Frontiers of Architectural Research (2021) 10, 17e32

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Research Article

Exploratory space data analysis of spatial

patterns of large-scale retail commercial
facilities: The case of Gulou District,
Nanjing, China
Yao Fang a, Jianyuan Mao b,*, Qinhua Liu c, Jinglin Huang b

a
College of Architecture, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
b
College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tongji University, Shanghai 200093, China
c
Nanjing Academy of Urban Layout & Design., Ltd, Nanjing 210005, China

Received 29 October 2019; received in revised form 21 January 2020; accepted 9 February 2020

KEYWORDS Abstract This study uses methods, such as a nearest proximity index, nuclear density, spatial
GIS; interpolation, buffering zone, and overlay analysis, based on an exploratory spatial data anal-
Large-scale retail ysis tool. It focuses on a large commercial facility in which a mathematical analysis is conduct-
commercial facilities; ed on its spatial patterns. In the study, 45 large-scale retail commercial facilities (LSRCFs) in
Nanjing; the Gulou District, Nanjing, China, were chosen, and the spatial concentration, density, and
Spatial patterns structure of the LSRCFs in this area were analyzed. Three additional factors, namely, popula-
tion, transportation, and consumption, were examined to determine their impact on the
spatial patterns of the LSRCFs. Finally, this study recommends a spatial layout for the future
of the Gulou District according to the analysis results.
ª 2021 Higher Education Press Limited Company. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf
of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction scale retail commercial facilities (LSRCFs), along with the

In recent years, the increasing income levels of residents,
urban construction and development, and the rise of large-
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: maojianyuan@tongji.edu.cn (J. Mao).
Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University.
deepened reform of the urban economic mechanism in
China, have gradually become significant pillars of urban
retail commerce. Urban expansion has become increasingly
dependent on the consumption center functions of cities.
Meanwhile, cities have experienced huge changes in the
number, scale, and types of industries. The success of a
commercial facility largely depends on its position in the
urban space, which also determines the fate of the industry

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2020.02.002
2095-2635/ª 2021 Higher Education Press Limited Company. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
18
(Alarcón Lorenzo, 2011; Alcaide, 2012; Garcı́a-Palomares
et al., 2012). In the rapid development of an urban socio-
economy, the growing trend of LSRCFs and the influence
mechanism of spatial patterns must be understood, as they
help promote the sound and fast development of urban
commerce. The spatial patterns of urban retail commerce
play a significant role in the economic benefits of urban
land, urban transportation systems, and the balanced
development of urban lives.
Research on commercial locations started in the
beginning of the 20th century. Since then, it has gener-
ated fruitful achievements, mostly focusing on commer-
cial macroscale location theory and practical research.
The research first considered population and trans-
portation as the main influencing factors. Then, it focused
on consumer behavior from the perspective of crowd
behavior decision-making. (1) The theories about com-
mercial spatial location in relation to factors, such as
population and transportation, include Christaller’s cen-
ter place theory, Reilly’s retail gravitation theory, Hoov-
er’s location of economic activity theory, Berry’s urban
commercial spatial structure, Lösch’s economics of loca-
tion, and internal structure of retail nucleation (Garner,
1966). Among them, center place theory is considered
the most classical of the commercial layout theories.
Christaller introduced the most economically rewarding
structure unit, the hexagon. He believed that central
places could be divided into seven degrees, ranked ac-
cording to the grade of commodity. A central place that
sold high-grade products had a relatively large range of
services. Early research on commercial geography was
based on this rule, demonstrating the significant role of
transportation, a medium linking consumers and com-
mercial carriers. Christaller further stated that relatively
good transportation conditions meant the shortening of
economic distance, including not only the decrease of the
actual transportation cost but also the reduction of time
consumption and mental barriers (Christaller, 1966).
Reilly’s law of retail gravitation revealed that the
attractive range of commercial centers was in direct
proportion to the population in central places and in in-
verse proportion to the distance to the central places
squared (Reilly, 1931). Hoover’s location theory consid-
ered the relationship between transportation freight
structures and transportation methods, as well as the
relationship between freight and regions. He discussed
that the declining rate of freight greatly influenced the
layout of the industry (Hoover, 1937, 1948). Berry con-
ducted empirical research on business firm locations in
the Chicago metropolitan area. He introduced the com-
mercial spatial structure of metropolitan areas. German
economist Lösch further demonstrated the hexagon
structure from the perspective of microeconomic market
location (Losch, 1954). English scholar Potter found a
close relationship between the functional character of a
commercial area and its location, spatial accessibility,
development period, and general socioeconomic nature
based on multivariate functional equations (Potter, 1981).
(2) Instead of urban substantial space factors, such as
population and transportation, commercial location ulti-
mately depends on consumer decision-making behavior.
Scholars started to focus on the influence of consumer
Y. Fang et al.
decision-making behavior on commercial space (Jiao,
2013). Huff (1963) applied probability theory to concep-
tualize customer choices and decision-making. He gener-
ated the equation of the retail range and constructed the
framework of the gravity model for retail (Huff, 1963).
Cadwallader studied market areas and realized that
external information played a significant role in shopping.
His research showed that the division of a market area
was determined by three elements, namely, the traveling
distance for shopping, the acquisition of shopping place
information, and the position of the shopping places
(Cadwallader, 1975). Potter applied the Stockport case to
reveal the relationship between urban commercial struc-
tures and consumer behavior and awareness (Potter,
1976). Uncles further promoted Potter’s consumption act
factor of an urban commercial spatial system (Uncles,
1983). Dawson also proposed that the European commer-
cial layout was related to consumer behavior (Dawson,
1982). Among the associated research, other factors,
such as politics, history, and the economic market, have
also influenced the layout of LSRCFs. Some research has
covered this area, but this factor has varied in accordance
with different cities belonging to relatively special factors
(Gordon, 1984). Some further research described the
competitiveness of commercial spatial locations
(Graitson, 1980; Ahn et al., 2004; Eiselt et al., 1993; Kats,
1995). This aspect is not covered in this study, and it will
therefore not be explained in detail.
At the beginning of the 21st century, research on the
spatial layout of retail commerce was considered a great
innovation. The key to such innovation was the “quantita-
tive revolution” led by the wide application of the GIS. The
quantitative revolution promoted research on urban spatial
structures. It also helped commercial location research
overcome several “quantitative” difficulties, and it pro-
vided additional scientific, digitalized, and visual evidence
for spatial planning (Hernandez, 2007). Considering the
advantages of a GIS in dealing with massive information in
exploratory space analysis, Church believed that the spatial
patterns of future retail commerce would largely depend
on the application of a GIS (Church, 2002). Additionally, a
GIS could provide a visualized analyzing image according to
a massive amount of information about the spatial patterns
of retail commerce (Hernandez, 2007), thus helping people
to make judgments and decisions (Ozimec et al., 2010).
According to the research on GISs, scholars re-digitalized
several kinds of studies on commercial space layouts. This
was in relation to the discovery of various influencing fac-
tors on material space. It also gradually classified the type
of commercial space examined in the research. (1) The
exploratory spatial analysis using a GIS tended to focus on
the structural relationship between the specific commer-
cial spatial layout of an individual city and its population
and road network (Baviera-Puig et al., 2016; Roig-Tierno
et al., 2013; Reigadinha et al., 2017; Saraiva and Pinho,
2017). For example, Yu Guohe applied data for the Wuhan
urban population and the retail sales value of its social
commodities. Then, he constructed a model of the popu-
lation distribution and retail sales value of the social
commodities. He matched the spatial relationship with the
population distribution and commercial network distribu-
tion, providing advice for optimizing the commercial
Exploratory space data analysis of spatial patterns
networks in Wuhan (Yu, 2013). Sergio conducted research
on the density of commercial facilities and the concentra-
tion of streets in Bologna in Italy (Sergio et al., 2009) and
Barcelona in Spain (Porta, S. et al., 2012). Wang collected
the data for a large commercial network in the central
areas in Changchun, applying orderly multiclassified logistic
regression and point pattern analysis. Wang also studied the
location character and layout-influencing factors of the
large-scale commercial network (Wang et al., 2014). Lin
collected POI network data in the central places of
Guangzhou, China. Based on a nearest neighbor distance
analysis and a spatial statistical analysis, the study dis-
cussed multitype recognition of commercial centers and
the spatial mode in Guangzhou (Lin et al., 2018). Roig-
Tierno applied the analytical hierarchical process in a GIS
to develop a location selection mode for commercial fa-
cilities further (Roig-Tierno et al., 2013). Lei Zhou adopted
a GIS and the Huff model to study the location selection of a
super mall (Lei and Ye, 2018). Han et al. studied commer-
cial spaces according to a road network (Han et al., 2019).
(2) The research on commercial space mainly focused on
the spatial layouts and influencing factors of different types
of businesses, such as supermarkets in large-scale cities
with refined industries (Li et al., 2016; Ji and Zhao, 2010).
The research on commercial locations gradually focused on
the choice of location and the decision-making of busi-
nesses, such as supermarkets, groceries, and fast food
restaurants (Barnes et al., 2016; Mishra et al., 2015; Wood
and McCarthy, 2014). Buczkowska chose the metropolitan
area of Paris and applied a discrete model and an obstacle
model to discuss the choice of location of new retail busi-
nesses in a highly heterogeneous zone (Buczkowska, 2014).
Lamichhane et al. studied the spatial patterns and field
characters of a supermarket and a fast food restaurant
based on environmental differences. They found that space
symbiosis and a cluster relationship could greatly influence
the population structure (Lamichhane, 2013). Roig-Tierno
et al. applied nuclear density and an analytic hierarchy
process and studied the decision-making of retail locations.
They believed that the success of a supermarket was
related to its location and competitiveness (Roig-Tierno
et al., 2013).
The motivation of this study is based on the scientific
consideration of the current spatial layout of retail fa-
cilities. The goals are to construct the statistical
analyzing mode of the spatial planning of the LSRCF with
the help of GIS exploratory spatial analysis, to help deal
with questions, such as an uneven device layout, and to
offer advice for future urban spatial planning. This study
determines the research subject, range, and method ac-
cording to current associated research. (1) Along with the
classification of research on commercial facilities, the
LSRCF should also be examined. In addition, LSRCFs have
no unified concept standard worldwide. The business
revenue and area are the main references for measure-
ment. China’s Classification of Retail Industry, issued in
2004, pointed out that LSRCFs generally refer to grocery
stores, supermarkets, hypermarkets, warehouse stores,
franchises, furniture centers, and shopping centers with a
business area of over 5000 m2 (Li and Wang, 2006).
19
Therefore, the research subject of this study is a spatial
data model intended to investigate this specific type. (2)
Recent research on GIS analysis has achieved certain re-
sults in studying the commercial facility layout of an
entire city or multiple regions. This current research fo-
cuses more on the overall analysis at the city level and
less on the study of urban central areas. Further research
requires subjects to concentrate on urban central areas.
This type of research can generate a detailed observation
of the various factors of a single region. However, it has
more practical significance for single-region spatial plan-
ning. In addition, urban centers have been influenced by
historical events, intense economic activities, dense
populations, and huge transportation volumes. The layout
of the LSCRFs within the area are generally restricted by
additional elements. A study focusing on urban central
areas can reveal questions that are completely different
from those at the urban level. Therefore, such study can
analyze the influence of associated elements in a highly
detailed and specific way. In this study, the Gulou District
in Nanjing is chosen as the research area. In addition,
Nanjing, as a developed provincial capital city in China,
features an urban area with LSCRFs that can be applied to
the collected samples. (3) The research method is
essentially based on a GIS exploratory spatial analysis to
construct a scientific LSRCF model. The influencing fac-
tors for the study are chosen with heavy weight function,
such as population, transportation, and the act of con-
sumption. Other special factors, such as politics and his-
tory, are not included. According to the GIS exploratory
spatial analysis, the most common GIS analyzing methods,
including the nearest proximity index, nuclear density,
space difference, buffering zone analysis, and overlay
analysis, are adopted to analyze population factors, such
as the amount and density of the population, trans-
portation factors (the road type, road network density,
bus and metro line stations, and spatial accessibility), and
consumer factors (decisions about consumption space and
distance to consumption space). For all the consider-
ations, the study provides feedback and advice about
LSRCFs according to different plans of the regions of the
Gulou District.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area and data processing
The Gulou District, which consists of the core regions of
Nanjing, China, is the center of economy, education, and
culture, with relatively mature retail commerce, of Nanj-
ing. A total of 45 LSRCFs have been chosen for this
research, mostly based on the spatial analysis model in a
GIS. The area of the administrative region is 54.18 square
kilometers. The Gulou District has thirteen street areas and
four districts. Among them, Mufushan Subdistrict, Xiaoshi
Subdistrict, and Baotaqiao Subdistrict comprise the Tiebei
District. Yuejianglou Subdistrict and Rehenan Road Subdis-
trict comprise the Bingjiang District, Jiangdong Subdistrict
and Fenghuang Subdistrict comprise the Hexi District. The
20 Y. Fang et al.

Fig. 1 Location of LSRCFs in the Gulou district.

other streets in the center comprise the central Gulou observation, expected average distance, NNI, z-score, and
District (Fig. 1, Table 1). p-value.
The average distance of observation and the expected
2.2. Methods average distance are calculated according to the spatial
locations. The NNI is calculated according to the ratio of
2.2.1. Nearest neighbor index analysis the average distance of observation and the expected
A nearest neighbor index (NNI) is applied to compare the average distance. The z-score and the p-value are the
calculated average distance between nearest neighbors measurement of the statistical significance, which were
and the average distance between the nearest neighbors in applied to decide whether to refuse the null hypothesis.
a randomly distributed mode. The ratio can be applied to The NNI method has the following equations:
assess the degree of deviation with the randomly distrib-
ANN Z Do=De; ð1Þ
uted mode. In practical application, the NNI can decide
whether the spatial distribution of commercial facilities where Do represents the average distance of observation of
belongs to the concentrated type, which can be used to each feature with its nearest feature. The equation is
analyze the features of the spatial concentration of the
X
n .
LSRCF.
Do Z di n; ð2Þ
The tool for the average nearest neighbor generates five iZ1
results of observation, that is, the average distance of
where De represents the expected average distance be-
tween the targeted features in random mode. The equation
is:
Table 1 The current number and scale of LSRCFs in
various districts of the Gulou District.
.pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
De Z 0:5 n=A; ð3Þ
Subdistrict Number Areas of the
of LSRCFs LSRCFs (m2) where n represents sample quantity, and A represents the
Zhongyangmen Subdistrict 2 109,200 area of research region. When ANN is less than 1, the
Fenghuang Subdistrict 5 214,000 samples are concentrated. When ANN is more than 1, the
Huaqiao Road Subdistrict 2 36,000 samples are evenly dispersed. When ANN equals 1, the
Ninghai Road Subdistrict 2 40,000 samples are distributed randomly. Generally, value Z is
Baotaqiao Subdistrict 1 7000 used to examine the reliability of results.
Xiaoshi Subdistrict 1 15,000
Mufushan Subdistrict 1 88,000 2.2.2. Nuclear density analysis
Jianning Road Subdistrict 12 567,200 A nuclear density analysis is a common method for non-
Yijiangmen Subdistrict 2 44,500 parametric spatial analysis, exhibiting a relatively signifi-
Jiangdong Subdistrict 6 208,000 cant effect in calculating and analyzing the distribution
Hunan Road Subdistrict 7 191,000 density of point or line features in their surrounding area. It
Rehenan Road Subdistrict 1 10,000 was first raised by Parcen and Rosenblatt. Among the
Yuejianglou Subdistrict 3 130,000 samples of x, x1, x2, ., xn, the center of each xi has the
largest density when the spatial threshold d is determined.
Exploratory space data analysis of spatial patterns
The value of the density decreases along with the increase
of the spatial distance until the value reaches zero.
The density analysis in the Spatial Analyst tool in the GIS
software contains three analyzing tools: point, line, and
nuclear density. Nuclear density is the most common tool
for density analysis. Features, such as points or polygonal
lines, are applied to a nuclear function to calculate the
value per unit area, thereby fitting all points or polygonal
lines to a smooth core-shaped surface.
The equation for nuclear density analysis is as follows:
. X n
fðxÞZ1 nd k ðx  xi =dÞ ð4Þ
iZ1
where k ((x-xi)/d) is the nuclear density function. d＞0 is
the spatial threshold, and x-xi is the distance from x to
sample xi. The results of nuclear density analysis demon-
strates the spatial structures of LSRCFs.
2.2.3. Spatial interpolation method
Geostatistical interpolation and deterministic interpolation
are the two main classifications of GIS spatial interpolation.
The following table includes the specific classifications of
this interpolation. This study adopts the inverse distance
weighted (IDW) classification of regional interpolations.
The classification is based on the similarityeproximity
principle, that is, the similarity of the two depends on
their distance from each other. Usually, a closer distance
exhibits a higher similarity, and vice versa. The distance
between the interpolation point and the sample points is
valued as the weight. Then, the average is taken. Inter-
polation points that are closer to the sample points have
bigger weights. The equation is as follows:
X
N
Zðso Þ Z li Zðsi Þ; ð5Þ
iZ1
where N is the quantity of the sample points around the
expected point. li is the weight of that sample point, and Z
(si) is the acquired measured value.
2.2.4. Coupling analysis
For the spatial analysis of GIS, coupling analysis is basically
applied to analyze the consistency of two geographic ob-
jects. What is applied in a relatively wide range is the
consistency analysis of the area of the administrative dis-
trict and the population. It is assessed by the population
concentration index,
N   3.2. Spatial density
1X 
PPi  PSi   100%:
PZ ð6Þ
2 iZ1  Pi Si 
In the equation, Si and Pi represent the area of the P past twenty years has changed significantly (Fig. 3). Before
administrative
P district and the population, respectively.
Pi and Si are the sum of the population in the research
area and the sum of the area of the administrative district,
respectively. P is calculated to assess the coupling of the
population and the area of the administrative district.
When P tends to 1, people are concentrated in a certain
area. When P tends to 0, the area of administrative district
is coupled with the population distribution. Therefore, the
coupling mode of the population and the LSRCF distribution
can be constructed:
21
" #
N 
1X X i Y 
P  P   100%:
i
Pxy Z 1   ð7Þ
2 iZ1 Xi Yi 
In the equation, Xi and Yi represent the population and
P P
the area of LSRCFs in each road, respectively. Xi and
Yi represent the sum of the population in the research area
and the sum of the area of the administrative district,
respectively. Pxy can be calculated thereby. When the
consistency index tends to 0, a bad coupling of the popu-
lation and the LSCRFs pattern exists. A consistency index
that tends to 0 indicates a good coupling between the two.
This study also applies superposition analysis and buff-
ering zone analysis. A new data layer is generated when GIS
superposition analysis based on the same geographical po-
sition superimposes two topic layers with different carriers.
The new layer contains the spatial feature of the original
two topic layers. Given the difference of data structure,
superimposition analysis also contains the analyzing
method for these two types of data modes: superimposition
analysis based on vector data and grid data. This study
mainly applies superimposition analysis based on vector
data. Buffering zone analysis helps to acquire the given
features or to concentrate on the neighborhood. The con-
ditions of the buffering zone determine the range of the
neighborhood. The buffering zone can be regarded as a kind
of buffering entity with a certain width that is automati-
cally constructed by points, lines, and plates that consist of
features or sets. It analyzes the spatial data that are
extended horizontally. For example, certain space and
green belts along traffic lines affected by urban noise
pollution can be described as the buffering zones of points
and line, respectively. The polygonal plate buffering zones
can be classified as positive and negative zones.
3. Space features
3.1. Spatial concentration
The features of the spatial concentration of an LSRCF can
be observed using indices, such as the area, facility density,
and NNI of targeted years. The index information of four
targeted years is listed below in Fig. 2 and Table 2. From
2000 to 2018, the spatial patterns of the LSRCFs of the
Gulou District generally changed from spatial dispersion to
spatial concentration and peaked in 2018.
According to the results of the nuclear density analysis, the
spatial structure of the LSRCF of the Gulou District in the
2000, few large-scale retail facilities existed and were
mainly concentrated in the area of the Zhongshanbeilu
RoadeHunan Road Subdistrict, enabling this area to be the
earliest commercial center of Gulou District. From 2001 to
2012, the commercial facilities in the original commercial
center were further becoming concentrated, and certain
commercial facilities started to leave the central area of
the original commercial center due to peer competitiveness
and convenience for residents. Thus, a commercial
22 Y. Fang et al.

Fig. 2 Stage 1 (before 2000)/stage 2 (2001e2012)/stage 3 (2013e2018) distribution of LSRCF

greatly influencing the commercial space of the past center

Table 2 NNI of each period. of the Gulou District. In general, after 20 years of devel-
2000 2006 2012 2018 opment, the district experienced a developing process from
Area (km2) 25.82 25.82 25.82 54.18 a single center to multiple centers, and the core moved
Facility density (Per km2) 0.07 0.46 0.73 0.77 from Hunan Road Subdistrict to Jianning Road.
Average nearest-neighbor 0.06 0.71 0.48 0.36
distance (km) 3.3. Spatial structure
Expected average 0.1 0.8 0.58 0.47
nearest-neighbor distance (km) Urban flows, such as people, material, capital, and informa-
NNI 24.3 1.1 0.83 0.76 tion influenced the spatial patterns of the LSRCF. Under the
influence of these flows, the LSRCF exhibited different spatial
patterns, either dispersed or concentrated. After 2000, hav-
ing developed for more than a decade, the spatial pattern of
subcenter began to develop. From 2007 to 2012, the status the LSRCF in the current Gulou District exhibited the following
of the original commercial center did not decline (thirty three types of structures: concentrated area pattern, linear
percent of the commercial facilities were concentrated pattern, and evenly distributed pattern. These patterns can
here), and the number of commercial facilities in the fringe be seen in the figure below (Fig. 4, Table 3).
area of the commercial center increased rapidly. A com- The area along the Hunan Road Subdistrict was the
mercial subcenter started to emerge, but the general earliest urban commercial center of the Gulou district.
center was still around the Zhongshanbeilu RoadeHunan Given its advantages in location, population, and trans-
Road Subdistrict. From 2013 to 2018, the commercial fa- portation, it has continued to develop until the present
cilities in Jianning Road Subdistrict expanded rapidly. The day. The LSRCF along Hunan Road Subdistrict exhibited a
concentration became more significant as time went by, concentrated area pattern, with nine facilities located

Fig. 3 Nuclear density of the LSRCF in the Gulou District (2000/2006/2012/2018 years).
Exploratory space data analysis of spatial patterns
Fig. 4 Spatial structure of the LSRCF in the Gulou District.
within a 1-km distance, and the quantity and the scale of
the facilities accounted for 20% and 17% of the whole area.
The linear pattern of the large-scale commercial facilities
was exhibited along Jiangninglu Road and Jiangdongkuai-
sulu Road. Jiangninglu Road benefited from its early pre-
dominant transportation because the early Nanjing railway
station, bus station, and railway goods yard were all con-
structed near Jianning Road Subdistrict. This huge trans-
portation advantage attracted numerous commercial
facilities to settle in the area, thereby generating the
current dense distribution of the linear patterns of the
LSRCF. Jiangdongkkuaisulu Road formed its pattern mainly
due to the development demand of the Hexi District, ac-
cording to the layout for its development. These two linear
patterns were concentrated in 19 commercial facilities,
with 42% and 51% of the facility quantity and scale,
respectively. In addition, 17 LSRCFs were scattered evenly
all over the area, accounting for 38% and 31% of the entire
quantity and scale, respectively.
Table 3 Quantity and areas of the LSRCF for three types of spatial structures.
Spatial structure
Concentrated area pattern The surroundings of Hunan Road Subdistrict
Linear pattern Area along Jianning Road Subdistrict
Area along Jiangdongkuaisulu Road
Evenly Distributed Pattern e 17
23
Generally speaking, the LSRCF in the Gulou District had
an uneven spatial distribution. The commercial facilities
were concentrated in Hunan Road Subdistrict and Jianning
Road Subdistrict, especially in Jianning Road Subdistrict,
whereas the other regions had a lower concentration of
LSRCFs. Therefore, the formation and influence mecha-
nisms of the population, transportation, and act of con-
sumption in the LSRCF space should be discussed.
4. Results
4.1. Analysis of the population factor
For the population, the scale and density of the population
distribution had the most influence on the LSRCF space.
The scale could be proportional to the regional total busi-
ness, and the density could reflect the planning of the
LSRCFs.
4.1.1. Coupling analysis of the population distribution
scale and the LSRCF
The population distribution could be most directly pre-
sented based on the distribution of the residential area.
The residential area data for the Gulou District was
extracted from current GIS data with the help of the
internet data gathering tool LocoySpider. The location of
the residential area of Gulou District was accurately
determined, as shown in Fig. 5. The area was conceptual-
ized into different groups, representing different densities
and scales. The location of the LSRCF was then super-
imposed with the groups, and the spatial distribution map
was generated. Fig. 5 shows that the spatial pattern of the
LSRCFs is essentially located in the dense residential area,
except for Jianning Road Subdistrict.
Apart from the population distribution, the data for the
residents could be applied to conduct a coupling analysis of
the population scale and the LSRCFs. The results showed
that the population and commerce exhibited a relatively
good coupling of 0.846, with a relatively good consistency.
However, the coupling indices were different in specific
roads. The peak was Xiaoshi Subdistrict, and the bottom
was Jianning Road Subdistrict (Table 4).
4.1.2. Correlation analysis of the population density and
the LSRCF
According to the 2018 statistical yearbook of the Gulou
District, the populations and areas of the 13 roads in the
Gulou District were extracted. GIS was applied to draw the
map of the population density of each road, which was then
superimposed with the current location of the LSRCF in the
Quantity Area (m2) Ratio of Ratio of
quantity (%) area (%)
9 283,000 20.0 17.1
13 549,400 28.9 33.2
6 301,000 13.3 18.2
519,100 37.8 31.4
24 Y. Fang et al.

Fig. 5 Locations of the community groups and the LSRCFs.

Gulou District to generate the relationship between the
population density and retail commerce, as shown in Fig. 6.
The population density was positively correlated with the
spatial distribution of the LSRCF. Specifically, the areas
with high population density were generally concentrated
in the Hexi group and the Laocheng group, whereas the
Bingjiang group and the Tiebei group had a relatively low
density of population. More than 80% of the LSRCF were in
the Laocheng group and the Hexi group. Specifically,
certain roads may have had a high density of population but
few LSRCFs, and other roads may have had a low density of
population but many LSRCFs. The area of retail commerce
is exhibited by a circle in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 demonstrates that the population density of
Jiangninglu Road has no significant correlation with the
quantity or area of the LSRCF. The Nanjing Railway Station
and the Long-Distance Bus Station were built around the
road. With good transportation conditions and the con-
centrations of the Jinqiao, Yuqiao, and Xinqiao markets in
the beginning of the 1990s, the current concentrated
distributed pattern of the LSRCF was thereby formed.
4.2. Transportation factor analysis
4.2.1. Road type analysis
According to its function, a road can be classified as a
highway, arterial road, subarterial road, or branch. To
analyze quantitatively whether the distribution of the
commercial facilities was concentrated in the two sides of
the roads and the nearby crossroads, this study extracted
the current road system of the Gulou District. The roads
were classified according to their function, and a buffer

Table 4 Coupling of the population and the LSRCF in the Gulou District.
Road Area (km2) Population (10 k) Number of LSRCFs Area of LSRCF (m2) Pxy
Mufushan Subdistrict 7.4 4.66 1 88,000 0.905
Yuejianglou Subdistrict 3.74 5.40 3 130,000 0.874
Xiaoshi Subdistrict 3.92 5.60 1 15,000 0.941
Jianning Road Subdistrict 2.32 5.66 12 567,200 0.608
Baotaqiao Subdistrict 5.9 7.38 1 7000 0.930
Hunan Road Subdistrict 2.65 8.70 7 190,000 0.808
Huaqiao Road Subdistrict 3.64 8.86 2 36,000 0.899
Rehenan Road Subdistrict 2.37 6.38 1 10,000 0.937
Yijiangmen Subdistrict 3.34 9.20 2 44,500 0.891
Jiangdong Subdistrict 5.95 9.87 6 208,000 0.787
Zhongyangmen Subdistrict 3.37 12.90 2 109,200 0.819
Ninghai Road Subdistrict 3.99 13.00 2 40,000 0.860
Fenghuang Subdistrict 3.85 14.80 5 214,000 0.739
Exploratory space data analysis of spatial patterns
Fig. 6 Relationship between the population density and the LSRCF area/LSRCF distribution.
tool was applied in the GIS to analyze the 100-m buffering
zones in the four types of roads of the Gulou District. The
generated buffering zone figures were then overlaid to
obtain the base map of the road-buffering zone of the
district. In that regard, we overlaid the Gulou LSRCF dis-
tribution figure with the buffering zone base map, which
was the main reference for the following analysis. After the
analysis of the 45 LSRCFs and the 100-m buffering distance
of the roads of the four levels in the Gulou District (Fig. 7),
the specific characteristics were those exhibited in Table 5.
The results showed that the 100-m buffering zones of the
two sides were the main choice for the LSRCF. Among the
45 LSRCFs of the Gulou District, 44 of them were in the 100-
m buffering zone of the roadside. Additionally, 66.7% of the
facilities were distributed in the buffering zone of the
arterial road, and 24.4% were distributed in the buffering
zone of the branches. In addition, the LSRCFs were highly
concentrated in the arterial and subarterial road buffering
zones, indicating that the LSRCFs were more likely to be
located along the arterial and subarterial roads than the
urban expressways and branches (Fig. 8).
4.2.2. Road density
The planning of a commercial facility normally included the
choice of regions with great transportation conditions, good
accessibility, and decentralization. The latter two factors
had great relevance to the regional road density. The
calculation of urban road density meant that the total
lengths of the urban roads were divided by the total area of
urban land use. The lengths and densities of thirteen roads
were organized and listed, as shown in Table 6. Through the
superposition of the road density map and the locations of
the LSRCFs, the road density and the distribution of
25
commercial facilities was generated, as shown in Fig. 9.
The roads with high road density had more LSRCFs than
those with low density. The roads with the highest road
density, including Hunan Road Subdistrict, Fenghuang Sub-
district, and Jianning Road Subdistrict, contained more
than half of the total LSRCF in the Gulou District. More than
half of the thirteen streets had a higher road density than
the general level of the whole Gulou District. Among the
streets that had lower road density than the general level,
Mufushan Subdistrict, Baotaqiao Subdistrict, and Xiaoshi
Subdistrict had the lowest density, with a lagged compre-
hensive road network and relatively fewer LSRCFs.
4.2.3. Bus stations and metro line stations
Python was used to acquire the bus lines and stations in the
Gulou District. A total of 104 bus lines operated within or
passed through the Gulou District, along with more than
1000 bus stations. The figure below shows that the Tiebei
District had a relatively dense bus line network and a
relatively even bus station distribution, essentially covering
the whole Gulou District.
The analysis showed that within a 100-m radius, the bus
stations covered approximately 35% of the LSRCFs. This
number rose to 95% within a 200-m radius, which nearly
covered all of the LSRCFs (Fig. 10).
Python was also applied to acquire the metro lines and
stations in Nanjing. Four metro lines passed through or run
near the Gulou District, with 14 stations in total. Fig. 11
shows that the lines and stations in the southeastern area
of the Gulou District has a high coverage. However, the case
was different in the northwestern part of Nanjing. Further
analysis of the 500-m and 800-m station buffering zones of
the current metro line demonstrated the distributions of
26 Y. Fang et al.

Fig. 7 The 100-m buffering distance of the roads of the four levels in the Gulou District.

Table 5 Distribution and road characteristics of the LSRCF Table 6 Road density in the Gulou District.
in the Gulou District. Road Area (km2) The sum of Road density
Buffering zone Quantity of LSRCF Ratio (%) the road (km/km2)
length (km)
Arterial road 30 66.7
Branch 11 24.4 Baotaqiao 5.60 28.0 5.00
Others 4 8.9 Subdistrict
Fenghuang 3.22 28.0 8.70
Subdistrict
Hunan Road 2.65 24.2 9.13
Subdistrict
Huaqiao Road 3.38 21.3 6.30
Subdistrict
Jianning Road 2.23 18.0 8.07
Subdistrict
Jiangdong 4.55 32.0 7.03
Subdistrict
Mufushan 6.00 17.4 2.90
Subdistrict
Ninghai Road 3.95 30.8 7.80
Subdistrict
Rehenan Road 2.59 20.2 7.72
Subdistrict
Xiaoshi Subdistrict 3.03 18.1 5.97
Yijiangmen 3.33 20.0 6.01
Subdistrict
Yuejianglou 3.36 24.3 7.23
Subdistrict
Zhongyangmen 3.35 20.6 6.15
Subdistrict
Gulou District 47.24 302.7 6.41

the stations and the LSRCFs. A 500-m station buffering zone

could cover 27% of the LSRCFs, and an 800-m buffering zone
could cover 47% of the LSRCFs. However, the current metro
lines smoothly connect the existing commercial districts. In
addition, Nanjing is urging for the construction of metro
lines to cover more LSRCFs.

4.2.4. Analysis of the axial integration

Fig. 8 Scale distribution of the LSRCF and road Using depth map software to calculate the axial integration
characteristics. of roads in the Gulou District, the locations of the LSRCFs
Exploratory space data analysis of spatial patterns 27

were superimposed with the axial integration figure, thus

generating Fig. 12. The superposition of the two locations
further demonstrated the important influence of the con-
nectivity of the locations of LSRCFs. It also indicated that
transportation influenced the spatial patterns of the facil-
ities. Fig. 12 shows the surroundings of the roads with a
relatively big integration of the LSRCF distribution among
the four enlarged units, was generated as we enlarged the
space with a significant concentration of the LSRCFs.
“For the whole spatial system, a certain axis must be in
the dominant position of comprehensive integration. This
part of the axis builds the core of the whole urban inte-
gration, representing the most central area of the city.”
Normally, the number of axes in a system determines the
key ratio of integration. Generally, when the number of
axes is lower than 200, the top 10% of the axes are regarded
as the integration center. When the number of axes is more
than 200, the top 5% are regarded as the integration center.
The significance of an integration center need not be
mentioned. After the calculation of the comprehensive
integration, the top 5% integration centers in the Gulou
District was generated, as shown in Fig. 13, which could be
regarded as a certain reference to optimization for future
LSRCF planning.

4.3. Consumption factor analysis

For this study, four of the 45 LSRCFs were chosen to

examine their current conditions. With the help of a
Fig. 9 Road density and distribution of LSRCFs. questionnaire, conclusions were formed from the perspec-
tive of the consumption habits and choices of consumers
(Table 7).

Fig. 10 Bus station buffering zones and LSRCF locations in the Gulou District.
28 Y. Fang et al.

Fig. 11 Station buffering zones and LSRCFs in the Gulou District.

4.3.1. Analysis on consumption space selection
As seen in the questionnaire results, the ratio of single
shopping was relatively small. Other activities, such as
food and recreation, often emerged along with shopping.
Entertainment activities accounted for the majority of
the activities, followed by clothes and groceries. Trans-
portation availability was the main consideration of
consumers for shopping. Fig. 14 shows the ratios of
various factors. The ancillary facility (food, entertain-
ment, and recreation) of the shopping centers was

Fig. 12 Superposition of the axial integration of the roads and the LSRCF locations.
Exploratory space data analysis of spatial patterns 29

another factor to consider, as well as the shopping

environment.

4.3.2. Analysis of the distance to the consumption space

As seen from the data (Fig. 15), consumers were more likely
to choose nearby roads, thereby leading to a relatively big
ratio of people choosing to shop within 1 km from their
homes, followed by crowd within 2 km. The Seazen Wuyue
Plaza can attract people beyond 3 km because it is located in
the central area of the Gulou District. Currently, LSRCFs are
generally concentrated in established commercial circles,
such as Hunan Road SubdistricteShanxilu Road, Zhongyang-
men Subdistrict, Xiaguan Road, and Longjiang Road. Over-
concentration inevitably leads to vicious competition and
low operational efficiency within the commercial circles.
Therefore, given the shopping habits of consumers who
prefer to shop nearby, the future layout of LSRCFs should
take positioning into consideration to decide whether to
distribute the LSRCF in a concentrated or dispersed way.

5. Discussion

According to the abovementioned data analysis, the cur-

rent uneven spatial distribution of the LSRCFs in the Gulou
Fig. 13 Road network integration core in the Gulou District.
District was essentially caused by the contradiction

Table 7 Overview of the four LSRCFs.

Name Address Opening year Area of building Major function Photo
Universal Mall Jianning Road Subdistrict 2003 100,000 Shopping,
300 recreation,
entertainment,
food, tourism,
hotels

Seazen Wuyue Hubeilu Road 51 2017 68,000 Shopping,

Plazas recreation,
entertainment,
food

Hwacin Jiangdongbeilu Road 333 2016 70,000 Shopping,

recreation,
entertainment,
food, apartments

Greenland Being Intersection of 2017 88,000 Shopping,

Fun Plaza Zhongyangbeilu Road recreation,
and Mufudonglu Road entertainment,
food, residences,
hotels
30
Fig. 14 Reasons for the consumption selections of consumers.
between excessive and scarce concentrations in certain
areas of the LSRCFs. In fact, the LSRCFs were the pillars of
the promotion of urban retail commerce. Their concen-
tration made the urban commercial center strong. Their
diffusion generated the growth of the industry system, thus
causing a structural influence on the urban space. On the
one hand, the spatial concentration of LSRCFs indirectly
changed the structure through the “forces” of three lev-
elsdmicroscale, midscale, and macroscale. For the
microscale, the concentration of LSRCFs promoted the
innovation and perfection of associated supporting facil-
ities. For the midscale, the concentration of LSRCFs influ-
enced other urban functions of that area, thus forming
certain relations in between. For the macrolevel, the con-
centration of LSRCFs enhanced the urban commercial scale
and level, which then affected the evolution of the urban
spatial pattern. However, the concentration was not
Fig. 15 Numbers of consumers with different distances in the four research locations.
Y. Fang et al.
continuous, and development was not always beneficial for
commercial spaces. Problems, such as the increasing
competitiveness of commercial space, the outward migra-
tion of residential space, and the improving construction of
transportation, prevented the concentration of LSRCFs.
Conversely, dispersion would promote the development of
urban commercial spaces and further promote the evolu-
tion of urban spatial patterns. New LSRCFs would choose
new places to settle down, mostly demonstrating leaping
diffusion in distribution. The new layout point would be
located in places with low business competitiveness, dense
population, and good infrastructure. After diffusion, new
LSRCFs scattered in a city would prefer a layout point to
concentration, thus preparing for a new urban commercial
center. A new commercial spatial pattern would gradually
form, and the urban spatial structure pattern would change
accordingly. Therefore, we should analyze the results
Exploratory space data analysis of spatial patterns
according to the abovementioned data and apply the re-
sults to urban planning to determine the next step and to
lead the concentration and diffusion of LSRCFs.
6. Conclusion
GIS and Depth Map software have been applied in this study
in combination with field research and a questionnaire to
analyze the influence of the population, transportation,
and consumption behavior on the spatial pattern of LSRCFs.
The conclusions for the influence mechanism and the
advice for the development and planning of the Gulou
District are therefore drawn.
For the population, the LSRCFs are generally concen-
trated in old districts with dense populations. The current
problem is that the people in the Tiebei District (Mufushan
Subdistrict, Xiaoshi Subdistrict, and Baotaqiao Subdistrict)
are concentrated in the area, but the LSRCFs are scarce.
Additionally, due to historical reasons, the LSRCFs in Jian-
ning Road Subdistrict are overconcentrated, thus demon-
strating a bad coupling with population scale and density.
The next planning stage needs to solve the problems of
commercial facility layout in these two areas.
For transportation, the LSRCFs are more likely to be
distributed in areas with high-density roads, high connec-
tivity, and high integration. The current problem is that the
road densities of Mufushan Subdistrict, Xiaoshi Subdistrict,
and Baotaqiao Subdistrict are relatively low, with relatively
few LSRCFs. The next planning stage should increase its
attention on LSRCF planning. Given the overconcentration
of railway stations in the southeastern side, the next
planning stage for the subway should further cover the
northwestern side. In addition, the integration center of
the road network should be considered to diffuse the
LSRCFs.
For consumption, the residents mostly choose places
nearby for consumption. In the Gulou District, the con-
sumption distance is mainly within 1 km and then 2 km,
whereas the central area can attract people 3 km away.
In addition, the customers in the Gulou District gener-
ally engage in recreational activities. The next planning
stage for LSRCFs should choose a nearby spatial con-
centration or leaping diffusion based on the current
facility layout.
Regarding the effect on future thematic research, we
first focus on the GIS exploratory spatial data analysis of
commercial types of large-scale retail and commercial fa-
cilities (5000 m2 and above), which can be applied in other
urban areas and guide the spatial planning of more large-
scale commercial facilities in other cities. Second, other
researchers can also continue to refine the types of com-
mercial facilities to build relevant mathematical analysis
models. Meanwhile, analysis should be done to improve the
mathematical model of each type of LSRCF, thus providing
a concise and scientific judgment basis. Third, in the aspect
of influencing factors, future related research can carry out
weighted research on different influencing factors based on
this research. Thus, a scientific mathematical analysis
model can be constructed according to different weights. In
addition, quantitative research can be done on certain
influencing factors, e.g., policy, economy, culture, and
31
history. The quantitative analysis of the population, trans-
portation, and consumption act of the LSRCF can generate
a more scientific and quantitative decision-making model
for future urban overall planning and regional planning. For
all the government decision-makers, as well as commercial
developers, this type of model can also be applied to
decide the location of the LSRCF.
Declaration of competing interest
There is no conflict of interest.
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