International Journal of Food Science & Technology 2015, 50, 2621–2629 2621

Original article
Sourdough reduces sodium in wheat flour doughs

Amanda de C. Nogueira, Julia T. Kussano & Caroline J. Steel*

Department of Food Technology, School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), P.O. Box 6121, Campinas
CEP 13083-862, Brazil
(Received 13 May 2015; Accepted in revised form 11 July 2015)

Summary The reduction of sodium in breads is already an imposed reality, which makes the search for alternatives
essential. As sodium chloride has an effect on dough rheology, affecting the production process, it is
important to evaluate these properties. This study evaluated the use of dry sourdough for the reduction
of sodium in wheat flour dough. Sodium chloride (0–2.5 g/100 g) and dry sourdough (0–10 g/100 g) were
added to wheat flour according to a central composite rotatable design, and farinograph, extensograph
and pasting parameters were evaluated. The results were analysed using the response surface methodol-
ogy. The farinograph and extensograph properties were strongly affected by both variables and presented
opposite behaviours for most parameters. For pasting properties, only maximum viscosity and breakdown
were affected. Despite the antagonistic behaviour of the variables when analysed separately, suitable
parameters were reached in intermediate ranges for the manufacture of bakery products with reduced
sodium content.
Keywords Extensograph, farinograph, sodium, sourdough.

some aspects, such as increased shelf life. Also, the

Introduction
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends
a daily intake of only 5 g of salt, as a worldwide
guideline. However, in modern societies, the daily
intake has increased considerably. In developed coun-
tries, the consumption of salt can range from 6 to 18 g
a day (Belz et al., 2012).
In this scenario, the high consumption of sodium is
of concern to regulators; therefore, there is a global
trend to reduce sodium in processed foods. As bakery
products have a great contribution in sodium intake,
the study of alternatives for this reduction is necessary,
not only because of the technological and sensory
importance of salt in the manufacturing process of
these products, but also because of the reduced
replacement alternatives found on the market.
Sourdoughs have been used to aggregate quality to
bakery products. Their use brings advantages in
sensory and structural aspects and to the shelf life
properties of these products, in addition to meeting
the increasing demand from consumers for more
natural, tasty and healthy foods (Thiele et al., 2002;
Arendt et al., 2007; Zhao et al., 2015). The advantages
of using sourdoughs is that they can help in the pro-
cess of reducing sodium in breads, mainly because
both ingredients already complement each other in
*Correspondent: Fax: +55-19-3521-0122; e-mail: steel@unicamp.br
addition of a sour taste tends to intensify the salty
taste (McCutcheon, 1986).
However, the importance of sodium chloride in bak-
ery products is well known and both this ingredient
and sourdoughs strongly influence the characteristics
of wheat flour dough. Sodium chloride, besides con-
tributing to flavour, controls fermentation and reduces
water activity of the baked product (Cauvain, 2007),
and it also has an effect on the rheological characteris-
tics of the dough by influencing net protein charges
and hydrophobic interactions and inducing conforma-
tional changes of the dough biopolymers (Preston,
1989).
The addition of sourdough during the production of
wheat flour bread also causes major changes in the
characteristics of the dough (Clarke et al., 2002, 2004).
Changes in pH can have a direct impact on the
components responsible for the development of the
structure of the dough, such as gluten, starch and
hemicellulose. The acids also have an effect on the
enzymes of the flour, thus influencing proteolytic and
amylolytic activities (Wehrle et al., 1997; Thiele et al.,
2002).
Rheological measurements are used to characterise
and simulate the performance of dough during
processing and for quality control. Instruments such
as the farinograph and the extensograph are easy to
handle and provide a large amount of information

doi:10.1111/ijfs.12932
© 2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology
2622 Sourdough reduces sodium in wheat flour dough A. de C. Nogueira et al.
on the quality and performance of cereal-based
products (Dobraszczyk & Morgenstern, 2003). Thus,
rheological trials performed with wheat flour aid the
baking industry in the prediction of the processing
characteristics of the dough and the quality of the
final products (Almeida et al., 2010; Schmiele et al.,
2012).
Therefore, this study aims to show the effects of the
reduction of sodium chloride and the addition of dry
sourdough on the rheological parameters of wheat
flour dough, demonstrating the possibility of using this
alternative ingredient to lower the sodium level in bak-
ery products, seeking an optimal range for use in the
manufacturing process.
Materials and methods
We used Sapore traviata 4100604 dry sourdough
(Puratos, Guarulhos, S~
ao Paulo, Brazil) based on rye
flour, commercial sodium chloride (Finosal, Mossoro,
Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil) and wheat flour
(Moinho Correcta, Jaguare, S~
ao Paulo, Brazil).
Characterisation of the raw material
Wheat flour and dry sourdough were characterised
regarding moisture, protein, lipid and ash contents,
according to methods 44-15.02, 46-13.01, 30-25.01
and 08-01.01 of AACC (2010), respectively. The flour
was also characterised regarding its wet and dry
gluten contents and gluten index and falling number,
according to methods 38-12.02 and 56-81.03 of
AACC (2010), and regarding its farinograph, exten-
sograph and pasting properties.
Experimental design
To evaluate the effect of different concentrations of
sodium chloride (NaCl) and dry sourdough (DS) on
the rheological characteristics of wheat flour, we con-
ducted a 22 central composite rotational design
(CCRD), with four factorial points, four axial points
and three repetitions of the central point, totalising
eleven trials. The range of the independent variables
studied went from 0% to 2.5% for sodium chloride
(x1) and from 0% to 10% for dry sourdough (x2)
(both in flour basis). We also performed a control
trial, with 1.8% NaCl and 0% DS, for comparison
purposes.
Rheological properties
The rheological properties of the eleven trials, which
are characterised by flour with sodium chloride and
dry sourdough according to the experimental design,
were evaluated in triplicate.
International Journal of Food Science & Technology 2015
The farinograph properties were determined using
method 54-21.01 of AACC (2010) using the Brabender
farinograph, model 810130 (Duisburg, Germany), with
a modification on the analysis time from 20 to 40 min.
The parameters evaluated were water absorption
(WA), arrival time (AT), dough development time
(DDT), stability (S) and mixing tolerance index
(MTI).
The extensograph properties were analysed in the
Brabender extensograph, model 860703 (Duisburg,
Germany), according to method 54-10.01 of AACC
(2010). The parameters evaluated at 45, 90 and
135 min were resistance to extension (R), extensibility
(E) and ratio number (D), respectively.
After the farinograph and extensograph analyses,
the hydrogen ion activity (pH) of the trials was
measured according to method 02-52.01 of AACC
(2010), using a 300 M pH meter (Analyser, S~ao Paulo,
Brazil).
The pasting properties were determined in a Rapid
ViscoAnalyser (RVA), model RVA 4500 (Perten
Instruments, Warriewood, NSW, Australia), using the
software TCW 3.15.1.255, according to method 162 of
ICC (ICC, 1996). The parameters evaluated were past-
ing temperature, maximum viscosity, peak time, final
viscosity, breakdown and setback.
Statistical analysis
The statistical analysis was performed using the
software Statistica 7.0 (Statsoft, Tulsa, OK, USA).
The results of the experimental design were evaluated
using the response surface methodology for the
calculation of the regression coefficients and for the
analysis of variance (ANOVA) (a ≤ 0.05), with minimum
determination coefficient (R2) of the ANOVA of 0.70.
Once the mathematical models were obtained
through the response surface methodology, there was
an optimisation using the technique proposed for
dependent variables by Derringer & Suich (1980),
which is based on defining a desirability function (D)
restricted to the range from 0 to 1; that is, the greater
the D value, the more the system is optimised. This
function was generated using only the parameters of
farinograph stability and extensograph resistance to
extension and extensibility (due to their great impor-
tance in the process), using the software Design-Expert
6.0.4. (Stat-Ease, Minneapolis, MN, USA).
Results and discussion
Characterisation of the raw materials
Flour presented moisture, protein (N 9 5.7), lipid and
ash contents of 13.10  0.05 g/100 g, 15.46  0.07 g/
100 g, 1.38  0.05 g/100 g and 0.53  0.04 g/100 g,
© 2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Sourdough reduces sodium in wheat flour dough A. de C. Nogueira et al. 2623

Table 1 Coded models for the farinograph, extensograph and pasting properties parameters as a function of the concentrations of the NaCl
and DS added (the coded values of the independent variables must be used)

Parameters Coded model

Farinograph
Water absorption =61.87 0.41 x1 + 2.31 x2 (R2 = 0.97; Fcalc/Ftab = 34.62)
Arrival time =1.70 + 0.21 x1 0.16 x1x2 (R2 = 0.75; Fcalc/Ftab = 3.82)
Dough development time =9.14 + 1.65 x1 0.44 x1² 1.69 x2 + 1.64 x2² + 0.41 x1x2 (R2 = 0.99; Fcalc/Ftab = 38.97)
Stability =16.63 + 6.9 x1 4.87 x2 + 0.96 x2² 1.23 x1x2 (R2 = 0.99; Fcalc/Ftab = 67.02)
MTI =34.44 18.27 x1 + 9.89 x1² + 15.56 x2 + 7.79 x2² 10.41 x1x2 (R2 = 0.97; Fcalc/Ftab = 6.01)
pH =5.30 0.36 x2 0.25 x1x2 (R2 = 0.79; Fcalc/Ftab = 4.91)
Extensograph
Resistance at 45 min =475.42 + 114.07 x1 + 56.32 x2 + 54.50 x1x2 (R² = 0.93; Fcalc/Ftab = 7.41)
Resistance at 90 min =685.96 + 182.37 x1 41.63 x1² + 64.83 x2² + 59.08 x1x2 (R² = 0.97; Fcalc/Ftab = 18.57)
Resistance at 135 min =783.54 + 215.33 x1 92.41x2 (R² = 0.93; Fcalc/Ftab = 16.17)
Extensibility at 45 min =128.30 + 3.43 x1 11.14 x2 2.79 x2² (R² = 0.93; Fcalc/Ftab = 10.86)
Extensibility at 90 min =108.00 7.81 x2 4.94 x2² (R² = 0.76; Fcalc/Ftab = 4.14)
Extensibility at 135 min =105.39 7.45 x2 6.39 x2² (R² = 0.82; Fcalc/Ftab = 5.79)
D (R/E) at 45 min =3.55 + 0.84 x1 + 0.81 x2 + 0.38 x2² + 0.48 x1x2 (R² = 0.98; Fcalc/Ftab = 17.28)
D (R/E) at 90 min =6.02 + 1.94 x1 + 0.51 x2 + 1.13 x2² + 0.80 x1x2 (R² = 0.97; Fcalc/Ftab = 9.79)
D (R/E) at 135 min =7.06 + 2.14 x1 + 1.02 x2² + 0.87 x1x2 (R² = 0.95; Fcalc/Ftab = 10.63)
Pasting properties
Maximum viscosity =1366.64 + 32.27 x1 20.79 x2 (R² = 0.70; Fcalc/Ftab = 3.01)
Breakdown =505.35 + 50.67 x1 17.33 x2² + 19.75 x1x2 (R² = 0.96; Fcalc/Ftab = 17.55)

x1 = coded value ( a to +a) of the concentrations of NaCl in g/100 g wheat flour; x2 = coded value ( a to +a) of the concentrations of DS in g/100 g
wheat flour; Fcalc, calculated F; Ftab, tabled F.

respectively. The wet gluten, dry gluten, gluten index
and diastatic activity contents were 29.13  0.25 g/100
g, 10.47  0.54 g/100 g, 92.68  1.24 and 520.0 
10.5 s, respectively. Dry sourdough presented values
were 5.89  0.09 g/100 g, 12.57  0.01 g/100 g, 0.93
 0.05 g/100 g and 2.73  0.04 g/100 g for moisture,
protein (N 9 5.83), lipid and ash contents, respec-
tively.
Rheological properties
The effect of different levels of sodium chloride (NaCl)
and dry sourdough (DS) on farinograph, extensograph
and pasting properties was measured and their corre-
sponding response surfaces are shown in Figs 1–3. The
mathematical models generated for the parameters
influenced by at least one of the variables (NaCl or
DS) are presented in Table 1.
Farinograph properties
The values for water absorption (WA) remained
between 58.8% and 64.8% for the trials and 58.2%
for the control (1.8% of NaCl and 0% of DS). We
observed that NaCl practically did not affect WA,
although this effect is well reported in the literature,
possibly because, in our study, the effect of DS was
much greater. Therefore, sodium reduction could
easily be achieved for this parameter, given the small
influence of NaCl. As for reaching WA similar to the
control (commercial use), using small amounts of DS
(up to 2.5%) and intermediate concentrations of NaCl
allow this objective. In the mixing step, NaCl influ-
ences the physical requirements for the development of
the dough because of its ionic nature, thus causing
changes in the absorption of water by the flour
(Preston, 1981; Wehrle et al., 1997; Larsson, 2002;
Lynch et al., 2009). Kaur & Bala (2011) reported that
the effect of electrolytes on the rheological properties
of the dough is based on the aggregation of the gluten
proteins. In the case of NaCl, when present in the
dough, the protein association is considered as domi-
nant, as this salt strengthens the dough and decreases
the absorption of water (Kaur & Bala, 2011). Accord-
ing to Galal et al. (1978), the addition of salt to the
dough significantly reduces the intermolecular and
intramolecular repulsions, interacting with the charged
groups in the protein molecules. In an acid medium,
there would be a considerable net positive charge and
the solubility of the gluten proteins would be
increased. This increased intramolecular electrostatic
repulsion would lead to a breakdown of the gluten
proteins. These resulting conformational changes
would increase the ability of the protein to bind to
water.
The arrival time (AT) of the trials remained between
1.43 and 2.24 min, and 1.4 min for the control.
The increase in NaCl and DS resulted in higher AT.

© 2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology International Journal of Food Science & Technology 2015
2624 Sourdough reduces sodium in wheat flour dough A. de C. Nogueira et al.
(a) (b)
(d) (e)
Figure 1 Response surfaces for (a) water absorption, (b) arrival time, (c) dough development time, (d) stability, (e) mixing tolerance index and
(f) pH measured after farinograph, as a function of concentrations of NaCl and DS. WA, water absorption; AT, arrival time; DDT, dough
development time; S, stability; MTI, mixing tolerance index.
However, as for WA, there was a greater effect of DS
on the variation of this response. With the greater
aggregation of proteins and the competition with the
salt for water, there is a lower speed of hydration and,
consequently, a higher AT. In an acid medium, there
is a breakdown of the gluten proteins and increased
exposure of the hydrophobic groups (Galal et al.,
1978), which leads to a slower speed of WA, thus
generating a higher AT. In intermediate ranges of
NaCl and DS, it was possible to obtain satisfactory
AT values and, at the same time, achieve sodium
reduction. Similar results to the control can be
obtained at concentrations lower than 2.5% of DS
and intermediate of NaCl.
The dough development time (DDT), related to the
time for the optimal development of the gluten net-
work, increased with the increase in the concentration
of NaCl, and with the decrease in the concentration of
DS. The observed values were between 6.17 and
15.03 min, and 18.03 min for the control trial. Sodium
chloride increases the mixing time and dough develop-
ment time (Galal et al., 1978), as well as its resistance
(Salovaara, 1982), as it stimulates the development of
the gluten network and reinforces the viscoelastic
properties of the dough. This effect is explained as
International Journal of Food Science & Technology 2015
(c)
(f)
follows: in a flour-water system at normal pH (approx-
imately 6.0), the proteins that form the gluten network
have positive charges that repel each other, thus allow-
ing the gluten to hydrate faster (shorter mixing time)
and avoiding the interactions among protein chains,
which results in a weaker dough. The addition of
sodium chloride in small quantities neutralises these
charges, which allows the approximation of the protein
chains. This causes a slower hydration (longer mixing
time) and allows the protein chains to interact more to
form a stronger dough (Preston, 1981; Miller & Hose-
ney, 2008). Another additional explanation for the
increase in DDT is the competition between the sites
of the hydrogen bonds of the gluten and the sodium
ions for water (Hutton, 2002). In practice, in the
baking industry, salt is often added at the end of the
mixing step to save time in the development of the glu-
ten network in the process. The transformations that
occur in the gluten, when in an acid medium, as
already mentioned previously, according to Galal et al.
(1978), generate a weakening of the structure of the
gluten and, consequently, a softening effect on the
dough (Arendt et al., 2007). Thus, there is a reduction
in dough development time (Watanabe et al., 1955;
Wehrle et al., 1997). In low concentrations of DS and
© 2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Sourdough reduces sodium in wheat flour dough A. de C. Nogueira et al. 2625

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

Figure 2 Response surfaces for (I) (a) resistance to extension at 45 min, (b) extensibility at 45 min, (c) D at 45 min; (II) (d) resistance to
extension at 90 min, (e) extensibility at 90 min, (f) D at 90 min; (III) (g) resistance to extension at 135 min, (h) extensibility at 135 min,
(i) D at 135 min, as a function of concentrations of NaCl and DS. R, resistance to extension; E, extensibility; D, ratio R/E.

practically all NaCl concentrations, it is possible to
obtain higher DDT, similar to the control. Through-
out the range of DS, it was possible to obtain satisfac-
tory DDT values; however, only at intermediate
concentrations of NaCl, it was possible to combine
this good result to salt reduction.
As for stability (S), its values remained between 6.83
and 31.5 min and, for the control trial, 29.05 min.
There was an increase in S caused by the increased
concentration of NaCl, and this parameter was
reduced with the addition of DS. We could observe, in
this case, that the NaCl showed greater influence on
the S of the trials. However, despite the slight decrease
caused by DS, its effect was quite satisfactory, as this
parameter was practically not influenced, which is
desired. Thus, with lower DS and intermediate NaCl
concentrations, it was possible to achieve good values
of stability with salt reduction. Wehrle et al. (1997),
comparing the farinograph of the dough produced
with 2% of salt to the dough with 0% of salt,
observed that the first one had a significant increase in
the consistency of the dough in relation to the second
one. A reduction in the stability of the dough was
found with acid addition (Clarke et al., 2002;
Komlenic et al., 2010).
The mixing tolerance index (MTI) presented values
from 25 to 100 BU for the trials and 35 BU for the
control. We verified an increase in the MTI as the con-
centration of DS was increased, while increased levels
of NaCl had a reverse action on this same parameter,

© 2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology International Journal of Food Science & Technology 2015
2626 Sourdough reduces sodium in wheat flour dough A. de C. Nogueira et al.
(a)
Figure 3 Response surfaces for (a) maximum viscosity and (b) breakdown, as a function of concentrations of NaCl and DS.
decreasing it. A minimisation zone of the MTI, which
is desired, was obtained in the approximate concentra-
tions from 1.2% to 2.2% of NaCl and 0% to 5% of
DS. In this range, it is possible to reduce sodium
without changing this parameter. A condition similar
to the control, but with the presence of DS, can also
be observed in this range.
Sodium chloride tends to increase the tolerance of
the dough to mixing, that is decreases the MTI, by
neutralising the electrostatic repulsion of the gluten
proteins (Kaur & Bala, 2011). Harinder & Bains
(1990) and Wehrle et al. (1997) observed a reduction
of MTI and softening degree values, respectively.
Dough with greater acidity tends to have a greater
MTI, as its stability is affected by acidification. Biolog-
ically acid dough, for example, from lactic acid
bacteria and dry sourdough, showed an increase in the
softening degree, which requires a shorter mixing time
(Galal et al., 1978; Wehrle et al., 1997; Komlenic
et al., 2010), supporting the theory of Kaur & Bala
(2011). When 1.5% of salt was added simultaneously
with organic acids, the MTI had a lower increase when
compared to the trial that had only organic acids.
Consistent results were also reported by Watanabe
et al. (1955).
The pH of the dough after the farinograph analysis
(which simulates the mixing stage) ranged from
4.39  0.01 to 6.00  0.06 and was 6.25  0.09 for
the control. Not surprisingly, the increase in the
concentration of DS led to a reduction in pH. In low
concentrations of NaCl, the effect of the concentra-
tion of DS on pH, whose values were approximately
5.4, remained virtually constant, with a slight decrease
in pH as the concentration of DS increased. How-
ever, in higher concentrations of NaCl, the increase
in the concentration of DS caused a greater decrease
International Journal of Food Science & Technology 2015
(b)
in pH, reaching 4.6 with 2.5% of NaCl and 10% of
DS.
Extensograph properties
We observed that the increases in NaCl and DS
caused an increase in dough resistance to extension
(R); however, the greatest effect was caused by NaCl.
The values of R remained between 257 and 696, 331
and 937, and 386 and 1073 BU for 45, 90 and
135 min, respectively. For the control, the values were
448, 934 and 971 BU. Preston (1989), in increasing
concentrations of NaCl, found an increase in the
resistance (R) in the extensograph analysis, as well as
Harinder & Bains (1990) and Lynch et al. (2009). Here
there was also a strengthening of the dough, as there
was with the farinograph parameters (DDT and S),
probably because of the induction of strong hydropho-
bic interactions among the proteins, resulting in an
increased aggregation (Bernardin, 1978; Preston,
1981). Although both variables increased resistance,
the characteristics of the dough formed were quite dis-
tinct. The dough with higher concentrations of salt
was more elastic, therefore more resistant; however,
with the increasing concentration of DS, the resistance
might have been the result of the difficulty to rupture
the dough, which was ruptured suddenly (elastic beha-
viour was not observed, but rather a brittle one). At
intermediate values of NaCl, that is with salt
reduction, a satisfactory resistance was achieved
throughout the range of DS. Values closer to the
control can be observed at intermediate concentrations
of NaCl, with an increase when DS also increases,
however, with different consistencies, as stated earlier.
Regarding extensibility (E), the increase in the con-
centration of DS caused a decrease in E at all times,
© 2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Sourdough reduces sodium in wheat flour dough A. de C. Nogueira et al.
while NaCl increased E only at 45 min, not influencing
it at other times. For the times of 45, 90 and 135 min,
we observed values from 110 to 139, 89 to 118, and 82
to 110 mm, respectively, and for the control, 130, 112
and 83 mm. A decrease in E with addition of acidifiers
was observed by Harinder & Bains (1990), Clarke
et al. (2002) and Komlenic et al. (2010). In the
approximate range of 2.5% to 5.0% of DS, satisfac-
tory values of E were achieved, and as NaCl had
practically no effect, the reduction was achieved. Simi-
lar values to the control would already be obtained
with the addition of small concentrations of DS.
The parameter D had a positive effect from both
NaCl and DS. The observed values were 2.2 to 5.3,
3.2 to 10.5, and 3.8 to 10.9 BU mm 1 for 45, 90 and
135 min, respectively, and 3.5, 8.4 and 11.9 BU mm 1
for the control. For the ratio number (D), the ratio
between resistance and extensibility, behaviours
derived from R and E were observed. The desirable
characteristic is for the dough to have a good combi-
nation of resistance and extensibility (Komlenic et al.,
2010).
The pH, also monitored after the last period of the
extensograph analysis (135 min), ranged from 4.27 
0.06 to 5.44  0.04 for the experimental design trials
and was 5.33  0.04 for the control. No effect was
observed, neither from NaCl, nor DS, on this response.
Pasting properties
Only the parameters maximum viscosity and break-
down were influenced by NaCl and DS. The final
viscosity ranged from 1567 to 2005 cP for the trials
and was 2030 cP for the control. As for setback, the
values remained between 666 to 1025 cP, and for the
control, it was 1044 cP. The pasting temperature and
peak time did not show great variation between trials,
with values between 68.00 and 70.38 °C, and 5.73 and
6.20 min, respectively. For the control, the observed
values for these parameters were 69.15 °C and
6.02 min.
For maximum viscosity, we observed an increase as
the concentration of NaCl was increased and a
decrease with increasing DS, NaCl having a greater
effect on this response. For breakdown, the increase in
both NaCl and DS caused an increase in this response.
The values for maximum viscosity and breakdown
remained between 1303 and 1450 and 422 and 574 cP,
respectively.
Kaur & Bala (2011) also obtained an increase in
maximum viscosity or peak viscosity when adding 2%
of NaCl to wheat flour, which can be attributed to the
enzymatic activity suppressed in the presence of salt
(Galal et al., 1978) or the fact that NaCl can cause the
starch granules to remain intact during a long
period of time before fragmentation, thus increasing
© 2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology
2627
maximum viscosity (D’Appolonia, 1972). Komlenic
et al. (2010), as in this study, also reported a decrease
in maximum viscosity when adding biological and
chemical acidifiers to wheat flour. As this parameter is
related to the ability of the starch in absorbing water,
and consequently to the degree of swelling of the
starch granules during heating, NaCl and DS inter-
fered in some of these points. Breakdown can be
described as the behaviour of the starch as to its
stability when cooking while stirring. Greater stability
of the swelled granules was verified in zones with
lower concentrations of NaCl and greater concentra-
tions of DS.
Pasting temperature and setback were not influenced
by the independent variables (NaCl and DS) under the
conditions used in this study. This could lead us to
believe that the beginning of the baking and the
characteristics of the bread during the aging process
would not be affected. However, the setback value for
the control trial and for trial 7 (without DS) was
greater than the values for all other trials, which could
indicate an effect of the sourdough on starch retrogra-
dation. It is known that the setback parameter is
closely linked to the tendency of the starch molecules
to retrograde and reorganise themselves (Ragaee &
Abdel-Aal, 2006).
Desirability function
To calculate the desirability function, only the parame-
ters of farinograph stability (S) and extensograph
resistance to extension (R) and extensibility (E) were
considered, due to the higher degree of influence they
have on the process. Through the mathematical mod-
els and the response surfaces generated, it was possible
to observe that, in ranges of 1.0% to 1.5% NaCl and
1% to 5% DS, satisfactory values for all the assessed
parameters were obtained. Thus, this range was chosen
for generation of this function. In addition, the desired
S and R were established within the ranges 8 to
15 min and 500 to 800 BU, respectively, in accordance
with characteristics required for wheat flour for bread.
As for the value E, it was established that it would not
be taken into consideration, since practically in the
entire study range, satisfactory results (82–110 mm)
were achieved for this parameter. These standards are
shown in Table 2.
Based on the results of the desirability function, it
was possible to verify that to obtain the maximum value
of this function (=1), NaCl concentrations should be
about 1% ( 0.27 to 0.22) and 5% ( 0.07 to 0.01)
for DS, obtaining S, R and E values between 14.5 and
15.0 min, 725 and 739 BU and 82 and 110 mm, respec-
tively. Therefore, this result confirms what was observed
through the response surfaces and supports the reduc-
tion of NaCl provided by the addition of DS.
International Journal of Food Science & Technology 2015
2628 Sourdough reduces sodium in wheat flour dough A. de C. Nogueira et al.
Table 2 Conditions adopted for the desirability function
Independent and Lower Upper
dependent variables Goal limit limit
NaCl Is in range 0.28** 0.28**
(1%) (1.5%)
DS Is in range 1.12** 0**
(1%) (5%)
Stability Is in range 8 15
(min)
Resistance to Is in range 500 800
extension (BU)
Extensibility (BU) – 82 110
*Importance in the scale of 1 to 5; **Coded values; (–): no goal,
because the whole range was satisfactory.
Conclusion
Sodium chloride and dry sourdough influenced most
of the farinograph and extensograph parameters of the
wheat flour used and only maximum viscosity and
breakdown of the pasting properties. In the
farinograph parameters, NaCl contributed to the
reduction of water absorption, while DS increased it, a
behaviour also observed for the MTI. Both variables
increased arrival time. Development time and stability
increased with increasing NaCl concentration and
decreased with the addition of DS. In the
extensograph parameters, the increase in NaCl and DS
caused an increase in the resistance of the dough, and
consequently, the parameter D had a positive effect
from both NaCl and DS. For maximum viscosity, we
observed an increase caused by NaCl and a decrease
caused by DS, and for breakdown, the increase in
both NaCl and DS caused an increase in this response.
Although an opposite effect of the independent
variables (NaCl and DS) was observed for most
parameters, in intermediate ranges we observed a
masking of these antagonistic characteristics and we
achieved appropriate parameters for the processing of
wheat flour doughs. With the use of concentrations of
DS close to 5%, we achieved a reduction from 1.8%
NaCl (flour basis) to values close to 1–1.5%, which
correspond to a reduction of up to 45%. With 1%
NaCl and 5% DS, 100% of desirability for S, R and
E parameters was achieved.
Given this, through the prediction of the process-
ing and quality parameters of the final products
provided by the rheological characteristics evaluated,
the dry sourdough added to wheat dough can be an
alternative in the reduction of sodium in bread.
However, a study on the technological and sen-
sory characteristics of breads is still necessary, as it
is known that both salt and acidity also influence
them.
International Journal of Food Science & Technology 2015
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to CNPq and FAPESP for
Importance* the scholarships granted to authors Amanda de C assia
Nogueira and Julia Tamie Kussano, respectively; and
5
to Puratos (Guarulhos, S~ao Paulo, Brazil) and Cor-
3
recta (Jaguare, S~ao Paulo, Brazil) for the donation of
the raw materials used in this study. The authors also
3 thank Espacßo da Escrita – Coordenadoria Geral da
Universidade – UNICAMP – for the language services
4 provided.
–
References
AACC International (2010). American Association of Cereal Chem-
istry. Approved Methods of Analysis, 11th edn. Available online
only. Saint Paul, USA: AACC International.
Almeida, E.L., Chang, Y.K. & Steel, C.J. (2010). Effect of adding
different dietary fiber sources on farinographic parameters of wheat
flour. Cereal Chemistry, 87, 566–573.
Arendt, E.K., Ryan, L.A.M. & Dal Bello, F. (2007). Impact of sour-
dough on the texture of bread. Food Microbiology, 24, 165–174.
Belz, M.C.E., Ryan, L.A.M. & Arendt, E.K. (2012). The impact of
salt reduction in bread: a review. Critical Reviews in Food Science
and Nutrition, 52, 514–524.
Bernardin, J.F. (1978). Gluten proteins interaction with small mole-
cules and ions – the control of flour properties. Baker’s Dig, 52,
20–23.
Cauvain, S.P. (2007). Reduced salt in bread and other baked prod-
ucts. In: Reducing Salt in Foods (edited by D. Kilcast & F. Angus).
Pp. 283–295 Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press LLC.
Clarke, C.I., Schober, T.J. & Arendt, E.K. (2002). Effect of single
strain and traditional mixed strain starter cultures on rheological
properties of wheat dough and on bread quality. Cereal Chemistry,
79, 640–647.
Clarke, C.I., Schober, T.J., Dockery, P., O’Sullivan, K. & Arendt,
E.K. (2004). Wheat sourdough fermentation: effect of time and
acidification on fundamental rheological properties. Cereal
Chemistry, 81, 409–417.
D’Appolonia, B.L. (1972). Effect of bread ingredients on starch-gela-
tinization properties as measured by the amylograph. Cereal
Chemistry, 49, 532–543.
Derringer, G.C. & Suich, R. (1980). Simultaneous optimization of
several responses variables. Journal of Quality Technology, 12,
214–219.
Dobraszczyk, B.J. & Morgenstern, M.P. (2003). Rheology and the
bread making process. Journal of Cereal Science, 38, 229–245.
Galal, A.M., Varriano-Marston, E. & Johnson, J.A. (1978).
Rheological dough properties as affected by organic acids and salt.
Cereal Chemistry, 55, 683–691.
Harinder, K. & Bains, G.S. (1990). High a-amylase flours: effect of
pH, acid, and salt on the rheological properties of dough. Cereal
Chemistry, 67, 588–594.
Hutton, T. (2002). Sodium: technological functions of salt in the
manufacturing of food and drink products. British Food Journal,
104, 126–152.
ICC (1996). International Association for Cereal Science and
Technology. Rapid Pasting Method using the Newport Rapid
ViscoAnalyser. ICC-Draft Standard n.162.
Kaur, A. & Bala, B.R. (2011). Effect of replacement of sodium
chloride with mineral salts on rheological characteristics of wheat
flour. American Journal of Food Technology, 6, 674–684.

Komlenic, D.K., Zaneta, U.-H., Jukic, M., Planinic, M., Bucic-
Kojic, A. & Strelec, I. (2010). Wheat dough rheology and bread
quality affected by Lactobacillus brevis preferment, dry sourdough
© 2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Sourdough reduces sodium in wheat flour dough A. de C. Nogueira et al.
and lactic acid addition. International Journal of Food Science and
Technology, 45, 1417–1425.
Larsson, H. (2002). Effect of pH and sodium chloride on wheat flour
dough properties: ultracentrifugation and rheological measure-
ments. Cereal Chemistry, 79, 544–545.
Lynch, E.J., Dal Bello, F., Sheehan, E.M., Cashman, K.D. &
Arendt, E.K. (2009). Fundamental studies on the reduction of salt
on dough and bread characteristics. Food Research International,
42, 885–891.
McCutcheon, N.B. (1986). Salt-acid confusion on the single fungi-
form papilla: effect of changing acid sensitivity. Physiology and
Behavior, 36, 1081–1088.
Miller, R.A. & Hoseney, R.C. (2008). Role of salt in baking. Cereal
Foods World, 53, 4–6.
Preston, K.R. (1981). Effects of neutral salts upon wheat gluten pro-
tein properties. Cereal Chemistry, 58, 317–324.
Preston, K.R. (1989). Effects of neutral salts of the lyotropic series
on the physical dough properties of a Canadian red spring wheat
flour. Cereal Chemistry, 66, 144–148.
Ragaee, S. & Abdel-Aal, E.-S.. (2006). Pasting properties of starch
and protein in selected cereals and quality of their food products.
Food Chemistry, 95, 9–18.
© 2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology
2629
Salovaara, H. (1982). Effect of partial sodium chloride replacement
by other salts on wheat dough rheology and breadmaking. Cereal
Chemistry, 59, 422–426.
Schmiele, M., Jaekel, L.Z., Patricio, S.M.C., Steel, C.J. & Chang,
Y.K. (2012). Rheological properties of wheat flour and quality
characteristics of pan bread as modified by partial additions of
wheat bran or whole grain wheat flour. International Journal of
Food Science and Technology, 47, 2141–2150.
Thiele, C., G€anzle, M.G. & Vogel, R.F. (2002). Contribution of
sourdough lactobacilli, yeast and cereal enzymes to the generation
amino acids in dough relevant for bread flavour. Cereal Chemistry,
79, 45–51.
Watanabe, C., Watanabe, T. & Uemura, M. (1955). On wheat flour
dough. Preliminary report: On the effect of pH. Shorkuryo Kagaku
Kenkyusho Kenkyu Hokoku, 10, 15.
Wehrle, K., Grau, H. & Arendt, E.K. (1997). Effects of lactic acid,
acetic acid and table salt on fundamental rheological properties of
wheat dough. Cereal Chemistry, 74, 739–744.
Zhao, C.J., Kinner, M., Wismer, W. & G€anzle, M.G. (2015). Effect
of glutamate accumulation during sourdough fermentation with
lactobacillus reuteri on the taste of bread and sodium-reduced
bread. Cereal Chemistry, 92, 224–230.
International Journal of Food Science & Technology 2015