Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Nexus
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/nexus

A detailed review on sole and hybrid solar chimney based sustainable

ventilation, power generation, and potable water production systems
H. Sharon
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Petroleum and Energy (IIPE), Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, 530 003, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: In this review article, the potential of solar chimney technologies for building ventilation, power generation
Solar energy and potable water generation in sole, hybrid and poly-generation modes has been reviewed extensively by high-
Sustainable architecture lighting their optimal configuration, pros, cons and economics. Solar chimney ventilation system in combination
Solar chimney
with evaporative cooler and earth-air heat exchanger can save at least 20 to 75% of the energy consumed for
Waste heat
space conditioning activity. Sole solar chimney power plant occupies huge land area and has efficiency of only
PV module
Desalination 1.0%. However, under hybrid and poly-generation operation modes its efficiency has improved to 55%. Solar
PV modules seem to be a suitable partner for solar chimney technologies and it enhances utilization factor by
providing extra electric power output. Solar PV modules have been suggested as absorber for ventilation system
and canopy for solar chimney power plants. However, proper thermal management of PV modules is essential
for proper functioning under the conditions inside the former system. Geo-thermal energy, waste heat energy
from thermal power plants and flared gas from oil extraction sites can be utilized in solar chimney power plants
to increase its operation time even after sun-set hours without any major modifications. Solar chimney based
atmospheric water extraction systems enhances the micro-climate of sites and is highly suitable for applications
in arid regions. Solar chimney ventilation systems are commercial and form an integral part of green buildings
and net-zero buildings. On contrary, most of the literatures on power generation and water production with solar
chimney technology are theoretical hence more practical studies are needed to justify their reliability.

1. Introduction 30% every year [5]. In sustainable architecture/buildings, natural and

Due to tremendous growth in science and technology a lot of indus-
tries have emerged to provide mankind with essential food (including
drinking water), clothing and shelter facilities at reasonable cost. How-
ever, for sustained supply of these necessary services/facilities reliable
energy source is essential. Moreover, the current life style attained by
the mankind can be sustained and/or enhanced only if the rising en-
ergy demands are met. These reasons have led to increased fossil fuel
consumption which has eventually led to environment pollution, global
warming, and climate change. In order to repair these impacts and to
prevent further damage to the environment it has been recommended
to utilize clean energy technologies [1,2].
Energy consumed for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning activ-
ities occupies 46% of the global energy consumption [3]. In residential
sector, the major energy consuming activity is space conditioning. More-
over, the energy consumption in residential sectors is about 25.0% of the
global energy consumption and it also contributes to 17.0% of the global
CO2 emissions [4]. Apart from this, refrigerant leakages from refrigerant
based air-conditioning units have also contributed to global warming. It
has been estimated that the refrigerant leakages can vary between 3 and
E-mail address: sharon.mec@iipe.ac.in
passive ventilation is an essential ingredient. Natural ventilation refers
to the air flow achieved in a dwelling by opening windows. Natural ven-
tilation is highly dependent on the nature of the wind speed, wind di-
rection etc., which are highly intermittent in nature. Moreover, it is well
known that the natural ventilation alone cannot provide required ven-
tilation for the occupants inside the buildings/dwellings [6]. Hence, it
becomes necessary to utilize renewable energy based novel passive ven-
tilation techniques in buildings/dwellings to achieve sustainable cities
and societies.
Clean drinking water demand is also rising due to increased popula-
tion, improved life style, and pollution of available limited fresh water
reserves. Desalination of saline water and treatment of wastewater have
become an essential part of any nation to meet its rising fresh water de-
mands. Global cumulative desalination capacity has reached 114.9 mil-
lion m3 /d by 2020. Thermal desalination systems are energy intensive
but they can handle feed water of any quality which is not the case with
membrane based desalination systems. Potable water production cost of
conventional fossil fuel powered multi stage flash, multi effect distilla-
tion and reverse osmosis units is about 1.13, 0.60 and 2.36 USD/m3 [7].
It is interesting to note that solar radiation potential is abundant in re-
gions with energy and water scarcity. Moreover, solar energy occupies
57% of the renewable energy powered desalination market [8]. Hence,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2023.100184
Received 25 November 2022; Received in revised form 17 February 2023; Accepted 8 March 2023
Available online 12 March 2023
2772-4271/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Nomenclature 𝜂𝑡−𝑒 Conversion efficiency from thermal energy to electrical

energy%
𝐴𝑐 Cross sectional area of solar chimney ventilation unit Δt Time interval between each measurement s
outlet m2
𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙 Area of the solar chimney collector m2
ACH Air change per hour solar energy seems to be a suitable candidate for sustainable potable
𝐶𝑝𝑎 Specific heat capacity of air J/kgK water production in those regions.
cost𝑖𝑛𝑣 Cost invested in solar chimney based system USD The United Nations have proposed seventeen sustainable develop-
d Chimney air gap m ment goals which include zero hunger, clean water & sanitation, afford-
𝐷𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑚 Diameter of the chimney of solar chimney power plant able & clean energy, sustainable cities & communities, etc., to achieve
m sustainable planet with peace and prosperity by 2030. All these goals
𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙 Diameter of the solar chimney power plant collector m are nearly interlinked and their attainment will enhance social, envi-
𝐷𝑤 Depth of water pool inside hybrid solar chimney power ronmental and economical sustainability [9]. Renewable energy will be
plant m playing a major role in helping nations to achieve these sustainable de-
𝐸𝑠 Annual electric energy saved by solar ventilation system velopment goals. Most widely utilized renewable energy resources are
kWh/year solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, ocean and biomass. The global share of
ET Electricity tariff USD/kWh renewable energy utilization for heating, transport and electricity gen-
𝑔 Acceleration due to gravity m/s2 eration is projected to be about 14%, 6% and 31%, respectively by 2035
𝐻𝑐ℎ Height of the chimney of solar chimney power plant m [10]. Among renewable energy resources, only from solar energy both
ℎ𝑓 𝑔 Latent heat of evaporation kJ/kg heat and electricity can be obtained in a single conversion step without
𝐻𝑖𝑛 Solar collector entrance height m the aid of any complex conversion devices. Moreover, solar energy based
𝐼𝑠 Solar radiation intensity (W/m2 ) technologies can be utilized with ease in heating, ventilation & air con-
IR Interest rate% ditioning sectors, water sectors, power generator sectors, agricultural
L Length of the solar chimney m sectors, and transportation sectors.
LCOE Levelized cost of electricity USD/kWh Among various solar energy technologies, solar chimney is a unique
𝑚𝑎𝑖 Ventilation air mass flow rate Kg/s technology which finds application in building ventilation [11,12],
𝑚̇ 𝑐 Distillate production rate of solar chimney power plant power generation [13,14], and drinking water production [15,16]. So-
operating in poly-generation mode kg/s lar chimney has also been utilized to improve the performance of photo-
𝑀𝑌 Yearly distillate production rate Kg/Year voltaic modules [17]. A number of review articles have been published
N Life time of solar chimney power plant Year on solar chimney related technologies to highlight its potential applica-
𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 Annual electric power generated by solar chimney tion in various sectors. Detailed energy analysis of solar chimney power
power plant kWh/year generation systems along with various performance influencing param-
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 Electrical power output of solar chimney power plant eters has been reviewed by Guo et al. [1]. In depth exergy analysis of
kW solar chimney power generation systems operating in sole and hybrid
𝑃𝑃 𝑉 Electrical power output of the PV module integrated modes has been reviewed by Bayareh [18]. Geometric factors influenc-
with solar chimney power plant kW ing performance of solar chimney power generation systems has been
PP Payback period Year reviewed extensively by Kasaeian et al. [13] and Pradhan et al. [2].
𝑄𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 Air flow rate caused by solar chimney ventilation unit Various methods of adopting solar chimney ventilation units in build-
m3 /s ings have been compiled by Zhai et al. [11] and Monghasemi and Vadiee
𝑟𝑏 Ratio of maintenance & operation cost to the total in- [12]. Vargas-Lopez et al. [19] has reviewed the thermodynamic model-
vestment cost% ing of phase change material incorporated solar chimney building venti-
𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑠 Discount rate% lation units. However, review articles dealing with different types, con-
𝑟inf Inflation rate% figurations, applications and economics of solar chimney technologies
𝑅𝑐ℎ Radius of solar chimney m are not available in literature as per the author’s knowledge. Hence, this
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙 Radius of solar collector m review work, tries to fill this available gap. In this review article, the so-
RH Relative humidity% lar chimney technologies have been classified as shown in Fig. 1. The
𝑅𝑤 Radial distance from the center of chimney to the ex- classified solar chimney technologies have been reviewed extensively
treme edge of water pool containing submerged PV by highlighting their various modes of operation along with their pros
module m and cons in ventilation, desalination, atmospheric water extraction and
𝑇𝑎 Ambient temperature K power generation sectors. The present review is novel and it significantly
𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑜𝑢𝑡 Temperature at exit of solar chimney ventilation unit K differs in various aspects from the other existing reviews which can be
𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑖𝑛 Temperature at inlet of solar chimney ventilation unit K easily understood from the comparison given in Table 1. The author be-
𝑉 Volume of ventilated space m3 lieves that this review will be of a great companion to the researchers,
𝑉𝑐 Air velocity at solar chimney ventilation unit outlet m/s stakeholders, and policy makers working on sustainable technologies
𝑋𝑃 𝑉 Radial distance of the ground from the entrance of the and sustainability.
solar chimney collector covered with PV module m
𝜂𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 Thermal efficiency of solar chimney ventilation unit% 2. Solar chimney building ventilation systems
𝜌𝑎 Density of air kg/m3
𝜌𝑤 Density of water Kg/m3 Building ventilation refers to the supply of outdoor ambient air to the
𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙 Efficiency of the solar chimney collector% desired space to remove or dilute the indoor air contaminants. Proper
𝜂𝑒𝑙𝑒 Overall efficiency of solar chimney power plant% ventilation is essential for the comfort and healthy living of the occu-
𝜂𝑔 Efficiency of generator in solar chimney power plant% pants inside the buildings/dwellings. Proper ventilation can be achieved
𝜂𝑠𝑦𝑠 Utilization factor of solar chimney power plant% either by utilizing mechanical devices or by the aid of natural buoy-
𝜂𝑡 Efficiency of turbine in solar chimney power plant% ancy phenomena [20]. Buoyancy driven natural ventilation systems are
highly preferred in modern buildings due to high energy consumption

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H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Fig. 1. Classification of solar chimney technologies based on applications and configurations.

Table 1
Comparison of various published review articles on solar chimney with the current review article.

Areas Covered Guo et al. Kasaeian Zhai et al. Monghasemi Vargas-Lopez Bayareh Pradan et al. Present
[1] et al. [13] [11] and Vadiee [12] et al. [19] [18] [2] Review

Thermodynamic Modeling Yes (Energy No No No Yes (Energy Yes (Exergy Yes No

Analysis) Analysis) Analysis)
Classification No No Yes Yes (ventilation) No No No Yes
(ventilation)
Ventilation No No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes
Power Generation Yes Yes No No No Yes Yes Yes
Desalination No Yes No No No Yes No Yes
Atmospheric Water Extraction No No No No No No No Yes
Hybrid Mode – Solar No Yes No No No No No Yes
Chimney + Waste Heat
Hybrid Mode – Solar No No No No No Yes No Yes
Chimney + Geothermal Energy
Hybrid Mode- – Solar No No No No No No No Yes
Chimney + PV modules
Poly-Generation Mode No No No No No No No Yes
Performance Enhancement No Yes (Power Yes (Venti- Yes (Ventilation) Yes (Ventilation) No Yes (Power Yes
Techniques Generation) lation) Generation)
Economics No No No No No No No Yes

of mechanical ventilation devices. Moreover, natural ventilation also
minimizes greenhouse gas emissions and increases building sustainabil-
ity [21]. In addition, natural ventilation has also been highly recom-
mended in isolation centers by the world health organization (WHO)
during COVID-19 break out to prevent the spread of COVID-19 among
the isolated people [22].
Solar chimney is an ancient technology used by the Persians and the
Romans for achieving natural ventilation in their dwellings [12]. So-
lar chimney can also be used for creating passive natural ventilation in
buildings located in temperate climatic zones [23]. In solar chimney, the
heat energy is converted into kinetic energy thereby air flow is achieved
[21]. Solar chimney used for building ventilation can be of vertical wall

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H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Fig. 2. Adaptive comfort standard specified for thermal comfort in naturally

ventilated rooms [25].

type, roof top type and a combination of both the types [20,24]. These
configurations can also be classified as diurnal ventilation and nocturnal
ventilation units based on their absorber surface heat capacity. Diurnal
ventilation chimneys are preferred for tropical climates while nocturnal
ventilation chimneys are preferred for warm climates [19]. The compar-
ison of adaptive comfort standards for naturally ventilated rooms with
the corresponding local ambient temperature is shown in Fig. 2.
The performance of the solar chimney ventilation unit can be esti-
mated by its air flow rate and thermal efficiency.
Air flow rate through the solar chimney ventilation unit is given as
[21],
𝑄𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 × 𝑉𝑐
The quantity of ventilated air that replaces the fresh air in the occu-
pant space per hour is called air change per hour (ACH) which is given
as [21],
𝑄𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 3600
𝐴𝐶𝐻 =
𝑉
The thermal efficiency of the solar chimney ventilation unit is given
as [21],
( ) Fig. 3. Concept of room a) cooling and ventilation b) heating and ventilation
𝜌𝑎 × 𝑄𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝐶𝑝𝑎 × 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑖𝑛 using vertical wall type solar chimney during summer and winter season, re-
𝜂𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = × 100 spectively [26].
𝐼𝑠 × 𝐿 × 𝑑

2.1. Vertical wall type solar chimney building ventilation unit

and solar radiation intensity. Solar chimney is capable of providing com-
fortable indoor air temperature within the adaptive comfort standard
In vertical wall type, the southern wall of the building/house in the
during daytime even under poor solar radiation intensity of 215 W/m2
northern hemisphere is modified into solar chimney. The schematic of
and low ambient temperature of 5 °C. The optimum inlet, outlet open-
vertical wall type solar chimney integrated with a building for room
ing, and air gap size is about 0.20 m for a room size of 4.0 m x 4.0 m
cooling and passive ventilation during summer season is shown in
x 3.125 m dimension [25]. Vertical wall type solar chimney is highly
Fig. 3a. It consists of a glazing installed against the southern wall of
relevant for high rise buildings as the stack effect of chimney is pro-
the building by maintaining necessary gap between them. The surface
portional to the building height. Air circulation rate of about 1.50 m/s
of the wall facing the glazing is black coated while its other surface fac-
can be achieved in a 60 m high building using vertical wall type solar
ing interior of the room is insulated. Major portion of the solar radiation
chimney having an aperture area ten times the cross sectional area of
passing through the glazing gets absorbed by the absorber wall thereby
the building under a solar radiation intensity of 800 W/m2 [20]. Khan-
the wall gets heated up, which in turn heats up the air trapped between
nal and Lei [27] recommended slight inclination of the solar chimney’s
the glazing and the wall by convection. The hot air due to its lower den-
glazing (up to 6°) towards the absorber for minimizing the reverse flow
sity rises up and leaves through the exit at the top of the chimney. The
of air occurring near the chimney’s exit to achieve maximum ventila-
empty space thus created inside the chimney is subsequently replaced
tion air flow rate. The recommended gap between the glazing and the
by the indoor air from the room. In the mean time, the fresh air from the
absorber of solar chimney ventilation unit is about 0.2 m. Further in-
ambient enters the room via the window in the northern wall thus the
crease in gap beyond 0.2 m has caused no significant enhancement in
room/building gets ventilated by solar chimney during summer [21].
ACH [25].
Vertical wall type solar chimney ventilation is also found to be more ef-
fective in room heating during winter season. Concept of room heating
and ventilation during sunny winter season with vertical wall type solar 2.1.1. Vertical wall type solar chimney ventilation unit with insertions
chimney is shown in Fig. 3b. In conventional vertical wall type solar chimney, the heated glazing
The indoor temperature highly depends on the vertical wall type so- loses heat energy to the ambient rapidly if the ambient temperature is
lar chimney’s air gap, inlet and exit openings, ambient air temperature relatively low. This causes poor heating of the air trapped within the

4
H. Sharon
Fig. 4. Schematic of vertical wall type solar chimney ventilation unit with trans-
parent insertions [28].
Fig. 5. Energy absorber and reflected in various components of a) Vertical wall
type solar chimney ventilation unit and b) Vertical wall type solar chimney
ventilation unit with transparent insertions [28].
solar chimney which in turn affects the ventilation air flow rate. This
drawback can be avoided by insulating the outer glazing with transpar-
ent insulation but this result in an expensive ventilation unit. Another
option is to insert a number of transparent glazing having different sur-
face properties (absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissivity) within the
solar chimney as shown in Fig. 4. Moreover, dividing single column of
the vertical wall type solar chimney into two columns is found to be
more efficient in increasing stack effect due to the creation of a large
number of small plumes. These inserted transparent glazing absorbs part
of the incident solar radiation and gets heated up which in turn heats
up the air surrounding them leading to increased buoyancy effect [28].
Insertion of transparent glazing reduces the solar radiation intensity
reaching the absorber wall thereby the absorbed heat is distributed uni-
formly among the insertions and the absorber wall as shown in Fig. 5.
The recommended optimum number of glazing insertions is around two
to three and the optimum thickness of each glazing insertion is about
3.0 mm, respectively [28]. It is always recommended to have outer glaz-
ing with low solar radiation absorbtivity to minimize heat loss to the
ambient. The transmissivity and reflectivity of the glazing, insertions
and the absorber wall is listed in Table 2. The mass flow rate of the
ventilation air generated by the vertical wall type solar chimney with
insertions is about 30 to 60% higher than the vertical wall type solar
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Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184
Table 2
Transmissivity and reflectivity of various com-
ponents of vertical wall type solar chimney ven-
tilation unit with transparent insertions [28].
Components Transmissivity Reflectivity
Outer Glazing 0.848 0.076
Insertion 1 0.651 0.062
Insertion 2 0.391 0.139
Absorber Wall 0.000 0.100
Fig. 6. Schematic of vertical wall type solar chimney with split staggered ab-
sorbers [6].
chimney without insertions [28]. Gong et al. [6] obtained 57% higher
ventilation air flow rate by adopting three staggered split absorber in-
side the solar chimney ventilation unit (shown in Fig. 6.), of dimension
2.8 m height, 1.0 m width and 0.84 m gap.
2.1.2. Vertical wall type solar chimney with evaporative cooler
The indoor thermal comfort of an occupant is affected by the di-
rect and diffuse solar radiation transmitted through the glass window of
the room. Apart from this, the long wave radiation exchange happening
between the human body and space components (especially widow in-
ner surface temperature) also affects the thermal comfort. The thermal
comfort of the occupants can be enhanced by incorporating evaporative
cooled window [29]. The schematic of vertical wall type solar chim-
ney assisted with evaporative cooler unit is shown in Fig. 7. The main
components of the evaporative cooled window are evaporative cooler,
glazing section and solar chimney. Evaporative cooler section consists
of water absorbing sheets attached to its inner surface and is insulated
outside to prevent the effect of incident solar radiation. The glazing sec-
tion includes window of the room and an outer glazing in front of it. The
solar chimney consists of an outer glazing and absorber surface on the
wall which is insulated at its back. The entering ambient air exchanges
sensible and latent heat energy with the water absorbing sheets of the
evaporative cooler and becomes relatively cold. The cold air coming in
contact with the window of the room and the outer glazing removes heat
energy and reduces surface temperature thereby the room temperature
drops considerably.
This unit is capable of reducing the window temperature and en-
ergy consumed for space cooling significantly during hot and dry sea-
sons which can be seen from Fig. 8. The annual space cooling energy
consumption has reduced by about 8.8% with the addition of this unit
H. Sharon
Fig. 7. Solar chimney driven evaporative cooled window [30].
Fig. 8. Impact of solar chimney driven evaporative cooling unit on window
temperature and energy consumption for space cooling activity of the room for
various months [30].
to the room. The unit has reduced the room temperature to 35.3 °C
even though the ambient temperature is about 44.0 °C. However, the
performance of the system is not significant during winter season with
high moisture content in the ambient air [30]. Incorporation of evap-
orative cooled window reduces the solar radiation intensity entering
the room. In addition, lower temperature of the window achieved by
evaporative cooling minimizes the impact of long wave radiation on the
occupant thereby the occupants thermal comfort improves significantly
[29].
2.2. Roof top solar chimney ventilation unit
The roof of the house can be modified into a natural ventilation unit
as shown in Fig. 9., and such unit is called roof top solar chimney ven-
tilation unit. Roof top solar chimney ventilation unit can be integrated
with wind catcher, solar concentrator, PV module, evaporative cooler
and vertical wall type solar chimney ventilation unit. Combined verti-
cal and roof top solar chimney configuration can improve the air flow
rate by about 24.0% [31]. The roof top vertical solar chimney ventila-
tion unit shown in Fig. 10., is highly recommended for old age homes
and isolation centers where patients are isolated to test for contagious
air borne diseases. The air change per hour (ACH) provided by the roof
top vertical solar chimney ventilation unit is about 7.22 even under a
low solar radiation intensity of 200 W/m2 which is greater than the min-
imum value of 6 ACH recommended by the WHO for COVID-19 isolation
rooms [22].
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Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184
Fig. 9. Schematic of roof top solar chimney ventilation unit [32].
Fig. 10. Schematic of roof top solar chimney ventilation unit recommended for
COVID isolation centers and old age homes [22].
2.2.1. Roof top solar chimney ventilation unit with wind catcher
Wind catcher is an effective traditional strategy used in dwellings
of hot arid locations to improve cross ventilation. Wind catcher catches
the ambient air flowing through its opening in the windward side and
diverts the wind through the house there by fresh air is circulated within
the room and the indoor air is pushed away through the openings on
the wind catcher’s leeward side. Moosavi et al. [33] studied different
cases of wind catcher integrated roof top solar chimney for assessing its
suitability in space cooling and ventilation sectors.
Case 1: The ventilation air enters the ground floor of the building via
wind catcher (which is on the northern side of the building) and
then passes through the first floor and exists the building via the
solar chimney (southern side opening) as shown in Fig. 11a.
Case 2: The inner walls of the wind catcher is lined with fabric and
sprayed with water as shown in Fig. 11b., to facilitate cooling
inside the building.
Case 3: Both the ground and first floor are ventilated by the air en-
tering the water sprayed wind catcher simultaneously (ie. the air
is distributed to both the floors) and leaves via the solar chimney
as shown in Fig. 11c.
H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Fig. 11. (a-c): Different investigated cases of roof top solar chimney ventilation unit with wind catcher [33].

The observed average temperature of the ground floor and first floor
for Case 3 is about 28.7 and 35.3 °C, respectively during noon for an am-
bient temperature of 32.0 °C which clearly indicates that the distributed
ventilation has resulted in overheating and poor air flow rate in the first
floor. Hence, Case 3 is not a suitable option. In Case 2, the observed av-
erage temperature of the ground floor and first floor is about 27.2 and
27.8 °C which is lower than the observed average temperature of the
rooms in Case 1. The optimum inlet opening area of the wind catcher,
opening area between the wind catcher and the ground floor, opening
area between the ground floor and the first floor, opening area between
the first floor and the chimney inlet, opening area of the chimney to the
ambient and height of the chimney are 6.0 m2 , 6.0 m2 , 6.0 m2 , 3.0 m2 ,
6.0 m2 and 6.0 m (two times the height of each floor), respectively for
an building of ground area 1100×600 m.

2.2.2. Concentrator assisted roof top solar chimney ventilation unit

Addition of concentrators (3 mirrors - 2 at the sides and 1 at the
bottom) to the inclined roof type solar chimney (2 m x 2 m x 2 m) ven-
tilation unit has increased the chimney’s maximum air velocity from
0.20 m/s to 0.30 m/s [34]. Concentrator enhances the temperature of
the chimney’s absorber thereby the buoyancy effect also enhances which
in turn results in improved ventilation rate. The photograph of concen-
trated assisted inclined roof type solar chimney ventilation unit is shown
in Fig. 12(a-b). Tilt angle of roof top solar chimney ventilation unit af-
fects the air flow rate through the chimney hence it is always recom-
mended to select optimum tilt angle based on the location of the site
[35].
2.2.3. Phase change material (PCM) and photovoltaic (PV) module
incorporated roof top solar chimney ventilation unit
In general, the solar chimney might not be able to provide proper
ventilation to the building/room after sun set thereby, the air flow may
Fig. 12. Photograph of a) Concentrated inclined roof type solar chimney as-
sisted ventilated test wooden house b) Concentrated assisted roof type solar
chimney [34].
get reversed via chimney’s outlet opening. This reverse flow can be pre-
vented by causing discrete heating on solar chimney’s glazing [36].
In addition, incorporation of phase change materials (PCM) in solar
chimney can also help to extend chimney’s operation time significantly.
Phase change material (PCM) can be attached to the back side of the
absorber wall of the chimney thereby, the incident excess solar radia-
tion gets stored in the PCM and is then released after sun set hours as a
result, the ventilation process continues for long hours than in the case
of solar chimney ventilation unit without PCM. The long charging and
discharging duration of PCM due to its low thermal conductivity can be
reduced by about 60.0% by adding copper foam [37].

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H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Fig. 13. Inclined roof top solar chimney with solar PV module as absorber and
PCM based thermal energy storage medium [31].
The roof top type solar chimney based ventilation unit’s utilization
factor can be improved by replacing its absorber wall with solar PV mod-
ule. In this configuration, apart from ventilation; electric power is also
produced without any additional space occupancy [38]. Incorporating
PV module as absorber can rapidly increase PV operating temperature
and diminish PV electrical output & working life [39]. Hence, incorpora-
tion of effective thermal management strategy becomes mandatory for
PV modules that are installed as absorbers in solar chimney ventilation
unit to minimize those above mentioned drawbacks. PCM can be used
below the rear side of the PV module to prevent temperature increase of
the module above certain temperature (which is limited by the melting
temperature of PCM) thereby the drop in electrical efficiency and life of
the module can be prevented to a large extent.
The schematic representing inclined roof top solar chimney with PV
module-PCM is shown in Fig. 13. Addition of copper foam as fins within
the PCM lined over the rear surface of PV module in solar chimney sys-
tem has enhanced the ventilation rate by about 20.0% [31]. The elec-
trical efficiency of solar chimney-PV-PCM unit is about 2 to 3% higher
than the solar chimney-PV unit. In addition, the electrical efficiency of
solar chimney-PV-PCM unit is just 1% higher than the ground mounted
PV unit during noon with high solar radiation intensity. However, the
daily electrical efficiency of ground mounted PV module is still higher
than that of both solar chimney-PV-PCM unit and solar chimney-PV unit
due to the benefit of forced convection heat transfer occurring over its
surface caused by the flowing ambient outdoor wind. In case of the other

Fig. 14. Schematic of Roof Top Solar Chimney Ventilation Unit with Earth to Air Heat Exchanger (EAHE) [23].

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H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

two units, the heat loss from the PV surface is only due to natural con-
vection occurring within the chimney [38].
The ventilation air flow rate of solar chimney-PV-PCM unit and solar
chimney-PV unit is about 4.22% higher and 1.20% lower than conven-
tional solar chimney ventilation unit. Solar chimney-PCM unit gener-
ates 1.18%, 7.31% and 6.02% higher ventilation air flow rate than solar
chimney-PV-PCM unit, solar chimney-PV unit and solar chimney unit,
respectively [38]. PV module integrated solar chimney ventilation unit
configuration has very low air ventilation rate during low solar radiation
hours. However, the ventilation air flow rate can be improved signifi-
cantly by adding fins within the PCM. It has also been found that the fin
height, fin mass, PCM material type and its mass influences the perfor-
mance of roof type solar chimney-PV-PCM ventilation unit significantly
[31].

2.2.4. Roof top solar chimney ventilation unit with earth to air heat
exchanger (EAHE)
The indoor thermal comfort in summer and winter seasons can be
improved significantly by integrating the roof top solar chimney venti-
lation unit with earth to air heat exchanger (EAHE) unit [23,37]. Gen-
erally, in EAHE (Earth to air heat exchanger) unit, fresh air from the
ambient is drawn through the pipes buried under the earth with the
help of fans and this arrangement facilitates exchange of energy with
the sub-soil of the earth. The air passing through the EAHE either gets
heated or cooled inside the EAHE by utilizing the earth’s stored energy
and is then distributed to the rooms with the aid of fans. The integration
of EAHE with solar chimney improves natural ventilation and eliminates
circulation fans thereby the energy consumption for space conditioning
is reduced significantly [23].
The schematic of natural ventilation system for a room with the aid Fig. 15. a) Air flow rate in room with solar chimney-EAHE with and without
of roof top solar chimney and EAHE unit is shown in Fig. 14. Solar PCM b) EAHE outlet temperature for solar chimney-EAHE with and without
chimney dimensions (height, width, glass thickness and absorber thick- PCM [23].
ness), weather conditions (solar radiation, ambient temperature and
wind speed), and earth-air heat exchanger dimensions (pipe length, pipe
2.3. Role of ambient conditions on performance of solar chimney based
diameter and number of passes) affects the ventilation air flow rate from
ventilation units
the chimney (ie.) ventilation unit in the house/building. The roof top so-
lar chimney-EAHE ventilation unit reduces the temperature of the room
Performance of solar chimney ventilation unit is affected by the cli-
by about 5.0 to 9.0 °C in comparison to the ambient temperature during
matic conditions like solar radiation intensity, wind velocity, altitude
summer seasons. In addition, the unit can reduce the total annual elec-
and relative humidity in addition to its geometric conditions like height,
tricity consumption and CO2 emission by about 42.9 kWh/m2 and 4.55
width, gap and aperture area. It has been estimated that the solar chim-
tons, respectively in a two story residential building with four occupants
ney can provide significant ventilation only if the incident solar radia-
[40]. The operation of this unit can be extended up to early morning by
tion intensity is at least 400 W/m2 and its height and aperture area is
adding 0.05 m thick PCM to the absorber of the roof top solar chimney
at least 5.0 m and 15.0 m2 , respectively. Increased ambient wind speed
unit. The PCM incorporated unit can improve the room ventilation by
over the solar chimney’s glazing from 1.5 to 6.0 m/s deteriorated solar
increasing the ventilation air flow rate & its temperature and by decreas-
chimney’s performance by about 25.0% even at a high solar radiation
ing the ventilation air flow rate & its temperature during night and day,
intensity of 900 W/m2 . This observation is due to the increased con-
respectively [23] which can be justified from Fig. 15(a-b).
vection heat losses from the glazing to the ambient caused by increased
wind speed [32]. The ambient air pressure, air density and temperature
2.2.5. Roof top solar chimney ventilation unit with evaporative cooler decreases with increase in altitude. The exit temperature of air at chim-
The schematic of roof top solar chimney ventilation unit with evapo- ney outlet increases with chimney height due to increased heat exchange
rative cooler is shown in Fig. 16. The dry ambient air is first humidified occurred between the chimney absorber surface and the in flowing air.
by spraying water and is then allowed to circulate through the room with However, as altitude increases, the heat loss from the chimney glazing to
the aid of roof top solar chimney to improve thermal comfort of the oc- the ambient increases due to low ambient temperature at high altitudes
cupants. This arrangement is suitable only for hot and dry climates and as a result the chimney air exit temperature decreases with increase in
is capable of saving at least 20.0% of the space cooling energy demand altitudes. Moreover, the mass flow rate of ventilation air from a 3.0 m
of the room [41]. high chimney drops from 0.33 kg/s to 0.31 kg/s, with increase in alti-
The photograph of an ancient dwelling place with wind catcher and tude from the sea level to 2000 m due to drop in ambient air density
underground cisterns for enhancing indoor comfort is shown in Fig. 17. with altitude. Increasing chimney height from 3.0 m to 9.0 m favors im-
These kinds of architecture are mainly found in the Persian and Roman proved ventilation air mass flow rate from 0.31 to 0.88 kg/s because of
cities. In this architecture, instead of spraying the water, the ambient improved stack effect [42]. Hence, solar chimney ventilation unit’s de-
air is first allowed to flow over the underground water cistern thereby sign must be optimized based on the altitude of the concerned location
the air gets humidified which then flows through the room with the aid also [42].
of roof top solar chimney. The room temperature in this case drops by Density of air plays an important role in ventilation air mass flow
about 7.0 to 13.0 °C in comparison to the ambient condition and it also rate. Density of moist air and dry air decreases with increase in temper-
improves the comfort of the occupants significantly [4]. ature and the decreasing rate is high with increase in relative humidity

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H. Sharon
Fig. 16. Schematic of inclined roof type solar chimney assisted ventilation unit
with inlet air humidification by spraying water [41].
Fig. 17. Photograph of a Persian architecture with wind catcher and cistern to
achieve thermal comfort for occupants [4].
of the air. Ventilation air mass flow rate from a solar chimney ventilation
unit increases with increase in solar radiation intensity and air relative
humidity (up to 50.0%). Further increase in relative humidity beyond
50.0% has caused no significant impact on ventilation air mass flow rate
of the solar chimney [43]. Twenty four hour ventilation (including time
from evening to early morning) with solar chimney has been made pos-
sible by increasing the thermal mass of the absorber wall by modifying
its properties like specific heat capacity, density, thickness, height and
density. However, this modification may affect the air flow rate slightly
[44].
10
Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184
The summary of various aspects of different solar chimney based
ventilation systems is tabulated in Table 3.
The major features of solar chimney based ventilation systems are
[20,22,31, and 46]
a. Inevitable part of net-zero buildings
b. Can be manufactured using less expensive items like concrete and
glazing hence more suitable for developing countries
c. No moving parts, less maintenance requirements and has good life
span
d. Optimized configuration can provide reliable and clock round ven-
tilation
e. World Health Organization (WHO) recommended natural ventila-
tion arrangement for old age homes and air-borne disease isolation
centers
f. No fossil fuel consumption hence environmental contamination and
space conditioning bills are reduced
g. Low efficiency and performance highly depends on ambient condi-
tions like solar radiation intensity, wind direction, humidity, altitude
of location etc.,
3. Solar chimney power generation systems
Solar chimney power plants fall under non-concentrating solar ther-
mal power generation systems [47]. In solar chimney power plant, ki-
netic energy of the hot air generated in the solar collector is used to
rotate the generator coupled turbine to produce electric power [48,49].
It is considered as a simple alternate to the existing large scale solar
power generation systems [18]. Solar chimney used for power gener-
ation can be classified as conventional solar chimney and sloped solar
chimney power plant [50]. The detailed thermodynamic model of so-
lar chimney power plant can be found in [51,52]. The electric power
output of solar chimney power plant is related to its chimney height,
solar collector area, solar radiation intensity, ambient temperature and
efficiency of collector, turbine, and generator [48,53], which can seen
from the equation given below,
2 𝑔 𝐻𝑐ℎ 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝜂𝑡 𝜂𝑔 𝐼𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
3 𝐶𝑝𝑎 𝑇𝑎 1000
The overall efficiency of the solar chimney power plant is given as
[54],
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑒𝑙𝑒 = × 100
𝐼𝑠 × 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙
3.1. Conventional solar chimney power plant
The schematic of conventional solar chimney power plant is shown
in Fig. 18. Main components of conventional solar chimney power plant
are solar collector, central chimney and wind turbine connected to a gen-
erator. Plastic film or glass cover stretched and raised above the ground
acts as solar collector. The transparent film or glass cover allows only
short wave solar radiation to pass through it and prevents escape of
long wave radiation re-radiated from the ground. This greenhouse ef-
fect heats up the air trapped between the ground and cover thereby air
density drops and it rises through the chimney causing turbine rotation
resulting in power generation. The up thrust and volume of air flow-
ing through the chimney depends on the air temperature and chimney
height, respectively. Chimney is a source of negative pressure which en-
hances buoyancy effect. Once the heated air moves upwards, cold air
enters the collector from the ambient automatically. The power output
is proportional to the pressure drop across the turbine and volume flow
rate of air. The unit can produce power throughout the year even un-
der cloudy conditions. Moreover, solar chimney power plants are con-
sidered as an attractive alternate option to conventional wind turbine
power plants which are highly dependent on intermittent natural wind
[55].
H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Table 3
Summary of various solar chimney based ventilation systems.

S. No Solar Chimney Ventilation Influencing Parameters Optimum Values Effect Type of Investigation
System

1. Vertical wall type [27]
2. Vertical wall type [28]
3. Vertical wall type [25]
4 Vertical wall type [42]
5. Inclined roof top type [44]
.6. Inclined roof top type with
solar concentrator [34]
7. Inclined roof top type with
PCM incorporated finned PV
module as absorber ([31]
8. Inclined roof top type + Earth
Air Heat exchanger [40]
9. Inclined roof top type + Earth
Air Heat exchanger [45]
10. Inclined roof top type with
PCM absorber + Earth Air Heat
exchanger [23]
11. Roof top type with water
sprayers at air inlet to the
room [4]
12. Vertical wall type with
evaporative cooled window
[30]
Passive wall inclination
Transparent insertions
Inlet opening, outlet opening
and gap thickness
Altitude of the location
Chimney height
Thermal mass of Absorber
(Specific heat, height,
thickness and density)
Absorber temperature
PCM mass & Fin dimensions
Temperature of the earth
below the surface
Temperature of the earth
below the surface
Thermal inertia of PCM
Evaporative cooling
Air Humidity
6° inclination Prevents reverse flow of air at Prototype - experiment
chimney exit
2 to 3 insertions within the Heat is distributed uniformly Prototype – experiment
gap thereby ventilation air flow rate and simulation
enhances by 30 to 57%
0.2 m, between 0.2 to 0.3 m Improves thermal comfort inside Simulation
and 0.2 m room during winter season
NA Air flow rate drops with increase Simulation
in altitude
NA Air flow rate drops with increase
in chimney height
Increase in thermal mass Facilitates ventilation for 24 hrs Simulation
improves early morning and
late evening ventilation
NA Increased absorber temperature Experiment
improves ventilation air velocity
Paraffin wax + copper foam Ventilation duration and capacity Simulation
(212 kg) and Fin (80 no, increased by 17.6% and 7.7%
46 mm height, 3 mm compared to finless case
thickness) PV power output and ventilation Simulation
duration increases by 16% and
101% compared to the solar
chimney-PV absorber without
PCM
NA 5° to 9 °C lower indoor Simulation
temperature compared to
ambient temperature in summer
NA Inlet temperature of air to the Experiment
room is about 12.5 °C (maximum)
lower than the ambient
NA Ventilation air flow rate at night Simulation
has enhanced by 50% in
comparison to the unit without
PCM
NA Indoor temperature has dropped Simulation
by 7 °C to 13 °C from the ambient
temperature
NA Performs well during summer Experiment
with low humidity Unfavorable
performance in winter due to
increased ambient air humidity

Solar chimney power plant with 1000 m diameter collector and
350 m high chimney is capable of producing 1–2 MW electric power
[48]. Hassan et al. [56] found that by providing divergence angle of
about one degree to the chimney outlet can improve the power output
by about 108% due to significant increment in airflow rate from 9.1 m/s
to 11.6 m/s thereby the required chimney height and collector diame-
ter can be reduced for the required power output. Parabolic chimney
profiles can enhance the power output of conventional solar chimney
power plant by about 80% [57]. The slope angle of the solar collector
must not be increased beyond 6° as it can cause recirculation of the gen-
erated hot air which in turn prevents its entry into the chimney thereby
the performance of the power plant may drop considerably [56]. The
recommended optimum ratio of turbine pressure drop to the total pres-
sure potential is around 0.70 to 0.85 to obtain better performance of
the solar chimney power plant [58]. However, this optimum pressure
ratio is also dependent on the plant size and solar radiation potential
[59]. The solar chimney power plant in Manzanares, Spain has collec-
tor radius, collector height from ground, chimney height, and chim-
ney radius of about 122 m, 1.85 m, 194.6 m and 5.08 m, respectively.
The turbine and generator efficiency are 80.0% and 95.0%, respectively
[60].
3.2. Sloped solar chimney power plant
Conventional solar chimney power plant cannot be constructed eas-
ily on mountainous and hilly regions. However, in these regions, sloped
solar chimney power plant depicted in Fig. 19., is recommended for
power generation [61]. The sloped solar chimney power plant utilizes
the slope of the available mountains or hills [50]. The sloped solar chim-
ney power plant has a sloped collector and a short chimney. Collector
in conventional solar chimney power plants is nearly horizontal while it
is highly sloped in sloped solar chimney power plant. Shorter chimney
requirement of the sloped unit is predominantly due to the high buoy-
ancy effect provided by its sloped collector. The sloped solar chimney
power plant having chimney height & radius of 252.2 m & 14.0 m, col-
lector radius & tilt angle of 607.2 m and 31° is capable of generating
5.0 MW power at an overall system efficiency of about 0.57 to 0.64%.
Even though it has very low efficiency it is still attractive in comparison
to the fossil and nuclear fuel based power plants due to its environment
friendly nature [62].
The construction cost of sloped solar chimney power plant is ex-
pected to be lower than that of conventional solar chimney power plant
because of its requirement of shorter chimney [63]. Collector tilt an-
gle must facilitate maximum air flow rate over the turbine rather than
collection of maximum solar radiation intensity for obtaining maximum
power output in sloped solar chimney power plants. Hence, in some
studies, solar collector of the sloped chimney power plant has been tilted
by about 20 to 25° larger than local latitude to achieve maximum air
flow rate. In some studies, it is suggested to have a tilt angle of about
5 to 7° lower than the local latitude to achieve maximum air flow rate.
If the tilt angle is made lower than the optimum value, the power out-
put decreases due to significant reduction in solar energy collection and

11
H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Fig. 18. Schematic of conventional solar chimney power plant [55].

Fig. 19. Schematic of sloped solar chimney power plant [60].

12
H. Sharon
Fig. 20. Schematic of solar double chimney power plant [54].
air flow speed [64]. The detailed thermodynamic model of sloped solar
chimney power plant can be found in [65,66].
3.3. Solar double chimney power plant
The chimney height of sloped solar chimney power plant is lower
in than conventional solar chimney power plant. However, sloped solar
chimney power plants are suitable only for special geographical con-
ditions like hilly regions. One of the alternate ways to maintain rela-
tively lower solar chimney height is by utilizing double chimney. The
schematic of solar double-chimney power plant is shown in Fig. 20. So-
lar double-chimney power plant is a combination of both conventional
and sloped solar chimney power plant. It consists of tilted solar col-
lector, horizontal solar collector, two concentric solar chimneys at the
center of the solar collector and a turbine coupled with electric gen-
erator. This arrangement favors increased utilization of incident solar
radiation without any additional ground area requirement and it also
increases the strength of the structure due to the incorporation of tilted
solar collector above the horizontal collector.
Horizontal solar collector is connected with the inner chimney while
the tilted solar collector is connected with the outer chimney. Air heated
by the horizontal collector flows through the inner chimney and the
air heated by the tilted collector flows through the gap between the
inner and outer chimney. The yearly average power output of this unit is
about 1.59 and 2.77 times larger than the power output of conventional
solar chimney and sloped solar chimney power plant, respectively which
confirms that the chimney height requirement of the this unit per unit
power delivered is relatively lower than other available units [54].
3.4. Hybrid solar chimney power plant
Solar chimney power plant cannot generate power during late
evening and night hours due to the absence of solar radiation [67]. This
limitation can be rectified by coupling the solar chimney power plant
with thermal energy storage [68,69] or with any other external heat en-
ergy source. Solar chimney power plant utilizing other energy sources
in addition to the incident solar energy for its operation is called hy-
brid solar chimney power plant. The external heat energy source can be
geothermal energy or waste flue gas from conventional thermal power
plants. Due to corrosive nature and variable quality, the gas obtained
during oil extraction is generally not utilized as fuel in commercial gas
based power plants hence it is flared at the extraction site itself. Flaring
of gas in oil extraction sites has resulted in wastage of a potential energy
resource. The amount of gas flared every year is capable of powering the
entire African continent for one year. Moreover, the flue gas obtained
from the combustion of flare gas can be utilized in solar chimney power
plant to enhance its power output and operation time [60,70].
13
Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184
3.4.1. Hybrid flue gas– solar chimney power plant
Yazdi et al. [71] simulated the performance of solar chimney power
plant with 6.0 m collector diameter, 0.15 m chimney diameter, 6.65 m
chimney height coupled with four flue gas carrying channel under its
collector canopy. The flue gas passes through the channel at a tempera-
ture and mass flow rate of about 116.0 °C and 0.0015 kg/s, respectively
and leaves the unit near the start of the chimney structure as shown in
Fig. 21. The flue gas is not allowed to flow through the chimney of the
solar chimney power plant in this configuration. Blackened pebbles of
0.10 m thick are also distributed above the ground to facilitate storage
of excess incident solar energy during day time. This hybrid unit gen-
erates about 11.48% higher power than the unit without flue gas flow
and energy storage unit at night time. For a solar radiation intensity of
1000 W/m2 and flue gas channel’s surface temperature of 100 °C the
power output is about 23.1% higher than the conventional solar chim-
ney power plant [72].
Esmaili et al. [60] simulated the impact of flare gas hot combustion
products injection on conventional solar chimney power plant’s power
output. The hot flue gas obtained by the combustion of flare gas is about
1000 to 2000 K and is injected either in a concentrated form at the cen-
ter of solar chimney just above the turbine hub or in a diluted form
at different radii (30 or 60 or 90 m) of the solar collector as shown in
Fig. 22a., and Fig. 22b. Power output increases and solar energy share
decreases with increase in mass flow rate of the injected flared gas com-
bustion products. Power output of the solar chimney power plant with
flared gas injection is about 539 to 788 kW, which is about 978 to 1476%
higher than the actual power output of the conventional solar chimney
power plant. The injection of flared gas combustion products reduces
the required solar chimney’s height for the desired power output. This
method can be used to operate the solar chimney power plant even dur-
ing night hours. Moreover, the energy content of the flared gas has also
been utilized effectively which might have been wasted otherwise.
3.4.2. Hybrid geothermal energy– solar chimney power plant
Due to variations in instantaneous solar radiation intensity, the per-
formance of the conventional solar chimney power plant is highly af-
fected. In order to overcome this limitation in a sustainable way, the
earth’s geothermal energy can be utilized to facilitate continuous oper-
ation of the solar chimney power plant. Hot water geothermal energy
source is highly exploited and utilized in many regions of the globe.
Hot water geothermal energy source can be classified as high tempera-
ture (>150 °C), medium temperature (90–150 °C) and low temperature
(<90 °C). High temperature geothermal energy is used for power genera-
tion while the low and medium temperature geothermal energy is used
for space heating, industrial process, fish farming and other domestic
activities [73]. Habibollahzade et al. [74] recommended utilization of
geothermal energy in solar chimney power plant if the solar radiation
intensity falls below 200 W/m2 .
Cao et al. [73] developed a new configuration of solar chimney
power plant (dimensions similar to the unit in Spain) to utilize low tem-
perature geothermal energy to improve solar chimney power plant’s per-
formance. The schematic of the hybrid geothermal-solar chimney power
plant is shown in Fig. 23. Spirally coiled geothermal water to earth heat
exchanger is installed on the ground area below the solar collector and
is insulated at the bottom to avoid direct contact with the earth’s soil.
Low temperature geothermal water from the geothermal reservoir well
enters the heat exchanger which then exchanges its heat energy to the
ground and exits the heat exchanger. The gap between the coiled tubes
is covered with sand which acts as a thermal energy storage unit.
The proposed configuration was simulated for three modes namely
full scale solar mode (FSM) (plant is operated only using solar energy),
full scale geothermal mode (FGM) (plant is operated only using geother-
mal energy) and geothermal-solar mode (GSM) (plant is operated us-
ing both geothermal energy and solar energy). The mass flow rate and
temperature of the utilized low temperature geothermal water is about
150 kg/s and 60 °C, respectively. The energy input from the solar radi-
H. Sharon
Fig. 21. Schematic of hybrid flue gas-solar chimney power plant [71].
ation is very much higher than the geothermal energy thereby the plant
produces about 87.44 and 16.34 kW of power in full solar mode and
full geothermal mode, respectively. However, in GSM, the power out-
put is about 110.48 kW which is around 6.45% larger than the sum of
the power output obtained in FSM and FGM. In addition, the proposed
unit can generate power continuously by utilizing geothermal-solar en-
ergy during sunshine hours and sole geothermal energy after sunset
hours. Geothermal-solar mode (GSM) is found to be highly beneficial
and its prototype has been developed and demonstrated by Mokrani
et al. [75] in Algeria.
The major features of the solar chimney based power generation sys-
tems are:
a. Chimneys of discarded conventional coal power plants can be uti-
lized
b. Flue gas from conventional fossil fuel based power plants and flare
gas combustion can be utilized to operate the system at non-sunshine
hours
c. Continuous, reliable operation with high power output can be
achieved by utilizing geothermal energy as heat source along with
the solar energy
d. Suitable option for installations in bare hills and arid regions
e. Large ground area occupancy and low energy conversion efficiency
f. High initial cost due to requirement of heavy and high structures
g. Diverging chimney can give high power output but its construction
cost is high due to the requirement of special expertise in building
tall diverging structures
The summary of various aspects of solar chimney power generation
systems is tabulated in Table 4.
4. Solar chimney potable water production systems
Solar chimney can be implemented to extract water from the atmo-
sphere [76,77]. Ming et al. [78] replaced the greenhouse canopy type
solar collector section of solar chimney power plant with water filled
14
Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184
black coiled tubes as shown in Fig. 24a. These coiled blackened tubes
with water absorbs solar energy and stores excess incident solar energy
as heat energy which can be utilized for the operation of the unit during
late evening/non sun-shine hours. The black tubes can be eliminated
if the site is closer to the sea and has high solar and wind potential.
However, for inlands it is always recommended to have the blackened
tube based collectors. The ambient humid air (25.0 °C, 60% relative hu-
midity) coming in contact with the heated blackened tube gets heated
up and enters the chimney. Temperature rise of the air by about 5.0 K
from the ambient is sufficient for the operation of this unit to gener-
ate condensate. At a certain height inside the chimney, the water va-
por in the hot humid air condenses by releasing its latent heat over
the inner surface of the chimney. The height at which the water va-
por in the air condenses inside the chimney depends on the chimney
height, temperature difference between the air entering the chimney
and ambient, and the relative humidity of the air [76] which can be seen
clearly from Fig. 24b. Moreover, this unit is favorable in arid regions
with low natural precipitation and it is unsuitable in regions with high
natural precipitation levels [78] which can be well understood from the
Fig. 24c., where the ratio of the water produced by this unit to the local
natural precipitation is plotted against the natural precipitation of the
sites.
Ming et al. [79] found that by incorporating water sprayers inside
the chimney (as shown in Fig. 25.,) can enhance condensate genera-
tion rate. Condensate generation process begins only when the water
spray rate is beyond 0.4 kg/s. Moreover, increasing water spray rate
from 0.4 kg/s to 0.8 kg/s enhances condensation efficiency from 0.0% to
79.4%. In addition, the required chimney height to cause condensation
of water vapor drops from 210 m to 15 m with increase in water spray
rate from 0.1 kg/s to 0.5 kg/s. It has been assessed that the installation of
potable water generating solar chimney units can improve the microcli-
mate, promote rainfall and prevent droughts in those installed locations
[80].
The summary of major findings in solar chimney based sole potable
water production systems is tabulated in Table 5.
H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Fig. 22. a: Schematic of hybrid flare gas combustion products (injected top of the turbine)-solar chimney power plant [60] b: Schematic of hybrid flare gas combustion
products (injected under the collector)-solar chimney power plant [60].

15
H. Sharon
Table 4
Summary of various solar chimney power generation systems.
S.No Solar Chimney Power Plant Investigated Parameters
1. Conventional solar chimney Collector diameter – 200 to
power plant [48] 1400 m, chimney height – 50
to 600 m, chimney diameter
2. Conventional solar chimney Chimney divergence angle –
power plant [56] 1 to 3 °
Collector slope angle – 4, 6,
8, 10 °
3. Double chimney solar power NA
plant [54]
4. Sloped solar chimney power Collector tilt angle - 0 to 75°,
plant [62] Collector radius – 607.2 m,
Chimney height – 252.2 m,
Chimney radius – 14 m
5. Sloped solar chimney power Collector tilt angle - 35°,
plant [61] Collector radius – 122 m,
Chimney height – 124.6 m,
Chimney diameter – 10.16 m,
Inlet height – 1.85 m
6. Hybrid flue gas- solar Solar radiation intensity –
chimney power plant 100 to 1300 W/m2 ; Flue gas
carrying pipe temperature -
100 °C [72]
Flare gas combustion
products temperature - 1000
to 2000 K, flue gas flow rate
– 0 to 80 kg/s, [60]
7. Hybrid geothermal energy - Collector radius – 50 to
solar chimney power plant 2500 m, chimney radius – 5
[74] to 20 m, chimney height –
200 to 500 m, geothermal
well depth – 1000 to 2000 m
Ambient temperature – 280
to 310 K
8. Hybrid geothermal energy - Chimney height – 194.6 m;
solar chimney power plant Chimney radius – 5.08 m;
[73] Collector radius – 122.0 m;
Inlet height – 1.85 m;
Geothermal water inlet
temperature - 70 °C;
Geothermal water flow rate –
150 kg/s
Table 5
Summary of major findings in solar chimney based sole potable water production systems.
S.No Potable Water Production Investigated Parameters
Systems
1. Atmospheric water extraction Temperature of air at the
[78] chimney entrance, Relative
humidity of the air at the
chimney entrance, natural
precipitation of the location.
Chimney radius – 50 m;
Chimney height – 3000 m
2. Solar chimney with water Water spray rate at chimney
sprayers at chimney inlet entrance – 0 to 0.80 kg/s
[80] Chimney height – 200 m
Chimney radius – 5 m Solar
collector radius – 120 m
Optimal Values
Collector diameter - 1500 m,
Chimney height - 400 m to
produce 5 MW power
One degree
Less than 6 °
NA
Optimum tilt angle of
collector – 31°, System
efficiency – 0.57 to 0.64%
Optimum tilt angle Varies
with latitude and slope of the
mountainous regions
Solar radiation intensity of at
least 400 W/m2 is essential
to cause reasonable power
output from the system
External heat source is
needed when radiation
intensity falls below
300 W/m2
Power output increases with
increase with flue gas mass
flow rate and temperature
Collector radius - 572.8 m,
chimney radius - 15 m,
chimney height - 500 m,
geothermal well depth - 1000
m
Combined geothermal and
solar energy utilization
Optimum Values
NA
0.50 kg/s water
spray rate
16
Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184
Observations Type of Investigation
Power output increases with Simulation
increase in chimney height and
collector diameter
Output power increased by 108% Simulation
due to increase in air velocity
Beyond 6° slope air recirculation Simulation
occurs
1.59 and 2.77 times higher power Simulation
production than conventional
and sloped solar chimney power
plant, respectively System
efficiency – 1.20%
Better performance in spring and Simulation
autumn seasons
At optimum tilt angle of the Simulation
collector, the horizontal span and
chimney height decreases by 18%
and 36%, respectively in
comparison to simple solar
chimney power plant for similar
power generation capacity
Hybrid system produces 11.48% Simulation
higher power output at night
than the conventional solar
chimney power plant
978 to 1476% higher power Simulation
output than conventional solar
chimney power plant Required
chimney height drops by half
Geothermal energy is a suitable Simulation
backup for solar chimney power
plant when the solar radiation
falls below 200 W/m2
This configuration is suitable for Simulation
continuous operation of the
system at night and in winter
season. 6.45% higher power
output than the sum of the power
output of full scale solar mode
and full scale geothermal mode
operated system
Observation Type of Investigation
Potable water production increases Simulation
with increase in temperature and
relative humidity of air at chimney
entrance. More efficient in arid
regions with low natural precipitation
Required chimney height for Simulation
occurrence of water condensation
decreases with increase in water
spray rate due to rise in relative
humidity Beyond water spray rate of
0.50 kg/s the percentage rise in
condensation efficiency is not drastic
H. Sharon
Fig. 23. Schematic of hybrid geothermal-solar chimney power plant [73].
5. Poly-generation/co-generation solar chimney power plant
Solar chimney power plant occupies large ground area and this
area can be effectively utilized either by incorporating solar distillation
units or PV module or agricultural greenhouse within the solar chim-
ney power plant there by additional power, potable water and food
crops can be obtained and the utilization factor of solar chimney power
plant can also be improved [81]. Such integrated solar chimney power
plant with more than one useful output is called co-generation/poly-
generation units. The utilization factor of solar chimney power plant
under poly-generation mode (desalination, turbine power output and
integrated PV power output) is given as [82],
· still’s glass cover heats up the air inside the collector which gets heated
𝑚𝑐 ℎ𝑓 𝑔 + 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑃 𝑉
𝜂𝑠𝑦𝑠 = × 100
𝐼𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙
5.1. Hybrid basin still-solar chimney power plant
Basin solar still has low distillate yield of about 2.15 kg/m2 d and
its distillate yield can be enhanced by 46.5%, 31.2%, 51.0%, and 85%
by adding magnets [83,84] magnetic powder [85], crushed sand gravel
[86,87] and by incorporating heat pump & slack wax [88], respectively.
However, the latent heat of condensation in basin solar still is still left
unutilized. Similarly, the huge land area below the solar chimney power
plant’s collector is not effectively utilized. Hence, combining solar chim-
ney power plant and solar still will be mutually beneficial for both the
units. In hybrid system, the latent heat of condensation of solar still
will be utilized for heating the flowing air in collector of solar chimney
17
Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184
power plant and at the same time the glass cover of solar still gets cooled
by the flowing air thereby its productivity can be increased further.
Zuo et al. [89] modified solar chimney power plant (chimney height
and diameter 200 m and 10 m; collector 250 m diameter and 2.0 m
height) configuration by introducing solar basin stills in annular fash-
ion below the solar chimney’s collector and by providing rock based
energy storage (40 m diameter) at the inner annulus below the collector
as shown in Fig. 26. Solar energy transmitted through the glass cover of
the solar collector and solar still, heats up the basin liner and initiates
saline water evaporation inside the basin. The evaporated water con-
denses over the glass cover of the still by releasing its latent heat. This
latent heat along with convection and radiation heat losses from the
up further while coming in contact with the energy storage unit. The
density of the heated air inside the solar collector is lower than the cold
ambient air at the same altitude thereby natural convection facilitated
by buoyancy occurs. This makes the hot air to enter the chimney where
the mechanical energy of the flowing air is converted into electrical en-
ergy by the wind turbine coupled generator installed at the chimney’s
entrance. The annual power output, fresh water production rate and
CO2 emission reduction rate of this unit is about 283,000 kWh, 69,462
tons and 269 tons, respectively for six hour operation per day. The daily
utilization factor of the conventional solar chimney power plant and the
plant integrated with desalination units is about 1.0% [89] and 16.1 to
55.0% [89,90], respectively.
(Zuo et al. [91], Zuo et al. [92]) proposed a concept of incorporating
air gap membrane distillation unit within basin solar stills placed under
the collector roof of solar chimney power plant. The schematic of basin
solar still with integrated air gap membrane distillation unit installed
H. Sharon
Fig. 24. a) Schematic of solar chimney power plant with coiled water filled black tube as collector [76] b) Effect of temperature rise of chimney’s inlet air from
ambient, chimney height and relative humidity of air on height of condensation site [76] c) Linear relation between water production by solar chimney efficiency
and local natural precipitation [78].
below the solar chimney collector is shown in Fig. 27. Air gap mem-
brane distillation unit has a hydrophobic membrane placed next to the
water inside the basin which is then followed by air gap (5.0 mm) and
condensation plate cooled by incoming feed water. The feed water thus
preheated enters the basin still as make up water. The distillate produc-
tion from the integrated air gap membrane distillation unit is about five
times higher than the distillate production from the basin unit. The daily
utilization factor of the hybrid basin still-membrane distillation-solar
chimney power plant is around 46.0% for a sea water depth of 0.12 m
in the basin [91,92]. Covering the entire ground space below the solar
collector of the solar chimney power plant with solar stills increases cap-
ital cost and fresh water production but the actual power output will be
dropped by about 50.0%. Hence, optimum configuration is essential to
generate fresh water and electricity with reasonable economic returns.
Asayesh et al. [93] found that by covering the ground area between
85 m to 125 m radius below the solar collector of solar chimney power
plant with solar stills can produce fresh water (6.50 kg/s) and power
(18.5 kW) in an economical way.
18
Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184
5.2. Hybrid basin still-solar chimney power plant with wind supercharger
The utilization factor of solar chimney power plant has been im-
proved significantly by incorporating solar distillation units within it
but this improvement comes with a significant trade off in power out-
put. This reduction in power output can be prevented by adopting wind
superchargers (modified H- type vertical axis wind wheel structure) in
hybrid basin still-solar chimney power plant as shown in Fig. 28. The
height of chimney in solar chimney power plants is about 200 m, which
makes it possible to utilize the high altitude wind energy to improve
the power output by installing wind supercharger at chimney’s top. The
high altitude wind rotates the blades of the wind supercharger as a result
negative pressure is created at the chimney outlet thereby the pressure
drop across the turbine (inside the chimney) increases resulting in in-
creased power output. In addition, the air flow rate over the glass cover
of the solar distillation units also increases which causes reduced basin
glass cover temperature and enhanced distillate yield [94]. The opti-
mum blade installation angle for the chimney turbine blade and wind
H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Fig. 25. Schematic of potable water producing solar chimney with water sprayer [79].

Fig. 26. Schematic of hybrid basin still-solar chimney power plant [89].

19
H. Sharon
supercharger blade is about 17° and 3°, respectively [95]. The power
output and distillate yield of hybrid basin still-solar chimney power
plant with wind supercharger and hot flue gas heating arrangement is
about 21.6% and 14.7% higher in comparison to hybrid basin still-solar
chimney power plant with sole hot flue gas arrangement [96].
5.3. Hybrid direct water evaporation-solar chimney power plant
Incorporation of basin stills inside solar chimney power plant is ex-
pensive hence (Zhou et al. [97]) suggested adoption of shallow water
beds below the collector canopy. Direct water evaporation from the shal-
low water beds results in wet-air stream. The wet air stream after passing
20
Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184
Fig. 27. Schematic of basin still with inbuilt
air-gap membrane distillation unit under solar
chimney collector [91,92].
Fig. 28. Schematic of hybrid basin still-solar
chimney power plant with wind supercharger
[94].
through the turbine generates condensate by coming in contact with a
high efficiency condenser kept at the chimney exit (400 m height) (as
shown in Fig. 29a.). The condensate is then allowed to flow through a
water turbine kept at the lower part of the chimney to generate addi-
tional power. The power output from this unit is about 55.3 MW (39.2
MW from the air turbine inside the chimney and 16.1 MW from the
water turbine) which is nearly 57.0% lower than the power output of
conventional solar chimney power plant of similar dimensions. The fresh
water production capacity of this unit is about 3807.0 kg/s. However,
the utilization factor of this unit is only 0.20% due to low power output
in comparison to the conventional solar chimney power plant hence this
configuration seems to be non-economical.
H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Fig. 29. Schematic of hybrid direct water evaporation-solar chimney power plant with a) water bed covering the entire ground area below the collector [97] b)
water bed covering partial ground area below the collector [99].

Adoption of wind supercharger in hybrid direct evaporation-solar
chimney power plant has improved its power output by 34.6%. How-
ever, distillate yield from the wind supercharger incorporated unit is
about 3.51% lower than the similar unit without wind supercharger
[98]. Instead of covering the entire ground space below collector with
water pool, (Kiwan et al. [99]) suggested a water pool of 30 m radius
and 4.0 cm depth as shown in Fig. 29b. The annual power produc-
tion and fresh water generation capacity of this configuration is about
9.95 kWh/m2 and 2.43 ton/m2 , respectively under the climatic condi-
tions of Jordan at an annual efficiency of 66.0% [99].

21
H. Sharon
Fig. 30. Top view of hybrid solar chimney -PV module power plant and water
distillation unit [82].
Table 6
Geometrical dimensions of simulated
hybrid solar chimney [82].
Geometry Dimension
(m)
Hch 200.0
Dchim 10.0
Dcoll 250.0
Hin 2.0
Dw 0.03
XPV 5.0
Rw 15.0
5.4. Hybrid solar chimney -PV module power plant for power production
and water distillation
Solar chimney has been a keen interest for researchers to tackle both
power and water demand under one roof [100]. The glass roof of solar
chimney power plant has been replaced with transparent PV modules
to generate additional electric power [81]. Kiwan et al. [82] proposed
and theoretically investigated this concept of hybrid solar chimney-PV
modules for electric power production and water desalination. The main
components of the unit are solar chimney, PV modules and water pool.
Part of the PV modules is installed at the ambient air entrance region of
the solar chimney collector. Remaining PV modules are installed around
the periphery of the generator located at the center of the solar chim-
ney. PV modules installed around the generator section are submerged
in water pool. The installation details can be easily understood from
Fig. 30. The geometrical dimensions of this simulated hybrid unit are
listed in Table 6. The schematic of this hybrid unit is shown in Fig. 31.
Ambient air entering the solar chimney collector first recovers the
waste heat energy from the PV modules installed at the entrance. The
preheated air is then further heated by the bare ground region inside
solar chimney collector and it flows over the water pool surface thereby
part of the water evaporates and mixes with the hot air increasing its
humidity. This hot humid air rises upward through the chimney driv-
ing the turbine coupled to the generator to produce electric power. The
water vapor in the humid air condenses over the inner wall of the solar
chimney which is relatively at a lower temperature thereby distillate is
produced. In this unit, electric power is generated by the PV modules
and the generator. The utilization factor of this hybrid solar chimney
22
Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184
power plant-PV panel- water distillation unit is given by the ratio of
summation of electric power output of generator & PV modules and the
energy required for water evaporation to the incident solar radiation
over the solar chimney collector [82]. Flowing air and evaporating wa-
ter pool helps to lower the PV panel temperature as a result better PV
performance is expected.
The major findings of this theoretical study are listed below [82]:
- Covering the whole area beneath the solar chimney collector in-
creases utilization factor of the plant as power output of PV unit
increases. However, the power output of solar chimney generator
decreases significantly. Optimum radial distance from the entrance
of collector to be covered with PV modules is found to be 5.0 m.
- By incorporating submerged PV module in water pool within the
solar chimney power plant increases utilization factor further due to
the additional production of distilled water
- Increasing thermal conductivity of the ground from 0.0 to 4.0 W/mK
increases efficiency of PV module installed over the ground below
the solar chimney collector from 14.25 to 14.80%
- Increasing submerged PV module area increases PV power output
and reduces generator’s power output
- Increasing height of the chimney from 250.0 m to 2000.0 m increases
both system utilization factor and PV power output from 4.37% to
48.0% and 418 kW to 435 kW, respectively.
- Increasing solar radiation, increases water production rate and tur-
bine power output but it has negative impact on utilization factor as
PV module efficiency drops at high solar radiation intensity due to
increased PV module temperature
- Increasing ambient temperature reduces utilization factor due to
drop in water production rate and PV power output. Drop in wa-
ter production is due to reduced heat energy loss from the walls of
the chimney to the outside
- Annual power output is about 45.35% higher than the power output
of sole PV modules occupying similar area under similar climatic
conditions
- Annual potable water production is about 4503.7 m3
5.5. Hybrid solar chimney-PV modules-Agricultural greenhouse-heat pump
unit
Power output of conventional solar chimney power plant is expected
to decrease by about 50.0% due to utilization of space below its canopy
for agricultural greenhouse but it also saves a lot of land and improves
the value of agricultural products [101]. PV modules, agricultural green-
house and air source heat pump can be integrated with solar chimney
power plant to produce additional power, food crops and support space
heating activity. Xie et al. [102] proposed the concept of transforming
a de-commissioned coal based power plant into this novel hybrid solar
chimney power plant. The 180.0 m high chimney of the Lingzhou power
plant, China is utilized as chimney for this novel concept. The collector
of solar chimney is partially covered with PV modules and the space
below the solar collector of the solar chimney is utilized as green house
for cultivating Chinese wolfberry. In addition, hot air flowing under the
solar collector is utilized as heat source for domestic heating using air
source heat pump. The energy flow diagram of this hybrid solar chimney
power plant is shown in Fig. 32.
The schematic representing operation of this hybrid solar chimney-
PV modules-greenhouse-heat pump unit is shown in Fig. 33. The inci-
dent solar radiation over the collector of solar chimney is converted into
electric power by the PV modules and generator coupled to the turbine
of the chimney, biomass by photosynthesis and hot air for space heat-
ing by air source heat pump. The total power generation capacity of this
hybrid unit is about 343.50 MWh/d (334.20 and 9.30 MWh/d from the
PV module and solar chimney, respectively) at a conversion efficiency
of 14.2% which is nearly 5.98% and 36.9% higher than the power gen-
eration capacity and conversion efficiency of sole conventional PV mod-
H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Fig. 31. Schematic of hybrid solar chimney-PV module power plant for power generation and potable water production [82].

Fig. 32. Energy flow diagram for the hybrid solar chimney-PV module-Agricultural greenhouse-heat pump unit [102].

ule based power plant occupying similar ground area, respectively. The
expected annual revenue from this hybrid solar chimney power plant
is about 4.36, 0.61, and 0.50 million US dollars from its power genera-
tion unit, agricultural planting unit and space heating unit, respectively.
Moreover, this hybrid unit is capable of mitigating about 1.27 Megatons
of CO2 /year [102].
The summary of important findings in solar chimney based poly-
generation systems is tabulated in Table 7.
The features of hybrid solar chimney based poly-generation systems
are:
a Electric power, food and potable water can be generated under one
roof

23
H. Sharon
Fig. 33. Schematic of hybrid solar chimney-PV module-Agricultural greenhouse-heat pump unit [102].
b High electric power output compared to solar PV array occupying
similar ground area
c Improved utilization factor compared to sole solar chimney power
plants
d Wind supercharger assisted systems is more attractive as high alti-
tude wind is effectively utilized
e Humid air may affect the performance of turbine in solar chimney
power plant
f Quality of condensate obtained during condensation on solar chim-
ney structures for human consumption is questionable
g Transmission of electric power and potable water generated to the
residential areas requires additional distribution systems
h Requires huge land and huge capital investment
i No practical units have been tested or in operation hence reliability
is questionable
6. Economics of solar chimney assisted ventilation systems
The economics of solar chimney assisted ventilation system is esti-
mated by its payback period and energy saving potential. The initial
cost of EAHE-solar chimney ventilation system required for ventilating
a room of 2 × 2 × 2 m size is about 1854 USD. This system can save
up to 42.9 kWh/m2 of electrical energy used for ventilation [40]. Wind
catcher assisted solar ventilation system can save at least 75% of the
energy consumed for occupant space cooling [33]. The payback period
of earth-air heat exchanger assisted solar chimney ventilation system is
about 5.4 years under the climatic conditions of Egypt [40].
The simple payback period of solar chimney ventilation system is
estimated by [40],
Initialcost
𝑃𝑃 = ( ) investment, discount rate, inflation rate, life time and annual energy
𝐸𝑠 × 𝐸𝑇
The annual electrical energy saved by the solar chimney ventilation
system can be estimated by [33],
( )
𝑖=365
∑ 11∶59∑𝑃 𝑀 ( )
𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑎 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑎 × Δ𝑡
𝑖=1 00∶00𝐴𝑀
𝐸𝑠 =
𝜂𝑡−𝑒 × 3600
7. Economics of solar chimney assisted desalination and power
generation systems
The investment cost in solar chimney power plant is mainly the con-
struction cost which is the summation of chimney, collector construc-
tion cost and the costs of turbine and other accessories. In general, the
24
Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184
chimney construction cost, collector construction cost and turbine cost
occupies 25%, 75% and 5% of the total construction cost of solar chim-
ney power plant [78]. To reduce the cost associated with collectors,
PVC based transparent covers have been suggested for application in so-
lar chimney power plants. Black plastic polyethylene tube of diameter
100 mm has also been suggested instead of glass based collector in solar
chimney system especially for application in atmospheric water harvest.
The cost of these tubes is about 2.6 USD/m [78]. The construction cost
of 1 m2 reinforced concrete structure of chimney (200 to 500 m) is about
320 USD/m2 . The cost of PVC canopy is about 6.5 USD/m2 and the cost
of turbine and other accessories is about 10% of the total construction of
both chimney and collector [103]. The cost of glass cover and concrete
structure of solar chimney power plant has been taken as 200 USD/m2
and 300 USD/m2 , respectively in Ref [104]. The cost of basin solar stills
within the solar chimney power plant is about 20 USD/m2 [89].
( )
𝑈 𝑆𝐷
Chimneyconst ruct ioncost (𝑈 𝑆𝐷)= 320 2𝜋𝐻𝑐ℎ 𝑅𝑐ℎ
𝑚2
( )
𝑈 𝑆𝐷 ( )
Collect or const ruct ioncost (𝑈 𝑆𝐷)= 6.5 𝜋 𝑅2𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙 − 𝑅2𝑐ℎ
𝑚2
The capital cost of 100 MW conventional solar chimney power plant
and sloped solar chimney power plant is about 537.58 million USD and
130.37 million USD, respectively [70]. The total capital cost of solar
chimney power plant with water bed below its canopy is about 1.25 mil-
lion USD [104]. The capital cost of solar chimney power plant with basin
solar still with 283 MWh annual power generation capacity is about 3.68
million USD [89].
Levelized cost of electricity is defined as the cost of electricity pro-
duced by the system during its entire life time. It is dependent on initial
output. It is mathematically expressed as [103],
𝑁
𝑖=𝑁
⎛ (1+𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑠 ) 𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑠 ⎞
𝐶 𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑣 ∑ ⎜ (1+𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑠 )𝑁 −1 ⎟
𝐿𝐶 𝑂𝐸 = ⎜ ( ) + 𝑟 𝑏 ⎟
𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 𝑁 𝑖=1 ⎜ 1 + 𝑟 𝑖 ⎟
inf
⎝ ⎠
The levelized cost of electricity generated by the ground mounted
PV is about 0.030 to 0.048 USD/kWh. Similarly, the levelized cost of
electricity generated by floating PV is about 0.035 to 0.064 USD/kWh
[105]. The levelized cost of electricity generated by 1 MW solar chimney
power plant in Tunisia at an interest rate, inflation rate and life time of
3.0%, 6.0% and 40 years, respectively is about 0.034 USD/kWh [103].
The levelized cost of electricity generated by solar chimney power plant
with water bed drops from 4.0 USD to 1.5 USD per kWh, with increase in
H. Sharon Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184

Table 7
Summary of important findings in solar chimney based poly-generation systems.

S.No Poly-generation system System Parameters Optimum Values Observation Type of Investigation

1. Solar chimney + Saline water
bed over ground + Condenser
at top of chimney [97]
2. Solar chimney + saline water
bed over ground [99]
3. Solar chimney + basin solar
still over ground [93]
4. Solar chimney + basin solar
still over ground [89]
5. Solar chimney + Solar
still + membrane distillation
[91]
6. Solar chimney with wind
supercharger + water
bed + indirect condenser
[98]
7. Solar chimney + transparent
PV cover + water bed above
ground with condensing
cover [81]
8. Solar chimney + PV
canopy + Agriculture + Heat
pump [102]
Collector radius, chimney
diameter and height
Chimney height – 200 m,
chimney diameter – 10 m,
collector diameter – 250 m,
collector entrance height – 6 m,
water depth – 0.03 m. Optimal
water bed radius within the
system
Chimney height – 200 m,
collector diameter – 250 m
Optimal location of basin still
within the collector
Chimney height – 200 m,
chimney diameter – 10 m,
collector diameter – 250 m,
collector entrance height – 2 m,
Energy storage layer at center –
40 m diameter, Ground area
covered with single basin solar
still
Solar chimney power plant –
dimensions similar to the
system at Spain Sea water
thickness in basin – 8 cm
Membrane distillation – Air gap
type attached to the back wall
of solar still.
Chimney height – 194.6 m,
chimney diameter – 10.16 m,
collector radius – 122 m,
Collector roof height – 1.85 m,
wind wheel diameter – 10 m,
Blade inclination – 4°, Wind
wheel height – 15 m, Condenser
area – 5684.8 m2
Chimney radius & height,
collector radius & height, air
mass flow rate over the glass
cover of distillation unit
Area of the system – 1,069,015
m2 , Number of PV modules as
canopy – 190,000, 80% area
below the canopy for Chinese
wolfberry planting
Collector diameter – 6000 m,
Chimney height – 500 m,
Chimney radius – 80 m
Water bed location –
between 5 and 15 m radii
from chimney center
Basin still location – between
85 and 125 m radii from
collector entrance
NA
NA
Optimum turbine rotational
speed – 100 rpm
Chimney radius - 8 m,
Collector radius – 100 m,
Chimney height – 399.79 m,
Chimney entrance height –
2.99 m Air mass flow rate –
799.58 kg/s
Optimum canopy inclination
– 38° (closer to local latitude)
System efficiency – 0.20% Air Simulation
temperature and air velocity at
chimney inlet is lower
compared to sole solar chimney
power plant Potable water –
3807 kg/s Power output – 55
MW (57% lower power output
than conventional solar
chimney power plant)
System efficiency – 66%, Power Simulation
output – 487.5 MWh/year,
Potable water – 119 kilo
tons/year
Potable water – 6.5 kg/s, Power Simulation
output – 18.5 kW (lower than
conventional solar chimney
power plant by 19% but higher
than the system with ground
area fully covered with basin
still)
System efficiency – 55.35%, Simulation
Power output – 283 to
377 MWh/year, Potable water –
69 to 92 kilo tons/year, Annual
CO2 reduction - 269 to 358 tons
System efficiency – 38.46%, Simulation
Potable water – 11.55
tons/hour
System efficiency – 16.73%, Simulation
Power output – 45.6 kW (34.5%
higher than similar unit without
wind supercharger due to
utilization of high altitude wind
energy by wind supercharger),
Potable water – 9.805 ton/h
System efficiency – 1.01%, PV Simulation
power output- 419 kW, Turbine
power output – 120.2 kW,
Potable water – 11,856 kg/h
Plant efficiency – 14.2%, Simulation
Annual revenue – USD 5.47
Million, Annual CO2 reduction -
1.27×106 tons

chimney height from 120 to 240 m [104]. The power generation capac- estimated by including the cost of electricity generated by the system.
ity of solar chimney power plant with transparent PV module canopy The cost of distillate production in this case is given as [89],
and water bed is about 43% higher other solar chimney power plant ( 𝑁
) ( )
configurations due to the additional power generated by the PV mod- ( ) 𝐶 𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑣 𝐼 𝑅(1+𝐼𝑁𝑅) − 𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 × Unit costofelect ricit y
(1+ 𝐼𝑅) −1
ules [82]. 𝐶 𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑤 𝑈 𝑆𝐷∕𝑚3 = ( )
𝑀𝑌
The cost of distillate produced by solar chimney based systems can 𝜌𝑤
be estimated by [89],
The cost per ton of distillate and cost per kWh of electricity generated
( 𝑁
)
( ) 𝐶 𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑣 𝐼 𝑅(1+𝐼𝑁𝑅) by a 130 MW solar chimney power plant with water bed is in the range
(1+ 𝐼𝑅) −1
𝐶 𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑤 𝑈 𝑆𝐷∕𝑚3 = ( ) of 0.20 to 0.70 USD/ton and 0.068 to 0.101 USD/kWh, respectively
𝑀𝑌
[97]. The distillate production cost of solar chimney power plant with
𝜌𝑤
basin stills ranges between 1.07 to 2.84 USD/m3 [89]. Similarly, the dis-
If the solar chimney system is generating power in addition to tillate water production cost of solar chimney power plant with trans-
potable water production then the cost of distillate production must be parent PV canopy and water bed is about 1.60 USD/m3 [82]. Potable

25
H. Sharon
water production cost of solar chimney based systems are closer to that
of conventional fossil fuel powered multi stage flash (1.13 USD/m3 ),
multi effect distillation (0.60 USD/m3 ) and reverse osmosis units (2.36
USD/m3 ) [7].
8. Conclusion
The potential of solar chimney in ventilation, power generation and
desalination sectors have been elaborately reviewed by highlighting
their types, mode of operation, working principle and other salient fea-
tures. Solar chimney ventilation unit is capable of providing required
ventilation and thermal comfort to the occupants during both summer
& winter seasons. Moreover, it has can reduce significant energy re-
quirements in space conditioning activity. Incorporation of concentra-
tors, phase change materials, solar PV modules and earth-to-air heat
exchanger to the solar chimney ventilation unit has improved its oper-
ation period and overall efficiency significantly. Solar chimney power
plants are suitable for standalone large scale power production in the
range of few Mega Watts. Moreover, waste energy heat source like flue
gas and renewable energy sources like geothermal energy can be easily
integrated with them to increase their power generation duration and
capacity. Sole solar chimney water production units are not attractive
as their performance is limited by atmospheric humidity. However, so-
lar chimney power plant operating in poly generation mode is highly
attractive due to its high utilization factor of about 55% in comparison
to the utilization factor of sole solar chimney power plant which is only
around 1.0%. Incorporation of transparent solar PV modules as collector
cover for solar chimney power plant increases electrical power output
of the hybrid unit significantly in comparison to the power output of
the sole PV modules occupying similar ground area. The significance
of solar chimney ventilation unit is well proved, documented and is an
important ingredient in sustainable building architecture. However, de-
tailed studies are needed in the area of solar chimney power plants and
desalination systems.
The scopes for future works in this area are:
a. Development of efficient thermal management strategy for PV mod-
ule absorber under conditions within the solar chimney ventilation
system
b. Optimization, development and experimentation on various concen-
trator assisted solar chimney ventilation systems
c. Identification of potential and optimal configuration of solar chim-
ney ventilation systems for application in poultry and animal farm-
ing units
d. Undertaking real time studies on solar chimney power plants under
hybrid and poly-generation mode to prove their reliability
e. Identification of low cost cover materials, coatings and investiga-
tions on suitability of composite materials for development of solar
chimney power plant at affordable price
f. Development of suitable energy storage materials is needed to im-
prove the operation period of solar chimney technologies
g. Studies on employment aspects and sustainability of large scale solar
chimney power plants in various locations are needed
Funding
The work has not received any funding from both private and gov-
ernment sources.
Author contributions
Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation,
Writing - manuscript preparation, reviewing and editing: - H. Sharon.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The author declares that there are no competing interests.
26
Energy Nexus 10 (2023) 100184
Data Availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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