Building and Environment 177 (2020) 106895

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Building and Environment

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

A new energy saving ventilation system assisted by transpired solar air

collectors for primary and secondary school classrooms in winter
Xianli Li a, Shaojuan Zheng a, *, Gang Tian b, Lian Zhang c, Wanxiang Yao a
a
Tianjin Chengjian University, Tianjin, 300384, China
b
93756 Air Force Troops, Tianjin, 300130, China
c
Tianjin Sino-German University of Applied Sciences, Tianjin, 300350, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The CO2 concentration of a Tianjin primary school classroom is measured in winter. The average values reach
Ventilation 1904 ppm and 2415 ppm near the end of the first and second lessons, respectively. Hence, to meet the primary
CO2 standard of 1000 ppm from “Specification of indoor air quality for classroom of elementary and secondary
Energy saving
school” (T/CAQI27-2017), a new energy saving ventilation system assisted by transpired solar air collectors is
Solar air collector
School
proposed. The energy saving ventilation system is comprehensively analyzed not only in term of ventilation
effect but also in terms of energy savings, environmental protection and economic effects. The conclusions
demonstrate that the indoor average values of CO2 concentration for the new system are all reduced to below
1000 ppm in November, December, January, February and March, according to the data provided by Tianjin Eco-
Environmental Monitoring Center from 2011 to 2013. The average value of hourly solar fractions can be as high
as 34.3% over a heating season. Although the economic effect of the new system is not the best, both its energy
saving effect and environmental protection effect are significant.

[8,9] simulated CO2 concentrations in classrooms with different posi­

1. Introduction
Many classrooms with CO2 concentrations above 1000 ppm are
indicated by available data [1]. H. Fromme et al. [2] measured the CO2
concentrations of 92 classrooms in winter (from December 2004 to
March 2005), then found that its medium value of a classroom was 1603
ppm, exceeding 1000 ppm. L. Stabile et al. [3] tested the CO2 concen­
tration in three primary schools during heating season. The results
demonstrate that the peak of CO2 concentration was more than 5000
ppm, and the median values ranged from 1400 to 3000 ppm. Many
studies show that high CO2 concentrations have a significant adverse
impact on students’ attendance and attention during lectures [4,5].
Scholars have done a lot of works to improve indoor air quality. S.
Petersen et al. [6] executed experiments at two schools. The ventilation
rate increased to 6.6 l/s per person from 1.7 l/s per person, and the CO2
concentration in the classroom decreased to 900 ppm from 1500 ppm. K.
Al-Rashidi et al. [7] measured the CO2 concentrations in 10
elementary-level classrooms with two ventilation modes (natural and
air-conditioned). The findings show that the CO2 concentration (1596
ppm) under the air-conditioned ventilation mode was higher than that
under the natural ventilation mode (708 ppm). H. Zhang, M. Liao et al.
tions and numbers of opening windows. Results show that the ventila­
tion effect is obviously improved when the opening windows are exactly
opposite to the students gathering area. Increasing opening windows
number is beneficial to decrease indoor CO2.
A large number of studies have indicated that rational ventilation
modes and sufficient fresh air are effective for the removal of indoor
CO2. However, in the case of indoor thermal comfort in the transition
seasons or winter, fresh air needs to be heated, which results in high
energy consumption. Adopting solar air heating technology could solve
this issue to some extent. It can reduce traditional energy resources, as
well as providing a healthier learning environment for pupils. Most of
current studies mainly focused on improving the heating performance of
solar air collectors when designed or applied [10]. Choi et al. [11]
studied a solar air heating system using the foundation concrete as the
heat storage material in a residential building. Results show that the
heat accumulated in the foundation concrete during the daytime can be
more effectively utilized at the time of non-heat collection. Yu et al. [12]
proposed a heating system combining solar air collector with hollow
ventilated interior wall to supply heating for Tibetan Plateau, and
proved its feasibility and applicability. However, limited published
works concern for the effect of solar air heating technology on diluting

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhengshaojuan524@163.com (S. Zheng).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.106895
Received 13 January 2020; Received in revised form 19 March 2020; Accepted 8 April 2020
Available online 16 April 2020
0360-1323/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Li et al. Building and Environment 177 (2020) 106895

Nomenclature ðCI COÞt net cash flow in the year t (yuan)

t time (s) Greek symbols

u velocity components in x, y, and z coordinates (m/s) ρ air density (kg/m3)
φ dependent variable
!r position vector
κ energy kinetic turbulent (m2/s2)
!s direction vector
ε dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy (m2/s3)
s length of path
α spectral absorption coefficient (1/m)
n refraction index
σ Boltzmann constant for black radiation (σ ¼ 5:672 �
!s’ scattering direction vector
10 8 W=ðm2 ⋅K4 Þ)
i0 benchmark yield
σs scattering coefficient (1/m)
S source term for variable φ
Γ diffusion coefficient for variable φ
P’t dynamic investment pay-back period (years) Φ phase function
CI cash inflow (yuan) Ω’ solid angle (sr)
CO cash outflow (yuan)

the indoor pollution. The paper proposes a new energy saving ventila­
tion system with air conditioners assisted by transpired solar air col­
lectors. Due to jet impingement, the heating performance of transpired
solar air collector is excellent. The thermal efficiency of this method is
found to be approximately 10–20% higher than those of other types of
collectors [13,14]. The new system’s ventilation effect in reducing in­
door CO2 contamination is studied. The energy saving effect, environ­
mental protection effect and economic effect are compared with those of
three other ventilation systems with different heating devices.
2. Model
2.1. Physical model
The studied classroom model (9.2 m � 5.2 m � 3.2 m) of a primary
school in Tianjin, China is shown in Fig. 1. There are 42 pupils and 1
teacher. The new energy saving ventilation system is adopted orientated
towards the south, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The transpired solar air
collectors (each 1200 mm in width�2600 mm in height�155 mm in
depth) consist of a glazing cover, an absorber plate with slit-like per­
forations and an insulation frame. The air treatment units (each 400 mm
in width � 200 mm in height � 420 mm in depth, including a fan and a
condenser) are connected to the evaporators of the air conditioners
placed in open air. The transmittance of glazing cover is τ ¼ 0.85. The
emissivity of absorber plate is εp ¼ 0.78. In view of the students’ safety
and the feasibility of the system, the air outlet grilles (each 400 mm in
width � 200 mm in height) of the classroom are arranged in the upper
part of the opposite wall. According to the demands of the “Code for
Design of Schools” (GB50099-2011), the indoor design temperature for
normal classrooms in primary and secondary schools in winter is above
18 � C [15]. Because the air supply temperature is usually close to or
higher than the indoor temperature [16], the air temperature from the
air treatment units is set at 18 � C. As shown in Fig. 2, when fresh air from
the outdoors enters the transpired solar air collector, it flows upward in
the plenum between the insulation frame and absorber plate. Mean­
while, part of fresh air passes through the absorber plate and then
continues to flow in the plenum between the glazing cover and the
absorber plate. In the process, the fresh air is first heated by the collected
solar energy, and if its temperature does not reach 18 � C, the air con­
tinues to be heated to 18 � C by the air treatment unit.
2.2. Numerical equations

For Newtonian fluids, the classical mass, momentum, energy and

species equations can be written as [17]，
∂ðρφÞ = ∂t þ divðρuφÞ ¼ divðΓgradφÞ þ S (1)
Due to the lower airflow speed and smaller temperature difference,
the air in this study is considered to be incompressible. The Boussinesq
hypothesis is employed [18]. The governing equations are numerically
solved by ANSYS Fluent as a commercial CFD software. Chen [19]
considered that indoor air flow is often the combination of free turbulent
shear flows and wall turbulent shear flows. He has studied the five k-ε
models’ performances in predicting typical indoor air flow. The standard
and the RNG k-ε models are very stable during computations, where the
former is used here since it’s easy to program and gives reasonable re­
sults in many of the applications. The term of Full Buoyancy Effects is
opened and the Body Force Weighted pressure discretization scheme is
adopted for the natural convection. Due to the impinging jet, the airflow
inside the solar air collector is complex and turbulent, especially near
the absorber plate. Relative to the standard κ ε model, the κ ω model
is more competitive in calculating the flow at the near wall region,
which is taken here to simulate the airflow and heating performance of
the air collector. The species transport model and the discrete ordinates
(DO) model are chosen. The radiation transfer equation of the DO model
along the ! s direction at position ! r can be expressed by Equation (2)
[20]:
Fig. 1. Physical model of the classroom.

2
X. Li et al. Building and Environment 177 (2020) 106895

Fig. 2. Structure of the new ventilation system.

Z 4π
� � �
dIð!
r ;!
s Þ ds þ ðα þ σ s ÞIð!
r ;!
s Þ ¼ αn2 σ T 4 π þ ðσs = 4πÞ Ið!
r ;!
s ÞΦð!
r ;!
s ’ÞdΩ’ (2)
0

the insulation frame of the transpired solar air collector is considered to

Tet/Hybrid cells in the form of the unstructured grid are used to
discretize the domains. Grid independent studies are carried out
respectively for the classroom and the solar air collector. The number of
cells 2232789 is considered in the computational domain for the class­
room itself, and the numerical results are independent of the grid size.
The method of wall function is used in wall treatment. To both save
computation time and achieve model accuracy, a finer grid scheme for
the absorber plate and relative coarser grid scheme for other parts of the
solar air collector is employed. The residuals of the solutions for the
mass and momentum equations are controlled to be less than 10 4,
while that of the solutions for the species, energy and radiation transfer
equations less than 10 6. The process is terminated in the steady state
when these convergences are satisfied.
be under adiabatic conditions; (5) at an equivalent sky temperature, the
sky is considered a blackbody for long-wavelength radiation [21].
3. Model verification
3.1. Instruments
To verify the accuracy of the ventilation and heat collecting models,
the CO2 concentrations, irradiation intensities and outdoor wind speeds
are measured by portable instrument ST303, solar radiometer TBQ-2,
and wind speed tester TSI 9515. The indoor and outdoor temperatures
for the classroom are measured by automatic temperature recorder

2.3. Boundary conditions Table 1

The parameters of instruments.
All inlets are considered to be velocity-inlet, while all outlets are Instruments Scale Accuracy Maximum
given to be outflow. The initial values of indoor air temperature, outdoor range uncertainty

temperatures and CO2 concentrations are measured. Air tightness of Portable 0–9999 3% 1.73%
windows belongs to 4 class. Internal heat source items are loaded to instruments ppm
ST303
calculate the solar radiation amount on the glazing cover and absorber
Wind speed tester 0–20 m/s � 5% of the readings or � 2.88%
plate of collector. To simplify the algorithm, some assumptions are TSI 9515 0.025 m/s taken a larger
made: (1) the inner wall, floors, doors, tables and chairs are considered value
to be under adiabatic conditions; (2) the velocity of CO2 exhaled by a Solar radiometer 0–2000 2% 1.15%
human is 0.107 m/s [9]; (3) the solar radiation is negligible, since the TBQ-2 W/m2
classroom is shaded by neighboring buildings in the morning, especially Platinum thermal 50-200 �(0.1 þ 0.0017ǀtǀ) � C 1.01%
resistance �
C
during the test time, and thus the irradiation intensity is very little; (4)

3
X. Li et al.
Fig. 3. Measurement points layout.
TR001. The environment and the outlet air temperatures for the tran­
spired solar air collector are tested by thermal resistances connected to
an Agilent 34970A. The parameters of main instruments are shown in
Table 1.
3.2. Results
3.2.1. Verification of the ventilation model
As shown in Fig. 3, five measurement points are almost equally
distributed in a diagonal form, 1 m above floor level, at the level at
which the students normally inhale CO2 [22]. The initial indoor tem­
perature is 16 � C. The test time continues from 8:00 to 9:30, including
two lessons and a break. The average values of outdoor temperatures
and outdoor wind speeds are respectively 6.65 � C and 2.1 m/s. The
measurement values for each measurement point are recorded every 3
min.
As shown in Fig. 4, the CO2 concentration of each point increases
over time during the first and second lessons. This occurs because the
doors and windows are closed, and no people enter or exit the classroom.
The measured average CO2 concentrations can reach 1904 ppm and
2415 ppm near the end of the first and second lessons, respectively,
which both exceed the primary standard of 1000 ppm of “Specification
of indoor air quality for classroom of elementary and secondary school”
(T/CAQI 27–2017) [23]. During the break between the first and second
lessons, the doors are opened a little, which causes CO2 to discharge to
Fig. 4. Measured and simulated values of CO2 concentration at each measurement point.
4
Building and Environment 177 (2020) 106895
Fig. 5. The experimental transpired solar air collector.
the outside and decreases the CO2 concentrations. The numerical results
are in good agreement with the experimental data. Through statistical
error analysis, the root mean square error (RMSE) is 51.1 ppm. The
maximum relative error is 9.55%. The present ventilation model is
proved to be suitable for estimating the distribution of CO2
concentrations.
3.2.2. Verification of the heat collecting model
Since the primary school classroom mentioned above has not yet
been renovated, the experimental equipment placed at Tianjin Cheng
Jian University is used to verify the heat collecting model, as shown in
Fig. 5. It’s tilted at 90� from horizontal plane and oriented to south on
the roof of a building. The overall dimensions are 0.75 m (width) � 1.95
m (height). The air volume of the transpired solar air collector is set as
90 m3/h. In view that widely varying meteorological conditions could
make the model validation more reliable, the experiment days involving
X. Li et al.
Fig. 6. Irradiation intensities and outdoor wind speeds.
Fig. 7. Environment temperature, and measured and simulated temperatures.
a warm and sunny day (namely the 1st test day) and a cold and cloudy
day (namely the 2nd test day) are chosen. The irradiation intensities,
environment temperatures, outdoor wind speeds and outlet air tem­
peratures of the solar air collector are measured, each day from 9:00 to
15:00.
As shown in Figs. 6 and 7, average outdoor wind speeds on the 1st
test day and 2nd test day are 0.42 m/s and 0.31 m/s, respectively,
indicating good measuring conditions. On the 1st test day, even if there
5
Building and Environment 177 (2020) 106895
is some turn-over, the irradiation intensity in general first increases and
then decreases, and the environment temperature (here, this tempera­
ture is equal to the inlet air temperature) first increases and then shows a
relatively steady trend with the local time. Their highest values are 637
W/m2 at 12:20 and 30.1 � C at 14:50. As a whole, the outlet air tem­
perature first increases and then decreases under the comprehensive
effects of irradiation intensity, environment temperature and outdoor
wind speed. Due to the increased solar heat supply, the outlet air tem­
perature increases with the irradiation intensity. Due to the decreased
heat loss, the outlet air temperature increases with the environment
temperature increasing and the outdoor wind speed decreasing. Its
highest value is 40.9 � C at 13:20. On the 2nd test day, the change trend
of environment temperature is similar to that on the 1st test day, in
which the highest value is 11.94 � C at 14:00. However, the variation of
irradiation intensity has no obvious regularity, that’s because the 2nd
test day is cloudy. In view of relatively little change of environment
temperature from 9:00–15:00, the impact of irradiation intensity to
outlet air temperature is significant.
From Fig. 7, most of the predicted temperatures are higher than the
experimental data, which may be attributed to the heat loss from the
insulation frame in the experiments. The root mean square error (RMSE)
in between is 0.81 � C. The agreement is very good, with the maximum
and average relative errors respectively 13.94% and 3.79%. This result
validates the accuracy of the model and provides confidence in the heat
collecting model.
4. Discussion
4.1. Ventilation effect
Since fresh air can be mixed with indoor air quickly, a steady state is
assumed in the simulation of the CO2 concentration distribution. The
fresh air volume is set to 20 m3/h per person [15]. The monthly average
values of outdoor temperature and wind speed from the meteorological
data of typical year in Tianjin [24] are employed. The outdoor daily
mean CO2 concentrations in November, December, January, February
and March of Tianjin from 2011 to 2013 are used to evaluate the
ventilation effect of the new system. The data are provided by Tianjin
Eco-Environmental Monitoring Center [25].
As shown in Fig. 8, the highest value of outdoor daily mean CO2
concentration is 436 ppm in January, while the lowest value is 401 ppm
in March. The indoor average values of CO2 concentration for the new
system in November, December, January, February and March are all
reduced to below 1000 ppm, meeting the primary standard of 1000 ppm
for primary and secondary school classrooms [23]. It increases with the
outdoor daily mean CO2 concentration. At the horizontal plane Z ¼ 1.0
m, the highest average value of CO2 concentration is 884 ppm in
January, follows by that in February, December, November and March.
Fig. 8. Outdoor and indoor CO2 concentrations.
X. Li et al. Building and Environment 177 (2020) 106895

Fig. 9. CO2 concentration field at the horizontal plane (Z ¼ 1.0 m) in February.

Fig. 10. Velocity vector at the vertical plane (X ¼ 4.6 m) in February.

Fig. 9 shows in February, the CO2 concentration field at the hori­

zontal plane Z ¼ 1.0 m. The CO2 concentration near the outer wall is
higher than that near the inner wall. This occurs because with the
combined effects of fresh air and indoor air, the air near the outer walls
and inner walls at a lower temperature moves down, and the air in the
middle of the classroom at a higher temperature moves up, which causes
an anti-clockwise vortex near the outer wall and a clockwise vortex near
the inner wall, as shown in Fig. 10. CO2 circulates with air flows in the
two vortices. However, the clockwise vortex is near the outlet, which
causes the CO2 near the inner wall to be easily discharged from the
outlet. In addition, as shown in Fig. 9, the CO2 concentration in the back
is higher than that in the front since the students’ exhaled CO2 is mainly
concentrated in the middle and back of the classroom.

4.2. Energy saving and environmental protection effect

To better reflect the feasibility of the energy saving ventilation sys­
tem (named system 1), this system is compared with three other venti­
lation systems from the views of energy saving, environmental
protection and economic effects. In system 2, the air is heated with two
air conditioners. In system 3, the air is heated with two electric heaters
assisted by two solar air collectors. In system 4, the air is heated with two
electric heaters. The air conditioners or electric heaters are selected
based on the maximum value of the heat load of fresh air. The COP of air
conditioner is 3.5. The solar heat supply could be calculated according
to the air temperature difference between the collector outlet and inlet
Fig. 11. Heat supply by solar collectors and air conditioners for system 1.
simulated by ANSYS Fluent.
Fig. 11 shows the heat supplied by solar collectors and air condi­
tioners for system 1 in the whole heating season from 15th in November
to 15th in March, in which the environment parameters are from the
meteorological data of typical year in Tianjin. The solar heat supply
generally first increases and then decreases during a measurement day.
At the corresponding moment, the heat supply from the air conditioners
generally first decreases and then increases. The solar heat supply

6
X. Li et al.
Table 2
Energy saving and environmental protection indicators of the four systems over
a whole heating season.
Items System System System System
1 2 3 4
Electricity consumption (including 591.51 800.53 2031.87 2777.85
fan power consumption)/kWh
Standard coal consumption/kg 236.61 320.21 812.75 1111.14
CO2 emission/kg 589.74 798.13 2025.77 2769.52
relative to the fresh air heat load is very higher in March. In many cases,
the solar fraction can reach 100%. For the whole heating season, the
average value of hourly solar fractions for system 1 is calculated to be
34.3%. The electricity consumption (including fan power consumption)
is 591.51 kWh, as shown in Table 2.
The environmental protection effects of the four systems are
compared on the basis of all energy types converted into standard coal.
As shown in Table 2, the energy saving and environmental protection
effects of system 1 are the best, followed by those of system 2, system 3
and system 4. This occurs because of the transpired solar air collector
with excellent heating performance and the air conditioner with a
higher performance coefficient for system 1. The standard coal con­
sumption and CO2 emission of system 1 are thus the lowest, 236.61 kg
and 589.74 kg respectively. By individual comparisons of system 1 with
system 2, system 3 with system 4, it is found that the energy saving effect
of the transpired solar air collector is remarkable. By individual com­
parisons of system 1 with system 3, system 2 with system 4, it is found
that the air conditioner is far more energy efficient than the electric
heater.
4.3. Economic effect
The economic effect of the four systems is compared in terms of five
economic evaluation indicators: initial investment, annual operation
cost, annual maintenance cost, total investment and dynamic payback
period. Previously, the economic viability of the four systems was
calculated. The results show that the benefit cost ratios are all larger
than 1, the financial internal rates of return are all greater than the
current benchmark yield of 8% in China, and the net present values are
all positive. These results indicate that the four systems have good
prospects for development.
The annual operation cost is calculated according to the electricity
fee of 0.49 yuan/kWh. The total investment includes the initial invest­
ment, maintenance costs and total operation costs, in which the main­
tenance costs are calculated at 6% of the initial investment and the total
operation costs are calculated in 20 years taking the life of the solar air
collector into account. The dynamic investment payback period as
another economic evaluation indicator can be reflected by the following
formula:
Pt
X
’
ðCI COÞt ð1 þ i0 Þ t ¼ 0 (4)
t¼0
As shown in Table 3, the annual operation cost of system 1 is the
lowest. However, in view of the higher initial investment and mainte­
nance costs, its total investment is slightly higher than that of system 2,
by 3096 yuan, when ignoring the time value of money. Its dynamic in­
vestment payback period is thus slightly longer than that of system 2.
Because of the low thermal efficiency of electric heaters, the dynamic
investment payback period is substantially higher for systems 3 and 4,
especially for system 3.
5. Conclusions
Considering that the CO2 concentrations in primary and secondary
school classrooms in winter usually seriously exceed the standard, a new
7
Building and Environment 177 (2020) 106895
Table 3
Economic evaluation indicators of the four systems.
Items System 1 System 2 System 3 System 4
Initial investment/yuan 5836 3500 4994 2658
Annual operation cost/yuan 290 392 996 1361
Annual maintenance cost/yuan 350 210 300 160
Total investment (20 years)/ 18,636 15,540 30,914 33,078
yuan
P’t /years 5.85 3.08 13.06 9.57
energy saving ventilation system with air conditioners assisted by
transpired solar air collectors is proposed. A comprehensive analysis of
this ventilation system is performed. The main conclusions can be drawn
as follows:
(1) The average indoor CO2 concentrations can reach 1904 ppm and
2415 ppm near the end of the first and second lessons, respec­
tively, which both exceed the primary standard of 1000 ppm from
“Specification of indoor air quality for classroom of elementary
and secondary school” (T/CAQI27-2017).
(2) The measured and simulated values of the classroom CO2 con­
centration and collector outlet air temperature are compared. The
results show that the maximum relative error between the CO2
concentrations is 9.55% and that between the outlet air temper­
atures is 13.94%, which indicates that the ventilation model and
the heat collecting model are both reasonable.
(3) For the energy saving ventilation system proposed in the study,
the indoor average values of CO2 concentration for the new sys­
tem are all reduced to below 1000 ppm in November, December,
January, February and March, according to the data provided by
Tianjin Eco-Environmental Monitoring Center from 2011 to
2013. Average value of hourly solar fractions can reach 34.3%
over the whole heating season.
(4) In terms of energy savings, environmental protection and eco­
nomic effects, the energy saving ventilation system is compared
to three other systems with air conditioners, electric heaters
assisted by transpired solar air collectors, and electric heaters.
The results indicate that both the energy saving effect and envi­
ronmental protection effect of system 1 are the best. However, its
economic effect is slightly less than that of system 2.
(5) The paper has discussed the performance of the new energy
saving ventilation system during the winter. However, due to
absorbed solar energy, it may cause overheating of classrooms in
summer. Optimized operation strategies or structural designs are
worthy of further study.
Declaration of competing interest
We declare that we have no financial and personal relationships with
other people or organizations that can inappropriately influence our
work, there is no professional or other personal interest of any nature or
kind in any product, service and/or company that could be construed as
influencing the position presented in, or the review of, the manuscript
entitled, “A new energy saving ventilation mode assisted by transpired
solar air collectors for elementary and secondary school classroom in
winter”.
Acknowledgement
This work is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Tianjin
[grant number 18JCQNJC77000], National Natural Science Foundation
of China [grant numbers 51506141 and 51508372] and Science and
Technology Commissioner Project of Tianjin [grant numbers
19JCTPJC48800 and 18JCTPJC49400].
X. Li et al. Building and Environment 177 (2020) 106895

References residential buildings on Tibetan Plateau, Energy 182 (2019) 93–109, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.06.047.
[13] A. Kumar, J.L. Bhagoria, R.M. Sarviya, Heat transfer and friction correlations for
[1] S. Deng, J. Lau, Seasonal variations of indoor air quality and thermal conditions
artificially roughened solar air heater duct with discrete W-shaped ribs, Energy
and their correlations in 220 classrooms in the Midwestern United States, Build,
Convers. Manag. 50 (2009) 2106–2117, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Environ. Times 157 (2019) 79–88, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2009.01.025.
buildenv.2019.04.038.
[14] X. Li, C. Li, B. Li, Net heat gain assessment on a glazed transpired solar air collector
[2] H. Fromme, D. Twardella, S. Dietrich, D. Heitmann, R. Schierl, B. Liebl, H. Rüden,
with slit-like perforations, Appl. Therm. Eng. 99 (2016) 1–10, https://doi.org/
Particulate matter in the indoor air of classrooms-exploratory results from Munich
10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.12.069.
and surrounding area, Atmos. Environ. 41 (2007) 854–866, https://doi.org/
[15] Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of
10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.08.053.
China, GB50099-2011 Code for Design of School, Standards Press of China, Beijing,
[3] L. Stabile, M. Dell’Isola, A. Russi, A. Massimo, G. Buonanno, The effect of natural
2011.
ventilation strategy on indoor air quality in schools, Sci. Total Environ. 595 (2017)
[16] R. Zhao, C. Fan, D. Xue, Y. Qian, Air Conditioning, fourth ed., China Architecture&
894–902, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.048.
Building Press, Beijing, 2009.
[4] Y. Li, G. Xu, Study on the distribution of CO2 and ventilation in air-conditioned
[17] F. Wang, CFD Analysis: Principle and Application of CFD Software, first ed.,
classrooms, Refrigeration 37 (2018) 24–29.
Tsinghua University Press, Beijing, 2004.
[5] D.A. Coley, R. Greeves, B.K. Saxby, The effect of low ventilation rates on the
[18] P. Li, The Influence of Different Ventilation Methods on Indoor Air Quality,
cognitive function of a primary school class, Int. J. Vent. 6 (2016) 107–112,
Nanjing University of Science &Technology, Nanjing, 2016.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14733315.2007.11683770.
[19] Q. Chen, Comparison of different κ-ε models for indoor air flow computations,
[6] S. Petersen, K.L. Jensen, A.L.S. Pedersen, H.S. Rasmussen, The effect of increased
Numer. Heat Tr. B-Fund. 28 (1995) 353–369, https://doi.org/10.1080/
classroom ventilation rate indicated by reduced CO2 concentration on the
10407799508928838.
performance of schoolwork by children, Indoor Air 26 (2016) 366–379, https://
[20] Z. Wen, L. Shi, Y. Ren, Fluent Fluid Calculation Application Tutorial, first ed.,
doi.org/10.1111/ina.12210.
Tsinghua University Press, Beijing, 2009.
[7] K. Al-Rashidi, D. Loveday, N. Al-Mutawa, Impact of ventilation modes on carbon
[21] W.C. Swinbank, Long-wave radiation from clear skies, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 89
dioxide concentration levels in Kuwait classrooms, Energy Build. 47 (2012)
(1963) 339–348, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49708938105.
540–549, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.12.030.
[22] China Educational Equipment Industry Association, T/CAQI 26-2017 Indoor Air
[8] H. Zhang, B. Zhu, Natural ventilation effect on classroom simulation of CO2
Quality Test Methods for Classroom of Elementary and Secondary School,
concentration, Building Energy & Environment 36 (2017) 40–46.
Standards Press of China, Beijing, 2017.
[9] M. Liao, Study on Air Quality and Propagation Characteristics of Flying Grass in
[23] China Educational Equipment Industry Association, T/CAQI 27-2017 Specification
University Classroom, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 2014.
of Indoor Air Quality for Classroom of Elementary and Secondary School,
[10] S. Suman, M.K. Khan, M. Pathak, Performance enhancement of solar collectors-A
Standards Press of China, Beijing, 2017.
review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 49 (2015) 192–210, https://doi.org/10.1016/
[24] Q. Zhang, H. Yang, Standard Meteorological Data Manual for Construction in
j.rser.2015.04.087.
China, China Architecture & Building Press, Beijing, 2012.
[11] Y. Choi, K. Takase, M. Mae, System performance of a residential building using the
[25] W. Liu, Study of CO2 levels and time-dependent variations law for central city in
air-based solar heating system, Sol. Energy 171 (2018) 47–63, https://doi.org/
Tianjin, Proceedings of the academic annual conference by Chinese Society For
10.1016/j.solener.2018.06.009.
Environmental Sciences, 2015.
[12] T. Yu, B. Liu, B. Lei, Y. Yuan, H. Bi, Z. Zhang, Thermal performance of a heating
system combining solar air collector with hollow ventilated interior wall in