International Journal of Construction Management

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The impact of COVID-19 on the construction

industry and lessons learned: a case of Sri Lanka

Nayana Niroshana, Chandana Siriwardana & Ravindu Jayasekara

To cite this article: Nayana Niroshana, Chandana Siriwardana & Ravindu Jayasekara (2022):
The impact of COVID-19 on the construction industry and lessons learned: a case of Sri Lanka,
International Journal of Construction Management, DOI: 10.1080/15623599.2022.2076016

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Published online: 23 May 2022.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
https://doi.org/10.1080/15623599.2022.2076016

The impact of COVID-19 on the construction industry and lessons learned: a case
of Sri Lanka
Nayana Niroshana, Chandana Siriwardana and Ravindu Jayasekara
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Katubedda, Sri Lanka

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The Sri Lankan construction industry has experienced rapid development in the post-war era due to new Construction industry;
trends in the country. Currently, the construction industry in the country is experiencing difficulties due COVID-19; workforce
to the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. Even before the pandemic, the industry has been struggling management; health and
safety; emergency
due to issues that affect its productivity, such as lack of skilled labourers and low levels of health and preparedness; dengue
safety in sites. In such a context this paper aims at identifying and evaluating the challenges posed by
the pandemic. Seventy responses were obtained from officials in the top and middle levels of manage-
ment in different construction companies in the country through an online survey. Challenges and solu-
tions have been identified and analysed under four key areas namely, workforce management, health
and safety, welfare facilities, and emergency preparedness. The findings of the study can aid construction
professionals with shaping up construction projects beyond COVID-19. Accordingly, the industry needs
several efforts in regard to legislative enactments, administrative support, education and training, and
review and evaluation.

Introduction nature of work at these sites, labourers often have to work

The post-war era in Sri Lanka has urged the government and
both local and foreign private sectors to invest copiously in mega
development projects. (Silva et al. 2015). New trends in the Sri
Lankan real estate sector such as the government’s infrastructure
development projects and luxury apartments and hotels have
become major reasons for the growth in the construction indus-
try (Jayalath and Gunawardhana 2017). The share of construc-
tion activities to the GDP in Sri Lanka was recorded as 7.5% in
2019 (Department of Census and Statistics 2019). According to
the Department of Census and Statistics (2020), 693,205 persons
are employed in construction, electricity, gas, steam and air con-
ditioning supply, water supply, sewerage, waste management,
and remediation activities currently in Sri Lanka (Department of
Census and Statistics 2020). However, the Sri Lankan construc-
tion industry has been recently plagued by issues such as short-
age of labourers, high construction costs, and low construction
productivity (Wijeratne 2019).
By its nature, the construction industry is highly vulnerable to
external shocks and stresses such as economic downfalls since
the entire process of the construction sector crosses all sectors of
the economy of a country (Pheng and Hou 2019; Pheng and
Zheng 2019). The crisis in the construction industry after the
Easter Sunday Attack 2019 has evidenced this dependency. As a
result of this tragic event, experts claimed that the Sri Lankan
construction industry has experienced a huge shock due to the
slow economic growth in the country (Daily News 2019).
Furthermore, the construction industry is considered a complex
field due to the risk, dynamic environment, and challenges
(Wood and Gidado 2008). In the Sri Lankan context, occupa-
tional health and safety have become a major concern since it is
a neglected aspect in many construction sites. According to the
closely, share tools, attend to hard work, attend pocket meetings
and adhere to common meals or tea breaks. These working con-
ditions heighten the potency of epidemics to spread rapidly
among construction workers (CIDA 2020a). Illustrating an
example from Singapore, the second wave of the COVID-19 out-
break in the country originated from migrant labour dormitories
where living conditions are extremely poor (Tan et al. 2020).
Furthermore, construction labour productivity in Sri Lanka is
considered low compared to other countries in the region (CEIC
Data 2020).
Amidst these issues, the COVID-19 pandemic has posed its
unprecedented impacts on the construction industry. Around the
time of commencing this study, Sri Lanka was facing the second
wave of the pandemic with a count of over 23,000. Around 500
new cases were reported daily urging the authorities to impose
strict containment measures (Epidemiology Unit 2020a). The
degree of impact on the construction industry has varied due to
factors such as the severity and timing of the pandemic and gov-
ernment measures (RICS 2020). In Sri Lanka, the COVID-19
pandemic had resulted in the temporary closure of almost all
construction sites including those run by both public and private
sectors since the second week of March 2020 (CIDA 2020a).
PWC has ranked the construction industry among the five
industries which are at comparatively more risk than others in
Sri Lanka (PWC 2020). Even without the impacts of crises like
COVID-19, the performance of the construction industry is con-
sidered inadequate due to reasons such as the low level of occu-
pational health and safety and productivity. Therefore, major
shifts are needed in the industry. It is anticipated that the
impacts and trends of COVID-19 will pace up the required
changes radically (McKinsey and Company 2020). For instance,

CONTACT Chandana Siriwardana chaasi@uom.lk

ß 2022 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 N. NIROSHANA ET AL.
construction companies have started to focus more on offsite
construction, distant work, renewable energy, health and sanita-
tion, etc. (Jones et al. 2020; Kaklauskas et al. 2021). Furthermore,
identifying and prioritizing the needs of clients in the construc-
tion industry is needed in post-disaster situations (Aliakbarlou
et al. 2021).
In such a context, this study has aimed at answering the ques-
tion of what are the challenges posed by COVID-19 on the Sri
Lankan construction industry. This paper consists of an analysis
of results obtained through a questionnaire survey that covered
the top and middle management levels in the Sri Lankan con-
struction industry. The challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic
were analysed under four key areas in construction projects
namely, workforce management, health and safety, welfare facili-
ties, and emergency preparedness. Additionally, this paper
includes recommendations in mitigating the identified impacts of
the pandemic. The outputs of the study can be utilized in shap-
ing up the construction industry to the new normal, COVID-19.
Literature review
Sri Lankan construction industry and its vulnerabilities
Being the fourth highest industry in Sri Lanka next to services,
manufacturing, and agriculture in terms of Gross Domestic
Product (GDP), the construction industry has been vested with a
pivotal role in the country’s economy (CBSL 2019). But the con-
struction industry is experiencing difficulties due to several
causes such as crises in the country, skilled labour shortage, and
low productivity. The demand for skilled labourers in the coun-
try is currently much higher than for unskilled labourers
(Pathirana 2021). The ageing skilled labour force is one of the
main reasons behind this issue. Furthermore, factors such as
unattractive job titles, uncertainty, lack of worker-oriented career
paths and low salary scales have kept the young workforce away
from the industry (Pathirana 2021). The shortage of skilled
labourers affects the level of productivity in the industry as well.
Poor health and safety practices among labourers is another fac-
tor that disrupts the productivity of the industry (Rathnayake
and Ranasinghe 2020). Apart from hazardous working conditions
in sites, the construction workforce can easily become victims of
communicable diseases due to factors such as the presence of
migrant workers, poor sanitary facilities, and crowded living
areas. For instance, the first introduced case of malaria after
6 years since the elimination of malaria in Sri Lanka was
reported in 2018 by a member of a group of 32 migrant labour-
ers from India (Marasinghe et al. 2020). Furthermore, construc-
tion labourers can be identified as a marginalized group because
of discrimination due to lack of skill, low level of literacy, poor
health practices, and language and cultural differences
(M€uller 2016).
Table 1. Construction labourers with dengue fever reported from several major hospitals in Sri Lanka within December 2018.
Name of Hospital
National Hospital Colombo (NHSL)
Colombo South Teaching Hospital
National Institute of Infectious Diseases
District General Hospital, Nuwara-Eliya
Teaching Hospital Peradeniya
Provincial General Hospital, Badulla
Asiri Central, Colombo
Occupational health and safety in Sri Lankan
construction sites
The construction industry is considered as one of the most dan-
gerous industries due to the risky working conditions that char-
acterize them. Construction labourers are three times more likely
to die at sites and two times more likely to be injured than
labourers in other fields (Pinto et al. 2011; Sherratt et al. 2013).
With new trends towards complex construction projects, the
number of accidents in construction sites has risen considerably
(Anfas et al. 2017). Especially in developing countries, the
reported number of construction accidents and deaths associated
with them is considerably high (Durdyev et al. 2017; Nawaz
et al. 2020). The frequency of accidents in construction sites in
Sri Lanka is also considered relatively high. Annually, 2,500-
3,000 accidents are reported to the Labour Department in the
country and 40% to 60% of these accidents are considered fatal
(Darshana 2017). Lack of funds, poor knowledge and training,
and poor attitude of workers are identified as major reasons for
the low level of health and safety at construction sites in Sri
Lanka (Siriwardana and Wickramasinghe 2018).
According to a study conducted by De Silva et al. (2018),
80% of fatal accidents in Sri Lankan construction sites have not
been reported effectively. Therefore, the unavailability of reliable
data on accidents due to improper recording has become a major
reason behind the increasing number of construction accidents
in the country. Furthermore, unavailability of health and safety
policies, outdated guidelines, lack of training for workers on
health and safety, poor risk assessment can be recognized as
severe issues characterizing the current construction field in the
country (Darshana 2017). The need for heightening the interest
of professionals to actively engage in safety management and
awareness programmes has been greatly highlighted in past stud-
ies (Vitharana et al. 2015). Especially, conducting training on the
use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is considered para-
mount (Galappaththi et al. 2013). Negligence of these problems
can increase the rate of accidents further, thus increasing the
economic loss in projects. These facts call for the need for taking
immediate measures to enhance the level of health and safety in
the Sri Lankan construction industry.
The dengue epidemic in Sri Lankan construction sites
The high number of Dengue-infected construction labourers
reported in Sri Lanka sets an example of poor health and welfare
facilities within construction sites. Surveillance data from major
hospitals in Sri Lanka, as shown in Table 1 has made evident
that a significant amount of construction workers is infected
with Dengue (Epidemiology Unit 2021). Dengue is an acute
arthropod-borne viral infection that affects many tropical and
subtropical regions as the most frequent arboviral disease glo-
bally (Bhatt et al. 2013). In Sri Lanka, it has been a frequent epi-
demic outbreak that engulfs the healthcare system of the
country. The worst dengue outbreak was reported in 2017 and
No. of construction labourers reported as dengue patients
65
12
03
07
01
03
08

Table 2. Average non-productive time for each trade.
Daily average
Trade Delay work percentage non-productive time (hrs)
Tiling 35% 2.88
Painting 26% 2.08
Plaster 32% 2.56
Block Work 29% 2.32
MEP Works 29% 2.32
Formwork 43% 3.44
Reinforcement 35% 2.88
the number of dengue positive cases crossed the 180,000 limit
within the year (Jayarajah et al. 2017; Epidemiology Unit 2021).
Recently, ongoing construction sites have been identified as a
major reason for the rapidly increasing number of dengue cases
because these sites contain high numbers of mosquito breeding
places (Jayarajah et al. 2017; Perera and Chandrasekara 2018).
According to the Epidemiology Unit of Sri Lanka, around 70%
of construction sites in the Western Province have been found
with potential mosquito breeding places.
Currently, the Construction Industry Development Authority
[CIDA] has initiated several measures to address these issues in
collaboration with the Ministry of Urban Development, Water
Supply and Housing facilities & Dengue Control Unit (DCU)
(CIDA 2020c). With the impacts of COVID-19, CIDA has devel-
oped and published a guideline on COVID-19, dengue, and health
and safety. It mainly focuses on preventive hygiene practices at
construction sites for COVID-19 and dengue. Furthermore, the
developers have considerably focused on welfare facilities. Last but
not least the critical importance of administering health and safety
practices has been greatly highlighted in the guideline proving the
requirement for monitoring and evaluating such safety practices
(CIDA 2020a). This suggests that even before the outbreak of
COVID-19 in Sri Lanka, the construction industry in the country
had the need for improvements in its health and welfare facilities
and relevant monitoring processes.
Labour productivity in the Sri Lankan construction industry
Productivity plays a major role in the construction industry since
it decides the growth of the industry (Dey et al. 2017; Hamza
et al. 2022). It encourages the effective use of resources and cost
savings (Tahir et al. 2015). By its nature, the construction indus-
try is extremely labour intensive (Pheng and Zheng 2019).
Therefore, the productivity of the industry mainly depends on
labour performance (Durdyev et al. 2017). Various definitions
have been introduced for labour productivity by researchers
from time to time. Generally, labour productivity in construction
can be defined as the quantity of output per man-hour (Jarkas
2016). It mainly depends on factors such as labour experience,
political situations, delays in payment, errors in planning and
designing, etc (Alaghbari et al. 2019; Rajasinghe et al. 2019).
During a study conducted in Sri Lanka by Karunarathna and
Siriwardana (2018), 68 factors that affect the labour productivity
in Sri Lankan construction projects have been identified under 8
categories; plant and equipment; material; management; motiv-
ational; manpower; technical; project; and others. The degree of
impact on labour productivity varies from one category to the
other. The loss of productive time due to these factors is consid-
erably high in most of the areas of work. A study conducted by
Karunarathna et al. (2019) using the method of activity analysis
in Sri Lankan construction sites reveals that more than 2 hours
are wasted for non-productive activities in each trade of a
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 3
construction project (See Table 2). Excessive preparatory work,
poor material handling, waiting, lack of supervision, rework,
excessive personal time, and idling can be identified as the main
causes behind the excessive non-productive time (Karunarathna
et al. 2019).
Furthermore, due to the shortage of labourers in the Sri
Lankan construction sector, contractors have to dig into labour
pools of other contractors while bearing a huge cost (Seneviratne
et al. 2015; G. A. S. K. Silva et al. 2018; TVEC 2016). Currently,
most of the mega-scale infrastructure projects depend on foreign
labours. Mainly Chinese construction companies tend to bring
labourers over from China for their major infrastructure projects
(Chatham House 2020). This issue has caused higher construc-
tion costs as well (Oxford Business Group 2019). In addition to
that, the mass movement of migrant labours to Sri Lanka has
become a reason for introducing biological hazards to the coun-
try (Marasinghe et al. 2020). Therefore, the existence of such
issues calls for the need for emulating new approaches for opti-
mum worker crew management, labour health and safety, and
welfare facilities in construction sites.
Impact of COVID-19 on the Sri Lankan construction industry
Travel restrictions and social distancing imposed during the
COVID-19 pandemic have disrupted almost all the industries
in the country. The degree of damage to the industry has var-
ied from one to another based on the nature of work (Vithana
et al. 2020). The construction industry has been recognized as
one of the industries in the country that are at more risk due
to the impacts of the pandemic (PWC 2020). With the intro-
duction of social distancing measures construction projects
have been delayed or cancelled worldwide (RICS 2020). In Sri
Lanka, COVID-19 has resulted in the closure of almost all
construction sites including those that operate in both public
and private sectors since the second week of March 2020
(CIDA 2020a). Even before the imposition of lockdown meas-
ures, the construction industry experienced negative impacts
since migrant employees went back to their homelands in fear
of lockdown measures (Siriwardana and Jayasekara 2020).
Although lockdown measures were lifted after a couple of
months, the timely return of construction workers has been
identified as a major challenge due to factors such as uncer-
tainty and fear of getting infected.
Furthermore, construction supply chains have been severely
affected due to travel restrictions and it is predicted that a
longer process would be needed for recovery (McKinsey and
Company 2020). Apart from that, a decrease in new invest-
ments has been recognized as an alarming threat to the well-
being of the industry (Vithana et al. 2020). Labour health has
become a major concern in the construction field while main-
taining social distancing measures in sites has given rise to
several challenges. Agencies such as the World Health
Organization (WHO) and Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) have published health guidelines to
be followed in preparing workplaces for COVID-19 (WHO
2020; OSHA 2020). Adhering to the global guidelines, public
health authorities and relevant construction authorities in Sri
Lanka issued health guidelines to the Sri Lankan context
stressing aspects such as workforce management, health and
safety of labourers, welfare facilities and preparedness for
emergencies (CIDA 2020a; Epidemiology Unit 2020b).
4 N. NIROSHANA ET AL.
Table 3. Key areas of a construction project to be explored during the study.
Focus area Description
Workforce Management Past studies have highlighted the
need for focusing on workforce
management practices to improve
the productivity of the industry.
Experience and skills of labourers,
motivation, optimum crew size, and
job security are some of the areas
which need more attention in
workforce management.
Health and Safety Since the construction industry is
hazardous by its nature, assurance
of occupational health and safety
at construction sites is paramount.
It connects with both the physical
and psychological safety of
labourers. Factors such as measures
taken at the management level,
nature of projects, and individual
involvements should be considered
in this regard.
Welfare Facilities Welfare facilities enhance the morale
of the labourers to work and thus
improves the productivity and
efficiency of the workforce. These
facilities for labourers include
transport facilities, accommodation,
sanitary facilities, lunchroom and
canteen arrangements, etc. Welfare
facilities are categorized as
statutory and non-statutory
facilities.
Emergency Preparedness Preparing for emergencies that arise
from hazards such as biological
outbreaks is different from general
construction site emergencies.
Therefore, each construction site
needs to plan to establish an
emergency plan to face such
emergencies.
Methodology
As the initial step, a focus group discussion was conducted with
the objective of identifying the key focus areas and elements
under them that have to be explored in analysing the impacts of
the COVID-19 pandemic on the Sri Lankan construction sector.
The selected group of experts consisted of five (5) professionals
from the top level management of the construction industry. It
was decided to select participants from only the top level man-
agement since they have a holistic view of changes that occurred
in each aspect of the field during COVID-19. The invited profes-
sionals were presented with questions related to the impacts of
the pandemic on the construction industry in Sri Lanka. Based
on the findings from the focus group discussion and literature
review, the following key elements were identified under four
main focus areas as depicted in Table 3 to study the impacts of
the COVID-19 on the Sri Lankan construction industry.
Developing the questionnaire
As the next step, a questionnaire was developed under five main
sections namely (1) General Information, (2) Workforce
Management, (3) Health and Safety Strategies, (4) Welfare
Facilities, and (5) Preparation for Emergencies. Based on the
findings of the above-mentioned focus group discussion, the
questionnaire was designed to collect data related to different
time phases as depicted in Table 4. The questionnaire consisted
Key elements Reference
Number of workers (Wijekoon 2015; Manoharan et al.
Satisfaction of level of workers 2020; Momade et al. 2020; CIDA
Composition of workers 2020b; Araya 2021)
Termination and recruitment of
new workers
Workers & staff concerns on health, (Wesam Salah Alaloul et al. 2021;
safety & sanitary practices CIDA 2020b; De_ jus and
Use of PPE Antucheviciene_ 2013; Priyadarshani
Safety & Medical officers and their et al. 2013)
responsibilities
Safety procedures and
control measures
Accommodation (Patel et al. 2017; Dok Yen et al. 2018;
Facilities inside Dormitories CIDA 2020c; Gyamfi et al. 2021)
Shared facilities at sites
Transportation
Meals
Dengue outbreak experience (Ma et al. 2020; CIDA 2020a; Bakeli
Awareness about COVID-19 and Adil Alaoui Hafidi 2021)
Preparation for Pandemic Situations
Emergency guidelines
of questions to cover these time phases. Respondents were
directed to answer the provided questions under each of these
time phases in order to compare how the impacts of the pan-
demic on the industry varied with time. The impacts of vaccin-
ation were not incorporated in the questionnaire since
vaccination for the general public in Sri Lanka started during the
first week of March 2021 (WHO 2021).
Two pilot surveys were administered during the phase of
developing the questionnaire to achieve the best-expected out-
comes from the survey instrument. Further details of the two
pilot surveys are shown in Annex I.
Data collection & analysis
In this study, sampling was done according to the information
collected by pilot surveys. From a database of nine hundred pro-
fessionals working in the construction sector, a sample of 200
participants was selected under the following selection criteria.
1. Years of experience
2. Level of management (Top and Middle)
3. The number of construction projects handled by the respect-
ive companies
4. Locations of the construction sites (Companies which has
island-wide construction sites were selected)
The sample was selected only from the top and middle levels
of management in construction companies since professionals
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 5

Table 4. Time phases used to collect data for the Questionnaire Survey.
Time Phase
Before COVID-19
During Lock-down period
After the lockdown – phase I
After the lockdown – phase II
Time Duration
Before 20.03.2020
From 21.03.2020 to 11.05.2020
From 12.05.2020 to 11.08.2020
From 12.08.2020 to 30.11.2020
Remarks
The Government of Sri Lanka (GoSL) imposed an
island-wide curfew to curtail the virus on the
20th of March 2020.
GoSL lifted the lockdown restrictions on the 11th of
May 2020 almost after two months.
A period of three months was allocated for changes
in the construction industry based on the
findings of the focus group discussion.
The duration of the data collection ended on the
30th of November 2020. Therefore, the phase II-
after the lockdown was considered until the end
of data collection from the end of phase I.

from these levels are aware of changes in the overall process of

construction. The selected sample of professionals consisted of
construction managers, quantity surveyors, and safety managers.
The developed questionnaire was distributed among the selected
participants through emails. Data were collected within the two
months from 01.10.2020 to 30.11.2020. Finally, seventy (70) fully
completed responses were received for the questionnaire survey
with a response rate of 35%. Out of that 80% were male
respondents while more than 70% were above 40 years old.
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences [SPSS] v.25 and
Microsoft Excel software platforms were used in analysing the
data. Trends and impacts on the Sri Lankan construction indus-
try during COVID-19 were observed through the quantitative
analysis of data. The findings of the analysis were discussed with
insights from literature already published on impacts on the con-
struction sector. Two types of literature, 1) literature that was
already published before the pandemic and 2) literature that
incorporates the impacts of the pandemic, were used in order to
discuss the findings and derive the recommendations.
Results
General information
The reliability of data was determined and verified using two
reliability coefficients named Cronbach alpha and Krippendorff
alpha (Kalpha) (Krippendorf 2011; Taber 2018). When the
Cronbach alpha is less than 0.3, the data is considered not suit-
able for further analysis as the reliability level of data is consid-
ered low. When the Cronbach alpha is more than 0.7, data is
considered suitable for further analysis as the reliability level is
considered high (Taber 2018). If the Kalpha is greater than 0.8,
it can be considered that data is suitable for further analysis (De
Swert 2012). The Cronbach alpha for ordinal data in the results
was determined through IBM SPSS 22 software and the obtained
value for Cronbach alpha was 0.95. The results obtained from
the software analysis are presented in Table 5.
The value for Kalpha of nominal data in the results was
obtained as 0.81. The obtained results for the Kalpha calculation
are shown in Table 6. Accordingly, data could be used for fur-
ther research analysis.
According to the general information collected during the
survey, the majority of respondents were from private sector
construction companies (33, 47.14%) while an equal number of
respondents were from government and semi-government com-
panies (16, 22.86%). There were 4 (5.71%) respondents from for-
eign companies while one (1.43%) respondent was from ‘other’
category. Most of the respondents were project managers (39 out
of 70 [55.7%]), while 28.6% and 15.7% of respondents were
quantity surveyors and safety managers respectively. Elaborating
Table 5. Processing summary from IBM SPSS Software for Cronbach Alpha.
Case processing summary
N (%)
Cases Valid 69 98.57
Excluded 1 1.43
Total 70 100.00
Cronbach alpha 0.95
on the type of companies, most of the respondents (29 out of 70
[41.4%]) have been working as the main contractor in their proj-
ects. Although there are respondents from companies in both the
private and public sectors, it was decided based on findings of
the focus group discussion to analyse data received from differ-
ent types of companies together. Having similar conditions at
the ground level under the selected four areas in both sectors is
one reason behind this decision. Furthermore, the Construction
Industry Development Authority (CIDA) in Sri Lanka catego-
rizes companies in both sectors under the same criteria. Figure 1
presents the categories of companies where the respondents are
employed based on the categorization used by CIDA (CIDA
2015). According to the results, most construction companies are
categorized under the C1 type.
Despite the capacity, construction companies have been
closed down for a period of zero to 180 days. Based on the mean
value of the data set, it can be calculated that construction sites
were under lockdown for approximately 52 days (see Table 7).
As shown in Figure 2, the number of ongoing construction proj-
ects handled by respondents’ companies has dropped from 720
to 185 during the lockdown period. However, immediately after
the lockdown period, the number of projects has started to rise
again gradually.
Workforce management
With regard to the size of the workforce in construction sites,
more than 68% of respondents have stated that the workforce in
their construction sites was reduced after the island wide lock-
down measures were imposed. As shown in Figure 2, results of
the survey indicate that the numbers of local labourers and staff
members have declined during the lockdown period compared
to the number of foreign labourers and staff members. For
instance, the average number of local labourers per site has
dropped from 324 to 112 given the impacts of lockdown meas-
ures. However, as Figure 3 illustrates, the total workforce has
started to increase smoothly consequent to the lockdown period.
For instance, the average number of local workers has increased
to a value of 286 which is closer to the initial value (324), during
Phase II after the lockdown. However, the top management of
6 N. NIROSHANA ET AL.

Table 6. Processing summary from IBM SPSS Software for Krippendorff Alpha. construction companies has shown an interest in changing the
Case processing summary workforce composition after the lockdown period. Thirty
Units 70 respondents have expressed their willingness to increase the
Alpha 0.810 number of local labourers in their construction sites while only
eight respondents were expecting to increase the number of for-
eign labourers [see Figure 4].
Furthermore, the questionnaire has focused on the factors to
be considered in planning to decrease the size of the workforce.
Since there is a major concern about the difference in the prod-
uctivity of foreign and local labourers, a Likert scale [1- much
dissatisfied; 2- dissatisfied; 3- neutral; 4- satisfied; 5- much satis-
fied] was used to measure the level of satisfaction on the per-
formance of both types of labourers. According to the results,
the highest mean value of the satisfaction level has been obtained
by foreign labourers. Moreover, the survey has focused on factors
affecting decisions related to terminating jobs of labourers and
calling them back to work. Six factors were suggested in the
survey to be ranked on a Likert scale [1- not at all considered
Figure 1. Cross Section of respondents (Company Grade). 2- slightly considered 3- somewhat considered, 4-moderately
considered, 5- highly considered]. These factors were identified
Table 7. Number of days which constriction sites were under lockdown. during the initially conducted focus group discussion. Figures 5
Fully lockdown days N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
and 6 show the illustrations of received results for factors that
70 0 180 52.13 30.617

Figure 4. Number of respondents who plan to change the workforce compos-

ition in future.
Figure 2. Number of construction projects handled by companies.

Figure 3. Variation of the average number of workers per site with time.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 7

Figure 5. Factors that were considered when terminating labour jobs during the lockdown period. (a): Concern on Basic Salary to terminate jobs. (b): Concern on per-
formance to terminate jobs. (c): Concern on health to terminate jobs. (d): Concern on age limit to terminate jobs. (e): Concern on experience to terminate jobs.

Figure 6. Factors that were considered when calling labours back to work after the lockdown period. (a): Concern on Basic Salary to call back to work. (b): Concern
on performance to call back to work. (c): Concern on health to call back to work. (d): Concern on age limit to call back to work. (e): Concern on experience to call
back to work. (f): Concern on ‘distance from home’ to call back to work.

were considered in terminating jobs and calling back to work
respectively. According to the results shown in Figure 5 follow-
ing factors were considered in terminating jobs of labourers:
level of performance, health conditions, age limit, and working
experience. Basic salary and distance from home to sites were
not largely considered in terminating jobs. As shown in Figure 6,
in addition to factors considered in terminating jobs of labourers
during the lockdown period, distance between labourers’ homes
and the construction sites was taken into consideration in calling
labourers back to the job. These factors suggest that retaining
the optimum size of labour crew with maximum productivity
has become the major concern in terminating jobs and recruiting
labourers back.
Moreover, the change in construction methods and strategies
related to workforce management was evaluated during the
study. A paired sample T-test was performed to identify and
compare the concern on construction methods and strategies
used before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. These methods
8 N. NIROSHANA ET AL.
Figure 7. Key roles and responsibilities of safety officers.
and strategies were identified based on the findings of the initial
focus group discussion. Annex II contains the results of the
paired sample T-test. According to the results, concern on out-
sourcing/subcontracting of the labour force after COVID-19 has
become lower in comparison with the situation before COVID-
19. Concern for other methods and strategies has increased after
the lockdown period.
Health and safety
The level of concern for health and safety among the construc-
tion workforce has risen considerably during the lockdown
period due to the impacts of the pandemic. The questionnaire
has assessed the level of responsibilities of safety officers in con-
struction sites using a Likert scale from 1 to 5 [1 - not at all
responsible, 2 – slightly responsible, 3 - moderately responsible,
4 – highly responsible 5 – very highly responsible]. The results
revealed that the level of responsibility of safety officers on pre-
paring safety and health plans out of the suggested responsibil-
ities has reached the maximum level (5) during the Phase I-after
the lockdown period [see Figure 7].
Furthermore, Figure 8 illustrates the fluctuation of the usage
of PPE by labourers at construction sites. The usage of PPE was
assessed using a 5 -point Likert scale [1- very low, 2 – low, 3 –
moderate, 4 – high, 5 - very high]. It is evident that except for
face masks, usage of other PPE by labourers has varied similarly
throughout the four (4) periods. However, face masks have been
worn more often than other items during the lockdown period.
In addition to the use of PPE, the variation of sanitary practices
in construction sites was explored during this study using a 5-point
Likert scale [1 – not concerned, 2- slightly concerned, 3 – moder-
ately concerned, 4 – highly concerned, 5 – extremely concerned]. As
shown in Figure 9, a significant increase was observed in all of the
sanitary practices which were indicated in the questionnaire. For
instance, wearing face masks in public areas and avoiding touching,
handshaking and hugging were evaluated as slightly concerning sani-
tary practices before the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic.
However, their level of concern has increased to a level between
moderate and high during the lockdown period.
Furthermore, this study has evaluated the extent to which a
selected set of health and safety procedures are applicable for
labours and the staff of construction sites after returning to work
have been abided by. Table 8 details the extent to which those
procedures have been practised in construction.
Results suggest that health screening and temperature moni-
toring have been implemented satisfactorily for both labourers
and staff members at sites. However, the levels of practising
compulsory isolation [52.9%], carrying out PCR tests [31.9%],
and avoiding contacts after self-quarantine [30%] among labours
have been comparatively low. This issue highlights the need for
increasing the level of practising such procedures among labour-
ers without discrimination to enhance the level of health and
safety at construction sites. Furthermore, results reveal that the
concept of distance work has been promoted among staff mem-
bers through online communication, limited working days, and
the work from home concept.
Welfare facilities
Welfare facilities of labourers are diverse, and they can be divided
into statutory and non-statutory facilities. It is compulsory to pro-
vide statutory facilities for labourers to provide for labourers and
employers do not have any right to neglect providing these facili-
ties. Drinking water, seating facilities, first aid, lavatory and uri-
nals, and canteen facilities are a few of such statutory facilities.
Non-statutory facilities are not compulsory to provide but are pro-
vided based on the employer’s attitude. Personal healthcare,
worker assistance programmes, and maternity and adaptation
leaves are a few of such non-statutory facilities (Patel et al. 2017;
Gyamfi et al. 2021). As mentioned in Table 3, labour accommoda-
tions and their conditions, sanitary facilities, transport facilities,
and supplying meals were selected out of statutory and non-statu-
tory welfare facilities for analysis in this study, based on the avail-
ability of welfare facilities in the Sri Lankan construction industry.
According to the findings, the number of labourers who are
accommodated in dormitories located within construction sites
has decreased from 15,438 to 5,929 during the lockdown period
(see Figure 10). However, it has increased to 13,742 during phase
II- after the lockdown which has a shortage of 1,696 compared
to the period before the COVID-19 pandemic. A similar pattern
of variation was observed in the number of workers who are
accommodated in company-owned dormitories that are located
outside construction sites as well but, the number of workers has
increased to 6,752 during the period: “phase II-after the lock-
down”, which is slightly higher than the number before the
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 9

Figure 8. Use of PPE in construction sites.

Figure 9. Variation of the level of concern on sanitary practices among workers at sites and dormitories.

Table 8. Responses on level of practising health and safety procedures.

Labourers Staff members
Procedure Uncertain (%) No (%) Yes (%) Procedure Uncertain (%) No (%) Yes (%)
Health screening and Temperature monitoring 7.1 0.0 92.9 Health screening and Temperature monitoring 2.9 1.4 95.7
Compulsory Isolation 35.7 11.4 52.9 Restrict public transport 17.1 21.4 61.5
First PCR 52.1 11.4 31.5 Work from home concept 24.3 7.1 68.6
Second PCR 61.4 5.7 32.9 Online Communication 12.9 21.4 65.7
Avoiding contacting after self-quarantine 50.0 20.0 30.0 Limiting working days 22.9 15.7 61.4
Applying entry and exit restriction 2.9 10. 87.1 Shift work 31.4 18.6 50.0

COVID-19 pandemic (see Figure 11). However, a significant
variation can be observed in the number of workers who have
been accommodated in dormitories that are not owned by con-
struction companies; an increase of nearly 145% can be observed
during the lockdown compared to the period before COVID-19.
Although this number has decreased with time after the lock-
down, it was nearly 100% higher relative to the stage before
COVID-19 (see Figure 12).
The number of companies that provide cooked meals to
workers who are accommodated in dormitories owned by com-
panies has increased during the lockdown period. As shown in
Figure 13, more than 30 companies have provided cooked meals
showing an increase of nearly 50% compared to the period
before COVID-19. However, there is a decrease in this number
during the time periods after the lockdown where the number
becomes as low as the number reported before COVID-19.
Furthermore, results of the survey depict that the number of
companies that have provided transport and meal allowances
and transport facilities to their workers who are not accommo-
dated in dormitories has decreased during the lockdown period.
For instance, although 45 companies out of 70 respondents have
provided transport facilities for workers who do not have
10 N. NIROSHANA ET AL.
Figure 10. Providing Accommodation facility inside the site.
Figure 11. Providing Accommodation facility outside the site.
Figure 12. Number of workers who are accommodated in dormitories that are not owned by companies.
accommodations near the sites, the number has reduced to 12
during the lockdown period [see Figure 14]. However, after the
lockdown period, the number of companies who provide trans-
port facilities has increased to 55, showing a considerable
growth. However, no significant increase can be observed in
other facilities such as cooked meals and meal allowances after
the lockdown period compared to transport facilities. Results
depict that the number of companies that provide cooked meals
and meal allowances after the lockdown period is lower com-
pared to the period before COVID-19.
Elaborating on the physical conditions of labour accommoda-
tions, the number of labourers per room has been reduced from

Figure 13. Facilities Provided for workers in dormitories located inside the Sites.
Figure 14. Facilities provided who do not have dormitory.
8 to 3 (more than a 50% decline) with the occurrence of the first
outbreak of COVID-19. Furthermore, as the graph in Figure 15
illustrates, the average number of facilities such as tables, chairs,
fans and beds has been increased by nearly 50% after the lock-
down period. Moreover, the number of labourers who share facili-
ties inside dormitories such as washrooms, dining area, washing
area has been reduced considerably during the lockdown and it
has increased again immediately after construction sites began to
return to normal. However, numbers have stopped at a lower level
currently, compared to the period before the COVID-19 outbreak.
Preparedness for emergencies
Findings of the study highlight that the level of experience with
past dengue outbreaks of labourers is considerably low. Only
25.71% of respondents have experienced any dengue outbreak in
their sites during their working period. Before the advent of
COVID-19 in Sri Lanka, 78.57% of respondents had not
expected this kind of a pandemic in the country. Furthermore,
42.86% of respondents have stated that they were not aware of
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 11
the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic before it hit the country.
Respondents who have heard of the COVID-19 outbreak before
(52.14% of total respondents) have mostly used TV/Radio news
and social media (more than 50%) to get information about the
pandemic. Furthermore, a paired sample T-test was used to iden-
tify the impact of lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic
on preparation for emergencies. The rate of concern on emer-
gency preparedness before and after the pandemic was compared
using the paired sample T-test (with a one-tailed significance value
of 0.05). There were 10 concerns that are related to emergency
preparedness in sites and selected based on the findings of the ini-
tial focus group discussion. Results of the T-test revealed that con-
cern for all the selected preparedness strategies has increased after
the COVID-19 pandemic compared to the period before the pan-
demic [see Annex III for results].
Discussion
This study has aimed to identify and evaluate the challenges
posed by the COVID-19 pandemic on the construction industry
12 N. NIROSHANA ET AL.
Figure 15. Physical facilities provided for workers in dormitories.
taking Sri Lanka as a case in point. Island-wide curfew measures
imposed by the government have halted activities in the con-
struction industry. Results depict that the number of construc-
tion projects handled by companies has declined significantly
after the declaration of country-wide lockdown. This has been a
common phenomenon around the globe since a considerable
amount of ongoing construction projects terminated onsite work
abruptly due to lockdown measures (Inoue and Todo 2020).
However, with the ease of lockdown, a considerable number of
construction projects resumed onsite work while adhering to
strict health guidelines. Although construction projects were are
resumed, there is a greater need for reshaping conventional con-
struction practices in workforce management, health and safety,
welfare facilities, etc. due to the effects on construction product-
ivity (Thapa and Shrestha 2021). Even before the pandemic, the
construction industry in Sri Lanka has experienced downfalls
due to external shocks such as the Easter Attack 2019, emphasiz-
ing the need for looking into resilient and more productive
approaches (Siriwardana and Jayasekara 2020). The present study
also highlights that severe impacts have been posed by the pan-
demic in those areas of the construction field.
Results of the survey depict that the number of employees in
the construction industry considerably dropped with the enforce-
ment of lockdown measures. Most of the construction companies
that are included in the present study have resorted to reducing
the number of employees. It shows that construction companies
in Sri Lanka have also experienced an economic downfall which
was reported globally across hundreds of industries. However, in
most cases, governments in many countries have supported the
industries by amending strict policies and rules to ease the finan-
cial burden. The challenges related to workforce management in
construction sites have increased significantly due to the impacts
of COVID-19. These challenges have become more severe since
workers are not returning to work in a timely manner.
Most importantly the results highlight that the decline in the
number of local employees is more significant compared to that
of foreign employees. With impending lockdown measures, local
employees working in cities have rushed to their hometowns
even before the lockdown period (Siriwardana and Jayasekara
2020). Furthermore, due to international travel restrictions,
migrant workers were not allowed to move to their home
countries. Furthermore, the findings show that construction
companies have attempted to increase the number of local
employees compared to foreign employees. Although the require-
ment is met in terms of numbers, this can pose a greater threat
to the productivity of the construction industry in Sri Lanka.
because the findings also prove that the productivity of foreign
employees has been higher than that of local employees. Even
before the COVID-19, the Sri Lankan construction industry has
been experiencing a scarcity in the skilled local labour force
(Pathirana 2020).
Furthermore, results highlight that when companies were
recruiting employees for resuming work, they have mainly con-
sidered factors such as health, age, performance, distance from
home, and experience of workers with the objective of employing
those who are the most productive. In a context, where a reduc-
tion in migrant labourers is anticipated globally due to the will-
ingness of people to work closer to their hometown (Kovacs-
Ondrejkovic et al. 2021), the Sri Lankan construction industry
must rethink increasing the performance of local labourers to
maximize productivity. Although the results show that compa-
nies have recruited experienced local labourers to increase prod-
uctivity, it is a short-term strategy. Therefore, authorities should
focus more on attracting younger people and training them and
enhancing the level of skills of current labourers. Sound legal
platforms for job security, frequent training, close supervision,
labour motivation, etc are some of the long-term strategies high-
lighted by past studies to increase labour productivity
(Halwathura 2015; Karunarathna and Siriwardana 2018). In add-
ition to these approaches, modular construction, system form-
works, work shift management (Biswas et al. 2021), virtual site
touring, and remote meetings (Jones et al. 2020) can be used to
reduce the labour intensiveness of the industry.
The impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic have showcased the
consequences of neglecting the health and safety of construction
sites. Ignorance and negligence of COVID-19, lack of compliance
with social distancing measures, and poor supply of PPE for sites
have become emerging challenges in sites. The results of the pre-
sent study show that the level of concern for health and safety
measures has increased due to the pandemic. Accordingly,
responsibilities of safety officers, sanitary practices, restrictions
on entries to sites, and the use of face masks and dust masks

have increased just after the recommencement of work during
COVID-19. However, there are two important aspects to be con-
sidered in this regard. Firstly, the increased level of concern has
gone down after the easing of lockdown measures. Secondly,
although the use of masks has increased, no significant increase
was noted in other PPEs which are used in construction sites.
Past studies show that health and safety conditions in Sri
Lankan construction projects were considerably low due to rea-
sons such as lack of concern, inadequate use of PPEs, lack of
knowledge, etc. (Darshana 2017; Siriwardana and
Wickramasinghe 2018). The present study also reveals that
although there has been an instant increase in concern on health
and safety practices it has not been stable. Furthermore, the use
of PPEs still remains at a lower stage although face masks and
dust masks have been used more often to avoid virus transmis-
sions. These conditions highlight the need for a paradigm shift
in construction health and safety practices in Sri Lanka.
Currently, at the global level, awareness-raising, promoting a
healthy and hygienic work environment (Alaloul et al. 2020;
OSHA 2020; Stiles et al. 2021), implementing policies to account
for health and safety procedures(Assaad and El-adaway 2021),
housekeeping (Jones et al. 2020), and health and safety training
(OSHA 2020) have been identified as best practices in general.
Although it is not considered a general condition, construc-
tion authorities are supposed to be prepared for containment
measures for infectious diseases as well. Screening facilities, quar-
antine strategies, restricted access, testing, etc are a few of such
strategies (Logie and Turan 2020; Pamidimukkala et al. 2021).
However, the present study reveals the inequalities in imple-
menting such measures between labourers and staff members at
construction sites. With respect to this, the high cost required
for such activities and negligence of construction authorities can
be possible reasons. However, it highlights the need for sound
rules and regulations for implementing such strategies.
This study has explored the impacts on a set of selected wel-
fare facilities at construction sites. According to the results, con-
struction officials have paid attention to accommodating workers
predominantly in dormitories located outside the sites. The lim-
ited space within sites might have urged companies towards this
step since the average number of workers per room has been
reduced by nearly 50% in dormitories after a certain period from
recommencement of work. Neglecting the welfare of workers at
dormitories has caused severe consequences in several countries
during COVID-19. For instance, a severe outbreak was seen in
Singapore among migrant workers who were accommodated
within inadequate housing facilities (Koh 2020). This study
reveals that company authorities have focused on increasing
facilities such as sanitary items, furniture, fans, etc. inside labour
accommodations during COVID-19. However, the reduction in
the supply of these facilities after the recommencement of work
emphasizes the need for maintaining this status in the future
as well.
Recent studies carried out globally have identified public
transport usage by workers as a severe challenge faced amidst
the pandemic (Amoah and Simpeh 2021). The present study evi-
dence that authorities have addressed this issue. Accordingly,
transport facilities for people who are not accommodated near
the sites have been increased after the recommencement of work.
However, construction companies covered by the present study
have not paid adequate attention to the supply of cooked meals
and meal allowances to workers. In the global context, some gov-
ernments have mandated providing meals to constructions work-
ers especially those who have been quarantined in dormitories
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 13
(Habbas 2020). Therefore, in the Sri Lankan context, the admin-
istration of construction companies must take necessary actions
related to the supply of meals and allowances to their employees.
At the same time, it is important to consider the additional
financial burden on construction companies in increasing these
welfare facilities.
As the final focus area, this research has explored the impacts
of COVID-19 on emergency preparedness in construction proj-
ects in Sri Lanka. The results of the study highlight that con-
struction workers have not well prepared for a biological
outbreak that affects the industry. Even though dengue as an
infectious disease has become a frequent biological hazard in the
industry (Jayarajah et al. 2017), the level of experience related to
preparing for a biological hazard was observed considerably low
among workers during the present study. A majority out of the
respondents who represent management levels in construction
companies have not expected disruptions to the industry by the
pandemic. The study reveals that before the pandemic, emer-
gency preparedness of the construction industry for biological
hazards is considerably low. However, the results reveal that the
concern on emergency preparedness strategies has increased due
to the impacts of the pandemic considerably compared to the
period before COVID-19.
Accordingly, construction authorities have paid more atten-
tion to developing emergency action plans and conducting pre-
paredness drills within construction projects. Furthermore,
authorities have taken steps towards increasing facilities such as
rescue equipment, fire protection tools sirens, etc. that are
required to control emergencies. However, the present study has
highlighted that awareness of COVID-19 and disease control
measures among construction employees should be improved
further to sustain these preparedness enhancement measures.
The empowerment of construction workers to increase their pre-
paredness for possible health emergencies will be more beneficial
in the long term run.
Accordingly, the following challenges and recommendations
can be summarized with regard to reshaping the construction
industry to COVID-19 and future pandemics [see Table 9].
Conclusions and recommendations
The pandemic has affected almost every aspect of the construc-
tion industry in the country. This study has aimed at evaluating
the challenges posed by COVID-19 on workforce management,
health and safety, welfare facilities, and emergency preparedness
in the construction field. Accordingly, the findings of this study
reveal several key aspects that construction authorities should
rigorously pay attention to. Construction authorities have faced
the challenge of maintaining or increasing worker productivity
after recommencing the work, due to various reasons such as
lack of foreign labours, lack of unskilled local labourers, lack of
young construction workers, and uncertainty of employment.
The study has revealed a set of short-term strategies that have
been followed by construction authorities. However, long-term
strategies such as changes in policies, rules, and plans and emu-
lating new construction technologies to reduce worker intensive-
ness, ease financial burdens, enhance job security, and labour
training are needed to achieve sustainable goals in work-
force management.
The prevailing impacts of COVID-19 have challenged the
health and safety practices in the construction industry. The
study highlights the need for sustainable strategies to address
these occupational health and safety issues in the country.
14 N. NIROSHANA ET AL.
Table 9. Challenges and suggested recommendations.
Focus Area
Workforce Management
Health and Safety
Welfare Facilities
Emergency preparedness
Challenges
Maintaining productivity of workers
Uncertainty of employment due to financial burdens
Workers not timely returning to sites
High labour intensiveness
Low level of performance among local labourers
Lack of young workforce
Lack of compliance with health guidelines
Issues with the use of PPE
Infections among workers
Poor sanitary practices at sites
Entry of infected outsiders
Infections within accommodations
Lack of sanitary facilities at accommodations
Exposure of workers during traveling
Issues with meals of labours
Lack of awareness in emergency response
Low level of compliance
Lack of facilities for emergencies Ex; Firefighting
Poor Risk Assessment/disease surveillance
Recommendations
Use of research methods to find the optimum crew of
workers (size and composition)
Financial assistance from the government through new or
amended policies
Recruitment of workers closer to construction sites
Use of less labour-intensive construction methods (modular
construction, precast concrete, etc)
Online project meetings and virtual site visits
Work shifts and roaster-based working
Starting training programmes for unskilled labourers
Implementing systems for motivation such as rewarding
Increase the job security of labourers through laws
and policies
Implementing career paths for workers
Close supervision of workers
Introduce rewarding systems for motivation
Implementing and updating company policies to account for
health guidelines
Frequent training for workers regarding health practices
Changing attitudes of labours towards health &
safety practices
Implementation of a system monitor the compliance with
health guidelines
Conduct frequent training for officers
Continuous supply of required PPE
Awareness-raising on use of PPE
Use of more face masks, dusk masks, and gloves
Apply entry and exit restrictions
Impalement and update policies for managing
sick employees
Improve personal hygiene
More attention on containment measures (Ex;
Isolation, testing)
Promote the concept of distant work among staff members
Restrict the use of public transport methods and provide
company-owned transport facilities
Increase the availability of resources (Ex; washroom, soap,
hand washing areas, etc.)
Providing clean drinking water
Housekeeping (Ex; marked areas for walking, cleaned
washrooms, etc.)
Reduce sub-contracting and outsourcing
Screening and testing
Use of engineering controls for separation of workers
Reduce the number of workers per room
Provide accommodations outside the site
Implement and update methods of managing sick employees
Provide more beds, fans, chairs, etc.
Increase number of washrooms (reduce workers
per washroom)
Continuous supply of clean water
Select places which are closer to sites as dormitories
Increase transport facilities for non-accommodated workers
Providing transport allowances for private
transportation modes
Develop canteen facilities and resting areas
Provide meal allowances for workers who are not
accommodated in dormitories
Provide cooked food
Conduct awareness & training camps
Develop and disseminate SOPs to be followed in
an emergency
Develop and practice emergency plans and drills
Conduct emergency drills
Develop and disseminate SOPs to be followed in
an emergency
Increase number of equipment required in an emergency
Continuous training for officers
Proper maintenance
Continuous risk assessments for multi-hazards
Implementing proper reporting systems

Although PPEs such as face masks and dust masks have been
more often used with the fear of COVID-19 infections, the use
of other PPEs still remains very low. Furthermore, concern and
responsibility in relation to health and safety in construction
sites which increased during the initial stages of COVID-19,
have now started to decrease. These conditions emphasize the
need for strengthening legal frameworks related to the health
and safety of construction workers in the country. Furthermore,
it is important that construction labourers are empowered to
adhere to health and safety practices.
In relation to welfare facilities for construction workers, com-
panies have increased their focus just after COVID-19 since the
impacts have been an eye-opener. Increasing facilities in worker
dormitories and providing transport facilities for workers can be
considered positive measures in this regard. However, more
attention should be paid to ensuring an adequate supply of food
for workers. Further in order to maintain the quality of welfare
facilities, it is important that provisions for maintaining such
facilities in policies and regulations are consolidated. Last but
not least the study reveals the lack of preparedness for biological
hazards and public health emergencies inside construction sites
in Sri Lanka. Although construction companies have started to
develop infrastructures required for preparedness, there is a
greater need for enhancing knowledge, training, and skills of
both construction workers and officials with regard to biological
hazard preparedness.
It is not possible to overcome the challenges highlighted in
this study through merely one set of strategies. It requires several
steps starting from legislative enactments to review and evalu-
ation. In this process, administrative support, risk assessment
strategies, and education and training have major roles to play in
the areas of workforce management, health and safety, welfare
facilities, and emergency preparedness. And, it is important to
note that these strategies have several interconnections as well.
For instance, the expected results of health and safety rules can-
not be achieved without adequate training and knowledge
enhancement on the best safety practices.
Although the present study highlights a set of needs in a
selected set of areas in the construction industry, it does not cap-
ture the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on several other
aspects such as the procurement process of projects, supply chain
disruptions, financial flows, etc. At the same time, it is important
to note that the working environment of construction projects
and the characteristics of workers can vary from one country to
another. Therefore, this research study can be further improved
with a regional survey exploring how COVID-19 has affected
construction workers. Furthermore, the feasibility of using sus-
tainable construction practices for the recovery of the construc-
tion industry beyond the COVID-19 pandemic can be
incorporated in the next phases of the study. Apart from those
mechanisms, strategies should be explored to combine disaster
resilience with construction process. Furthermore, conclusions
and recommendations summarized in Table 9 could be com-
pared with conditions in other countries such as Maldives,
Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan to identify the best practices
which can be adapted to the Sri Lankan context.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 15
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Annex I. Details of the pilot surveys conducted.

Pilot Survey No. Description
01 A semi-structured
questionnaire (70
questions) was developed
at the initial stage.
The survey was conducted
through Google Forms.
02 Based on the outcomes of the
first pilot survey, the initial
questionnaire was updated.
The number of questions
was reduced to 46.
Lime Survey was used as
the online platform for
the survey
Objectives
I. to verify the appropriateness
of the questions to the
larger research population
II. to rule out any incompatible
results,
III. to have a clear view of the
outlines of the research
IV. to ensure the effectiveness
of the type of survey
selected for the study
To verify the consistency of the
updated questionnaire
To verify the user-friendliness
of the survey platform
Number of Participants
5 (purposive sampling method
was used to select
participants from a pool of
construction industry
professionals)
5 (purposive sampling method
was used to select
participants from a pool of
construction industry
professionals excluding the
respondents of the first
pilot survey)
Outcomes
The average time (40 mins)
taken to fill the
questionnaire was high.
Nonconsistency of the
questionnaire since a set of
questions were not
structured properly.
The interface of the survey
platform was not
user friendly.
The average time taken to fill
the questionnaire was
20 minutes
Answering options were
further simplified based on
comments received from
the respondents

Annex II. Results of the paired sample T-test for construction methods and strategies.
Pair Variables P-value
1 Outsourcing/Subcontracting - Before Covid-19 0.300
Outsourcing/Subcontracting - After Covid-19
2 Using more Precast Elements in Construction - Before Covid-19 0.000
Using more Precast Elements in Construction - After Covid-19
3 Using System formworks for Construction - Before Covid-19 0.000
Using System formworks for Construction - After Covid-19
4 Increasing Efficiency and productivity of workers - Before Covid-19 0.000
Increasing Efficiency and productivity of workers - After Covid-19
5 Restructuring Workforce Management - Before Covid-19 0.000
Restructuring Workforce Management - After Covid-19
6 Training workers regularly - Before Covid-19 0.000
Training workers regularly - After Covid-19
7 Introducing Shift work arrangement - Before Covid-19 0.000
Introducing Shift work arrangement - After Covid-19
8 Introducing less labour-intensive construction methods - Before Covid-19 0.000
Introducing less labour-intensive construction methods - After Covid-19
18 N. NIROSHANA ET AL.

Annex III. Table 10: Output of paired sample T-test for each emergency preparedness strategy.
Pair Variables P-value
1 Availability of Emergency action plan - before Covid-19 0.000
Availability of Emergency action plan - after Covid-19
2 Enhancing workers’ awareness about the emergency - before Covid-19 0.000
Enhancing workers’ awareness about the emergency - after Covid-19
3 Allocating key personnel for emergency control - before Covid-19 0.000
Allocating key personnel for emergency control - after Covid-19
4 Establishing Emergency escape routes - before Covid-19 0.000
Establishing Emergency escape routes- after Covid-19
5 Availability of Siren for an emergency - before Covid-19 0.000
Availability of Siren for an emergency - after Covid-19
6 Availability of Fire protection and firefighting facilities - before Covid-19 0.000
Availability of Fire protection and firefighting facilities - after Covid-19
7 Availability of Emergency rescue equipment - before Covid-19 0.000
Availability of Emergency rescue equipment - after Covid-19
8 Preparing Risk assessments and safe work procedures - before Covid-19 0.000
Preparing Risk assessments and safe work procedures - after Covid-19
9 Displaying emergency contact numbers - before Covid-19 0.000
Displaying emergency contact numbers - after Covid-19
10 Conducting safety drills regularly - before Covid-19 0.000
Conducting safety drills regularly - after Covid-19