pichel N, Vivar M, Fuentes M. Performance study of a hybrid photovoltaic and solar
water disinfection system considering climatic variations over a year. Energy
Convers Manage 2017;144:312–21.
[76] Vivar M, Fuentes M, Castro J, García-Pacheco R. Effect of common rooftop mate-
rials as support base for solar disinfection (SODIS) in rural areas under temperate
climates. Sol Energy 2015;115:204–16.
[77] Zhu J, Hou J, Zhang Y, Tian M, He T, Liu J, et al. Polymeric antimicrobial mem-
branes enabled by nanomaterials for water treatment. J Membr Sci
2018;550:173–97.
[78] Belver C, Bedia J, Álvarez-Montero MA, Rodriguez JJ. Solar photocatalytic pur-
ification of water with Ce-doped TiO2/clay heterostructures. Catal Today
2016;266:36–45.
[79] Wright NC, Winter AG. Justification for community-scale photovoltaic-powered
electrodialysis desalination systems for inland rural villages in India. Desalination
2014;352:82–91.
[80] Ishimaru N. Solar photovoltaic desalination of brackish water in remote areas by
electrodialysis. Desalination 1994;98:485–93.
[81] Kvajic G. Solar power/desalination, pv*ed system. Desalination 1981;39:175.
[82] Gomkale SD. Solar desalination as a means to provide Indian villages with drinking
water. Desalination 1988;69:171–6.
[83] Elsafty AF, Fath HE, Amer AM. Mathematical model development for a new solar
desalination system (SDS). Energy Convers Manage 2008;49:3331–7.
[84] Abu-Arabie M, Zurigat Y, Al-Hinai H, Al-Hiddabi S. Modeling and performance
analysis of a solar unit with double-glass cover cooling. Desalination
2002;143:173–82.
[85] Mistry KH, McGovern RK, Thiel GP, Summers EK, Zubair SM, Lienhard JH. Entropy
generation analysis of desalination technologies. Entropy 2011;13:1829–64.
[86] Giwa A, Akther N, Housani AA, Haris S, Hasan SW. Recent advances in humidifi-
cation dehumidification (HDH) desalination processes: improved designs and pro-
ductivity. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;57:929–44.
[87] Zheng H. Solar energy desalination technology. Haidian, Beijing, China: Elsevier
Inc, Beijing Institute of Technology; 2017.
[88] Chen Q, Thu K, Bui TD, Li Y, Ng KC, Chua KJ. Development of a model for spray
evaporation based on droplet analysis. Desalination 2016;399:69–77.
[89] Wu JW, Hu EJ, Biggs MJ. Thermodynamic cycles of adsorption desalination system.
Appl Energy 2012;90:316–22.
[90] Daou K, Wang RZ, Yang GZ, Xia ZZ. Theoretical comparison of the refrigerating
performances of a CaCl2 impregnated composite adsorbent to those of the host
silica gel. Int J Therm Sci 2008;47:68–75.
[92] Jaćimović N, Stamenić M, Kolendić P, Dordević D, Radanov B, Vladić L. A novel
method for the inclusion of pipe roughness in the Hazen-Williams equation. FME
Trans 2015;43:35–9.
[93] Lebik H, Madjene F, Aoudjit L, Igoud S. Modelling the kinetic of UV water disin-
fection. Int J Sci Res Manage Stud 2014;1:60–4.
Further reading
[91] Elango T, Kannan A, Kalidasa Murugavel K. Performance study on single basin
single slope solar still with different water nanofluids. Desalination
2015;360:45–51.