Outline of Historical Development of Geochemistry

"Modem geochemistry studies the distribution and amounts of chemical elements in minerals, ores,

rocks, soils, waters and the atmosphere and the circulation of elements in nature, on the basis of

their atoms and ions." v. M. Goldschmidt, Geochemistry, Alex. Muir, ed. (Oxford, England:

Clarendon Press, 1954), p. 1.

The Development of Modern Geochemistry

Prior to 1905 geologists, chemists, and other scientists had established estimates for the chemical

composition of many rocks, minerals, and waters. A major and lasting contribution to the then-

infant science of geochemistry was made by the American geochemist F. W. Clarke (1847-1934)

who collected, classified, and synthesized this information in his classic book The Data of

Geochemistry, originally published in 1908. So well did he complete his task that the book went

through five editions in his lifetime and the last was published sixteen years after the first (Clarke,

1924). This source of geochemical information has been used as a starting point for training

generations of geochemists and is still quoted as a reference.

A second pioneer of geochemistry was a Russian scientist, V. I. Vernadski (1863-1945). As a

young man, Vernadski studied under such thinkers as D. I. Mendeleev (who first described the

periodic table) and V. V. Dokuchayev (the founder of modern soil science) at the University of St.

Petersburg. In the beginning, Vernadski studied mineralogy and geology; later on, as a geochemist,

he made substantial contributions to our knowledge of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere,

and biosphere. He was both lucid and prolific as a writer of books on geochemistry. Outside

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Russia, he is best known for his book The Biosphere (Vemadski, 1927). He also wrote other

important books including one on general geochemistry (Vemadski, 1924) and one on natural

waters (Vemadski, 1934). His book on general geochemistry included chapters on such modem

topics as the geochemistry of carbon, radioactive elements, and the geochemical cycles of

manganese, bromine, and iodine (Vinogradov, 1963). It was Vemadski who defined the terms

lithogeochemistry, atmogeochemistry, hydrogeochemistry, and biogeochemistry (Rankama and

Sahama, 1950). He founded a laboratory for biogeochemical research in Moscow in 1927; his book

on natural waters laid the foundations for the systemic study of chemical hydrology and

oceanography (Vinogradov, 1963). Vemadski's contributions to geochemistry were extensive and,

largely as a result of his activities and those of some of his pupils [notably A. E. Fursman (1883-

1945) and A. P. Vinogradov (1895-1975)], during the past 50 years geochemistry has become a

major natural science in Russia and elsewhere.

The third pioneer of geochemistry was a Norwegian, V. M. Goldschmidt (1888-1947). Like

Vemadski, Goldschmidt started out as a geologist. His first major contribution was his doctoral

thesis on the application of the principles of physical chemistry to the study of contact

metamorphism in the Oslo region of Norway completed in 1911. [Mason (1966) called this study

"a basic contribution to geochemistry."] Most of Goldschmidt's professional career was in Norway;

during 1928-1935, he was in Germany. His research, and those of his numerous co-workers whom

he inspired embraced all aspects of geochemistry. In each instance, monumental contributions

were made. A succinct summary of his activities and those of his co-workers, prior to 1937, is

given in the published account of a lecture he delivered in London (Goldschmidt, 1937). Some

idea of the scope of his activities may be gained from the list of topics covered in the lecture:

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1) elements in meteorites
2) a geochemical classification of the elements
3) rules for the incorporation of elements in minerals based on atomic radii
4) a discussion of the geochemistry of the Rare Earths
5) the role of ionic potential in sedimentary geochemistry
6) the geochemistry of ocean waters
7) the distribution of chemical elements in coal ashes
8) the enrichment of elements in the humus layer of deciduous forests.

When he died in 1947, as a result of privations during World War II, Goldschmidt was writing a

book on geochemistry. It was eventually published (Goldschmidt, 1954), though only partly

completed, and edited by Alex Muir. Unfortunately, the chapters Goldschmidt had planned to write

concerning the synthesis and analysis of the behavior of elements in natural environments were

never written; the book, however, does contain chapters on each of the elements in the periodic

table. The book is characterized by seminal thoughts gleaned from Goldschmidt's deep

understanding of his subject. For example, the section on "mercury" ends with these prophetic

words: "Mercury has been found to be concentrated in a number of marine animals, for example,

fishes." (Goldschmidt, 1954, p.279). It is evident from these outlines that the three principal

originators of geochemistry-Clarke, Vernadski, and Goldschmidt-were holists with respect to the

study of the chemistry of the environment. They considered the role all elements play in the

synthesis and decomposition of natural materials of all kinds. This holistic approach is also

evidenced by the three objectives for geochemistry that were stated by Goldschmidt over 40 years

ago (Rankama and Sahama, 1950).